SU3250
SURVEY MEASUREMENTS AND
ADJUSTMENTS
Course Notes
Prepared by
Indrajith D. Wijayratne
Associate Professor of surveying
Michigan Technological University
Houghton, MI 49931
Copyright 2002 by Indrajith Wijayratne
PROPAGATION OF RANDOM ERRORS
Propagation of random errors
Errors in computed values (indirect measurements)
Pre-analysis of planned surveys
Understanding error propagation is important in the following:
Combining two or more components of error in the same
measurement
e.g. pointing error and reading error in an angle measurement
Finding error in a sum or difference of two or more
measurements
e.g. adding several tape lengths
Finding error in a computed value from measurements using a
mathematical relationship
e.g. coordinates computed from distances and bearings
Unlike systematic errors, random errors cannot be simply added or
subtracted because the exact magnitude or the sign of the error is
not known
Even though the sum of several random errors tends to be zero it
is not quite zero, in general
Random errors belong to statistical distributions, and hence, follow
rules of propagation of variances
The variance of a random variable formed by combining two
random variables is given by
2comb = 21 + 22 + 2. 12
Where 12 = covariance between variable 1 and variable 2
If the two original random variables are independent, then 12 =
0, and therefore,
2comb = 21 + 22
For several independent variables
2comb = 21 + 22 + 23 + 24+ .. Etc.
Statistical independence means that any change in one variable
does not have any influence on the other variable(s)
This means that the variables are not statistically correlated or the
covariance between them is zero
In surveying, when combining different random error components
or in sums and differences of similar measurements, statistical
independence of individual components is assumed
This is also true for independent measurements such as distances
and angles, which are used for computation of other values
e.g. coordinates
Two values computed from the same measurements are correlated
e.g. latitude and departure of a traverse line computed from the
same angle and distance
When combining random errors, estimates of all errors must have
the same probability and the probability of the resulting error is
also the same
General guidelines for random error propagation:
clearly understand the measurement process
determine basic measurement
analyze each basic measurement to find sources of random
errors
compute combined random error in basic measurement
propagate the errors using rules of propagation to the final
measurements used in computations
propagate errors to computed values
Propagation in Distance Measurements:
Tape
Stadia
Subtense
EDM or GPS
Two main random errors in s distance measurement by taping are
marking of the end of the tape on ground and reading the tape
graduations.
Other random errors such as those due to fluctuations in teperature
or tension are generally small.
EDM measurements are subject to random errors introduced by
centering of the instrument and prism, and those due to random
variations in electronic center and frequency of transmission
The last two are generally supplied by the manufacturer and given
in the form (a + b ppm. ) in which 'a' is constant and 'b' is
proportional to the distance measured.
ppm. = parts per million
Since both 'a' and 'b' are random components of the error, the error
in a measured EDM distance can be given as
M = a2 + (b* 10-6 * distance)2
Now, the combined error in a distance measured by EDM can be
given as
D = ( 2i + 2r + 2M)
where i = instrument centering error
r = prism (reflector) centering error
Propagation in Angle Measurements
Single measurement
Multiple measurements
Electronic theodolites
Random errors in angle measurements are
instrument and target centering
plate bubble centering (leveling the instrument)
pointing to the target
reading (verniers, micrometers, scales)
The instrument/target centering errors and plate bubble centering
errors remain the same for each angle measured from the same
setup
Instrument/target centering errors and plate bubble centering errors
become random from setup to setup, and therefore, will have a
random effect on the angular closure of a triangle or a traverse
Above are discussed in sections 6.6, 6.7 and 6.8
An angle is made up of two directions, and therefore, each
direction is affected by all the errors stated above
Following discussion is limited to the effect of only the pointing
and reading errors in a measured angle
Multiple Measurements
Two basic methods based on the type of instrument
Direction method
Repetition method
Only difference is the effect of reading error
Direction method
Two pointings and two readings for each measurement of angle
Each angle measurement is independent
Standard deviation of the mean value of angle due to reading and
pointing is
= (2.2p + 2.2r)
n
= rp 2
n
Repetition Method
Only two readings regardless of number of repetitions
Same number of pointings as before
Standard deviation of the mean angle due to reading and pointing
is
= 2.2p + 2.2r
n
n2
Note that reading and pointing errors need to be known separately
in the case of repetition method
Angle Measurements Using Total Stations (Digital Theodolites)
It is not possible to assess the reading error in digital theodolites as
there is no human influence on reading
A standard, called DIN18723, has been developed that gives the
estimated error of the mean of two direction measurements, one
with telescope direct and one telescope inverted
Each direction measurement include both pointing and reading
Assume two direction measurements are indicated by d1 and d2,
and therefore, the mean direction is given by
d = d1+ d2 = 1/2 d1+ 1/2 d2
2
By rules of random error propagation
2d = (1/2)2 2pr + (1/2)22pr
= 2. 2pr = 2pr
4
2
DIN = pr/2
DIN value has been estimated in the factory using a specific set of
targets. Since the targets used in the field are different, one could
get a realistic estimates of an angle measurements error by field
testing.
