API RP 571 - Damage Mechanisms Spreadsheet

urut

No

Damage Mechanisms

mperature Corrosion [>400F

1 (204C)]
34

Sulfidation

NING Environment-Assisted2Cracking 62

Wet H2S Damage

(Blistering/HIC/SOHIC/SSC)

al and Metallurgical Failure3Mechanisms

8

Creep and Stress Rupture

Uniform or Localized Loss 4in Thickness

52Phenomena

NING Environment-Assisted5Cracking 60

High Temp H2/H2S Corrosion

Polythionic Acid Stress Corrosion Cracking (PASCC)

Uniform or Localized Loss 6in Thickness

54Phenomena

Naphthenic Acid Corrosion (NAC)

Uniform or Localized Loss 7in Thickness

49Phenomena

Ammonium Bisulfide Corrosion

(Alkaline Sour Water)

Uniform or Localized Loss 8in Thickness

50Phenomena

Ammonium Chloride Corrosion

Uniform or Localized Loss 9in Thickness

51Phenomena

Hydrochloric Acid (HCI) Corrosion

REFINING Other Mech.10

65

High Temperature Hydrogen Attack

(HTHA)

mperature Corrosion [>400F

11 (204C)]
33

Oxidation

al and Metallurgical Failure

12Mechanisms
9

Thermal Fatigue

Uniform or Localized Loss13

in Thickness
57Phenomena

Sour Water Corrosion (Acidic)

al and Metallurgical Failure

14Mechanisms
18

Refractory Degradation

al and Metallurgical Failure

15Mechanisms
1

Graphitization

al and Metallurgical Failure

16Mechanisms
3

Temper Embrittlement

mperature Corrosion [>400F

17 (204C)]
36

Decarburization

nvironment Assisted Cracking

18

42

Caustic Stress Corrosion Cracking

(Caustic Embrittlement)

orm or Localized Loss of Thickness

19

30

Caustic Corrosion

al and Metallurgical Failure

20Mechanisms
14

Erosion/Erosion - Corrosion

NING Environment-Assisted21
Cracking 64

Carbonate Stress Corrosion Cracking

NING Environment-Assisted22
Cracking 61

Amine Stress Corrosion Cracking

nvironment Assisted Cracking

23

40

mperature Corrosion [>400F

24 (204C)]
35

Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking

(CI-SCC)

Carburization

nvironment Assisted Cracking

25

45

Hydrogen Embrittlement (HE)

al and Metallurgical Failure

26Mechanisms
11

Steam Blanketing

al and Metallurgical Failure

27Mechanisms
13

Thermal Shock

al and Metallurgical Failure

28Mechanisms
15

Cavitation

orm or Localized Loss of Thickness

29

32

Graphitic Corrosion

al and Metallurgical Failure

30Mechanisms
10

Short Term Overheating -Stress Rupture

al and Metallurgical Failure

31Mechanisms
7

Brittle Fracture

al and Metallurgical Failure

32Mechanisms
6

Sigma Phase Embrittlement

al and Metallurgical Failure

33Mechanisms
5

885F Embrittlement

al and Metallurgical Failure

34Mechanisms
2

Softening (Spheroidization)

al and Metallurgical Failure

35Mechanisms
19

Reheat Cracking

Uniform or Localized Loss36

in Thickness
58Phenomena

Sulfuric Acid Corrosion

Uniform or Localized Loss37

in Thickness
53Phenomena

Hydrofluoric (HF) Acid Corrosion

orm or Localized Loss of Thickness

38

27

Flue-Gas Dew-Point Corrosion

al and Metallurgical Failure

39Mechanisms
12

Dissimilar Metal Weld (DMW) Cracking

NING Environment-Assisted40
Cracking 63

Hydrogen Stress Cracking -HF

orm or Localized Loss of Thickness

41

31

Dealloying

orm or Localized Loss of Thickness

42

26

CO2 Corrosion

nvironment Assisted Cracking

43

41

Corrosion Fatigue

mperature Corrosion [>400F

44 (204C)]
38

Fuel Ash Corrosion

Uniform or Localized Loss45

in Thickness
48Phenomena

Amine Corrosion

orm or Localized Loss of Thickness

46

23

Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)

