Technical Bulletin

NBSS Publ. 102

Soil Erosion in Rajasthan

R.L. Shyampura
R.S. Singh
R.K. Singh
A.K. Maji

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IOAR

National Bureau of Soil Survey & Land Use Planning, Nagpur 440 010
and

Central Soil and Water Conservation Research & Training Institute, Dehradun 248 195
Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur 342 003
In Co-operation with
Department of Watershed and Soil Conservation, Govt. Rajasthan, Jaipur

About the

~BSS&LUP

The National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSS & LUP), Nagpur, a premier Institute
of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (leAR), was set up in the year 1976 with the objective to
prepare soil resource maps at state and'district level and to provide research inputs in soil resource
mapping, and its applications,land evaluation, land use planning, land resource management, and database
management using GIS for optimising land lise on different kinds ofsoils in the country. The Bureau has
been engaged in carrying out agro-ecological and soil degradation mapping at the country, state and
district level for qualitative assessment and monitoring the soil health towards viable land use planning.
The research activities have resulted in identifying the soil potentials and problems, and the various
applications of the soil surveys with the ultimate objective of sustainable agricultural development. The
Institute is also imparting in service training to staff of the soil survey agencies and SAU's in the area of
soil survey and land evaluation, soil survey interpretations for land use planning, remote sensing
applications to soils and agriculture, and GIS for land reSOurce management. The Bureau in collaboration
with Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola and Maharana Pratap University of Agriculture
and Technology is running post-graduate, teaching and research programme in land resource management,
leading to M.Sc. and Ph.D. Degrees.
The publication on "Soil Erosion in Rajasthan" is prepared from soil resource information generated
during Soil Resource Mapping will help in understanding erosion status in each district of the state for
undertaking soil and water conservation work on priority and to have proper resource allocation in the
state.

Citalion: RL. Shyampura, RS. Singh, R.K. Singh and A.K.Maji (2003), "Soil Erosion in Rajasthan"

NBSS Pub!. No. 102, NBSS&LUP, Nagpur, 35 p + 1 sheet map.

TO OBTAIN COPIES OF THIS BULLETIN

Please write to:

Director
National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSS&LUP),
Amravati Road, Nagpur-440 0) 0, India.
Phone
(0712)2500386,2500664,2500545(0)
+91 -07 I 2-2500534
Telefax
Telex
071 5-7262NBSL IN
Telegram: SOILANDBRU
E-Mail
[email protected]
Head, Regional Centre
National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSS & LUP),
R~gional centre, University Campus, Udaipur-313 001
Phone
(0294)-2471421
Telefax
(0294 )-24 71326
Telegram : SOJLCORE
ISBN
81-85460-80-9
to NBSS & LUP July, 2003

Foreword
Information on soil resource and its management is an important endeavour to all the sections of people.
Everyone's livelihood, well-being and future prosperity depend directly and indirectly on natural resources.
The economy of all the sectors is also based on the soi I resource available in the region specified. However,
in recent years, the country experiences the rapid deterioration of soil resources. The estimation of it
becomes possible through modem tools of remote sensing coupled with field traversing. It become clear
that even though we inherited a cleaner and greener earth from our forefathers, we are eroding its value
by stealing from future generations what is rightfully their inheritance. It is a matter of great concern to
all of us that above 57 per cent of the total geographical area of the country is suffering from various
forms of degradation - water erosion, wind erosion, chemical and physical deterioration. Over 5.3 billion
tons of top soi l alone is lost every year through erosion resulting in a Joss of around 8 M tons of plant
nutrients. In addition, about 9.4 M ha land is suffering from water logging and soi l salinity in varying
degrees. Soil resource base is also shrinking at an alarming rate of 0.25 M halannum due to rapid
industrialization and urbanization .
Water is another critical resource whose availability is continuously diminishing for agricultural use
due to enhanced demand from other competitive sectors. Declining water tables in high potential- high
productivity regions have raised the concerns like hydrological sustainability in intensively irrigated
cropping systems areas - a backbone of India's food grain production . Quality of water resources is
being deteriorated due to enhanced disposal of pollutants, sewage and effluents. The soil resource forms
the basjc sink for these elements. The surface, ground and rajn water resources need to be efficiently
managed in order to preserve and protect productivity of soil base to enhance and to ach ieve the sustainable
crop productivity.
The pros and cons of all the above issues lie in proper quantification of soil loss categorizing
systematically the land mass into defined soil units indicating their inter-relationship, and capability to
respond to ameliorative measures and allied management practices.
Under such a challenging scenario, it gives me a great pleasure to note that the Regional Centre,
Udaipur of NBSS & LUP, CSWCR &. TI, Dehradun and CAZRJ, Jodhpur have brought out a joint
publication on "Soil Erosion in Rajasthan" quantifying the extent of problems, and needed ameliorative
measures. The publication also presents a state of the art, knowledge and future strategies for adopting
proper soil conservation measures. I congratulate Dr. R.L. Shyampura, Sub-Project Coordinator and the
team of Scientists at Regional Centre, Udaipur, State Department of Agriculture, Govt. 0f Rajasthan,
Central Arid Zone Research Institute and Dr. R.K. Singh, Regional Research station, Kota of CS WCR &
TI for their excellent job.
The pUblication is extremely valuable to researchers, planners and policy makers of the state of
Rajasthan. I hope that this volume will help in better understanding the effect caused due!o soi l erosion
in the state to formulate developmental and extension programmes and to implement them for achieving
the policies of soi l and water conservation.

(.l.S. SAMRA)
Dy. Director General (NRM)

lCAR

Preface
In this millennium the population of India has crossed overthe mark of one billion. This has tremendously
increased the need for food, fodder and fiber in the country. In order to meet these demands. the people
are constrained to use the marginal land resources. This leads to various kinds of second generation
problems of soil degradation. Such degradation problems are high in Rajasthan (33.2). Among the
degradational problems, the soil erosion is the most serious affecting greatly the qual ity and productivity
of the land in many aspects. Soi I erosion is wearing away of the earth 's surface by the forces caused by
wind, water and ice resulting the damaged of vast areas which cannot be used for productive purposes.
Much of the good land is degraded due to over and ;mproper use under the increasing productivity the
intensity/severity of erosion and its spatial extent is to be known to take up soi I and water conservation
practices in an area.
Soil and water conservation aims at preventing soil erosion and heal its scars where it has not advanced
too far to respond to curative methods. This involves, in many instances, changing the uses to which land
is put. It has been found, in fact, as stated previously, that the first requisite to conservation of land is to
tit the crop - (crops, trees. or grazing plants) to the capabilities of,the soi ls and the water available. Use
of engineering and agronomic practices will control and conserve water and counteract the erosive action
of both water and wind on the soil. These conservation measures can be used singly or in combination
within the economic limitations and acceptance offarmers. These will support one another and thereby
provide sustainability to the land.
This bulletin provides the details of the Rajasthan state, the different factors of universal soi l loss
equation and wind erosion/deposition . The bulletin also attempts the consequences of soi l erosion,
depletion and suggests the major so il and water conservation measures which, when appl ied to the land
in correct combinations, wil I greatly reduce or prevent soi I erosion, improve fertil ity, and increase yields
for which every one of us are responsible.
Towards this endeavour Scientists ofNational Bureau of Soil Survey and Land use Planning, Nagpu't,
Central Soil and Water Conservation Research & Training Institute, Dehradun and Centra l Arid Zone
Research Institute, Jodhpur under the able supervision of the Directors of the institutes in cooperation
with Department of Agriculture, Govt. of Rajasthan, comb inedly made an effort to bring out a bulletin
and map of "Soil Erosion of Rajasthan". This bulletin is prepared for the use of planners, technicians and
agriculturists working for controlling water erosion and making better use of rainfall available and irrigation
water in the state. The suggestions are based largely on the experience and existing situation in the state.
I hereby appreciate the effort of the scientists of both rCA R institutes and officials of State Govt.
Rajasthan in accomplishing this task.

(K.S. GAJBHIYE)
Director, NBSS & LUP

Acknowledgements
The publication "Soil Erosion in Rajasthan" has been completed with the help, cooperation and assistance
of many persons to whom we wish to express our sincere thanks and gratefulness.

Dr. Pratap Narain, Director, CAZRJ, Jodhpur for prl)viding information regarding wind erosion
status in Western Rajasthan.

Dr. Sohan Lal and Dr. J.P. Sharma for constructive suggestions.

Dr. A.P. Nagar and Shri S.S . Nimkhedkar for providing technical support.

Staff of NBSS & LUP, Regional Centre, Udaipur and H.Qrs. NagpuJ' for logistic support at
every stage of work.

Mr. S. Saha, Sr. Administrative Officer and Mr. D. D. Verma Sr. Finance and Accounts Officer
and their staff members for their administrative and financial support.

Mr. S.K. Arora, Printing Officer and his Associates, Printing section, NBSS&LUP, New Delhi
for printing the bulletin .

Mr. V.S. Sankhla and Mrs. Vaishali Arbat for work processing and type setting and Sh. M.C.
Patre for technical assistance.

Dr. (Mrs.) C. Mandai for digitization of maps and c('mpleting necessary formal ities for printing.

Project Team
Project Leader
Project Associates

R.L. Shyampura

R.S. Singh
R.K. Singh'"
K.D. Singh'"
A.K. Maji

D.C. Joshi
Technical Support Team

B.L. Tailor

N.D. Khan
Y. Mohan
C.Y. Srinivas
B.L. Jat
D.L.Oad

R.K. Singh
S. M('shram
N.R.Ola

S.S. Sharma

CSWCR & TI. Regional Station. KOla; "CAZRI. Jodhpur

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Contents
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Projec/ Team
Executive Summary

1.

lntroduction
1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4
1.5
2.

3.

Physiographic Regions
Drainage
Rainfall
Forest and Natural Vegetation
Soils and land degradation

1
1
2
2
2

Erosion Prediction Equations

2.1
2.2

5
5

Universal soil loss equation

Wind erosion prediction equation

Database

3.1

7
7
7
7

3.2
3.3

3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8

Erosivity factor (R)

Erodibility factor (K)
Topographic Factor (LS)
Cover and Management factor (C)
Conservation practice factor (P)
Indicators of Wind erosion
Field indicators
Satellite image characters

9
9
9
9

4.

Generation of Soil Erosion Map

10

5.

Interpretation

11

S. I

II

6.

Erosivity factor (R)

5.2 Erodibility factor(K)
5.3 Topograph ic factor (LS)
5.4 Cover and management factor (C)

12

SoH Erosion Status

13

6.1

13

Soi l loss through water erosion

6.2 Soii loss through wind erosion
6.3 Working example
6.4 Soil loss Tolerance

II

12

14

14
16

CONTENTS

7.

Soil and Water Conservation

18

7.1

18

Sandy Arid plain region

19

7.2 Semi Arid Transitional Plain

7.2.1 Soil and Water conservation in Western Plain

20

7.3

Aravalli Landscape
7.3.1 Soil and Water conservation planning

21

7.4

Eastern Rajasthan upland

7.4.1 Soil and Water conservation planning

22
24

7.5

Pathar and Bundelkhand upland

7.5.1 Soil and Water conservation planning

24

Malwa plateau

27

7.6.1 Soil and Water conservation planning

28

7.6

22

25

Referellces

29

Appendices

31

11
III
IV
V

Sample of Data used for Estimation of Soil loss in Rajasthan

District-wise Erosivity (R-factor) in Rajasthan
District-wise Erodibility (K-factor) in Rajasthan
District-wise Topographic factor (LS-factor) in Rajasthan
District-wise Cover and Management factor (C-factor) in Rajasthan

