A trait profile of top and middle managers

Anna Baczyska*, Management Department, Komiski University, Warsaw, Poland.

Tomasz Rowiski, Institute of Psychology, Cardinal Stefan Wyszyski University, Warsaw,
Poland.
Correspondence address:
Dr. Anna Baczyska
Komiski University
57/59 Jagielloska St., 03-301 Warsaw, POLAND [email protected]

Introduction

Although trait leadership theory has been widely criticized by scholars over the past century
(Mann, 1959; Stogdill, 1948) employers always want to know what kind of abilities and
psychological traits distinguish their future employees. The trait approach plays an important
part in human resource management practices for selecting, developing and planning the
career paths of managers (Armstrong, 2010). Interestingly, Zaccaro (Stephen J. Zaccaro,
2007) points out that even Stogdill's (Stogdill, 1948) review, although cited as evidence
against leader traits, contains conclusions suggesting that individual differences can still
predict leader effectiveness. Trait leadership is defined as integrated patterns of personal
characteristics that reflect a range of individual differences and foster consistent leader
effectiveness across a variety of group and organizational situations (S. J. Zaccaro, Kemp, &
Bader, 2004).
Top and middle level managers play different roles in organizations and therefore require
different skills (Griffin, 2013; Komiski, 2011, 2013). In many studies, top managers are
shown to differ from middle managers in terms of 1) analytical mental ability (Caruso, Mayer,
& Salovey, 2013; Jensen, 1998; Judge, Colbert, & Ilies, 2004; Schmidt & Hunter, 1998;
Sternberg, 2007); 2) emotional intelligence (Barling, Slater, & Kevin Kelloway, 2000;

Boyatzis, 2011; Caruso et al., 2013; Gardner & Stough, 2002; Goleman, Boyatzis, & McKee,
2002; Goleman, 2006; Miller, 1999; Palmer, Walls, Burgess, & Stough, 2001); and 3)
personality (Bono & Judge, 2004; Hogan & Holland, 2003; Judge, Bono, Ilies, & Gerhardt,
2002). Other results underline that mental ability and personality together play a significant
role in management (Lepine, Colquitt, & Erez, 2000).
Materials and Methods
Participants
Our research was conducted at the beginning in 2015 year. The study sample consisted of 233
managers (aged 27 to 54 years, M=35.26; SD=4.77), formed of two groups: (1) managers
currently undertaking MBA studies who hold positions of Chairman, Managing Director,
Departmental Director or Regional Director (F=18, M=60; Mage=34.90; SDage=4.97) in
organizations, and (2) participants of post-graduate managerial courses at Komiski
University in Warsaw, Poland (F=59, M=84; Mage=35.98; SDage=4.27) who hold positions
such as departmental or section manager, or team leader. The managers were selected from
fields such as fast-moving consumer goods, automotives, pharmaceuticals and IT, worked a
minimum three years in their position, and received the highest scores in performance
appraisals at work. The participants (N=233) took part in the study voluntarily. During the
first session of Career Development module, each participant received three scales: Ravens
Progressive Matrices (RPM), the Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (EIQ), and the
Circumplex of Personality Metatraits Portrait (CPM-P). They fulfilled RPM in the classroom,
the next ones we collected in month. Participants received their results on the individual
feedback session. In further stages of our analysis we included only participants who
completed the tests without missing responses. There were 220 participants who completed
RPM (M=143; F=77; 94.4% response rate), 176 who completed EIQ (F=63; M=113; 75.5%
response rate), and 190 who completed CPM-P (F=68; M=122; 81.5% response rate).

Materials
Ravens Progressive Matrices. This scale is designed to measure general mental ability
(general intelligence). We used the standard progressive version to investigate the level of
analytical ability of managers. This is a popular tool of measurement for general mental
ability and its reliability (Cronbachs alpha is above .80) and validity have been empirically
2

proven in many studies (Harrison, Shipstead, and Engle 2015; Little and McDaniel 2015;
Shamosh and Gray 2007; Raven 2000).
Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire. This scale was developed by Jaworowska and
Matczak (Jaworowska & Matczak, 2005). The tool is based on the Salovey and Mayer
(Salovey & Mayer, 1989) approach of emotional intelligence and consists of a scale of four
theoretical concepts: 1) Acceptance the measured ability to accept, express and use
emotions in action, 2) Emotional Understanding the ability to understand ones own
emotions, 3) Control the ability to control ones own emotions, 4) Empathy the ability to
understand and recognize emotions in other people. Reliability measured using Cronbachs
alpha is good and is above .76 for all scales. Participants indicate their level of agreement
with statements on a 5-point Likert-type scale from 1 I strongly disagree to 5 I strongly
agree. Sample statements is are: When someone is angry, I can usually feel it.,; Often I don`t
know, if someone really likes me or is just acting.
Circumplex of Personality Metatraits Portrait. In order to measure personality we used a
scale which investigates the personality dimension in a circumplex model. This is a reliable
(Cronbachs alpha for all scales is above .70) and validates 54 items, which are scored on a 7point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 not similar to me at all to 7 very similar to me.
Sample items are: He/She feels good both in the company of others as well as by
himself/herself. In every situation retains inner harmony and serenity. He/She feels happy and
optimistic about the future; He/She likes to engage in new initiatives. He/She quickly adapts
to new situations.
According to the authors Strus et al. (Strus, Cieciuch, & Rowiski, 2014), a metatrait can be
understood as a personality dimension which differentiates people in thinking, behaviour and
emotions. The model consists of eight measurements: 1) Plasticity (0 in the circle) is linked
to a tendency towards exploration of the environment, cognitive and behavioural openness to
change, engagement with new experiences, an individual tendency to widen ones horizons,
2) Integration (45 in the circle) is a positive, pro-social attitude to people, a balance between
work and family, the successful realization of life goals, 3) Stability (90 in the circle)
signifies stable functioning in emotional, motivational and social spheres, 4) Self-Restraint
(135 in the circle) represents low emotionality, unwillingness to show emotions, strong
control of ones behaviour and conformism, 5) Passiveness (180 in the circle) constitutes
cognitive and behavioural passivity, apathy and submissiveness, 6) Disharmony (225 in the
3

circle) represents withdrawal from social and professional activity, a distrustful attitude,
distance from others, a tendency to view events and the world pessimistically, 7) Disinhibition
(270 in the circle) indicates a tendency towards emotional instability, low resistance to
frustration, aggression and antagonism towards people and governing rules, 8) SensationSeeking (315 in the circle) signifies impulsiveness, emotional liability, sensation-seeking, a
desire to dominate and expansiveness in interpersonal relations.
Dataset Description
The managers dataset, called Data Managers, is deposited at
https://www.dropbox.com/s/vxlrazavrai4lfx/Data_Managers.sav?dl=0

and has SPSS 22 format. The variables are described within.

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