Ganges

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The Ganga (Hindustani:[a]) , also Ganges (/ndiz/ GANjeez) is a trans

boundary river of Asia which flows through the nations of India and Bangladesh. The
2,525km (1,569mi) river rises in the western Himalayas in the Indian state of
Uttarakhand, and flows south and east through the Gangetic Plain of North India into
Bangladesh, where it empties into the Bay of Bengal. It is the third largest river by
discharge.

Ganga

The Ganga is the most sacred river to Hindus.[2] It is also a lifeline to millions of
Indians who live along its course and depend on it for their daily needs.[3] It is
worshipped as the goddess Ganga in Hinduism.[4] It has also been important
historically, with many former provincial or imperial capitals (such as Pataliputra,[5]

The Ganges in Varanasi

Kannauj,[5]

Kara, Kashi, Patna, Hajipur, Munger, Bhagalpur, Murshidabad,

Baharampur, Kampilya, and Calcutta) located on its banks.
The Ganga was ranked as the fifth most polluted river of the world in 2007. Pollution
threatens not only humans, but also more than 140 fish species, 90 amphibian species
and the endangered Ganga river dolphin. The Ganga Action Plan, an environmental
initiative to clean up the river, has been a major failure thus far,[6][7][8] due to
corruption, lack of technical expertise,[9] poor environmental planning,[10] and lack of
support from religious authorities.[11]
The name "Ganges", ending in "es", came to English via Latin from Ancient Greek
sources, particularly from accounts of Alexander the Great's wars, which entered India.

Map of the combined drainage basins of the

Ganges (orange), Brahmaputra (violet), and
Meghna (green)
Native name

Ganga

Othername(s) Ganges

Contents

Basin
Main source

Gangotri Glacier, Satopanth

Glacier, Khatling Glacier, and
waters from melted snow from
such peaks as Nanda Devi, Trisul,
Kedarnath, Nanda Kot, and Kamet

River mouth

Ganges Delta

Basin area

1,080,000km2 (416,990sqmi)

Country

India, Bangladesh

Cities

Rishikesh, Haridwar,
Farrukhabad, Kanpur, Jajmau,
Allahabad, Mirzapur, Varanasi,
Ghazipur, Buxar, Ballia, Patna,
Hajipur, Munger, Bhagalpur

5.4 The purifying Ganga

Length

2,525km (1,569mi)

5.5 Consort, shakti and mother

Avg.
discharge

16,648m3/s (587,919cuft/s)

5.6 Ganga in classical Indian iconography

Tributaries

1 Course
2 Geology
3 Hydrology
4 History
5 Religious and cultural significance
5.1 Embodiment of sacredness
5.2 Avatarana or descent of the Ganga
5.3 Redemption of the dead

5.7 Kumbh Mela

6 Irrigation
6.1 Canals
6.2 Dams and barrages
7 Economy
7.1 Tourism
8 Ecology and environment
8.1 Ganga river dolphin
8.2 Effects of climate change
9 Pollution and environmental concerns
9.1 Water shortages

Left
Ramganga,
Gomti,
Ghaghara,
Gandaki,
Bagmati,
Koshi,
Mahananda

Right
Yamuna,
Tamsa,
Son,
Punpun,
Tons,
Hindon,
Kunta,
Gir,
Rishiganga,
Hanuman
Ganga,
Sasur
Khaderi

