LIME
SOMNATH CHATTERJEE
LIME : THE TIME-TESTED CHEMICAL
Lime is one of man's oldest and most vital chemicals. The
ancient Romans used lime in building and road construction,
uses which continue to the present day. From earliest times,
lime has been made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate)
to high temperatures. This process, known as calcining,
results in quicklime, or calcium oxide. Hydrated lime
(calcium hydroxide) is produced by reacting quicklime with
sufficient water to form a dry, white powder.
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LIME : THE CYCLE CaCO3 CaO CO2
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CLASSIFICATION OF LIME
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REVIVAL OF LIME
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Lime KILN
A lime kiln is a kiln used to produce quicklime by the
calcination of limestone (calcium carbonate). The chemical
equation for this reaction is:
CaCO3 + heat = CaO + CO2
This reaction takes place at 900C (at which temperature the
partial pressure of CO2 is 1 atmosphere), but a temperature
around 1000C (at which temperature the partial pressure of
CO2 is 3.8 atmospheres) is usually used to make the reaction
proceed quickly. Excessive temperature is avoided because it
produces unreactive, "dead-burned" lime.
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Lime Mortar
Lime mortar is a type of mortar composed of lime,
an aggregate such as sand, and water. It is one of the
oldest known types of mortar, dating back to the
4th century BCE and widely used in Ancient Rome
and Greece, when it largely replaced the clay and
gypsum mortars common to Ancient Egyptian
construction. Lime mortar is used as an alternative
to ordinary Portland cement. It is made principally
of lime (hydraulic, or non hydraulic), water and an
aggregate such as sand.
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HYDRAULIC AND NON-HYDRAULIC LIME
Hydraulic limes set under water and non-hydraulic limes need air
to carbonate and therefore set. Modern non hydraulic lime
mortars are produced from lime derived from high calcium lime
stones. These lime stones are burnt in kilns producing quick lime
for other industrial uses other than building. In the past, countless
kilns all over the country burnt lime stones of varying qualities many of these lime stones containing impurities making them
unsuitable for todays industrial processes but eminently suitable
for building due to their varying degrees of hydraulicity. All but
the kilns burning pure lime stones ceased production as ordinary
portland cement gained widespread use. However a very small
number of kilns are producing hydraulic lime for the building
industry to standards which are now expected of any building
material.
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Non Hydraulic Lime
Non-hydraulic lime is primarily composed of calcium hydroxide (generally
greater than 95%). Non-hydraulic lime is produced by the heating of
sufficiently pure limestone (calcium carbonate) to between 954 and 1066C,
driving off carbon dioxide, to produce quicklime (calcium oxide). As well as
calcium based limestone, dolomitic limes can be produced which are based on
calcium magnesium carbonate. This is done in a lime kiln. The quicklime is then
thoroughly mixed with water to produce lime putty (calcium hydroxide), or
with less water to produce dry hydrated lime. The slaking process involved in
creating a lime putty is an exothermic vigorous reaction which initially creates a
liquid of a cream consistency. This then has to be matured for between 2 to 3
months - depending upon environmental conditions - to allow time for it to
condense and mature into a lime putty. A matured lime putty displays a physical
property known as "thixotropic" which means that when a lime putty is
physically agitated it changes from a putty into a more liquid state. This aids its
use for mortars as it makes a mortar easier to work with and apply. If left to
stand following agitation a lime putty will slowly revert from a thick liquid back
to a putty state. It is always advised that a lime mortar should be "knocked up"
prior to its use.
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Hydrated lime and lime putty
Non-hydraulic lime is produced in two forms: 1. hydrated lime 2.
lime putty. A frequent source of confusion regarding lime mortar
stems from the similarity of the terms hydraulic and hydrated,
however the two terms, in this context, have different meanings.
Hydrated lime is any lime other than quicklime, so can refer to
either hydraulic (hardens underwater) or non-hydraulic (doesn't
harden underwater) lime. Stored lime putty is always nonhydraulic (since hydraulic putty sets quickly after mixing) and, as
the name suggests, lime putty is in the form of a putty made from
just lime and water. If the quicklime is slaked with an excess of
water then putty or slurry is produced. If less water is used, then
the result is a dry material (any excess water escaping as steam
during heating). This is ground to make hydrated lime.
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Hydrated non-hydrated lime
Hydrated non-hydraulic lime can be mixed with water to form
lime putty. Before use it is usually left in the absence of carbon
dioxide (usually under water) to mature. Putty can be matured for
anything from 24 hours to many years, an increased maturation
time improving the quality of the putty. There is however an
argument that a lime putty which has been matured for an
extended period eg over 12 months, becomes so stiff that it is less
workable. There is some dispute as to the comparative quality of
putty formed from hydrated lime compared to that produced as
putty at the time of slaking. It is generally agreed that the latter is
preferable. A hydrated lime will produce a material which is not as
"fatty" and often due to lengthy and poor storage, the resulting
lime produced by hydrated lime will exhibit longer carbonation
periods as well as lower compressive strengths.
