PROBLEM SET 7
HAMID SAGBAN
Exercise 1. Find all subgroups of (Z13 , 13 ).
Solution. We know |(Z13 , 13 )| = (13) = 12. Also, the factors of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12. We now form
the 6 cyclic subgroups of Z13 . For the factors 1 and 12, we have 12 = 12 1, and thus < 212 >= {1}, and
< 21 >= Z13 . Now for the factors 6 and 2, we have 12 = 62, and thus < 22 >= {22 , 24 , 26 , 28 , 210 , 212 } =
9, 10,
1}, and < 26 >= {26 , 212 } = {12,
1}. Finally, for the factors 4 and 3, we have 12 = 4 3,
{4, 3, 12,
5, 1}, and < 24 >= {24 , 28 , 212 } = {3, 9, 1}.
and thus < 23 >= {23 , 26 , 29 , 212 } = {8, 12,
Exercise 2. Let n 3. Show that [n 1] (U (Zn ), n ) is an element of order 2.
Proof. To show that [n 1] U (Zn ), it suffices to show that gcd(n, n 1) = 1. Let k be a divisor
of n. Then n = mk for some positive integer m. Thus n 1 = mk 1, and hence k cannot be a
divisor of n 1, for otherwise n 1 = rk for some r Z+ , so that n = rk + 1, contradiction. Thus
gcd(n, n 1) = 1. Since n 3, we know [n 1] 6= [1]. So we compute (n 1)2 mod n; we have
(n 1)(n 1) = (n(n 2) + 1) 1 mod n, since n(n 2) 0 mod n. Thus [n 1]2 = [1], and
|[n 1]| = 2.
Exercise 3. Show that (U (Z35 ), 35 ) is not a cyclic group. (Hint: find elements in U (Z35 ) that have
order 2)
Proof. We know by (3) that there is an element of order 2 in U (Z35 ), namely [35 1] = [34]. Therefore,
>= {34,
1}. If U (Z35 ) is cyclic, then there is
we can form a cyclic subgroup of order 2; that is, < 34
exactly one cyclic subgroup of order 2. But it turns out that the order of 6 = 2; so < 6 >= {6, 1}. We
have found two distinct cyclic subgroups of order 2 in U (Z35 ), thus U (Z35 ) cannot be cyclic.
Exercise 4. We know that (Z47 , 47 ) is a cyclic group. Show that there are as many elements of order
23 as there are elements of order 46.
1
HAMID SAGBAN
Proof. We know there exist cyclic subgroups of orders 1,2,23, and 46. Let b be an element of order 46.
Then for all k < 46 such that gcd(46, k) = 1, |bk | =
46
gcd(k,46)
= 46. There are (46) = 22 such ks and
thus 22 elements of order 46. Now let a be an element of order 23. We know |an | =
23
gcd(n,23)
= 23 for all
n < 23; there are (23) = 22 such ns and thus 22 elements of order 23.
Exercise 5. Let S99 such that || = 99. Show that 66 is either a 3-cycle or the composition of
disjoint 3-cycles.
Proof. |66 | =
99
gcd(66,99)
= 3. Permutations of order 3 can be obtained by 3-cycles, since the order of a
3-cycle is 3. One can also get cycles of order 3 by setting lcm(a, b, . . . , n) = 3, where a, b, . . . , n are orders
of some disjoint cycles (6= (1)) whose composition equate to . Thus a, b, . . . , n must all be 3 for this to
be satisfied since 3 is a prime number.
a
Exercise 6. Let S =
0
23
| a, b, c Z23 . It is easy to see that (S, 23 ) is a monoid. Note that
c
is the normal multiplication of matricies modulo 23. Let U (S) be the set of all invertible elements of
S under 23 . Thus we know (U (S), 23 ) is a group. Find |U (S)|, and explain whether U(S) is an abelian
or a non-abelian group.
Solution. All arithmetic operations are modulo 23, so the subscripts indicating this are absent. We begin
a b
by showing that S is a monoid; we first show closure. Take two elements , S. Then =
0 c
ax ay + bz
x y
, with
, for a, b, c and x, y, z Z23 . Computing , we get =
and =
0 z
0
cz
1 0
. This can easily be seen by taking
ax, ay + bz, cz Z23 . Thus S. We claim that e =
0 1
S, and computing e and e. Therefore, S is a monoid. Now, we describe the group U (S); that is,
a b
| gcd(a, 23) = gcd(b, 23) = 1, a, b, c Z23 . Note that a, c cannot be [0] by the gcd
U (S) =
0 c
a b
for a, b, c Z23 , and with gcd(a, 23) = gcd(c, 23) = 1. a1
criterion. Take U (S), thus =
0 c
PROBLEM SET 7
b
ac
, and invertibility of a and c is guaranteed since a, c are relatively
1
0
c
The order of U (S) is thus (23) (23) 23 = 22 22 23. U (S) is clearly nonabelian for
2
1 2
1 8
1 4
and =
. Then =
and =
.
1
0 3
0 3
0 3
can be easily verified to be
prime to 23.
1
take =
0
1
a
2 18
. Then a S. Is a U (S)? If yes, then find a1 . Note that S and U (S)
Exercise 7. Let a =
0 7
are as defined previously.
Solution. a U (S) since gcd(2, 23) = gcd(7, 23) = 1. We can use the form described above for the
12
2
.
inverse to find a1 , which is
0 10
a b
| a, b, c Z . It is easy to see that (M, ) is a monoid. Note that
Exercise 8. Let M =
0 c
is the normal multiplication of matricies. Let U (M ) be the set of all invertible elements of S under .
Thus we know (U (M ), ) is a group. Is U (M ) an abelian or a nonabelian group? If U (M ), find a
2 18
. Then a M . Is a U (M )? If yes, then find a1 .
general form of . Let a =
0 7
1 9
1 4
1 5
and
. Then =
and =
Solution. U (M ) is not abelian, for take =
0 1
0 1
0 1
1 1
1 b
. Now a general form of is
with b Z. Thus clearly, a as given in the last
=
0 1
0 1
part of the question does not belong to U (M ).