31

32
33
34

35

Executive Summary

Soil erosion is a process that leads to a huge amount

of soi I loss, thus lowering the capacity of the soi I
to support human life. For the protection of the
land from soil erosion, it is imperative to locate
and measure the type, degree and severity of soil
erosion for proper planning to conserve or to opt
for alternattve uses. Government organ izations
require information on soil erosion for
implementing various soil conservation projects
and deciding the priority areas for undertaking
control measures. Quantitative estimates of soil
loss from different parcels of land are required to
delineate the priority areas where work on
afforestation, bunding and terracing can be taken
up. Sediment yield predictions are required for
designing reservoirs and erosion control structures,
and soil erosion data can thus be very important
for this purpose.
The National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land
Use Planning (NBSS & LUP) and the Central Soil
and Water Conservation Research and Training
Institute (CSWCR & TI) have jointly initiated the
preparation of soil erosion maps of the different
states using the components of Universal Soil Loss
Equation (USLE) utilizing the field data of soil
resource maps (on I : 250,000 scale) ofNBSS &
LUP. The preparation of the individual state soi l
erosion map forms the first step in this endeavour.
The state of Rajasthan has an area of3,42,479
sq. km. and is divided physiographically into two
regions: Western Plains and the Central Highlands.
The rainfall ranges from 100 mm in extreme
western part of Jaisalmer district to 900 mm in
eastern part of Jhalawar and Banswara district.
About 85% of total rainfall is received during
south-west monsoon period extending from June
to September. rn each of these months, there are 27 rainy days. The forest covers an area of7 .53 per

cent. The shallow and moderate I} shallow soils

covers an area of 36.85 and 21.86 per cent,
respectively. The soi ls are classified into five soil
orders: Entisols (36.85%), Inceptiso ls (21.86%),
Aridisols (19.55%), Vertisols (2.83%) and Alfisols
(0.73%). The land degradation in the state is mostly
due to \II ind and water erosion resulting into the
loss of top soil. The loss of soil due to erosion val'}
from different land uses in addition to qual it) of
soil and intensity of climatic parameters especially
rainfall and wind. Since soil erosion is the major
reason for soil loss and consequent decline in soil
productivity. it becomes imperathe for the land
use managers and land use planners to adopt
appropriate soil conservation measures to ched.
it. The conservation Illeasures depends on type of
soi I and the degree of soi I erosion thus it becomes
more important to knO\.\ the alllount of soil loss
due to soi I erosion.
The spatial distribution and the data on soil
loss indicates that about 43.35 per cent area in the
state can be managed \II ith slight management
practices like field bunding or \\ith proper land
cover through crop planning. Abollt 33.82 per cent
area can be conserved through contour bunding
and vegetative barriers. Rest of the area (22.83%)
is mostly affected b) se\ ere. very severe and
extremely severe erosion and is ver} fragi Ie. It
needs utmost care for the management. If these
areas are encroached by the growing population.
it may lead to deforestation and denudation of
forest vegetation thus exposing the soil surface to
the intensity of rain . Due to this, these areas get
severely eroded exposing the substrata. [n order to
protect these areas, the awareness campaign among
the local people is of paramoLint importance. With
the participative approach b) the people these areas
cou ld be either brought under natural vegetation/

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

crop cover. The proper contour trenching and bench

zations and extension agencies should propagate

terracing techniques could be followed to prevent

the essence of the s logan "Each one plant one".

the soil loss by erosion. The government enactment

These practices can only green the areas and bring

of introducing a legislative policy to prevent the

deforestation and to undertake afforestation in such

in the resilience in these areas thus sustaining the

ecosystem.

areas is an appropriate step. The social organi-

Introduction

deposits laid by Luni. Ghaggar, Saraswati,

Chouthan and Sutlej river systems. In the western
arid regions the slope generally runs from northeast
to southwest. The north-eastern part of the region
has a genera I elevation of a bou t 300 m above In .s. l.
but towards the south the elevation is about 150
m. Except in Jalore-S iwana upland which lies
above 300 m. In eastern semi-arid plains. the
topography is varied, as a resu It, the region presents
a queer dnd confused amalgam of 10\\ land and
upland topography.
The Aravalli landscape constitutes mainly
discontinuous hilly tracts extending diagonally
from north-east to south-west of the state. It is
discontinuous in north-cast of Ajmer leaving a
number of wind gaps at Sambhar, east ofSikar and
between Ajmer and Beawar where TIpples of sand
dunes extends several ki lometers over the eastern
plain.
The eastern Rajasthan upland includes the area
on the eastern and north-eastern side of the Aravall i
range. The area is formed by the older and recent
al luvium laid by the Banas and the Mahi river
system originating from the Aravalli range. The
general gradient of the upland is towards east to
south-east.
The Pathar and Bundelkhand upland consists
primarily of the hilly region which belongs mainly
to the Vindhyan system. The plains within this
region are mostly formed by the alluvium laid by
the river Chambal and its tributaries viz. the Parvan.
the Parbati and the Kalisindh rivers .
The Malwa plateau primarily consists of
deccan trap and abounds in the basaltic fonnations.
The plains within this region are formed by the

state is located between 6930' to

7817'E longitude and 23 30' to 3012' N
latitude covering an area of about 342479 sq. kms,
which accounts for II percent of the total area of
the country (Fig. I ). It is bounded in the west by
Pakistan, in the north by Haryana and Punjab, in
the east by Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh and
in the south by Gujarat. The state has 32
administrative districts with Jaipur as its capital.
1.1 Physiography Regions: Based on the
general elevation, slope and landscape
configuration in the terrain, Rajasthan state has
been demarcated into following subunits of two
major physiographic units (Fig.2).
AJASTHAN

The Western PlaiD

(i) The sandy Arid Plain

(ii) The Semi-arid Transitional Plain

The Central Highlands

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)

The Aravalli Landscape

The Eastern Rajasthan Upland
The Pathar and Bundelkhand Upland
The Malwa Plateau

The sandy arid plain and arid pediplain

constitute the palt of the Thar desert in western
Rajasthan. Vast stretches of aeol ian sand deposits
in this area have drifted from the coastal areas and
deposited over the rock outcrops of the Jurassic,
Eocene and sedimentary origins. The sandy arid
plain is dotted by both stabi lized and continuously
shifting sand dunes of varying size and shapes.
The semi-arid transitional plain lies between
eastern margins of western desert and western
foothills of Aravallis. It is formed of alluvium
1

SOIL EROSION IN RAJASTHAN

alluvium laid by the river Chambal and its tribu-

of July. July and August are the rainiest months.

taries viz. the Parvan, the Parbati and the Kalisindh.

each accounting individually to about 30% of the

1.1. Drainage: The Aravalli ranges which run

annual rainfall. In each of these months there are

across the state from the south west to north east

2-7 rainy days (with daily rainfall of at least 2.5

direction largely influence the drainage system of

mm) in west Rajasthan and 7-14 rainy days in east

the state. The major portion of western Rajasthan

Rajasthan. The withdrawal of the southwest

has an inland drainage system, the southern, the

monsoon begins from the northwestern part of the

south-eastern and eastern part have a well

state around 1st September and by I 5til September

developed drainage system (Fig.3). The river

monsoon withdraws from the entire state.

1.4 Forest and natural vegetation: The floral

system of the state can be put into two major groups

tirst draining its runoff ultimately to the Bay of

wealtl, of Rajasthan is rich and varied. It has 2.6

Bengal, and second flowing to reach the Arabian

M ha (7.53 per cent) of forest area. (Statistical

sea. All the rivers (Chambal, Banas, Banganga and

Abstract, Directorate of Economics and Statistics,

Gambhiri) flowing On the eastern side of the

Government of Rajasthan 2000).

Aravalli range fall in the first group. Rivers flowing

The western half is desert terrain and most of

in the southern (Mahi and Sabarmati) and the

the area under forests is restricted to eastern and

western (Luni and its tributaries) part of the state

southern parts of the state. The forests are unevenly

distributed in the various districts. Most of the

belong to the second group.

forests are over the hilly areas i.e. in Udaipur,

1.3 Rainfall: The mean annual rainfall in

Rajasthan varies from less than 100 mm in the

Rajsamand, Kota, Baran, Sawai Madhopur,

extreme western parts ofJaisalmer'district to more

Chittaurgarh, Sirohi, Bundi, Alwar, Jhalawar and

than 900 mm in the eastern parts of lhalawar and

Banswara districts, which make up for about 50

Banswara (Fig. 4). The arid parts of western

per cent of the forests of the state. Dense natural

Rajasthan receive less than 500 mm. The isohyets

forests are in protected patches, mostly confined

run from SSW to NNE over Rajasthan with an

to various national parks and wild life sanctuaries.

increasing gradient towards the eastern Rajasthan .

Most of the remaining forests of the state are in

These steep gradients in isohyets in the eastern

various stages of plant growth.

parts of the State are due to the influence of rainfall

There are three broad types of forests~ (I)

towards the west of Aravallis. About 85% of the

Tropical Thorn Forests, (2) Tropical Dry

total rainfall is received during the southwest

Deciduous Forests, and (3) Central Indian Sub-

monsoon period extending from June to September.

tropical hill forests. They can broadly be

Remaining portion of rainfall is received in the cold

categorized into two distinct groups (i) comprising

weather period (January and February) in

the arid vegetation, falling into western part of the

association with local connective activity. Though,

state and (ii) semi arid to sub humid one of eastern

the total rainfall received in arid areas is low, high

and southern Rajasthan.

intensity showers are common.

Vegetation of Western Zone: CalligonumHaloxylon-Leptadenia, Sa/vadora oleoidesEuphurbia caducifolia, Zizyphus nummu!arioCapparis decidua, Sliaeda fruticosa-Salsola

The southwest monsoon sets in over the eastern

parts of the state by about the last week of June
and extends over the entire state by the first week

Rajasthan

Location Map

A
PUNJAB

HARYANA

PAKISTAN

PAKISTAN

- - . - - State Boundary
-

- District Boundary

M.P.

GUJARAT

DIVISIONS
Udaipur

Kota

Bikaner

Jaipur

Jodhpur

Ajmer

Rajasthan

Physiography

PUNJAB

PAKISTAN

/'

..... ,.

,,,,'I

./

HARYANA

l.
( HIIRII

\ _ . / .""'-.'

/
/)
/'

./

\. . ,

JAISAIMf.R

.""' ......
(

JODHPUR

"\._.",

1', tIl

HARM/'R

.....

H.4RA',_._')

PAKISTAN

,._. . ..r,

K.OTA
SIROIII

':I

._ .fl .
/

\ ...j

I'

' ""I IJIINe ,ARJ>t.JR

GUJARAT

'- .t.

M.P.

LEGEND
Sandy arid plain (Marusthali}

Eastern Rajasthan upland

Semi arid transitional plain

Pathar and Bundelkhand upland

Aravalli landscape

Malwa plateau

;':ig. 2

Rajasthan

Drainage

PUNJAB
( .

.",./?

1.. . _

. ..... .

i GANGANAGAR .~
/i
I

~.
/

PAKISTAN

.,

.A

(,c,_ ,
?"
I" HANU~NGA~~-'
-~
I

... t J''''

'"

", ' -

\''- ' ~

'\

'"

............

,,
,.~,

"

;'

."

CHURU

81KANER

_ . _ . ",.. ...

',

./

HARYANA

(,

"'/\

'" '"

'-..." ,

,,

_"',

JA/SALMER

NAGAUR

JODHPUR

J
I

"

\
\

PAKISTAN

GUJARAT

REFERENCE
State Boundary
District Boundary
Drainage
River/Reservoirs

Rajasthan

RAINFALL

PUNJAB

HARYANA
PAKISTAN

NAGAUR

,
...
,
,'''"...,

'.-

r#"

''',

t'

..

#'

''' 1(

. . .l.. '../"'t...J,

-'",',
BARIAER

JODHPUR

"

PALl

PAKISTAN

GUJARAT

RAINFALL IN eM

I <10
I 20
30

40

170

100

50

80

160

60

90

Soil Erosion - Problems

Road encroachment by sand

Severe wind erosion

Sheet erosion

Extension gully erosion

Rill and gully erosion

Fig. 5

INTRODUCTION

Order

Area (%)

General reatures of Soils

Entisols

36.85

Shallow to deep, loamy to sandy, excessively to well drained on

dunes, pediments and hills.

Inceptisols

21.86

Moderately Shallow, moderately deep to deep, clayey to loamy,

moderately well to well drained on undulating lands, rolling lands
and plains.

Aridisols

19.55

Moderately Deep to deep, sandy to loamy well drained on dunes

and interdunal plains.

Vertisols

2.83

Moderately deep, deep to very deep clayey, moderately well

drained on plains of Malwa plateau, Pathar and Bundelkhand
and eastern Rajasthan upland.