orm or Localized Loss of Thickness

47

22

Atmospheric Corrosion

nvironment Assisted Cracking

48

43

Ammonia Stress Corrosion Cracking

orm or Localized Loss of Thickness

49

24

Cooling Water Corrosion

orm or Localized Loss of Thickness

50

25

Boiler Water Condensate Corrosion

orm or Localized Loss of Thickness

51

28

Microbiologically Induced Corrosion (MIC)

nvironment Assisted Cracking

52

44

Liquid Metal Embrittlement (LME)

orm or Localized Loss of Thickness

53

21

Galvanic Corrosion

al and Metallurgical Failure

54Mechanisms
16

Mechanical Fatigue

mperature Corrosion [>400F

55 (204C)]
39

Nitriding

al and Metallurgical Failure

56Mechanisms
17

Vibration-Induced Fatigue

REFINING Other Mech.57

66

Titanium Hydriding

29

Soil Corrosion

mperature Corrosion [>400F

59 (204C)]
37

Metal Dusting

orm or Localized Loss of Thickness

58

al and Metallurgical Failure

60Mechanisms
4

nvironment Assisted Cracking

61

Strain Aging

47

Sulfate Stress Corrosion Cracking

Uniform or Localized Loss62

in Thickness
56Phenomena

Phosphoric Acid Corrosion

Uniform or Localized Loss63

in Thickness
55Phenomena

Phenol (Carbolic Acid) Corrosion

nvironment Assisted Cracking

64

46

Ethanol Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC)

al and Metallurgical Failure

65Mechanisms
20

Gaseous Oxygen-Enhanced Ignition and

Combustion

Uniform or Localized Loss66

in Thickness
59Phenomena

Aqueous Organic Acid Corrosion

readsheet
Description of Damage

Temperature Range

> 500F

Blistering, HIC, and SOHIC ambient to

300F or higher; SSC < 180F

SEE Table 4-2 For Threshold Temp: C.S.

--> 700F
C-1/2 Mo --> 750F
1.25Cr thru 9Cr ->800F
304H -> 900F
347H --> 1000F

> 500F

Sensitization occurs 750F -1500F

425F - 750F; Has been

reportedFrom 350F - 800F

< 150F

< 300F; May corrode well above

water dewpoint of 300F

Increases with increasing temp up to

point where water vaporizes

Exposure to hydrogen at elevated

temperatures

Oxidation of CS significant > 1000F;

300 Series SS susceptible to scaling >
1500F. SEE Table 4-6 For CR at elev.
Temps

Temp swings exceeding 200F

N/A

N/A

It is a change in the microstructure of

certain carbon steels and 0.5 Mo steels after
800F - 1100F; Graphitization before
long term operation in the 800 to 1100F
Spheroidization < 1025F
range may cause a loss in strength, ductility
and/or creep resistance.

reduction in toughness. This change causes

an upward shift in the ductile-to-brittle
transition temperature, (by Charpy impact
testing)

650F - 1100F; Quicker at 900F but

more severe in longterm exposure at
850F

Elevated temperatures

Increasing temps increase likelihood

and severity

High solution strength caustic general

corrosion of CS above 175F and very
high CRates above 200F.

N/A

Generally no temperature ranges;

However, > 200F if CO2 > 2% in gas
scrubbing units

N/A

> 140F

>1100F

Ambient - 300F; Decreases with

increasing temp; Not likely to occur
above 160F to 180F

Short-term, high-tempFailures.

Significant Temperature Differentials

More likely at temps approaching the

boiling point of the liquid

< 200F in the presence of moisture or

an aqueous phase

Local overheating above design

temperature

Temperatures below ductile-to-brittle

transition temp

1000F-1750F

is a loss in toughness due to a metallurgical

change that occurs in alloys containing
aFerrite phase, as a result of exposure in
the temperatur range 600 to 1100.

600F- 1000F

May cause a loss in strength and/or creep

resistance.