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Hydraulic lime
In the context of lime or cement, the term 'hydraulic' means to
'harden under water'. Hydraulic lime can be considered, in terms
both of properties and manufacture, as part-way between nonhydraulic lime and OPC. The limestone used contains sufficient
quantities of clay and/or silica. The resultant product will contain
dicalcium silicate but unlike OPC not tricalcium silicate. It is
slaked enough to convert the calcium oxide to calcium hydroxide
but not with sufficient water to react with the dicalcium silicate. It
is this dicalcium silicate which in combination with water provides
the setting properties of hydraulic lime. Aluminium and
magnesium also produce a hydraulic set, and some pozzolans
contain these elements
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Why use LIME?
Lime Allows Buildings To Breathe In the search by architects
and conservators for building materials sympathetic to
traditional construction, lime was found to be one of the
most important. One of the reasons lime binders are
promoted by the Society for the Protection of Ancient
Buildings for repairs is because they are vapour permeable
and allow buildings to breathe. This reduces the risk of
trapped moisture and consequent damage to the building
fabric
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Why use LIME?
Lime Provides A Comfortable Environment Porous and open
textured materials such as lime plasters, help to stabilize the
internal humidity of a building by absorbing and releasing
moisture. This makes for a more comfortable environment
and reduces surface condensation and mould growth.
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Why use LIME?
The Use Of Lime Has Ecological Benefits Lime has less
embodied energy than cement. Free lime absorbs carbon
dioxide in the setting process of carbonation. It is possible
to produce lime on a small scale. The gentle binding
properties of lime enable full re-use of other materials. A
very low proportion of quicklime will stabilize clay soils.
Small quantities of lime can protect otherwise vulnerable,
very low energy materials such as earth construction and
straw bales.
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Why use LIME?
Lime Binds Gently With Early Adhesion The fine particle size
of lime, far smaller than cement, is linked to the root
meaning of the word lime, which is 'sticky material'. Due to
the fine particle size, lime mixes penetrate minute voids in
the background more deeply than other materials. They bind
gently and the stickiness gives good adhesion to other
surfaces.
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Why use LIME?
Lime Mortar Can Protect Adjacent Materials Lime mortars
with a high free lime content are porous and permeable.
These characteristics allow lime mortars to protect adjacent
materials by handling moisture movements through the
building fabric and protecting them from harmful salts.
Adjacent materials frequently affected this way include
timber and iron as well as stone and brick masonry.
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Why use LIME?
Lime Renders Can Assist Drying Out By Evaporation Dense and
impermeable renders can trap moisture within the building fabric.
Trapped moisture is often the agent for various decay mechanisms.
Dense renders used in conjunction with softer materials or on
weaker backgrounds can cause serious problems by creating local
stresses. High calcium lime renders allow evaporation and reduce
the risk of trapped moisture and decay. In simple terms, the
greater the extent of pure lime and permeability the better this is
for the building. This needs to be balanced with durability,
however, and some reduction in permeability may be necessary to
obtain adequate weathering qualities, hence the advantage of
feebly hydraulic limes for external use.
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Why use LIME?
Lime Mixes Have Good Workability The ability of a mortar
or plaster to remain smooth and mouldable, even against the
suction it may experience from porous building materials, is
termed workability. Good workability greatly assists good
workmanship, helping to achieve full joints with good
bonding to the other materials. This is what makes lime based
mixes such a pleasure to use. The workability provided by the
lime allows the inclusion of widely graded and sharp
aggregates in the mix. These enhance both the performance
and the aesthetic of the finished work.
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Why use LIME?
Lime Binders Can Be Durable And Have Stood The Test Of
Time When used carefully, lime is exceptionally durable.
Caesar's Tower at Warwick Castle has stood the test of time
for over 600 years, and many cathedrals have stood longer.
An outstanding example is the Pantheon Temple in Rome
which has a lime concrete dome spanning over 43 metres
(142 feet). This has survived for nearly 2000 years.
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Why use LIME?
Lime Finishes Are Beautiful The double refraction of light
through calcite crystals give a unique aesthetic combining a
soft texture with a lustre that has a liveliness and delight of its
own. The graceful softness apparent in lime based materials is
a visual indication of their intrinsic permeability, workability
and soft binding properties. They can rapidly develop a rich
patina which has a glowing translucent quality.