9.2 Mining
10 See also
11 Inline citations
12 References
13 Further reading
14 External links

Course
The Ganga begins at the confluence of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers at Devprayag. The
Bhagirathi is considered to be the true source in Hindu culture and theology, although the Alaknanda
is longer.[12][13] The headwaters of the Alakananda are formed by snowmelt from such peaks as
Nanda Devi, Trisul, and Kamet. The Bhagirathi rises at the foot of Gangotri Glacier, at Gaumukh, at
an elevation of 3,892m (12,769ft).[14]
Although many small streams comprise the headwaters of the Ganga, the six longest and their five
confluences are considered sacred. The six headstreams are the Alaknanda, Dhauliganga, Nandakini,
Pindar, Mandakini, and Bhagirathi rivers.[15] The five confluences, known as the Panch Prayag, are
all along the Alaknanda. They are, in downstream order: Vishnuprayag, where the Dhauliganga joins
the Alaknanda; Nandprayag, where the Nandakini joins; Karnaprayag, where the Pindar joins;
Rudraprayag, where the Mandakini joins; and, finally, Devprayag, where the Bhagirathi joins the
Alaknanda to form the Ganga River proper.[12]
After flowing 250 kilometres (160mi)[14] through its narrow Himalayan valley, the Ganga emerges
from the mountains at Rishikesh, then debouches onto the Gangetic Plain at the pilgrimage town of
Haridwar.[12] At Haridwar, a dam diverts some of its waters into the Ganga Canal, which irrigates
the Doab region of Uttar Pradesh, whereas the river, whose course has been roughly southwest until
this point, now begins to flow southeast through the plains of northern India.
The Ganga follows an 800kilometre (500mi) arching course passing through the cities of Kannauj,
Farukhabad, and Kanpur. Along the way it is joined by the Ramganga, which contributes an average
annual flow of about 500m3/s (18,000cuft/s).[16] The Ganga joins the Yamuna at the Triveni
Sangam at Allahabad, a holy confluence in Hinduism. At their confluence the Yamuna is larger than
the Ganga, contributing about 2,950m3/s (104,000cuft/s),[16] or about 58.5% of the combined
flow.[17]
Now flowing east, the river meets the Tamsa River (also called Tons), which flows north from the
Kaimur Range and contributes an average flow of about 190m3/s (6,700cuft/s). After the Tamsa the
Gomti River joins, flowing south from the Himalayas. The Gomti contributes an average annual flow
of about 234m3/s (8,300cuft/s). Then the Ghaghara River (Karnali River), also flowing south from
the Himalayas of Nepal, joins. The Ghaghara(Karnali), with its average annual flow of about
2,990m3/s (106,000cuft/s), is the largest tributary of the Ganga. After the Ghaghara(Karnali)
confluence the Ganga is joined from the south by the Son River, contributing about 1,000m3/s
(35,000cuft/s). The Gandaki River, then the Koshi River, join from the north flowing from Nepal,
contributing about 1,654m3/s (58,400cuft/s) and 2,166m3/s (76,500cuft/s), respectively. The Kosi
is the third largest tributary of the Ganga, after the Ghaghara(Karnali) and Yamuna.[16]

Bhagirathi River at Gangotri.

Devprayag, confluence of
Alaknanda (right) and Bhagirathi
(left) rivers, beginning of the
Ganga proper.

The Himalayan headwaters of the

Ganga river in the Garhwal
region of Uttarakhand, India. The
headstreams and rivers are
labeled in italics; the heights of
the mountains, lakes, and towns
are displayed in parentheses in
metres.

Along the way between Allahabad and Malda, West Bengal, the Ganga passes the towns of Chunar,
Mirzapur, Varanasi, Ghazipur, Buxar, Ballia, Patna, Hajipur, Munger, Sultanganj, Bhagalpur, Simaria,
and Saidpur. At Bhagalpur, the river begins to flow southsoutheast and at Pakur, it begins its
attrition with the branching away of its first distributary, the BhgirathiHooghly, which goes on to
become the Hooghly River. Just before the border with Bangladesh the Farakka Barrage controls the
flow of the Ganga, diverting some of the water into a feeder canal linked to the Hooghly for the
purpose of keeping it relatively siltfree. The Hooghly River is formed by the confluence of the Bhagirathi River and Jalangi River at
Nabadwip, and Hooghly has a number of tributaries of its own. The largest is the Damodar River, which is 541km (336mi) long, with a
drainage basin of 25,820km2 (9,970sqmi).[18] The Hooghly River empties into the Bay of Bengal near Sagar Island.[19] Between Malda
and the Bay of Bengal, the Hooghly river passes the towns and cities of Murshidabad, Nabadwip, Kolkata and Howrah.

Bhgirathi River in Murshidabad, West Bengal

After entering Bangladesh, the main branch of the Ganga is known as the Padma. The Padma is joined by the Jamuna River, the largest
distributary of the Brahmaputra. Further downstream, the Padma joins the Meghna River, the second largest distributary of the
Brahmaputra, and takes on the Meghna's name as it enters the Meghna Estuary, which empties into the Bay of Bengal.
The Ganga Delta, formed mainly by the large, sedimentladen flows of the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers, is the world's largest delta, at
about 59,000km2 (23,000sqmi).[20] It stretches 322km (200mi) along the Bay of Bengal.[21]
Only the Amazon and Congo rivers have a greater average discharge than the combined flow of the Ganga, the Brahmaputra, and the
SurmaMeghna river system.[21] In full flood only the Amazon is larger.[22]