Alfisols

0.73

Moderately shallow to moderately deep, loamy, well drained soils

undulating land and hills of Aravallis.

baryosma, Prosopis-Capparis, Zizyphus Prosopis-Tecomella, Prosopis cineraria-Acacia

nilotica, Salvadora oleoides-Prosopis cinerariaCapparis decidua and Acacia senegal-Euphorbia
caducifolia are major type of vegetation.
Vegetation of Eastern Zone: Acacia
leucophloea-Prosopis cineraria-Acacia nilolica,
Acac ia nilolica-Capparis deCidua, Butea
monosperma-Madhuca
indica-Ziz)phus
mauritiana, An.ogeiss~ pendula-Boswellia serrata,
Tectona grandis, Mangifera indica-Syzygium
cumini type of vegetation
1.5 Soils and land degradation: The soils

above means and so they degrade due to erosion

occurring on each landform are characterized.

resulting into loss in productivi1Y. Similarly, Wind

There are five soil orders namely Entisols,

erosion gradually removes s ilt, clay and organic

Inceptisols, Aridisols, Alfisols and Vertisols were

matter from the surface soil leaving the coarse

identified and described below. They are further

material behind. In extreme conditions, the sand

categorized into eight sub-orders, sixteen great

begins to drift and form unstable dunes that

groups, thirty two subgroups, one hundred

encroach on productive surrounding (Fig.S) land

seventeen soil series.

and thus decreases the productivity of land at both

main cause of land degradation . The process of

erosion takes place when rain and wind strike the
soi I aggregates and detach the soi' particles. These
detached particles are then transported through the
action of wind and runoff water. The runoff water
also carries away dissolved nutrients. Deep SGiis
with favourable substrata (weathered parent
material) have resilience and can be renewed
through, fertilizers, organic matter and other
management practices though the)' are affected by
soil ension while shallow soils with unfavourable
substrata (hard rock) can not be renewed by the

Based on these soi I information thematic maps

the sites. Wind erosion also causes serious

such as soil depth, slope, texture and AWe, etc.

problems for infrastructural faci Iities especially

has been generated by using GIS under SPANS

roads, railway tracts, canal and settlements which

environment (Shyampura and Sehgal, 1995).

get buried during sand storms (Fig.S).

Declining pro ductivity indicates land

Database on soil loss due to wind and water

degradation. Erosion due to water and wind is the

erosion is important for advocating the

SOIL EROSION IN RAJASTHAN

concentration of flow results in gully erosion

(Fig.S). On decreasing slopes of overland flow area
eroded materials get deposited. Total erosion in the
form of sheet, rill and gullies are termed as gross
erosion Sheet and rill erosion from a un;t area ofa
field at a specified slope is defined as soil loss.
The sediment flowing out of watershed outlet is
called sediment yield and its deposition subtracted
from gross erosion. The process of soil transport
and dt.position is quite complex. The soil loss and
sediment yield are estimated by using several
models, which are based on large number of
parameter and input variables.
Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) is used
in the eastern Rajasthan. It is simple and empirical
model that estimates average annual soil loss from
a field whereas qualitative assessment of erosion
in the western Rajasthan on I: 1m scale carried out
by Pratap Nara;n e/ 01. (2000) using field criteria
and satellite characteristics has been presented to
0
view the scenario of erosion in the state.

conservation measures properly (Shyampura and

Sehgal J995). The indi\ idual farmer may be
interested in planning for his own field based on
soil loss. Government organizations need
information on soil erosion for implementing
various soil conservation projects and deciding the
priority areas for undertaking control measures.
Quantitative estimates of soil loss from different
sections of catchments under the river valley
projects (RVP) are required to delineate the priority
areas for undertaking afforestation, bunding and
terracing. Sediment yield predictions are required
for designing of reservoirs and erosion control
structures etc.
Rainfall erosivity, soil erodibility, topography,
vegetative cover, management, and conservation
practices are the major factors affecting the soil
erosion. The erosion takes place in the form of
sheet, rill ~lJld gullies. Sheet erosion takes place on
slopes due to overland flow (Fig.S). Rills form in
the areas where overland flow concentrates. Excess

Erosion Prediction Equations

2.1 Universal sou toss equation: The USLE is an
erosion model for prediction of long-term average
annual soil loss from a specified field area in
specified cover and management conditions. The
equation predicts the soil loss due to sheet and rill
erosion. It computes soil loss for a site as a product
of six factors . The equation of soil loss is described
as:
A = R K L S C P, where
A = Soil loss per unit area (computed),
expressedinlonslhalyear.
R = Rainfall erosivity factor. II is the number
of rainfall erosion index units for a
pa~ticular location.
K = Soil erodibility factor. It is the soil loss
rate per erosion index unit measured on
a unit plot of 22.13 m (72.6 jt.) length
supposed to have uniform 9 per cent
slope continuously in clear-tilledfallow.
L =Slope lengthfactor. II is the ratio ofsoil
loss from the field slope length 10 thaI
from a 22.13 m (72.6 fl.) lenglh under
idenlical conditions.
S =Slope-steepness faclor. It is the ratio of
soil/ossfrom the field slope gradient to
that ofa 9 per cent slope under otherwise
identical conditions.
C = Cover and management factor. It is the
ratio of soil loss from an area with
specified cover and management to that
from an identical area in tilled
continuous fallow.
P = Conservation practice factor. II is the
ratio ofsoil loss with a support practice
like contouring. strip-cropping,. or

terracing ( 0 that with straight-row

farming up and down the slope.
By using USLE model, the assessment of soil
erosion in West Bengal was estimated by Narain
et al. (1993), in Gujarat by Kurothe el al. (1997)
and in Maharashtra Challa el af (200 I). The maps
depicting soil loss have also been generated.
The parameters ofUSLE were estimated at a

particular grid area (10,000 ha) using the average

conditions. Limitations arising due to averaging
of the parameters are in built in the empirical
formula itself. The soil erosion map thus generated
indicates the first approximation of soil loss (tlha)
from the fields offarmers or other areas in the grid
and will serve as a guide for the planning purpose
in a better way than the existing qualitative
distribution of soil erosion (Shyampura and S.!hgal
1995) available till date.
2.2 Wind erosion prediction equation:
Several types of wind erosion equations have been
developed from time to time to predict the amount
of soil loss. The most comprehensive soil loss
equation has been developed for predicting wind
erosion by Woodruff and Siddoway (1965) and
Skidmore and Williams (1991) taking into account
the soil erodibility, wind energy, surface roughness,
length of open wind and vegetative cover. The wind
erosion equation is a set of complex relationships
among those parameters that influence wind
erosion. The equation is designed to serve as a tool
for determining the potential amount of wind
erosion on any field under existing local climatic
conditions and as a guide for determining the
conditions of surface roughness, soil cloudiness,
vegetative cover and sheltering to reduce potential

SOIL EROSION IN RAJASTHAN

wind erosion to the desirable extent.

The mean annual soil loss can be estimated
from the wind erosion equation:
WE = f (I C K L V)
Where WE

= Mean annual wind erosion (tlhal

year).
1

::: Soil erodibility index (Ilha / year).

C ::: Climate/aclor.
K :: Ridge roughness/actor.
L ::: Unsheltered length oferodingfield (m).

and
V ::: 'Vegetative cover jaclor

The elements involved in the calculation of the

above factors are numerous and somewhat

complex. Moreover, it is not easy to gather the

required information from many sites in the
difficult desert terrain. Consequently, the method
is difficult to apply for regional mapping of the
phenomena.
Some stud ies have been carried out by the
CAZRI to find out sediment loss due to wind
erosion, as well as to understand the processes of
erosion. The qualitative assessment of erosion
through the measurement ofknawn parameters of
climate and terrain properties in conjunction with
satellite data was found to be a quick and reliable
technique for identification of mappable areas of
wind erosion/deposition in the western Rajasthan .

Cl

Database

Where,
M = Per cent silt x (I OO-Per cent clay)
a = per cent organ ic matter,
b = the soil structure code used in soil
classification
c = the profile permeability code.
For computing K factor at various grid points
the data base generated by Shyampura and Sehgal
(1995) during soil resource mapping of Rajasthan
were used.
3.3 Topograpbic factor (LS): It is the Length
(L) and degree (gradient) of the slope that affect
the soil erosion by water in a landscape. In general,
the erosion increases ...... ith increase in slope length
as well as gradient of slope. For field application
the Land S factors are combined as a single
topographic factor (LS) and is computed by:
LS (A. 22.13) m (0.065 + 0.045s + 0.006552)
Where,
A.
slope length (m),
s = slope gradient (%) and
m = an exponent
Current recommendation (Wischmeir and
Smith, ) 978) for the exponent 'm' are:
m = 0.2 if slope < I per cent
m = 0.3 if slope <3 per cent and> 1 per cent
m = 0.4 if slope <5 per cent and >3 per cent
m = 0.5 if slope> 5 per cent
The values of A. and s for each grid point were
complied from the profile data sheets obtained
during soi I resource mapping of Rajasthan.
3.4 Cover and Management factor (C): The
cover and management factor is the expected ratio
of soil loss from land cropped under specified
conditions to soil loss from clean tilled fallow on

database compiled from various sources

for different factors of USLE are described
factor wise as under.
3.1 Erosivity factor (R): It is the annual total
value of the erosion index (El,o) for a particular
location. Computation ofEllo from recording type
rain gauge chart is described by Singh el al. (1981).
An iso-erodent map indicated the spatial
distribution ofR factor in a region. An iso-erodent
map of India was revised by Raghunath el al.
(1982) by inclusion of additional rainfall data from
new stations. The iso-erodent map of Rajasthan
was prepared. This map was used to obtain the R
factor values at various grid points.
3.2 Erodibility factor (K): It is a measure of
potential erodibility of a particular soil under a set
of conditions. It depends on the inherent properties
of the soils. Some of the intrinsic soil properties
that influence the erodibility are soil texture,
stability of soil structure, soil permeability,
infiltration, organic matter and soil mineralogy. The
best way to get K factor for a particular soil is
through field measurements on a unit plot. Central
Soil and Water Conservation Research and
Training Institute, Dehradun and its Centres have
measured K value for some of the soils in India.
Wischmeir and Smith (1978) used soil properties
to estimate K values and presented a nomograph
for this purpose.
For soils containing less than 70 per cent silt
and very fine sand, the soil erodibility factor K
can be calculated from the equation.
K = 1.2917(2.l x I0-4M'1 4 (12-a)+3.25
(b-2)+2.5(c-3)]/l 00
HE

SOIL EROSION IN RAJASTHAN

identical soil and slope and under the similar

rainfal I. Th is factor reflects the effect of crop cover,
crop sequence, productivity level, length of

S.No. Cover and

Management (C)

C - factor values

Forest and grass lands

0.01-0.38

growing season, tillage practices. The data for

Bushy foresVwaste land

0.14

estimating cover and management factor for

Crop lands

0.2-0.43

various crops grown in Rajasthan state have been

Degraded (waste) lands

0.50

Fallow lands

1.00

complied from the grid data. Central Soil and Water

Conservation Research and Training Institute and
its Research Centers have evaluated C factors for
various crops (Kurothe, 1991-92; Nema, e/ al.

A combined 'C' factor of 0.01 was used for

1978; Verma, el al. 1982; CSWCRTI AR 1983-84

forest and grassland areas. The C factors for

al 1981 and USDA 1978).

The cover and management factors for some of
the crops were taken from Singh el al. (1981).

orchards, vegetable crops and minor millets were

& 1984-85; Singh

e/

estimated by professional j udgment. The 'C' factor

for each grid point was selected on the basis of

Field Indicators for assessing wind erosion/depositIon In western Rajasthan

Terrain

Rainfall

Rat sandy plains with 100-550 mm

dominantly loamy sand
to sandy loam soil

Major indicators for assessment

Severity

Fresh sand sheet upto 30 cm thick; tew scattered

new fence line humm')Cks and nebkhas upto
100cm high.

Slight

Moderately sandy
Above 300 mm Presence of reactivated fresh sand of 50 to
undulating plains and
150 cm thickness on stable dunes, sandy plains
sand dunes with loamy
and fence line hummocks; many recently
sand soils; thickly sand
formed nebkhas.
sheeted plains.
Moderately sandy
undulating plains and
sand dunes with sand
to loamy sand solis.

Below 300 mm

Moderate

Reactivated and fresh sandy hummocks (nebkhas) Moderate

and sand ridges of 90-300 cm height; sand sheets
of 60-150 cm thickness between undulations;
reactivated stable dunes with fresh sand deposits
of 70 to 200 cm thickness; exposed plant roots to
a depth of 40 to 100 em in the sandy plains
indicate erosion.

Moderate to strongly
100-550 mm
undulating sandy plains
WIth closely spaced
hummocks and high
sand dunes with sand
to loamy sand soils.

Closely spaced sandy hummocks and sand

ridges of 1 to 4 m height with fresh sand cover;
sand deposits of 100-300 cm thickness usually
present between und'Jlations; highly reactivated
sand dunes are covered by fresh sand and
superimposed by crescentic bedforms of 2 to 4 m
height.

Severe

Barchan dunes and

100-550 mm
very thick sandy plains
with loose sand
throughout the profile.

Areas to drift sand, especially as fields of

barchans of 2 to 5 m height, which encroach
upon roads, settlements and agricultural fields;
also areas with very closely spaced nebkhas of
2-5 m height.