850F - 1400F; Spheroidization before

Graphitization > 1025F May Cause a
loss in strength and or creep
resistance.
During PWHT or at elevated temps.

N/A

Increase with increasing temp; High

CRates observed > 150F

Sulfuric acid dewpoint < 280F;

Hydrochloric acid dewpoint < 130F;
pH <6

> 510F

Aqueous HF environments

N/A

Increasing corrosion with increasing

temp up to dewpoint < 300F

N/A

Metal temps above the melting point

of liquid species: Oil ash - melting
points below 1000F possible;
Waterwall corrosion - melting points
700F; Coal ash - melting points
1030F to 1130F

Increases with increasing temps;

Above 220F can result in acid
gasFlashing and severe localized
corrosion

More severe 212F - 250F For CS

Corrosion rates increase with temp up
to about 250F

Any temperature

Process side > 140F; Brackish and

salt water outlet > 115F

N/A

0F to 235F; pH range 0-12 (Any)

N/A

N/A

N/A

> 600F; Severe > 900F

N/A

> 165F

Corrosion rates increase with

increasing metal temperature

900F - 1500F

found in most older vintage steels and 0-0.5

Mo low alloy steels under the combined
effects of deformation and aging at an
intermediate temperature. This results in an
increase in hardness and strength with a
reduction in ductility and toughness

Intermediate Temperature

N/A

Minimal below 250F; Rapid CRates

above 450F

The spontaneous ignition or combustion of

metallic and nonmetallic components can
result in fires and explosions in certain
oxygen-enriched gaseous environments if
not properly designed, operated and
maintained.

Affected Materials

Prevention

CS, low alloys, 300 SS and 400 SS;

Upgrade to higher Cr; Al
Ni base alloys to varying degrees diffusion treatment of low alloys
depending on Cr content; Copper may reduce but not completely
base alloys at lower temps than CS
protect

CS and low alloys

Coatings or alloy cladding;

Water wash to dilute HCN or
inject ammonium polysulfide's
to convert to thiocyanates; HICresistant steels; PWHT can
prevent SSC and help with
SOHIC; Inhibitors

All metals and alloys

Minimize temperatures; Higher

PWHT may help; Minimize hot
spots in heaters

Order of increasing resistance: CS,

low alloys, 400 SS, and 300 SS

Use alloys with high chromium

content; 300 SS are highly
resistant at service temps

Sensitized austenitic SS; 300 SS,

Alloy 600/600H, and Alloy
800/800H

Material selection; Flush with

alkaline or soda ash to
neutralize or purge with
nitrogen or nitrogen/ammonia;
Keep firebox above dewpoint;
Heat treatment at 1650F

2% - 2.5% molybdenum shows

CS, low alloys, 300 SS, 400 SS, and
improved resistance; Change or
Ni base alloys
blend crudes; Inhibitors

Symmetrical/balanced flow in
and out of air cooled
CS; 300 SS, duplex SS, Al alloys exchangers; Maintain velocities
and Ni base alloys more resistant
10 to 20 fps For CS, resistant
materials > 20 fps; Water wash
injection and low oxygen

All commonly used materials;

Pitting resistant alloys more
Order of increasing resistance: CS,
have improved resistance; Limit
low alloys, 300 SS, Alloys 400,
chlorides; Water wash;Filming
duplex SS, 800, and 825, Alloys
inhibitors
625 and C276 and titanium.

All common materials of

construction

Upgrade CS to Ni base can

help; Remove chlorides
(neutralize, water wash, absorb,
etc.); Minimize carryover of
water and salts

Alloys with Cr (> 5 Cr) and Mo

Order of increasing resistance: CS,
or tungsten and vanadium; Use
C 0.5Mo, Mn-0.5Mo, 1Cr, 1.25Cr,
a 25F to 50 F safety factor;
2.25Cr-1 Mo, 2.25Cr-1Mo-V, 3Cr,
300 SS overlay and/or roll bond
5Cr
clad material
CS and low alloys; All 300 SS, 400
SS and Ni base alloys oxidize to
varying degrees