Geology
The Indian subcontinent lies atop the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate within the IndoAustralian Plate.[23] Its defining geological
processes commenced seventyfive million years ago, when, as a part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana, it began a
northeastwards driftlasting fifty million yearsacross the then unformed Indian Ocean.[23] The subcontinent's subsequent collision
with the Eurasian Plate and subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's highest mountain ranges.[23] In the former
seabed immediately south of the emerging Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough, which, having gradually been filled with
sediment borne by the Indus and its tributaries and the Ganga and its tributaries,[24] now forms the IndoGangetic Plain.[25]
The IndoGangetic Plain is geologically known as a foredeep or foreland basin.[26]

Hydrology
The hydrology of the Ganga River is very complicated, especially in the Ganga Delta region. One
result is different ways to determine the river's length, its discharge, and the size of its drainage basin.
The name Ganga is used for the river between the confluence of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers,
in the Himalayas, and the IndiaBangladesh border, near the Farakka Barrage and the first bifurcation
of the river. The length of the Ganga is frequently said to be slightly over 2,500km (1,600mi) long,
about 2,505km (1,557mi),[27] to 2,525km (1,569mi),[17][28] or perhaps 2,550km (1,580mi).[29] In
these cases the river's source is usually assumed to be the source of the Bhagirathi River, Gangotri
Glacier at Gomukh, and its mouth being the mouth of the Meghna River on the Bay of
Bengal.[17][27][28][29] Sometimes the source of the Ganga is considered to be at Haridwar, where its
Himalayan headwater streams debouch onto the Gangetic Plain.[18]
In some cases, the length of the Ganga is given for its Hooghly River distributary, which is longer
than its main outlet via the Meghna River, resulting in a total length of about 2,620km (1,630mi),
from the source of the Bhagirathi,[20] or 2,135km (1,327mi), from Haridwar to the Hooghly's
mouth.[18] In other cases the length is said to be about 2,240km (1,390mi), from the source of the
Bhagirathi to the Bangladesh border, where its name changes to Padma.[30]

A 1908 map showing the course

of the Ganga and its tributaries.
Major leftbank tributaries
include Gomti (Gumti),
Ghaghara (Gogra), Gandaki
(Gandak), and Kosi (Kusi); major
rightbank tributaries include
Yamuna (Jumna), Son, Punpun
and Damodar.

The TonsYamunaGanga continuous flow is the longest river in the Ganga basin. However, by convention, Tons is considered as a
separate river, and the length of Ganga and Yamuna is calculated from Gangotri and Yamunotri respectively. If calculated from source of
Tons, the length of TonsYamunaGanga river is 2,758km.[31]

For similar reasons, sources differ over the size of the river's drainage basin. The basin covers parts of
four countries, India, Nepal, China, and Bangladesh; eleven Indian states, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan, West Bengal and the Union Territory of Delhi.[32] The Ganga basin, including the delta
but not the Brahmaputra or Meghna basins, is about 1,080,000km2 (420,000sqmi), of which
861,000km2 (332,000sqmi) are in India (about 80%), 140,000km2 (54,000sqmi) in Nepal (13%),
46,000km2 (18,000sqmi) in Bangladesh (4%), and 33,000km2 (13,000sqmi) in China (3%).[33]
Sometimes the Ganga and BrahmaputraMeghna drainage basins are combined for a total of about
1,600,000km2 (620,000sqmi),[22] or 1,621,000km2 (626,000sqmi).[21] The combined Ganga
BrahmaputraMeghna basin (abbreviated GBM or GMB) drainage basin is spread across Bangladesh,
Bhutan, India, Nepal, and China.[34]
The Ganga basin ranges from the Himalaya and the Transhimalaya in the north, to the northern
slopes of the Vindhya range in the south, from the eastern slopes of the Aravalli in the west to the
Chota Nagpur plateau and the Sunderbans delta in the east. A significant portion of the discharge
from the Ganga comes from the Himalayan mountain system. Within the Himalaya, the Ganga basin
spreads almost 1,200km from the YamunaSatluj divide along the Simla ridge forming the boundary
with the Indus basin in the west to the Singalila Ridge along the NepalSikkim border forming the
boundary with the Brahmaputra basin in the east. This section of the Himalaya contains 9 of the 14
highest peaks in the world over 8,000m in height, including Mount Everest which is the high point of
the Ganga basin.[35] The other peaks over 8,000m in the basin are Kangchenjunga,[36] Lhotse,[37]
Makalu,[38] Cho Oyu,[39] Dhaulagiri,[40] Manaslu,[41] Annapurna[42] and Shishapangma.[43] The
Himalayan portion of the basin includes the southeastern portion of the state of Himachal Pradesh,
the entire state of Uttarakhand, the entire country of Nepal and the extreme northwestern portion of
the state of West Bengal.[44]
The discharge of the Ganga also differs by source. Frequently, discharge is described for the mouth of
the Meghna River, thus combining the Ganga with the Brahmaputra and Meghna. This results in a
total average annual discharge of about 38,000m3/s (1,300,000cuft/s),[21] or 42,470m3/s
(1,500,000cuft/s).[20] In other cases the average annual discharges of the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and
Meghna are given separately, at about 16,650m3/s (588,000cuft/s) for the Ganga, about
19,820m3/s (700,000cuft/s) for the Brahmaputra, and about 5,100m3/s (180,000cuft/s) for the
Meghna.[28]