Self-study Problems
1. A distance of 334.56 feet was measured with a 100 ft. steel tape.
The uncertainty in one tape measurement due to random errors
has been estimated to be 0.03 feet. Find the unceratainty of the
total distance measured.
2. If the above distance was measured with an EDM with a
manufacturer specification of (3 mm. + 3 ppm), what would be
the uncertainty of the distance ?
3. If the above distance was added to another distance of 567.98
feet measured with the same EDM, what would be the
uncertainty of the sum of two distances ?
4. What would be the expected uncertainty of an angle, with 95%
confidence, measured with a theodolite that has a pointing error
of 1.2" and a reading error of 1.5". Disregard other errors.
Error propagation in Traverses
Expected angular closure in a traverse
Estimated error in azimuths/bearings
Expected error in linear closure of traverses
Once the combined error in each angle has been estimated as
discussed previously, the expected angular closure of a traverse
can be computed (See sec. 6.9, page 110)
Angular closure in a polygon traverse is computed by adding all
interior angles, and then comparing this sum with a theoretical
value
The random error propagation is done assuming each angle was
measured independently
This is the error propagation in a sum as given by equation 5.18 on
page 86 (See Example 6.8 on page 110)
Expected angular closure is computed at a higher level of
probability, e.g. 95%, and then compared with the actual angular
closure to ensure that measured angle do not contain blunders (see
Example 6.9 on page 111)
Expected error in a link traverse could be computed by first
computing the estimated errors in azimuths/bearings
Propagation of errors in computed azimuths is discussed in sec. 7.3
on page 125 and is given by equations 7.5/7.6 on page 126 (Also
see example )
Expected Linear Closure in Traverse (Sec. 7.4, page 126)
Distance and angle measurements are independent
Computed latitudes and departures are correlated
Coordinates are correlated
Latitude and departure of a traverse line computed from the same
distance and azimuth/bearing are correlated even though the
distance and azimuth/bearing are independent
Northing and Easting of a point are correlated with each other as
they are computed from latitude and departure that are correlated
It could be seen that, through the process of computing
azimuths/bearings, each computed azimuth/bearing has an
influence not only from the angle used in computing that azimuth
but also from angles used for the computation of previous azimuths
This in turn results in coordinates of all points in the traverse or
network being correlated with each other
The error propagation in horizontal surveys such as traverses is
much complicated and an approach using matrices is often used
Propagation in elevation measurements
Differential leveling
Trigonometric leveling
Random Errors in differential leveling
Rod reading
Instrument leveling
Rod leveling
Residual errors in instrument collimation, refraction and
curvature, etc. due to unequal sight distances
Random Errors in Trigonometric leveling
Instrument and reflector heights
Vertical or zenith angle
Distance
Refraction and curvature
Specifications for surveys
Analysis of errors in measurements is a useful tool when
writing specifications for surveys
Knowing the required accuracy/ tolerance in the final
coordinates/ elevations, detailed specifications for
equipment/methods can be developed