Upgrade alloy; Addition of Cr

primary element For oxidation
resistance

All materials of construction

Design and operation; Liner to

prevent cold liquid from
contacting hot surface

Material selection; 300 SS <

Primarily CS; SS, Cu alloys, and Ni
140F; Cu and Ni resistant, but
base alloys usually resistant
Cu vulnerable in ammonia

Refractory materials

Selection; Design; Installation

Some grades of CS and 0.5Mo

steels

Addition of 0.7% Cr

Primarily 2.25Cr; Older 2.25Cr

manuf. prior to 1972 particularly
susceptible

Pressurization sequence - MPT

of 350F For older steels and
150F newer; Heat treat to
1150F and cool rapidly For
temporary reverse; Limit J and
X Factors.

CS and low alloys

Control chemistry of gas phase;

Cr and Mo Form more stable
carbides

PWHT at 1150F For CS; Alloy

upgrade to Ni based alloys;
CS, low alloys and 300 SS; Ni base
Design/operation of injection
alloys more resistant.
system; Water wash equipment
prior to steamout
Design; Adequate water
Primarily CS, low alloys and 300 SS flooding; Burner management;
Dilution of caustic
Design; Erosion - harder alloys;
Corrosion - corrosion resistant
All metals, alloys and refractories
alloys; Impingement plates;
Tube ferrules
PWHT at 1150F; Material
selection; Coatings or alloy
CS and low alloys
cladding; Water wash nonPWHT prior to steamout or heat
treatment; Inhibitors

CS and low alloys

PWHT all CS welds; Material

selection (clad or solid); Water
wash non-PWHT CS prior to
welding, heat treatment or
steam out

Material selection; Low chloride

300 SS; Ni 8% -12% most
water For hydrotest; Coatings
susceptible; Ni > 35% highly
under insulation; Avoid designs
resistant, Ni > 45% nearly immune
with stagnant areas where
chlorides can concentrate
CS and low alloys, 300 SS and 400
Alloy selection (Si & Al
SS, cast SS, Ni base alloys with
oxidizers); Lower temperatures
significant Fe content and HK/HP and higher oxygen/sulfur partial
alloys
pressures.

CS, low alloys, 400 SS,

Precipitation Hardenable SS, some
high strength Ni base alloys.

Use lower strength steels;

PWHT; Low hydrogen, dry
electrodes, and preheat For
welding; Bake out at 400F or
higher; Controlled
pressurization sequence;
Protective lining, SS cladding,
or weld overlay

CS and low alloys

Tube rupture quickly Follows

DNB; Burner management; BFW
treatment

All metals and alloys

Minimize flow interruptions,

severe restraint, rain/fire water
deluge; Review injection points;
Thermal sleeves

Most common materials of

construction

Mechanical, design, or
operational change; Sufficient
NPSH; Streamline flow; Remove
air; Decrease velocities; Fluid
additives

Primarily gray cast iron, but also

nodular and malleable cast irons
which tend to crumble when
attacked

Difficult to predict; Internal

coatings/cement linings For
internal graphitic corrosion;
external coatings or CP in
corrosive soils

All Fired heater tube materials and

common materials of construction

Minimize temperature
excursions; Burner
management

CS and low alloys esp. prior to

1987; 400 SS also susceptible

Material selection; Minimize

pressure at ambient
temperatures; PWHT; "Warm"
pre-stress hydrotest

SS with sigma may have lack of

toughness below 500F;
Ferritic, martensitic, austenitic, and
Minimize weld metal ferrite
duplex SS
content; Solution anneal at
1950F and water quench to
reverse

Use low ferrite or non-ferritic

Alloys containing aFerrite phase;
alloys; Heat treat to 1100F and
400 SS and Duplex SS
cool rapidly

CS and low alloys

Minimize exposure to elevated

temps

low alloys, 300 SS, and Ni base

alloys; High Strength Low Alloys
(HSLA)

Joint configurations in heavy

walls; Minimize stress risers

Order of increasing resistance: CS,

316L, Alloy 20, high Si cast iron,
high Ni cast iron, Alloy B-2 and
Alloy C276

Materials selection; Proper

operation; Caustic wash to
neutralize

Monitor CS operating > 150F

Low alloys, 300 SS and 400 SS are For thickness; Minimize water,
generally not suitable; CS, Cu-Ni
oxygen, sulfur and other
alloys, Alloy 400, an other Ni base contaminants in feed; Alloy 400
alloys have been used in some
(solid or clad) used to eliminate
applications
blistering/HIC/SOHIC. PWHT to
minimize possibility of SCC.