The river Ganga at Kolkata, with

Howrah Bridge in the
background

Lower Ganga in Lakshmipur,

Bangladesh

The Gandhi Setu bridge across

the Ganga in Patna

The maximum peak discharge of the Ganga, as recorded at Hardinge Bridge in Bangladesh, exceeded
70,000m3/s (2,500,000cuft/s).[45] The minimum recorded at the same place was about 180m3/s
(6,400cuft/s), in 1997.[46]
The hydrologic cycle in the Ganga basin is governed by the southwest monsoon. About 84% of the
total rainfall occurs in the monsoon from June to September. Consequently, streamflow in the Ganga
is highly seasonal. The average dry season to monsoon discharge ratio is about 1:6, as measured at
Hardinge Bridge. This strong seasonal variation underlies many problems of land and water resource
development in the region.[30] The seasonality of flow is so acute it can cause both drought and
floods. Bangladesh, in particular, frequently experiences drought during the dry season and regularly
suffers extreme floods during the monsoon.[47]

The Vikranmshila Setu bridge

across the Ganga in Bhagalpur

In the Ganga Delta many large rivers come together, both merging and bifurcating in a complicated
network of channels. The two largest rivers, the Ganga and Brahmaputra, both split into distributary
channels, the largest of which merge with other large rivers before themselves joining. This current
channel pattern was not always the case. Over time the rivers in Ganga Delta have changed course,
sometimes altering the network of channels in significant ways.
Before the late 12th century the BhagirathiHooghly distributary was the main channel of the Ganga
and the Padma was only a minor spillchannel. The main flow of the river reached the sea not via the
Hardinge Bridge, Bangladesh,
modern Hooghly River but rather by the Adi Ganga. Between the 12th and 16th centuries the
crosses the GangaPadma River.
BhagirathiHooghly and Padma channels were more or less equally significant. After the 16th century
It is one of the key sites for
the Padma grew to become the main channel of the Ganga.[19] It is thought that the Bhagirathi
measuring streamflow and
Hooghly became increasingly choked with silt, causing the main flow of the Ganga to shift to the
discharge on the lower Ganga.
southeast and the Padma River. By the end of the 18th century the Padma had become the main
distributary of the Ganga.[48] One result of this shift to the Padma was that the Ganga joined the
Meghna and Brahmaputra rivers before emptying into the Bay of Bengal, together instead of separately. The present confluence of the
Ganga and Meghna formed about 150 years ago.[49]

Near the end of the 18th century, the course of the lower Brahmaputra changed dramatically, altering its relationship with the Ganga. In
1787 there was a great flood on the Teesta River, which at the time was a tributary of the GangaPadma River. The flood of 1787 caused
the Teesta to undergo a sudden change course (an avulsion), shifting east to join the Brahmaputra and causing the Brahmaputra to shift
its course south, cutting a new channel. This new main channel of the Brahmaputra is called the Jamuna River. It flows south to join the
GangaPadma. Since ancient times the main flow of the Brahmaputra was more easterly, passing by the city of Mymensingh and joining
the Meghna River. Today this channel is a small distributary but retains the name Brahmaputra, sometimes Old Brahmaputra.[50] The
site of the old BrahmaputraMeghna confluence, in the locality of Langalbandh, is still considered sacred by Hindus. Near the confluence
is a major early historic site called WariBateshwar.[19]