Very severe

DATABASE

Satellite FCC image characteristics of wind erosion/deposition features

Wind erosion/deposition feature

Signature on satellite FCC

Sand sheets and fence line hummocks

Uniform whitish or light pale brown colour

Fresh sand deposits on stable sand dunes

Reactivated sand in bright white colour; stable dune

surface In light yellow.

Fresh sand deposits on closely spaced sandy

undulations as sand ridges

Medium white tone. because of cultivation practices.

Barchans

Bright white tone.

main crop grown in that grid square.

3.S Conservation Practice Factor (1)>): In
order to restrict the influence of erosion intensive
rain, the crop management practices are to be
supported by different conservation practkes
through land management and shaping. Although
conservation practices such as contour cultivation.
contour/graded bunding, terracing and field
bunding are adopted on smaller scale and it was
not possible to general ize a single practice for 10
km grid observation. Therefore P factor values and
not taken into account in soil loss estimation.
3.6 indicators of Wind erosion: Integration
of information on geomorphic features in the field
and their spectral signatures on remote sensing
data, known climatic norms, air flow\ pattern and
sand flow pattern under the different geomorphic
situations provides evidence of wind erosion/
depositions. Exposed plant roots. calcretes in sandy
plains, bowl shape of the cultivated fields and high
bounding fence-line sand ridges are the some of
markers of the net erosion, while reactivation and
extension of the stabi Iized sand dunes, formation
of barehans. nebkhas and other smaller sand bodies
like sand streaks provide the evidence of net

deposit ion.
3.7 Field indicators: It has been possible to
identif~ some field indicators of wind erosion and
deposition in the different rainfall zones of the
desert (modified after Singh el al., 1992)
3.8 Satellite image characters: Visual
interpretation of the false colour composites
(FCCs) of satellite imagery, especially the lRS
L1SS II images (36.5 m spatial resolution) of dry
summer months (May-June), and varification of
the interpreted units in field have led to
identification of some typical image characteristics
of wind erosion and deposition. Although these
patterns were recognized in Jalore area (Raina el
al., 1991), chances of their application potentials
in other similar environments are high.
The visual interpretation is, however,
subjective. No two interpreters will, perhaps, agree
to the severity of a degradation class, since valuebased judgement is involved. Therefore, efforts
have also been made to understand the digital
image characteristics of wind erosion/deposition
features. This was tried for the reactivated aeolian
sand categories in the north-eastern fringe of the
desert.

Generation of Soil Erosion Map

The grid information (10 x 10 km) at 1472

locations of Rajasthan generated during Soil
Resource Mapping by NBSS & LUP
(Shyampura and Sehgal, 1995) was compi led
for computations of K, LS, C and P factors.
The location number, latitude, longitude. soil
textural class and other parameters were used
for computing soil erodibi lity (K~factor); land
use (C-factor); conservation practice (Pfactor); length of slope. degree of slope (LSfactor); and erosivity (R factor) values on a
spread sheet for each grid point (Appendix I).
Iso-erodent map of Rajasthan was used to
obtain the R-factor values at each grid point.
The values ofR-factor, K factor, LS factor, Cfactor and P-factor are used for generating the
maps of each factor through GIS (SPANS
Software).
The product of all the parameters of USLE
gave the annual average soil loss in tlha for
each grid point.

10

The latitudes, longitudes and soil loss values

were then used in a GIS (SPANS) software
for generating the erosion map of the State.
The erosion classes as given in Tables 6 and 7
were used considering the range of soil loss
values and soil tolerance limits. Area for each
class was computed.
Tn addition to the soil erosion map of the state,
the following maps thus generated were also
categorized and the area under each class was
computed.
R-factor (Erosivity)
K-factor (Soil erodibility)
LS-factor (Topographic factor)
C factor (Cover and management practice)
Wind erosion/deposition map prepared using
field criteria and satell ite data by Pratap Narain
el al. (2000) was digitized for generating wind
erosion map of the state in a GIS (SPANS)
software.

Rajasthan

Rainfall Erosivity
(R-Factor)
PUNJAB

_/j

--- of GANGANAGAR ,.;"\

.I
~\ . __ ,
I
HANUMANGA~IY"i

/ ,J

PAKISTAN

HARYANA

'\

'

I
/

/ ...-.......
.
\

,_ ,""

B/KANER

,_._..... I

,-"

CHURU

'"

JHUNUNUN/

.J

SlKAR

/
,/

I
J
\

NAGAUR
JA/SALMR

JODHPUR
/

'- '-i
I

PALl

BARMER

'\
"

PAKISTAN

\
. ""' .""-. ....... . -..!' .~ .

GUJARAT

--

LEGEND
(R-Factor)

CJ
c=:I
c::=J

M.P.

200-299
300-399
400-499

REFERENCE

500-599
600-799

800+

State Boundary
-

District Boundary

Rajasthan

Soil Erodibility Factor

PUNJAB

HARYANA
PAKISTAN

U.P.

J.isalmer

PAKISTAN

GUJARAT

LEGEND

0.0-0.10

c::::J 0.10 - 0.20

_

Fig. 7.

0.20 - 0.25
0.25 - 0.30
>0.30

Rajasthan

Slope Gradient Factor

(LS-Factor)
PUNJAB

- __
/"

.- '

'

'-,

I GANGANAGAR
I

_.

HANUMA~GAfil+'"' 'c'.

PAKISTAN

r:"\
~

'"

,,-

"

,,- i

"'.

./

_.""

,_..- . ."., .

"' ' .,.

'I

I
.r

HARYANA
}

CHURU

B/KANER

.,

....)

JHUNUNUN/ ('

." ) .r

-~

(r .....,

)
\ U.P.

'-~

....

NAGAUR
JAISALM:R

' .........- .

DfIt

BHARArPuR
' -;':- ' -7
l DHAt;t.}UR
,/ '

JODHPUR

./

~LI

.,,"

TONK

SAWA1 'tIADHOPUR

PALl

BARMER

BHIlWARA
JAtaR:

PAKISTAN

LEGEND

I 0 .0 - 0.50
I 0.50 - 1.0

'----L -_

GUJARAT

1.0 - 2.0
2.0 - 3.0

REFERENCE
> 3.0

Fig. e

State Boundary
- Oistrir.t Boundary

Rajasthan

Crop Management Factor

(C-Factor)
PUNJAB

...... ..... ."i._ ._ .

!GANGANAGAR

.I

~.

,I

i._.,

HANUMANGAk}1 ' / ' j

/.1

PAKISTAN

......

HARYANA

:~-

I
/

,... ....

"._ . ..... .-._.f .,,'

"

./
,/

"

"

I
JAiSALMER

, .--...

I
J

,.

"".

CHURU

BlKANER

"\~

. .

"

"

,.

NAGAUR

JODHPUR

<,
, ,,,,.

.'

PALl

BARMER

PAKISTAN

LEGEND

0.0 - 0.05

0.05 - 0.10

0.10-0.15

CJ

0.15 - 0.20

0.20-0.25

0.25-0.30

CJ

>0 .30

GUJARAT

REFERENCE
-- -

State Boundary
-

District Boundary

Interpretation

average annual soil loss estimated lIsing

USLE equation (Fig. 10, Tables 5). Different
parameters used for estimating the soil loss are
interpreted in the following sections.
5.1 Erosivity factor (R): The spatial
distribution of erosivity factor (R) ranges from 200
to 800 (fig. 6). It is high in eastern part of Kota
and Bharatpur division (600 to 799). Part of Kota,
Jhalawar and Sirohi district have highest R-value
(>800). The high erosivity in this region could be
attributed to the orographic high intensity rains
received during the south-west monsoon . The
annual rainfall in these areas ranges from 650-950
mm and mostly received during June to September.
While the rain shadow region comprising central
part of Rajasthan receives 450 to 600 mOl rainfall
and has medium R values.
The rainfall gradually increases from west of
the Aravalli towards eastern parts of the state
ranging from 450 to 950 mm. The R-factor in this
region ranged from 200 to 800 (Table I). The
HE

Table 1. Erosivity (R-factor) classes In Rajasthan

Class

Range of
'R'values

Area
(%)

Area
('000 hal

200-299

0.29

99.4

300-399

0.89

305.8

400-499

21.83

7476.5

500-599

2.77

948.4

600-799

13.02

4460.4

800+

0.43

146.7

Ch ittorgarh, Bhilwara, Bundi. Tonk and Jaipur

(Appendix 11) covering an arca of 4.65 M ha
(13.45%). It is attributed to the higher intenslt) of
rainfall through southwest monsoon. In the central
parts of Rajasthan, the erosivity ranged from 400
to 600. The low erosivity in this area explain the
low rainfall under rain shadow conditions. About
8.4 M ha (24.6%) area falls under this class (Table
1).In the west of Jaipur, Alwar and Sirohi districts,
the R values ranged from 200 - 399. The data
indicate that the erosivity class has 0.4 M ha
(1.18%) area of the region.
5.2 Erodibility factol' (K): The erodibility
factor is the intrinsic propert) of the soil. It is
deduced from the soil parameters such as per cent
sand, silt. clay. organic matter, soil structure and
soil pern;eability. The lOx I kill grid porn! (1472)
observations were considered for ca lcu lation of
erodibility factor. The location specitic so il
information of grid points (Shyampura and Sehgal,
1995) was compiled and this information was lIsed
for calculating K values (Wischmeir and Smith,
1978). These K-values at each grid point are used
as input tile to generate erodibi lity map through
GIS under SPANS em ironment (fig. 7). The data
on erodibility (Table 2 and Appendix 1Il) indicates

Table 2. Erodibility classes (K factor) in Rajasthan

K-values

Area
(%)

Area
('000 ha)

<0. 1

3.40

1164.4

01-0.2

9.89

3371.0

0.2-0.25

10.10

3459.7

0.25-0.30

9.30

3182.8

>0.30

6.60

2259.3

Class

district wise rainfall, erosivity values (R) showed

higher erosivity (>600) in Kota, Jhalawar, Sawai
Madhopur, Dholpur, Bharatpur and part of
11

SOIL EROSION IN RAJASTHAN

that the K values in the range of greater than OJ

that shows high erodibility have an area of2.26 M
ha (6.60%). While the K values in the range of 0.1
to 0.3 that show low erodibility have major area of
9.88 M ha (29.29%). About 1.16 M ha (3.40%)
area has very low erodibility 0.1).
5.3 Topographic factor (LS): The
topographic factor is a single parameter computed
through gradient and length of slope at each
location of the grid observation. The LS values are
obtained through an equation suggested by
Wischmeir and Smith (1978). The LS values are
used as input fi Ie for the generation of topographic
factor map under GIS-SPANS environment. The
spatial distribution of LS values in the state are
presented in map (Fig. 8) and the data are given in
Table 3 and Appendix IV.
Table 3. Topographic factor (LS) classes
In Rajasthan
Class

LS values

~0.5

Area
(%)

Area

('000 ha)

22.60

7739.8

0.5-1.0

8 .1 6

2794.0

1.0-2.0

2.98

1018.6

2.03.0

1.94

667.8

>3.0

3.55

1217.0

The data indicate that the LS factor values

ranged from 0.5 to>3.0 in the state. The LS factor
values of>1.0 have an area distribution of 1.9 M
ha (8.47%) in the state. The LS factor values
ranging from 0.5 to 0.1 have a spatial distribution
of 10.49 M ha (30.76%) in the state.

Table 4. Cover and management factor (C)

classes In Rajasthan

Area

Area
(%)

('000 ha)

<O.O?

0.04

13.5

0.05-0.10

0.81

2765

0.10-015

1.45

495.5

0.15-0.20

1.82

624.6

0.20-025

2.70

925.9

0.25-0.30

2.59

887.0

>0.30

29.83

10214.2

Class

C values

5.4 Cover and management factor (C): The

C factor in the state indicates not onl) the land

cover oy the natural vegetation but also the land
use under the crops. It also indicates the status of
the land in an area. For each land use/land cover
C-factors were attributed (Appe!ldix~l) and the
spatial distribution of cover and management factor
in the state is depicted in the Fig. 9. The data for
the state under each class of th is factor are given
in Table 4 while the district wise data on cover
and management factor (C) are presented in
Appendix- V.
The data indicate that among land cover classes
forest and bushy forest/waste land 0.05 to 0.15)
cover an area of 0.78 M ha (2.3%) in the state. It
has a spatial distribution in Sirohi, Udaipur,
Chittorgarh, Rajsamand, Bhilwara, Kota, Jhalawar
and Bundi districts. The crop cover (>O.2) has the
spatial distribution in majority of the area
especially in central and eastern parts of Rajasthan
State. The data indicate (Table 4) that it has an area
of 12.0 M ha (35.12%) in the state.