CS, low alloys and 300 SS

Maintain temps > 280F; Avoid

300 SS if chlorides present;
Soda Ash wash to neutralize the
acids

Ni based fillers; 300 SS rods

Widely differing thermal expansion
used in low temp location only;
coefficients; Most common CS to
Pup piece with intermediate
Austenitio SS
coefficient

CS and low alloys

PWHT; Weld hardness < 200 HB

and no localized zones > 237
HB; CS with Carbon Equivalent
< 0.43; B7M Bolts; Coatinas or
allov cladding

Primarily copper alloys as well as

Alloy 400 and cast iron

Difficult to predict; Addition of

alloying elements may help; CP
or coatings may help

CS and low alloys

Cr > 12% (SS); Corrosion

inhibitors; Increase pH > 6;
Operation problems; 400 SS
and Duplex SS resistant; Water
analysis

All metals and alloys

Reduce corrosion (inhibitors,

material selection, coatings,
BFW chemical control, etc.);
PWHT; Controlled start-up
(thermal expansion)

All conventional alloys for process

heaters and boilers; 50Cr-50Ni
family show improved resistance

Blend or change fuel source;

Burner design/management;
Low excess oxygen; Alloy
upgrade to 50Cr-50Ni For
hangers/supports

Primarily CS; 300 SS highly

resistant

Proper operation; Avoid buildup

of HSAS; Design should control
local pressure drop to minimize
flashing; Avoid oxygen
inleakage; Remove solids and
hydrocarbons; Corrosion
inhibibitors

CS, low alloys, 300 SS and duplex

SS

Selection of insulation type;

Maintain coatings and
insulation

CS, low alloys, and copper alloyed

Al

Surface prep and proper

coating

Copper alloys with aqueous

ammonia and/or ammonium
compounds; CS in anhydrous
ammonia

Copper - zinc content below

15%, 90-10CuNi and 70-30CuNi
nearly immune, prevent ingress
of air, upgrade to 300 SS or Ni
alloys; CS - PWHT or addition
water (0.2%), weld < 225 BHN,
prevent inaress of oxvaen

CS, all grades of SS, copper, Al,

titanium and Ni base alloys

Design process inlet < 135F;

Operation; Chemical treatment;
Maintain water velocities; Avoid
ERW tubes

Primarily CS; Some low alloy, 300

SS and copper based alloys

Oxygen scavenging treatment;

Amine inhibitor treatment

Most common materials of

construction

Treat water with biocides;

Maintain flow velocities; Empty
hydrotest water; Maintain
coatinqs

Many commonly used materials

Keep metal with low melting

point away from other metal;
Grind out cracks not acceptable

All metals with the exception of

most noble metals; SEE Table 4-4
for Galvanic Series

Design; Differing alloys not in

intimate contact; Coatings

All alloys; Stress levels and number Good design; Material selection;
of cycles to failure vary by material
Minimize stress risers

Carbon steels, low alloys, 300 SS

and 400 SS; Ni based alloys more
resistant

Alloy change to 30% - 80% Ni

All engineering materials

Design; Supports and vibration

dampeners; Stiffeners on small
bore; Branch sizing

Titanium alloys

No titanium in known hydriding

services such as amine or sour
water; Use all titanium if
galvanic coupling may promote
hydriding

Carbon steel, cast iron, and ductile

iron

Most effective coatings and

cathodic protection; Special
backfill may help to lesser
degree

All; No known alloy immune under

all conditions

Protective layer of sulfur

(usually as H2S); Material
selection For specific
application; Al diffusion
treatment

No issue For newer steels with

Mostly pre-1980's carbon steels
enough Al For deoxidizer; BOF
with large grain size and C-0.5 Mo
better than older Bessemer;
low alloy steel
Pressurization sequence; PWHT
or "Butter"