History
The Late Harappan period, about 19001300 BCE, saw the spread of Harappan settlement eastward from the Indus River basin to the
GangaYamuna doab, although none crossed the Ganga to settle its eastern bank. The disintegration of the Harappan civilization, in the
early 2nd millennium BC, mark the point when the center of Indian civilization shifted from the Indus basin to the Ganga basin.[51]
There may be links between the Late Harappan settlement of the Ganga basin and the archaeological culture known as "Cemetery H", the
IndoAryan people, and the Vedic period.
This river is the longest in India.[52] During the early Vedic Age of the Rigveda, the Indus and the Sarasvati River were the major sacred
rivers, not the Ganga. But the later three Vedas give much more importance to the Ganga.[53] The Gangetic Plain became the centre of
successive powerful states, from the Maurya Empire to the Mughal Empire.[12][54]
The first European traveler to mention the Ganga was Megasthenes (c. 350290 BC). He did so several times in his work Indica: "India,
again, possesses many rivers both large and navigable, which, having their sources in the mountains which stretch along the northern
frontier, traverse the level country, and not a few of these, after uniting with each other, fall into the river called the Ganga. Now this
river, which at its source is 30stadia broad, flows from north to south, and empties its waters into the ocean forming the eastern
boundary of the Gangaridai, a nation which possesses a vast force of the largestsized elephants." (Diodorus II.37)[55] In the rainy season
of 1809, the lower channel of the Bhagirathi (http://www.bihargatha.in/coursesoftheriversofbiharin181011ad/gangaflowingin
biharabout200yearsago), leading to Kolkata, had been entirely shut; but in the following year it opened again, and was nearly of the
same size with the upper channel; both however suffered a considerable diminution, owing probably to the new communication opened
below the Jalanggi. On the upper channel.
In 1951 a water sharing dispute arose between India and Bangladesh (then East Pakistan), after India declared its intention to build the
Farakka Barrage. The original purpose of the barrage, which was completed in 1975, was to divert up to 1,100m3/s (39,000cuft/s) of
water from the Ganga to the BhagirathiHooghly distributary in order to restore navigability at the Port of Kolkata. It was assumed that
during the worst dry season the Ganga flow would be around 1,400 to 1,600m3/s (49,000 to 57,000cuft/s), thus leaving 280 to
420m3/s (9,900 to 14,800cuft/s) for East Pakistan.[46] East Pakistan objected and a protracted dispute ensued. In 1996 a 30year treaty
was signed. The terms of the agreement are complicated, but in essence they state that if the Ganga flow at Farakka was less than
2,000m3/s (71,000cuft/s) then India and Bangladesh would each receive 50% of the water, with each receiving at least 1,000m3/s
(35,000cuft/s) for alternating tenday periods. However, within a year the flow at Farakka fell to levels far below the historic average,
making it impossible to implement the guaranteed sharing of water. In March 1997, flow of the Ganga in Bangladesh dropped to its
lowest ever, 180m3/s (6,400cuft/s). Dry season flows returned to normal levels in the years following, but efforts were made to address
the problem. One plan is for another barrage to be built in Bangladesh at Pangsha, west of Dhaka. This barrage would help Bangladesh
better utilize its share of the waters of the Ganga.[46][56]

Religious and cultural significance

Embodiment of sacredness
The Ganga is a sacred river to Hindus along every fragment of its length. All along its course, Hindus bathe in its waters,[57] paying
homage to their ancestors and to their gods by cupping the water in their hands, lifting it and letting it fall back into the river; they offer
flowers and rose petals and float shallow clay dishes filled with oil and lit with wicks (diyas).[57] On the journey back home from the
Ganga, they carry small quantities of river water with them for use in rituals (ganga jal, literally water of the Ganga).[58] When a loved
one dies, Hindus bring the ashes of the deceased person to the Ganga River.[58]
The Ganga is the embodiment of all sacred waters in Hindu mythology.[59] Local rivers are said to be like the Ganga, and are sometimes
called the local Ganga.[59] The Kaveri river of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu in Southern India is called the Ganga of the South; the
Godavari, is the Ganga that was led by the sage Gautama to flow through Central India.[59] The Ganga is invoked whenever water is
used in Hindu ritual, and is therefore present in all sacred waters.[59] In spite of this, nothing is more stirring for a Hindu than a dip in
the actual river, which is thought to remit sins, especially at one of the famous tirthas such as Gangotri, Haridwar, Prayag, or
Varanasi.[59] The symbolic and religious importance of the Ganga is one of the few things that Hindu India, even its skeptics, are agreed
upon.[60] Jawaharlal Nehru, a religious iconoclast himself, asked for a handful of his ashes to be thrown into the Ganga.[60] "The Ganga,"