12

Soil Erosion Status

OIL erosion

refers to a process causing wearing

away of the earth surface by the different
forces like wind, water and ice. The erosion process
can be both constructive and destructive. Erosion
is primaril} responsible for the variations in
topography as it erodes the elevated surface and
simultaneously builds alluvial plains. Jt is
aggravated due to human intervention (indiscriminate felling of trees, l!lining, cultivation of marginal
lands and over grazing).
Qualitatively four soil erosion classes namely
slight, moderate, severe and very severe were
identified in the state (Shyampura and Sehgal,
J995) based on the field studies. As per these
estimates, major area is under moderate (40.2%)
erosion class followed by slight erosion class
(33.6%). The area under severe class is 16.8 per
cent while the area under very severe class is 4.2
per cent.
6.1 Soil Loss through water erosion: The soil
loss through water erosion in the state was
estimated by relevant information on factors lIke
erosivity (R), soi l erodibility (K). topographic
factor (LS), cover and management factor (C) and
conservation practice factor (P).
For estimating the soil loss (tlha/yr) in the state.
the data on the above factors were used in the
universal soil loss equation (USLE). The spatial
distribution of the soi l loss in the state is given in a
soil erosion map (Fig. 10) generated under GISSPANS environment. Accordingly the state is
classified into seven classes of soi! !oss:
Very sl ight 5 tlhalyr),
Slight (5-10 tlhalyr),
Moderate (10-15 tlhalyr),

13

Moderately severe (15 20 tlha/yr).

Severe (20-40 tlha/} r)
Very Severe (40-80 tlha/yr) and
Extremely severe (>80 tlha, yr)
The soil loss under these classes IS presented
in Table 5&7. It indicates that about 4.4 M ha area
(13.06%) is under the "ery slight to slight erosion
class which is mainly covering the central parts of
the state. Moderate, moderately severe and se'vere
classes cover 7.0 M ha (20.34%) area which IS
restricted in eastern and southern parts of the state.
Very severe and extremely severe soil loss classes
are in the hills of Aravallis, eastern RaJasthan
uplands and Malwa plateau region of the state. The
area under these two classes IS 2.0 M ha (5.84%).
The major contributing factor is soil loss in this
region in slope length and slope gradient.
The qual itative classes from the field data and
the estimation of erosion values through USLC
Table 5. Soli Erosion (5011 loss) classes
in eastern Rajasfhan
Class

Range of 5011

Area

loss (Vhalyr)

(%)

('000 hal

Area

Very " light

<5.0

3.92

1341.5

Slight

5.0-10

9.14

31287

Moderate

10.0-15.0

7.59

2600.0

Moderately severe 15.0-20.0

4.61

1578.4

Severe

20.0-40.0

8.14

2786.9

Very Severe

40.0-80.0

3.86

1323.0

Extremely severe

>80.0

1.98

678.6

formula indicate that the quantitative estimations

are providing better assessment of erosion under
s j mi rar cond itions.

SOIL EROSION IN RAJASTHAN

6.2 Soil Loss through Wind erosion: Using

the field criteria and the satellite image
characteristics. Pratap Narain er (1/. (2000) prepared
wind erosion/deposition map of ",,,estern Rajasthan
on I ; 1 million scale (fig. II). The classes mapped
Table 6. Wind erosion/deposition classes in
western Rajasthan
Erosion/deposition
class

Area
(%)

Area
('000 ha)

Very severe

1.73

592.3

Severe

8.81

3016.8

Moderate

21.69

7430.0

Slight

15.31

5242.0

Negligible

13.23

2529.6

are: very severe, sevcre. moderate. sl ight and

negligible. Table 6&8 provide the area statistics
for the different classes. According to it 32.23 per
cent area of the region is under moderate to very
severe catcgories. while the rest 28.54 per cent is
almost free of such hazard.
Broadl}, the extreme western part of Jaisalmer
di strict. bordering Pakistan, is under very severe
class. \\ here large. elliptical fields of high
Illegabarchanoids occur amidst linear dune fields,
and where the wind erosivil) index is greater than
480. Human settlement is almost absent in this
lone. so that the activity can be related to natural
processes only This zone is flanked to the east by
several south\\est to nOrlheast running belts of
severe and moderate erosion/deposition classes that
can be traced roughly up to Sanchor-BalotraJodhpur-Osian-Nagaur-Sikar-Jhunjhunu-NoharSuratgarh line in the east and north. The pattern
almost rep!icates the erosivity pattern in the
southern part, where the erosivity index is of
moderate to severe categories. Large variation
OCCllrs in the northeast, especially in Ratangarh14

Churu-Sikar area where the erosivity index is low,

but high cultivation and grazing pressures on the
highly erodible dune-interdune landscape has
resulted in moderate to severe problems of wind
erosion/deposition. In between the above zones the
sha llow sandy and rocky tracts of BarmerJaisalmer-Ramgarh-Pokaran are dominated by
slight erosion/deposition, because of the paucity
of sediments and hardness of the surface. Roughly
to the east of Bhinmal-Jalor-Pali-Bilara-MertaNagaur the terrain consists mainly of sandy alluvial
plains, with scattered hillocks and rocky pediments.
These areas are without appreciable sand sheet
cover, have lesser wind erosivity and erodibil ity
indices. and hence, have negligible problem of
wind erosion. The deep alluvial plains in the north,
especially along the Ghaggar valley and around
Ganganagar. as well as the hill)' areas of the
Aravallis in the north-ease, especially around
Khetri, Nim ka Thana, Palsana and Nawa, are also
under negligible wind erosion class.
6.3 Working example: To determine the
average soil loss per year from a particular arca,
the values for various components ofUSLE namely
erosivity factor (R), soil erod ibility factor (K),
topographic factor (LS). cover and management
factor (C) and conservation practice factor (P) are
assigned.
From Appendix I, the values of the above
parameters are estimated under the existing
conditions. From these values the annual soil loss
'A' is estimated based on this-equation:
A=
RKLSCP
e.g.: As an example for a grid from the Udaipur
area (45H, Grid no. 22) the values of different
components of the above equations are:
Erosivity factor (R)
:::: 400
Topographic factor (LS)
:::: 0.50
Conservation practice factor (P) :::: 0.3

Rajasthan

Soil Erosion

A
PUNJAB

HARYANA
PAKISTAN

B/KANER

JAISALMER

L}

BARMER

(
\
PAKISTAN

LEGEND (tlha/yr)
_

Very slight 5)
j

GUJARAT

M.P.

Slight (5-10)
Moderate (10-15)
Moderately severe (15-20)

Severe (20-40)

REFERENCE

1Very severe (40-80)

_

Extremely severe (>80)

State Boundary

- District Boundary

Rqjastilan

Wind Erosion

PUNJAB

HARYANA

PAKISTAN

GUJARAT

M.P.
LEGEND
_
Negligible
Slight
_

Moderate
Severe

Very severe
RannlSalt lake

SOIL EROSION STATUS

Table 7. District-wise soli loss In eastern Rajasthan

District

Classes
Very slight

Slight

Moderate

Moderately

Severe

Very severe

severe
<:5.0

5.0-10

10.0-15.0

15.0-20.0

Ext

Total

severe
20.0-400

40.0-80.0

>80.0

Area sq. km and percent

Ajmer

1038
0.30

4303
1.26

1800
053

0.03

553
0.16

379
0.11

28
0.01

8421
2.46

1002
0.29

1949
0.57

0.23

550
0.16

1599
0.47

1430
0.42

519
0.15

7827
2.29

Banswara

68
0.02

547
0.16

885
0.26

769
0.22

1749
0.51

529
0.15

522
0.15

5069
1 48

Bharatpur

325
0.09

1703
0.50

2341
0.68

530
0. 15

146
0.04

22
0.01

2
0.00

5069
1.48

Bhilwara

615
0.18

4007
1.17

2271
0.66

1144
0.33

1904
0.56

531
0.16

0
0.00

10472
3.06

Bundl

2
0.00

109
0.03

802
0.23

1927
0.56

2n3

186
0.05

18
0.01

5817
1.70

1150
0.34

2988
0.87

2180
0.64

1560
0.46

ln2
J .S2

499
0.15

205
0.06

10354
3.02

Dholpur

1
0.00

441
0.13

345
0.10

533
0.16

1441
0.42

247
0.07

0
0.00

3008
0.88

Dungarpur

0
0.00

428
0.12

427
012

210
0.06

671
0.20

963
0.28

1156
0.34

3855
1 13

Jalpur & Dausa

7503
2.19

2922
0.85

802
0.23

408
0.12

1007
0.29

1054
0.31

760
0.22

14456
422

JhaJawar

64
0.02

536
0.16

936
0.27

1087
0.32

2825
0.83

865
025

6
0.00

6320

Kota & Baran

150
0.04

2286
067

4982
1.45

1992
0.58

2394
0.70

243
0.07

157
0.05

12204
3.56

RaJsamand

63
0.02

387
0.11

268
0.08

390
0.11

1575
0.46

1765
0.52

2
0.00

4450
130

Sawsi Madhopur
and Karaull

S84
0.17

2381
0.70

2522
0.74

1058
0.31

1846
0.54

688
0.20

964
0.28

10043
2.93

Sirohl

196
0.06

613
0.18

637
0.19

527
0.15

1636
0.48

1348
0.39

220
0.06

5177
1.51

Tonk

125
0.04

3200
0.93

1946

1213
0.35

632

62
0.02

0
0.00

7178

0.18

525
0.15

2479
0.72

2071
0.60

1562
0.46

3338
0.97

2416
0.71

2226
0.65

14617
4.27

13414.763
3.92

31287
9.14

25999.98
7.59

15784.152
4.61

27869.16
8.14

13230.157
3.86

6786.33118
198

134372
39.24

Alwar

Chlttaurgarh

Udaipur
Total

n8

0.57

320

15

0.81

1.85

2.10

SOIL EROSION IN RAJASTHAN

Table 8. District-wise soil erosion in western Rajasthan

Classes

Districts
Negligible

Slight

Moderate

Total
Severe

Very severe

Area sq. km. and per cent

Barmer

3881
1.13

5774
1.69

11403
3.33

6835
2.00

272
0.08

28165
8.22

Bikaner

459
0.13

7651
2.23

16252
4.75

2912
0.85

0
0.00

27274
7.96

Churu

544
0.16

3446
1.01

10177
2.97

2691
0.79

0
0.00

16858
4.92

Jaisalmer

278
0.08

11850
3.46

10984
3.21

9620
2.81

5649
1.65

38381
11.21

Jalore

4471
1.31

3486
1.02

2606
0.76

0
0.00

0
0.00

10563
3.08

Jhunjhun

1191
0.35

3246
0.95

1461
0.43

17
0.00

0
0.00

5915
1.73

Jodhpur

4480
1.31

5815
1.70

6362
1.86

5900
1.72

0
0.00

22557
6.59

Nagaur

8997
2.63

1142
0.33

6459
1.89

1041
0.30

0
0.00

17639
5.15

Pali

11806
3.45

509
0.15

12

C.OO

0
0.00

0
0.00

12327
3.60

Sikar

2209
0.65

1375
0.40

3013
0.88

1143
0.33

0
0.00

7740
2.26

Sri Ganganagar

6967
2.03

8111
2.37

5549
1.62

0
0.00

0
0.00

20627
6.02

45296
13.23

52420
15.31

74300
21.69

30168
8.81

5923
1.73

208107
60.77

Total

Soil erodibility (K)

=
0.23
Cover and management factor (C)
0.38
Based on the above data, the soil loss (A) is
estimated through the equation
A=
R x K xLxSxCxP

has been done on this aspect and the tolerance limits

were ranging from 4.5 to 11.2 tonnes/halyear. Soi I
loss in excess of 11.2 tonnes/haJyear affect the
effectiveness of water conservation structures. At
this stage. the gully formation starts which in turn
obstructs the cultural operations (Gurmel Singh et
al., 1981).
In Rajasthan as per the soil erosion classes
(Table 5); it is evident that moderate, moderately
severe, severe, very severe and extremely severe
classes covering an area of6.4 M ha (18.46%) have

400 x 0.23 x 0.50 x 0.38 x 0.3

J 7.27 tonnes/halyear
6.4 Soil loss Tolerance: This is a limit which
denotes the maximum level of soil erosion that will
permit crop productivity to be sustained
economically and indefinitely. Considerable work
16

SOIL EROSION STATUS

exceeded this tolerance limitof 11.2 tones/halyear.

sedimentation of reservoirs during subsequent

This leads to a huge amount of nutrient loss in a

years threatening the existence of these irrigation

year. In terms of fertilizer loss this accounts to a

projects. Sedimentation in reservoirs at a rate faster

staggering loss of nutrients in a year. Looking to

than expected is an indicator of soil loss in their

the above data it is evident that there is a need to

catchments. Prioritizations of watersheds for

have conservation planning in the state. Off-site

treatments are to be demarcated according to the

impact of soil erosion/ loss takes place through

problem ofsedimentation.