304L satisfactory For

concentration 100% and temp
Order of increasing resistance: CS, < 120F ; 316L required 120F 304L SS, 316L SS, and Alloy 20
225F; 316L and Alloy 20
effective at concentrations up
to 85% at boiling temps
Material selection; Velocity <
Order of increasing resistance: CS,
30 fps; Recovery ovhd temps at
304L, 316L and Alloy C276
least 30F > dew point

Carbon steels and low alloy steels

Inspection

Appearance

Monitor process conditions and

Most often uniform thinning but may
temperatures; UT For thickness loss;
be localized; Sulfide scale will
Proactive and retroactive PMI
usually cover the surface

Monitor free water phase; Crack

detection best with WFMT, EC, RT or
ACFM; SWUT For crack sizing; AET

Blistering, HIC "stepwise cracking",

SOHIC stacked arrays, SSC through
thickness potentially

Combination of techniques; Tubes

bulging, sagging, diametric growth

Noticeable deformation may be

observed; May have significant
bulging before final fracture occurs

UT, VT and RT For thickness; Verify

operating temps; Check process H2S
levels periodically

Uniform loss in thicknessFrom the

process side with an iron sulfide
scale

Flapper disc sanding to remove

deposits and PT

Intergranular; Quite localized;

Typically next to welds, but may be
in base metal

RT or UT Thickness; Monitor TAN,

sulfur, Fe, and Ni contents

Localized corrosion, pitting, or flow

induced grooving in high velocity
areas

Frequent UT and RT profile thickness;

IRIS and ECT tubes; Monitor water
injection

General loss in thickness with

potential For high localized rates;
Low velocities may have localized
under-deposit corrosion

RT or UT Thickness; Monitor feed

streams; Corrosion coupons may be
helpful if salts deposit on the element

Possible Fouling or corrosion

AUT or RT For thickness; Corrosion

coupons; Check pH

General uniform thinning, localized

corrosion or underdeposit attack

UT using combination of velocity ratio

and backscatter (AUBT); In-situ
Intergranular and adjacent to iron
metallography; VT For blistering;
carbide areas in CS; Some blistering
WFMT and RT in advanced stages
may be visible to the naked eye
with cracking

Monitor process conditions and

temperatures; UT For thickness loss

General thinning; Usually covered on

the outside surface with an oxide
scale

VT, MT/PT, SWUT For cracking

Cracks propagate transverse to the

stress and usually dagger-shaped,
transgranular, and oxide filled; May
stop and restart; May be axial or
circumferential, or both, at the same
location;

RT or UT Thickness; Monitor pH of
ovhd accumulators; Corrosion
coupons

General thinning; Localized corrosion

or underdeposit attack can occur

VT during shutdown; IR online

Cracking, spalling or lift-off from the

substrate, softening or general
degradation from exposure to
moisture; Erosive services: washed
away or thinned

Full thickness sample metallography

N/A

Impact test sample blocks from

original heat

N/A

Field metallography; Hardness tests

For softening

N/A

WFMT, EC, RT, ACFM For crack

"spider web"; Predominantly
detection; PT not effective (tight,
intergranular, parallel to weld in
scale filled cracks); SWUT For crack adjacent base metal but can occur in
depth
the weld or HAZ

UT Scans, RT, Injection points,

Boroscope steam generating
equipment

Localized metal loss as grooves in a

boiler tube or thinned areas under
insulating deposits;

VT, UT, RT; Corrosion coupons; IR

scans For refractory

Localized loss in thickness; Pits,

grooves, gullies, waves, rounded
holes and valleys; Often with a
directional pattern

Monitoring of pH and CO3-2

concentration; WFMT or ACFM For
crack detection; SWUT For crack
depth: AET

"spider web"; Parallel to weld in

adjacent base, but also in weld or
HAZ; Predominantly intergranular

Surface cracking on ID primarily in

Crack detection best with WFMT or HAZ, but also in weld or adjacent to
ACFM; PT usually not effective; SWUT HAZ; Typically parallel to weld, but in
crack depths; AET
weld, either transverse or
longitudinal