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Lime Contributes To A Healthy Environment Lime is caustic
and has been extensively used, often in the form of limewash,
for its disinfectant qualities. Lime is also used for water
purification. Lime mortars, plasters, renders and limewash
have been used to create hygienic surfaces and improve
comfort conditions within buildings for thousands of years.
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Self Healing The nature of ground conditions and the
elements are such that all buildings are subject to varying
degrees of movement over time. When buildings made with
lime are subject to small movements they are more likely to
develop many fine cracks than the individual large cracks
which occur in stiffer cement-bound buildings. Water
penetration can dissolve the 'free' lime and transport it. As
the water evaporates this lime is deposited and begins to heal
the cracks. This process is called autogenous, or self healing.
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Free Lime Encourages the Growth of Calcite Crystals Calcite
crystals are a different shape to those formed by the more
complex compounds in hydraulic limes and cements. The
crystals form in voids in lime rich environments. The growth
of calcite crystals adds strength over time and generally
provides a more open and permeable material than the
denser eminently hydraulic and OPC mixes with little or no
free lime.
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Local Limes Enhance Regional Identity And Diversity The
diversity of limestone types provides variety and local
distinctiveness. Different limes will vary in colour, texture
and setting properties. Local limes have a regional identity,
they give a sense of place and provide a continuous link with
the local aesthetic. Local colour is the obvious example in
respect of limewashes.
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Disfiguring By Cement Can Be Avoided By The Use Of Lime
On site the temptation to use quick and easy solutions for
short term gain can lead to long term problems. The
attraction of using excess cement to be 'safe' is
understandable if not desirable. The fact that it is plentiful,
inexpensive and readily available adds to the problem. There
is a high probability that over-strong and dense mixes that are
not fit for purpose will be used in excess. The physical
damage and unsightly aesthetic that results from this can be
avoided by the use of lime.
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Indefinite Shelf Life Non-hydraulic limes have an indefinite
shelf life when stored without access to air, usually as a putty
under water or in sealed containers. In fact the quality of the
putty improves the longer it is stored.
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Heat of Hydration: Field Test
his simple test can also be performed in the field with easily
portable items. Though it is primarily for comparing the reactivity
of quicklimes, especially for monitoring the burning conditions in
a small lime kiln, the maximum temperature reached through the
exothermic (heat producing) reaction of quicklime with water is a
good indicator of the quality of the lime, at least in terms of the
available CaO. The rate at which the temperature rises is an
indicator of how reactive it is. Apparatus No. 7 mesh sieve
(2.83 mm) Thermos flask Thermometer reading to at least
100C. Clock or watch with seconds hand. Scale to weigh 50 g
to 0.5 g A pestle and mortar or other means of crushing the
quicklime to pass the No.7 mesh.
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Method Take several lumps of fresh quicklime, break them with a
hammer on a clean surface, cone and quarter to get a representative
sample of small fragments. Grind 100200 g of this with a pestle and
mortar, so that it just passes through a No.7 mesh sieve. Into a thermos
flask put 170 ml of water at the normal prevailing water temperature,
which in tropical countries may be 23C. Carefully weigh out 50.0 g of
the No.7 mesh quicklime, put it into the thermos flask, start the stop
watch and begin gently stirring the mixture. At one-minute intervals,
record the temperature of the water and continue doing so for 24
minutes. Note the maximum temperature (and the time it was reached).
By comparing the maximum temperature, and the hydration curve of
temperature against time, with those obtained with samples of
quicklime of known available lime content, the quality of the sample can
be compared and an estimate made of its available CaO content, as well
as its degree of reactivity.
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Testing of LIME
Determination of available lime by the rapid sugar test (using
hydrochloric acid) Apparatus 300 ml flask 100 ml
burette, with stand. Balance capable No.100 mesh sieve.
(0.15 mm). Materials CO2 free distilled water, if
available. Hydrochloric acid Methyl orange indicator.
Phenolphthalein indicator. Sucrose granulated sugar is
satisfactory 15 g.
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Method Take 0.5 g of 100 mesh lime and brush it into a 300 ml
flask containing 20 ml of CO2 free distilled water and stopper the
flask. Swirl and heat to boiling for 2 minutes. Add 150 ml of water
and at least 15 g of sucrose. Stopper the flask, shake at intervals for
5 minutes and allow to stand for 30 minutes to 1 hour. Add 2
drops phenolphthalein, wash down stopper and sides of flask with
distilled water, then titrate in the original flask with the standard
HCl solution. Add about 90% of the estimated amount of acid
before shaking the flask and then complete titration, with the final
acid being fed slowly until the pink colour disappears. Note the
reading: 1 ml of the acid solution is equivalent to 1% available
lime expressed as CaO.
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