17

Soil and Water Conservation

IIF severity of erosion

is varied in the different

regions in the state (Fig.12, tables.5&6).
Accordingly the measures for soil and water
conservation planning are suggested in order to
maintain eco-balance in the region.
7.1 Sandy Arid Plain Region: The region is
located between 2507' to 2926' N latitude and
6929' to 7559' E longitude. It covers 1,37,49.747
ha. land comprising 40.15% of the total
geographical area of the state. The region has high
and low dunes that occurs mainly in Banner,
Jaisahner, Bikaner. western part of Jodhpur and
Churu. The low dunes are observed in Jhunjhunu.
Sikar and in remaining part ofChuru. Longitudinal.
transverse and compound parabolic dunes are the
major high dunes. which are very old and have
appreciable vegetation cover (Fig.13). The recent
activation of these high dunes due to excessive use
has led to the formation of low mobile dunes. Most
notable among them is barchans. crescentic shape
dunes at Sam. The other physiographic position is
high le vel rody structural plains between
Pokharan.Jaisall11erand Ramgarh. the isolated hills
of granites, rhyolites, sandstones. limestone and
rocky pavements of Bap. Phalodi. Chandan and
Sankara, sand} plains \\ ith shallo\\ soi Is and saline
depressions. Summer temperatures are always
high. It is as high as 49C during the day and falls
to less than 20C during the night. The day
temperatures arc higher but the night temperatures
may be near freezing point during winters which
are short, not exceeding more than two months
mainly during December and January. The mean
annual rainfall ranges between 200 to 300 mm. The
rainfall received is at its peak during August and

18

second fortnight of September. In general the

monsoon circulation is shallow, limited to about a
kilometer or so and is 0\ er run by dry air from
north, circu lati ng anti cyc Ion icall}. inh ibiting
proper cloud development over the region.
Annual potential evapotranspiration (PET) is
highest (206.32 cm) at Jaisalmer and the lowest
(166.22 cm) at Ganganagar. PET is lowest in
December due to lo\\' temperature but shows a
gradu"l rise from January Gcnerally it is higher
than precipitation even during the rainy months,
making this region arid to extremcl} arid in climate
with perpctual water deficit ill all the months. The
length of gro\\ ing period is smal l ranging between
45 to 60 days.
The soils are commonly occurring on gent ly
to moderately sloping dunes or gently sloping
interdunal plains (Fig.13) as either dominant or
subdominant soi ls. These soils are classified as
T) pic Torripsammcnts (Fig.13). The other less
extensive soils occupying relatively lower
topographic position in the interdunal plains are
classified under T)pic Calciorthids. Typic
Paleorthids and Typic Salorthids. owing to the
presence of diagnostic subsurface characteristics.
Physiographic units, soi ls their potentials and
constraints are described below:
The moderately to steeply sloping dunes
consist of moderately shallow to deep. excessively
drained, slightly to strongly alkaline (pH 7.5 - 9.5)
sandy, Typic Torripsamments with low available
water capacity and severe erosion. Gently sloping
rocky structural plain s between Pokharan.
Jaisalmer and Ramgarh support shallow.
excessivel) drained, 10al11)/sandy skeletal, slightly

.'

, ",

J\

::I

Rajasthan

Soil Loss
(Wind & Water Erosion)

PUNJAB

HARYANA
PAKISTAN

U .P.

GUJARAT
M.P.
Water ErOSion (tlhalyr)
_
Very slight 5)
c:::::J Slight (5-10)
c::J Moderate (10-15)
Moderalely severe (~5-20)
_
Severe (20-40)
_
Very severe (40-80)
_
Extremely severe (>80)

Wind Erosion
c::::J Negligible
c::J Slight
c::J Moderate
_
Severe
_
Very severe

r=:J RannlSalt lake

Fi . 12

Sandy Arid Plain

Parabolic dunes

Transverse dunes

Inter-dunal plain

Soil profile - Typic Torripsamments

Fig. 13

Stabilization of sand dunes

Rain water

harvestin~

Semi Arid Transitional Plain - - - - -- -- -

Low sand dunes

Inter - dunal plains

Aridisol profile

SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION

alkaline Lithic Torriorthents with very low AWC

and severe to very severe erosion. Very gently to
gently sloping interdunal plains consist of
moderately deep to deep, well drained. coarse
loamy to sandy, slightly to moderately alkal ine (pH
7.5 - 8.5) Typic Paleorthids/Calciorthids/
Camborthids and Torripsamments with low
medium AWC. Very gently sloping interdunal
plains are prone to moderate erosion while gently
sloping plain are subjected to moderate to severe
erosion.
7.2 Semi-arid Transitional Plain: The region
is located between 24 58' to 30 11' N latitude and
71 04' to 7523' E longitude extending from the
northern foothills of Aravalli to the sandy arid plain
and is sub divided among three sub regions, namely
LuniJawai plains. Sekhawati tracts of low dunes,
sandy plains and the Ghaggar flood plains. LuniJawai plains occur in the districts of Jodhpur, Pali,
Jalore and Sirohi and in the southern partofNagaur.
The number of ephemerals flowing the area are
responsible for the formation of alluvial plains
through which they flow. It spreads in 69,06,473
ha. land, comprising 20.16% of the total
geographical area of the state. The dominant land
forms are young alluvial plains along the major
stream where the cultivation is more assured
because of ground water, the older plains, the
occasional isolated hills wit. fringi ng pediments
and some dunes with interdunal plains (Fig.14).
The ranns of Pachpadra, Sanwerla and Kaparda
are the important saline depressions. The second
important Sekhawati tract of the region occurs in
JhUl .. lunu, Sikar, Churu and north part ofNagaur.
The zone is infested by sand dunes of low to
medium height (Fig.14), over much of its area, as
well as deep sandy plains. The sand dunes in this
zone support more vegetation than the west because
of high rainfall. The third most important part of
19

the region is Ghaggar flood plains occupied much

of its area in Ganganagar district. The wide dry
valley of Ghaggar is now known to be that of
legendary Saraswati river which originated in
Himalayas. The dry valley passes through
Hanumangarh and Suratgarh before entering into
Pakistan. Low sand dunes and hummocks are the
scatteredly distributed on the deep sandy alluvial
plains in this z.one. Barchans have appeared in some
parts of plain because of deep ploughing of soi ls
without assured supply of canal irrigation.
The climatic conditions are almost the same
as in the western arid region except that the rainfall
which is slightly higher. The annual rainfall ranges
between 300 to 400 111m in Nagaur. Jodhpur, Churu
and Jalore region and more than 400 111111 in Sikar.
Jhunjhunu and Pali region and along the western
fringes of Aravalli range.
Comparatively hi gh rainfall and lower mean
annual potential evapotranspiration (1,600 to 1,700
mm) bring about longer length of growing period.
ranging between 60 to 90 days. Some times length
of growing period exceeds to 90 days. The ground
water level is high in the river basin and in the
area falling in the vicinity of canal. All these factors
toget"~r make the situation morc conducive for
agricu lture as compared to its counterpart western
plain (Marusthali).
The dominant soils art' deep to very deep.
either calcareous or non-calcareous. sandy in nature
occupying gently sloping plains with dotted
hummocks. The soils are classified as Typic
Torripsamments. The sub-dominant soi ls are deep
to very deep, well drained, either calcareous or noncalcareous on nearly level plains, coarse loamy/
fine loamy in nature. These are classified as fine
loamy/coarse loamy, calcareous/non-calcareous,
Typic Camborthids (Fig.14). Some of these soi ls
are classified under Ustochreptic Camborthids and

SOIL EROSION IN RAJASTHAN

Ustic Torripsamments subgroups which have aridic

soil moisture regime that borders to ustic soil
moisture regime. Other inclusions are placed under
Typic Calciorthids. Typic Paleorthids, Typic
Salorthids, depending upon the dominant
subsurface diagnostic horizons. Sub~physiographic
units, soils their potentials and constraints are given
below.
Very gently to gently sloping Ghaggar plain
endowed with low dunes and scattered hummocks
have deep to very deep, well to excessively drained
coarse loamy to fine loamy, moderately to strongly
alkal ine (pH 8.S - 9.5), Ustochreptic Camborthids,
Typic Camborthids and Typic Calciorthids with
moderate to severe erosion. Nearly level flood plain
consists of very deep, well drained, coarselfine
loamy and fine at places slightly to moderately
alkaline Typic Camborthids, Ustochreptic
Camborthids and Typic Torrifluvents with slight
to moderate erosion. Gently sloping Luni basin
support moderately deep to deep, well drained to
excessively drained, coarse loamy to sandy, neutral
to strongly alkaline (pH 7.5 - 9 .5), Typic
Camborthids, Typic Torripsamments with medium
to low AWC and severe erosion. Soils are shallow,
skeletal. Lithic Torriorthents and Lithic
Calciorthids at the foot hills of the Aravalli with
severe erosion and moderate to strong stoniness.
Very gently sloping Luni plains consist of deep,
well drained, coarse loamy to sandy, slightly
alkaline to moderately alkaline, Typic
Camborthids/Calciorthids and Typic Torripsamments with moderate erosion. At places soils
are fine loamy to tine, deep with slight erosion.
Gently sloping plains of interior drainage
(Shekhawati tract) is endowed with very shallow
to moderately shallow, skeletal, moderately to
strongly alkaline (pH 8.S -9.S) Lithic Torriorthents
with severe to very severe erosion. Very gently

20

sloping dunal plains of Shekhawati region have

moderately shallow to moderately deep, well
drained coarse loamy to fine loamy, neutral to
slightly alkaline Typic Paleorthids/Camborthids
and Calciorthids with medium AWC and moderate
erosion.
7.2.1 Soil and water conservation in Western
Plain: Terrain characteristics, rainfall and wind
velocity are the major causes of wind erosion in
the Western Rajasthan. The terrain is dominated
by sandy landforms consisting of sandy plain ,
sandy undulating plain, sand dunes and interdunal
plains. Wind erosion in the Western Rajasthan is
severe in summer months when south westerly
winds blow at high speed. Soil and water
conservation measures that can be followed are
described below.

Stubble lIlulchfarming; Crop residue like

stubbles, of 30-45 cm height, should be
left over in agricultural land for checking

the movement of sand and nutrients

associated with it. Long small grain
stubbles have been found more effective
than equal quantities of short stubbles.

Strip cropping: Alternate plantation of

erosion susceptible and erosion resistant

crops against t11e prevailing wind direction

should be followed to reduce the impact
of wind velocity. Perennial grasses such
as Lasiurus sindicus. Ricinus communis,
Cenchrus biflorus and Panicul11 lurgidom
should be planted as protective barriers.

Rocky/stony and other degraded

pasturelands could be rehabilitated by
following an integrated approach of raising
pastures and silvi-pasture systems. This is
possible through in-situ or ex~silu water
harvesting, profile modifications and reseeding technology. Acacia (ortilis,

SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION

Prosopisjulijlora, Acacia Senegal, Grewia

lena).', A noge is us rOlundifolia etc. have

been successfully established through

water harvesting techniques.
The technology for sand dune stabi Iization
(Fig.lS) has been perfected. This includes
protection of areas by fencing, erection of
micro-wind breaks, tree planting and
seeding of grasses or planting of grass
strips. Most suitable tree and grass species
identified for this purpose are: Calligonllm
polygonoides, Colophospermum I/lopane,
Acacia tortlis, Acacia nubica and Prosopis
juliflora and grasses namely Lasiurus
sindicus, Cenchrus ciliaris and creeper
Citrullus colosynlhis.

Wind break and shelterbelt plantation

reduces wind velocity by 20 to 46 per cent
on the leeward side of shelterbelt at 2 H
and 10 H (H: height of shelter belt)
distance. A number of trees including
AzardichatCl indica and Eucalyplus spp
have been identi fed for this purpose.
Design of improved tanks (underground
cistern) that stores harvested rain water
(Fig. IS) to meet drinking water demand
in less than 200 mm rainfall zone has been
developed. For rational lise ofscarce water
resources, techniques of drip and sprinkler
systems of irrigation have been
standardized.