VT in some oases, PT (surface prep

may be necessary), ECT, UT

"spider web"; Branched,

transgranular, and may have
"crazecracked" appearance

Hardness/Field metallography if
process side accessible; RT, UT, MT
For cracking in advanced stages

In advanced stage may be a

volumetric increase

MT or PT For surface cracks; UT may

be helpful; RT not sensitive enough

Can initiate sub-surface, but in most

cases is surface breaking; Higher
strength steels cracking is often
intergranular

Visual For bulging on tubes and

burners

Open burst with edges drawn to a

near knife-edge

Highly localized; MT/PT to confirm

cracking only

Surface initiating cracks may appear

as craze" cracks

Accoustic monitoring; Pumps may

sound like pebbles being thrashed
around; VT, UT, RT For loss of
thickness

Sharp-edged pitting but may have a

gouged appearance in rotational
components

Loss of "metallic ring"; Reduction in

hardness

Widespread or localized; Damaged

areas will be soft and easily gouged
with a hand tool

Visual; IR monitoring; Tubeskin

thermocouples

"fishmouth"

None to minimize; Susceptible

vessels inspect For pre-existing flaws

Cracks typically straight, nonbranching, with no plastic

deformation; Limited intergranular
cracking

Testing of samples; Cracking during

t/a or when below 500F

Cracking particularly at welds or

areas of high restraint

Impact/bend test samples; Cracking

during t/a or when below 200F;
Increase in hardness

N/A

Field metallography or removal of

samples

N/A

UT and MT/PT For surface cracks; UT

For embedded cracks

Intergranular and can be surface

breaking or embedded

UT or RT of turbulent zones and

hottest areas; Corrosion coupons

General but attacks CS HAZ rapidly;

Hydrogen grooving in low flow

RT or UT Thickness; Monitor small

bore piping, flange face corrosion,
blistering/HIC/SOHIC

Localized general or severe thinning

of CS; May be accompanied by
cracking due to hydrogen stress
cracking, blistering and/or HIC/SOHIC
damage

UT For wall loss; VT and PT For SCC

General wastage often with broad,

shallow pits

Visual and MT/PT For OD cracks; UT

For ID cracks

Cracks at the toe of weld in the HAZ

of the ferritic material

WFMT For cracks; Hardness testing

Surface breaking intergranular

cracks

VT (may change color but may

Often a color change or deep etched
require scale removal),
appearance; May be uniform through
Metallography, Loss of "metallic ring"
the cross-section or localized

VT, UT, RT

Localized thinning and/or pitting;

May be deep pitting and grooving in
areas of turbulence

UT, MT

"rabbit ears"; Transgranular but not

branched, often multiple parallel
cracks

VT; UT For loss of thickness

"alligatorhide"

VT and UT thickness internal; UT

scans or profile RT For external;
Corrosion coupons

General uniform thinning, localized

corrosion or localized underdeposit
attack

Strip insulation; VT, UT, IR, etc.

May be highly localized; Loose, flaky

scale covering the corroded
component

VT and UT

General or localized; Normally a

distinctive iron oxide (red rust) scale
Forms

Copper - monitor pH, ECT or VT on

tubes For cracking; CS - WFMT, AET,
or External SWUT

Cu: bluish corrosion products at

surface cracks, single or highly
branched, either trans or
intergranular

pH; Oxygen content; Outlet temps;

EC/IRIS tubes

General corrosion, localized

underdeposit, pitting, MIC, SCC,
Fouling, grooving along ERW tubes

Water analysis; Dearator cracking

WFMT

Oxygen: pitting anywhere in the

system; CO2: smooth grooving

VT; Measure biocide residual;

Localized pitting under deposits or
Operating conditions indicate Fouling; tubercles; Cup-shaped pits within
Foul smelling water
pits

MT or PT For cracks, RT For mercury

deposits inside tubes

Brittle cracks in an otherwise ductile

material

Visual and UT Thickness

More active material can suffer

generalized loss in thickness or
crevice, groove or pitting corrosion

MT, PT, SWUT For cracks; Vibration

monitoring

"clam shell" type fingerprint with

concentric rings called "beach
marks"