7.3 Aravalli Landscape: The region is located

between 2337' to 2824' N latitude and 7220' to
7719' E longitude. It extends in 47,06,772 hectare
area, comprising 13.74% area of the state. Aravall i
hills are the most imponant feature, extending from
Sirohi, Udaipur and Dungarpur districts in the
south west to Jaipur aJld Alwar in the north east.
These range form a labyrinth of low hills In
21

Udaipur. Dungarpur and Banswara and stretch

north eastward in the form of undulating hill s
through parts of Ajmer. Tonk, Sawai Madhopur,
Jaipur and Alwar. Quartzite is being a very resistant
rock forms most of the hills in nOJ1hern and central
parts. Granite forms the high hills in south near
Abu.
Annual rainfall varies from SOO to 600 mm
with an increasing trend towards the east. Summer
and winter temperatures are nor as extreme as in
the arid west but the temperature may reach around
4SoC during summer and minimum temperature
is recorded 8C during winter. The water table
varies from 15 to 25 meters but the annual
fluctuation is high, especially in the year of
monsoon failure when replenishments arc low.
Surface water sources are scarce. High rainfall and
comparatively low evapotraspiration (I ,SOO to
1,600 mOl) result in longer length of growing
period, ranging betw('p'l 90 to 120 days.
The landscape is mainly comprised of the
following physiographic units viz pediments, hills.
intervening basins, plains (Fig.16). A significant
portion of the physiography is occupied by rock
outcrops while the pediment and plains are having
very deep to deep, with intermittent. moderately
shallow to moderately deep, either calcareous or
nOllcalcareous, fille loamy/coarse loamy soi ls
occurring in association as dominant and
subdominant soi l families. Generalized soil scape
characteristics their potentials and constraints are
described below.
Moderately to steeply s loping hilly terrain
(Fig.16) predominantly occupied by rock outcrops
associated with very shallow to shallow,
excessively drained loamy-skeletal/loamy, slightly
acidic ~pH 5.S - 6.5) to neutral (pH 6.5 - 7.S) Lithic
Ustorthents and Lithic Ustochrepts with low AWe,
moderate to strong stoniness and severe erosion

SOIL EROSION IN RAJASTHAN

(Fig.16). Very gently to gently slopi ng intervening

valley/basins (Fig.16) are covered with moderately
shallow to deep, moderately well to well drained,
moderately coarse loamy to fine loamy, neutral (pH
6.5 -7.5) to slightly alkaline (pH 7.5 - 8.5) Typic
Ustochrepts/ Ustorthentsl Ustipsamments.They are
prone to secondary salinization and restricted
drainage condition. Very gently to gently sloping
pediment (Fig.16) consists of moderately sha llow
to moderately deep, well drained fine loamy to
coarse loamy, neutral (pH 6.5 - 7.5) to slightly to
moderately alkaline (pH 7.5 - 8.5), Typic
Ustochrepts/ Haplustalfs (Fig.16), Ustorthents and
Aridic Ustochrepts with medium Awe, moderate
to severe erosion and slight to moderate stoniness.
Gently sloping Aravalli plain with hillocks have
moderately shallow to moderately deep, well
drained, coarse loamy to fine loamy sl ightly
alkaline Typic Ustorthents, Typic Ustochrepts and
Typic Haplustalfs with ,nedium AWe and
moderate erosion whereas very gently to gently
sloping Aravall i plain have moderately deep to
deep, well drained fine loamy soiIs. They are prone
to slight to moderate erosion, medium to high AWe
and secondary salinization.
7.3.1 Soil and Water conservation Planning~
This landscape is mainly comprised of hills,
pediments, intervening basin/vallies and plains.
Nearly 40% area of this physiography is occupied
by hilly terrain which are mostly rocky, barren and
sparsely vegetated followed by pediments covering
about 16 per cent area plains and intervenin g
valley/basins. Erosion is moderate to severe in hills
and pediments whereas plains and basins are slight
to moderately eroded. The soil and water
conservation measures that are to be considered in
this region are as under:
The plantation surfaces can be covered
with horticultural crops or agro forestry

22

~nd

si Ivi pastoral systems.

The steeply sloping hills with narrow
valleys could be rejuvenated with forest
vegetation through aerial broad casting of
seeds of resistant forest species.
Stone bunding on moderately sloping
shallow soils area.
In situ water conservation in plateau
through small ponds.
Initiating watershed approach to conserve
runoff water in small tanks at the lower
reaches.
Bench-terracing in the areas, with suitable
waste weirs to conserve soi l and water.
Plugging of stream courses with rock,
gabion structures or concrete masonry
weirs.
Restricting the deforestation in these areas
and also human-induced degradation.
Protection of already existing lakes.
Development of roads on Iy to serve
villages and restriction to motor vehicular
traffic in the rest of the area.
Restriction of the urban encruachment.
Developing the summer resort for tourism
thus restricting the encroachments by rich
people.

Preventing of transfer of land from

agricultural to non-agricultural purposes
through promulgation of policies.
7.4 Eastern Rajasthan upland: The region
is located between 2445' to 2750' N latitude and
7338' to 78 17' E longitude. It extends in
52,42,314 ha area comprising 15.31 % area of the
state. Eastern Rajasthan upland covers most part
of A I""ar, Bharatpur, Jaipur, Dholpur, Tonk, Sawai
Madhopur, Bundi and Kota districts. The entire
plain has been divided into two sub region (a) flood
prone eastern plains (b) sub humid southern plains

Aravalli Landscape

Hilly terrain with narrow valley

Severely eroded burried pediment

Aravalli plains

Inceptisols profile (Typic Ustochrepots)

Entisols profile(Lithic Ustorthents)

Eastern Rajasthan Upland

Gently to moderately sloping plain

with monadnocks

Gently sloping plain

Very gently sloping p lain

Flood plain

Severely eroded land

Fig . 17

Eastern Rajasthan - Dominant soils

Moderately deep Inceptsols

(Typic Ustochrepts)

Inceptsols (Vertic Ustochrepts)

Fig. 18

Pathar and Bundelkhand Upland

Rocky plateau

Vindhyan scarpland

Alluvial plain

Inceptisols (Typic Ustochrepts)

Vertisols (Typic Chromusterts)

Malwa Plateau

Vertisol profile (Typic Chromusterts)

Fig. 20

Eastern Rajasthan - Soil and Water Conservation

Bunding

Gully plugging with rocks/stone

Gully plugging with rocks/stone

In-situ water conservation

Bio-Engineering

Engineering measures

Fig. 21 1

SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION

and the Aravalli hills.

(a) Flood prone eastern plains: The region
comprises of the districts of Alwar, Bharatpur,
Dholpur and the northern part ofSawai Madhopur.
The entire region is flood plain of Banganga and
the river Ghambiri. The region has rich alluvial
soils, the fertility of which is replenished every
year. In the periods of heavy rainfall the rivers
outflow their banks and inundate the surrounding
village. The major land forms are young and old
alluvial plains (Fig.17).
(b) Sub humid southern plains and Aravalli
hills: Bhilwara and Udaipur districts mainly
constitute the region. The region is oflow aravalli
hills with the inter mountain plateau, deeply
dissected plains. There are number of surface water
streams like Ghambiri. Sabarmati, Banas and its
tributaries but they are all ephemeral. The surface
rocks are granitic and highly metamorphosed. The
pediments, gently sloping plains and hills are the
major landforms (Fig.17).
Climatically the area is similar to the plains of
Aravalli but the rainfall is relatively higher in the
east, the annual rainfall ranges between 700 to 800
mm. The mean annual water surplus is 50 to 100
mm in the eastern margin while the western margin
experiences moisture deficit round the year.
Agro-climatic situation is comparatively better
than Aravalli region owing to higher rainfall and
better surface and ground water potential. A
network of canals drawn from the upper Yamuna
canals and the Panchana dam irrigate the area.
classified as flood prone eastern plain. The ground
water acquifer vary from 5 to 15 meters and
therefore well water is also in practice for irrigation.
Length of growing period varies from 120 to
150 days. The growing period starts in the second
fortnight of June when rainfall exceeds from 0.5
PET and terminates during second fortnight of

23

October. General ised soi I scape characteristics their

potentials and constraints are given below:
Very gently to gently sloping land with
monadnocks have moderately deep to deep well
drained, fine loamy to fine, neutral (pH 6.5 - 7.5)
to slightly alkaline (pH 7.5 - 8.5) with medium to
high AWe, slight to moderate erosion and
moderate to severe alkalinity and salinity. These
are classified as Typic Ustochrepts (Fig.18). Vertic
Ustochrepts (Fig. I 8), Aridic Ustochretps and Typic
Chromusterts. Moderately shallow coarse loamy
soils with moderate erosion are also found in
pockets.Gently sloping river valley covers deep to
very deep, moderately well to well drained coarse
loamy to fine loamy. moderately to strongly
alkaline (pH 8.5 - 9.5) Typic Ustochrepts.
Fluventic Ustochrepts with medium AWC,
moderate to severe erosion. These are prone to
occasional flooding and moderate to severe salinity.
Moderately to steeply sloping di ssected hills and
ridges consist !:ignificant area under rock outcrops
in association with extremely shallow to shallow,
loamy skeletal Lithic Ustorthellts with severe
erosion and strong stoniness. Gently sloping
foots lopes are endowed with moderately shallow
to moderately deep, well drained coarselfine loamy
Typic Ustochrepts and Typic Haplustalfs with
moderate erosion and stoniness. Nearly level lake
margins comprises deep to very deep, poorly to
imperfectly drained, coarse loamy and sandy Typic
Salorthids with severe salinity and sodicity. Gently
sloping aeofluvial plain consists of very deep
excessively drained sandy Ustic Torripsamments,
Typic Ustifluvents and Typic Ustipsamments with
low AWe and moderate erosion. Soils on very
gently sloping plains are deep to very deep, well
drained coarse loamy to fine loamy with slight to
moderate erosion and moderate alkalinity and
salinity. Gently to moderately sloping pediments

SOIL EROSION IN RAJASTHAN

is covered with very shallow to shallow,

excessively drained, loamy-skeletal Lithic
Ustorthellts with severe erosion, low AWC and
moderate stoniness (Fig.17). Very gently to gently
sloping pediments comprises moderately shallow
to deep, well drained, coarse/fine loamy, Typic
Ustochrepts, Typic Ustorthents with medium AWC
and moderate to severe erosion.
7.4.1 Soil and Water conservation Planning:
The rainfall increases from western to eastern parts
ofthe region. The physiographic units in this region
consist of dissected hills and ridges isolated
hillocks and pediments, gently to moderately
sloping land with hillocks, river valley, aeofluvial
plain and margins of salt lake. Cultivation of
marginal areas and faulty management practices
induce the soi l erosion and surface runoff of rain
water. In order to restrict the soil erosion and
surface runoff in these areas the following soil and
water conservation measures are suggested.
Contour trenching and planting forest
species in the inter trench areas of nonarable lands of spurs, isolated hill tops and
pediments.
Drought tolerant horticu ltural crops like
ber, custard apple and amla could also be
planted.
Construction of masonry/concrete or
gabion structures to check gully erosion
in waste lands.
To check surface runoff and sheet erosion
contour bunding/graded bunding, with
land smoothing (harrowing) in the inter
bund area, bund stabilization by grasses
(Fig.21).

Construction of farm ponds to have

supplemental irrigation.
Watershed based approach to conserve soil
and water resources in the area.