Change in color to dull gray;

Hardness testing (400 - 500 BHN);
Check 300 SS For magnetism;
"needle-like" particles of iron nitrides
Metallography; ECT; PT, RT, or UT For
cracking in advanced stages

Visual/Audible signs of vibration

Crack initiating at a point of high

stress or discontinuity

ECT; Metallography; Crush/Bend test

N/A

Structure to soil potential; Soil

resistivity; VT, guided UT, Pressure
testing

External thinning with localized

losses due to pitting

Low alloys can be uniform but

Compression wave UT For heater
usually small pits filled with crumbly
tubes; RT For pitting/thinning; VT if ID
residue; SS and high alloys local,
is accessible
deep, round pits

None

N/A

RT or UT Thickness; Sample Iron in

water; Corrosion coupons

General or localized thinning of CS

RT or UT Thickness; Corrosion
coupons

General or localized corrosion of CS

Material

Temperatur

crude unit / vacuum

No

ANY
1 any
2 cs & low alloy
3 any
4 any
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23

10 100 200 300 400

>ambient<180 <300

500 600 800

>500
x
x
x
>500
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x

24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66

x
x

Process Unit

Caustic Treating
Visbreaker
Hydrogen Reforming
Isomerization
Sour Water Stripper
Sulfur Recovery
Amine Treating
HF Alkylation
sulfuric acid alkylation
hydroprocessing units

catalytic reforming - fxed bed

catalytic reforming - ccr
fcc

fcc light ends recovery

delayed coker

x
x
x

x
x

x
x

x
x

x
x

x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x

x
x

x
x

x
x

x
x

x
x
x

x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x

x
x
x
x

x
x

x
x

x
x

x
x
x

x
x
x

x
x
x
x
x

x
x

x
x

x
x

x
x
x

x
x
x

x
x

x
x

Damage Mechanism
Sulfidation
Wet H2S Damage
Creep
High Temp H2/H2S corr
Polythionic Acid Cracking
Naphthenic Acid Corrosion
Ammonium Bisulfide Corrosion
Ammonium Chloride Corrosion
HCl Corrosion
High Temperature Hydrogen Attack
Oxidation
Thermal Fatigue
Sour Water Corrosion (acidic)
Refractory Degradation
Graphitization
Temper Embrittlement
Decarburization
Caustic Cracking
Caustic Corrosion
Erosion / Erosion-Corrosion
Carbonate SCC
Amine Cracking
Chloride Stress Corrosion Cracking

Carburization
Hydrogen Embrittlement
Steam Blanketing
Thermal Shock
Cavitation
Graphitic Corrosion (see Dealloying)
Short term Overheating Stress Rupture
Brittle Fracture
Sigma Phase/ Chi Embrittlement
885oF (475oC) Embrittlement
Softening (Spheroidization)
Reheat Cracking
Sulfuric Acid Corrosion
Hydrofluoric Acid Corrosion
Flue Gas Dew Point Corrosion
Dissimilar Metal Weld (DMW) Cracking
Hydrogen Stress Cracking in HF
Dealloying (Dezincification/ Denickelification)
CO2 Corrosion
Corrosion Fatigue
Fuel Ash Corrosion
Amine Corrosion
Corrosion Under Insulation (CUI)
Atmospheric Corrosion
Ammonia Stress Corrosion Cracking
Cooling Water Corrosion
Boiler Water / Condensate Corrosion
Microbiologically Induced Corrosion (MIC)
Liquid Metal Embrittlement
Galvanic Corrosion
Mechanical Fatigue
Nitriding
Vibration-Induced Fatigue
Titanium Hydriding
Soil Corrosion
Metal Dusting
Strain Aging
Sulfate Stress Corrosion Cracking
Phosphoric Acid Corrosion
Phenol (carbolic acid) Corrosion
Ethanol Stress Corrosion Cracking
Oxygen-Enhanced Ignition and Combustion
Organic Acid Corrosion Of Distillation Tower Overhead Systems