24

Deep ploughing before the onset of

monsoon to restrict the runoff during initial
rains.
7.5 Pathar and Bundelkhand Upland: The
region is located between 2429' to 27 13' N
latituue and 7429' to 78 13' E longitude. It is
extended in 24,64,485 ha comprising 7.19% of the
total geographical area of the state. The region is
popularly known as Hadauti plateau, this includes
the districts Kota, Baran, Bundi and Jhalawar and
two tehsil of Sawai Madhopur. 1t has low hills of
Gwaliar series, interspersed with broad plateaux
of vindhyan rock. Large number of rivers drain
the area. Chambal is the main river along with main
tributaries like Parvati. Kalisindh. Parwan and
Banas. Physically the region is divided into two
defined units, namely Vindhyan scarp land and
Bundelkhand alluvial plains.
The region has warm summers but mild
winters. Summer temperatures sometimes touches
45C. The relative humidity is generally high in
this zone. The annual rainfall varies from 700 to
900 mm .
Mean annual water surplus is 100 to 200 mm
and potential evapotranspiration ranges between
1500 to 1600 mm. The length of growing period
varies from 120 to 160 days in Bundelkhand
alluvial plains while it is shorten by few days in
Vindyan scarpland due to low AWC . Generalized
soil scape characteristics are described below:
A significant area of this physiography is
characterized by steeply sloping escarpments,
residudl hillocks and gently sloping rocky plateau
(Fig . 19), which are rocky and barren in
combination with very shallow to shallow,
somewhat excessively drained. loamy skeletal,
neutral to slightly alkaline Lithic Ustorthents with
very severe erosion and strong stonilless. However,
shallow to moderately shallow, loamy skeletal to

SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION

fine loamy either calcareous or non calcareous are

the dominant soils on gently sloping hills and very
gently sloping plateau (Fig.19). These soils are
classified as Typic Ustorthents and Typic
Ustochrepts.Gently sloping undulating plateau
consists of moderateJy shallow, well drained, fine
loamy to fine, neutral to slightly alkaline Typic
Ustochrepts and Typic Chromusterts with medium
AWC and moderate erosion. Very gently sloping
plateau is represented by deep, moderately well to
well drained, coarse loamy to fine loamy Typic
Ustochrepts with medium to high AWC and slight
to moderate erosion. Very gently to gently sloping
intervening basin is covered by moderately shallow
to deep, moderately well drained to well drained,
fine loamy to fine slightly alkaline Typic
Ustochrepts and Vertic Ustochrepts with slight to
moderate erosion medium to high AWC and slight
stoniness. Gently sloping pediment surface is
represented by very shallow to shallow, somewhat
excessively drained, loamy and loamy skeletal
neutral to slightly alkaline Lithic Ustorthent and
Lithic Ustochrepts with severe to very severe
erosion and moderate stoniness. Very gently
sloping pediments are dominated by moderately
shallow to deep, well drained, coarse loamy to fine
loamy, slightly alkaline Typic Ustochrepts with
slight to moderate erosion. Gently to moderately
sloping ravinous plains are endowed with deep to
very deep, well drained, highly calcareous, coarse
loamy to fine loamy, 51 ightly to moderately alkaline
Typic Ustochrepts and Fluventic Ustochrepts with
medium AWC, severe erosion and severe
dissection due to deep gullies. Very deep to deep,
dark grayish brown to very dark grayish brown,
well drained, calcareous, fine soils with weakly
expressed slickenslides on nearly level plains
constitute the dominant soilscape and are classified
as Typic Chromusterts and Vertic Ustochrepts

25

(Fig.19). These soi Is occur in association with deep

to very deep, calcareous fine loamy soils which
are placed under Typic Ustochrepts.
7.5.1 Soil and Water Conservation
Planning: Broadly this physiographic unit can be
divided into moderately to steeply sloping
scarpland, residual hillocks, rocky plateau,
pediments, intervening basins, Bundelkhand
alluvial plains with or without ravines. The
management and mechanical soil and water
conservation practices envisaged (Fig.21) for this
region are:
Graded hum/: For in situ conservation of
rainfall and to minimize erosion hazards
on gently sloping (3-5%) arable lands,
graded bunds of 1 sq. m cross section with
0.5 to I m vertical interval having grade
0.2 to 0.3% have been found suitable for
the region.
Gully cOlltro/ structure: Gully control
structures are provided to reduce the
erosive velocity of runoff, to facilitate
establishment of vegetation or to provide
protection at points that can not be
adequately protected by other ways. If the
amount of runoff is not excessive
temporary structures are useful and cost
effective. Loose boulder and brush wood
check dams perform satisfactorily in
subsidiary gullies which do not carry much
runoff. Loose bou Ider check dams are
suitable for main gullies as it help in silt
deposition which facilitate stabilization of
gully beds. Permanent gully control
structures are constructed to control the
over fall at the head of large gu Ily, to drop
the discharge from a grassed waterway and
to take up the fall at various points in the
gully bed.

SOIL EROSION IN RAJASTHAN

contributing to receiving catchments was

recommended for the region to minimize

grasses.

Medium and deep ravines reclamation:

Closure of ravinous area against biotic
interferences.

on rainfed arable lands.

For regulated entry of runoff into

Across the slope tillage operations ami

seeding: Tillage operations and planting

ravine lands, marginal bund of2. 7 sq.

m cross section (bottom width, 5m;

should be performed on contour or across

top width, I m; height, 0.9 m and side

the general slope of the field to provide

slope I : 2) with 0.1 to 0.2% grade

series of mini barriers for surface flow.

should be constructed at the periphery

Use of vegetative barriers of Vetiveria

of agriculture land to demarcate the

zezdnioides. Sacchrum munja, Cenchrus

agricultural table land and the ravines.

ciliaris and Dichanthium annu/atun1 at

horizontal spacing of II m on gently
s loping land.

The bund should be constructed at a

gully heads.

Contour furrows (0.02 sq. m) should be

Provision of spillway: Runoff so

opened at 5-7 m horizontal spacing just

diverted should be safely disposed off'

after seeding of rainfed crops to reduce

into the ravines through masonry

runoff' and soi I loss.

spillways construction on active gully

Deep tillage (15-20 cm) has shown greater

heads carrying large volume of runoff.

distance of twice the depth of active

higher yield of rainfed crops.

terrace risers may be stabi I ized with

erosion hazards and maximize production

absorption of rain water in the profile and

terraces for agriculture. Check dams and

Cf)/U'ervation bellc" terrace: For in-situ

utilization of rainfall, conservation bench
terrace (CST) systems with I : 2 ratios of

Stabilization of steep ravine heads!

side slopes: For stabilizing gu lly heads

Cropping system: Single cropping during

kharifor rabi is a prevalent practice in the

treatment is sufficient to establish a

region . On the basis of annual rainfall and

good cover. Dichanthium annulatum

its distribution anri moisture holding

was found very suitable for sodding

capacity of the soil the region, however,

the eased slopes. This type of work is

is best suited for intercropping systems.

expensive, and is recommended where

Sorghum + pigeonpea (1 : I), Pigeonpea

protection of costly construction like

+ blackgram (I : 2), Castor + greengram

(I : 2), Soybean + pigeon pea (4 : 1) and
Chickpea + linseed (2 : I) are some of the

roads, buildings etc. is required . The

stabilization of gully heads can also

promising intercropping systems.

protected against grazing. In that case

Shallow ravine reclamation: Shallow

ravines should be reclaimed by putting
earthen embankment/check dams and
leveling of irregular side slopes into bench

the heads develop a natural angle of

and side slopes I : 1 slope-easing

be achieved slowly if the area is

repose in due course of time.

Stabilization of gully beds: Check

dams flatten out the gully bed slopes,

26

SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION

which would help to minimize the

intrusions of black volcanic rocks into the

scour and erosion during peak flow.

vindh:'ans extends to a great part in Jhala'''ar. Baran

Loose boulder check dams at vertical

and KOla. It also extends into the southern parts of

interval of 0.9 m has been found cost

Chittaurgarh and Banswara districts. The plateau

effective and satisfactory in gully beds

has an altitude of 500 m above MSL and is dotted

carrying comparatively larger volume

with isolated low range of hills at places. The

of runoff. Live hedge check dams of

plateau in Rajasthan occurs in the upper catchment

Ipomoea carnea, Agave Americana.

Arundo /onax and Vitex negllndo have
been found successful in subsidiary
gully beds carrying less runoff.

of Chambal river to south east of Mewar plains.

Plall/ations: Vegetative treatment not

only stops ravine ingress into

located between 2332' to 2506' N latitude and

Chambal and its right bank tributaries like

Kalisindh, Parwan and Parvati. The region is

tablelands but also stabilize the ravines

74 18' to 7707' E longitude. It extends in

10,57,000 ha area comprising 3.08% area of the

for productive use like fuel and fodder

state.

production. Following tree and grass

The region receives maximum rainfall of the

species are suitable for ravine control.

state, 1,020 mm in lhalawar and 920 mm in

Prosopis juliflora. Balanites

aegypliaca. and Acacia torti/is (Hump
and side slope of ravines); Acacia
ni/otica (side slope); Dendrocalamus
strictliS (ravine beds); Eucalyptus

Banswara plain. In most of the places the highest

Normally the rainy days range between 40 to 45

lerelicornis (ravine beds near river):

lower in comparison to other parts of Rajasthan.

Prosopis ju/iflora and Tamrix dioica

(saline ravine beds); Dichanthium
annulalum and Cenchrus ciliaris
(ravine hump, side slope and bed) and
Brachiaria mulica (for saline and
waterlogged beds).

Length of growing period is slightly longer and

normally monthly rainfall is during July to August.

days in full season.
Potential evapotranspiration is comparatively

almost comparable to bundelkhand alluvial plains.

Mean annual water surplus is around 200 mm or
more, comparatively higher than the other region
of Rajasthan.
Tr.e soil scape comprising moderately deep to

Watershed based approach to harvest

deep, dark grayish brown, moderately well drained,

available water through percolation

calcareous, tine soils with prominent expression

tanks. This will increase water table

of s li ckenslides are classified as Fine, Typic

in the surrounding areas.

The greater part of the area is drained by river

the

non-arable

Chromusterts, occurring on nearly level plains

of

(Fig.20). The subdominant soils are of the similar

escarpments, pediments and hill side

nature except differing in the expression of

slopes the silvi-pastoral and agro

slickenslides and wedge shaped aggregates

horticultural crops will restrict the soil

consequently placed under tine, Vertic Ustochrepts

erosIOn.

soil family. These soi ls are slightly eroded and

In

lands

7.6 Malwa Plateau: The Malwa having

prone to secondary salinization. A significant area

27

SOIL EROSION IN RAJASTHAN

is occupied by hills with escarpments and plateau,

usually rocky with interspersed veneer of loamy

resistant horticultural crops.

Contol,1r trenching and staggered trenching

skeletal soils which are shallow to very shallow,

to conserve soil and water in these non-

well drained Lithic Ustorthents with severe erosion

arab Ie areas.

and moderate to strong ston iness. However, gently

sloping plateau is covered with moderately shallow,

well drained, fine loamy to fine Typic Ustorthents,

areas.

Restricting the cultivation of marginal

areas in the region.

TypicNertic Ustochrepts and Typic Chromusterts

with medium AWC and moderate erosional

Nala bunding and gully control in these

In the cultivated areas graded bunding with

hazards.

grassed waterways to drain the excess

7.6.1 Soil and Water Conservation

Planning: Physiographically this region can be

water.

divided into hilly terrain, isolated hillocks with

Land smoothing between the bunded

areas.

pediments, plateau, mesa & butes and plains. The

Farm ponds at convenient places.

deforestation and encroachment of marginal areas

Vegetative bunds.
Gully stabilization structures like check
dams and gabion structures.

Management practices like Broad bed

for cultivation are the major soil erosion problems

in the hilly non-arable areas of this region. In the
arable lands soil conservation and drainage are the

furrow and raised and sunken beds.

two problems in this region. The soil and water

conservation practices that could be followed in

area.

this region are as under.

Agro-horticultural systems to cover the

The hilly terrain, butes, mesa cou Id be

covered with forest vegetation or drought

Watershed based approach to conserve

both soil and water resources.

28

References
Bhuibhar, B.W., Dalvi, V.D. and Gore, K.P. (J989).

Narain, P., Ram Babu, Rama Mohan Rao, M.S.,

Distribution of erosion index and isoerodent

Sehgal, J., Batta, R.K., Sarkar, D. and Thampi,

map ofVidarbha.Indian J. Soil Cons. 17(3):

C.J. (1993). Soi I erosion map of West Bengal.

Indian J. Soil Cons. 21(2): 6-10.

31-38.
Bonde, W.C., Patel, A.P. and Shanna, A.K. (1982).

Nema, J.P., Verma, B. and Patel, A.P. (1978).

Runoff, soil loss and nutrients losses in

Predicting some universal soil loss parameters.

different land use patterns in the ravine lands

Indian J. Soil Cons. 6(2): 75-79.

of Gujarat. Indian J. Soil Cons. 10(2-3): 110-

Pratap Narain, Amal Kar, Balak Ram, Joshi. D.C ..

Singh. R.S. (2000). Wind erosion in Western

J 16.

Rajasthan, CAZRI, Jodhpur.

Challa,O., Kurothe, R.S. and Gajbhiye K.S. (200 I).

Raghunath, B., Khullar, A.K. and Thomas, P.K.

Soil erosion in Maharashtra. NBSS Publ. No.

(1982). Rainfall energy map of India. Indian

82, NBSS&LUP, Nagpur India.

J. Soil Cons. 10(2): 1-17.

Challa,O., Gajbhiye, K.S. and Velayutham, M.

(1999). Soi l Series of Maharashtra, NBSS

Sharma, A.K., Pradhan, I.P., Neema, J.P. and

Tejwani. K.G. (1981).25 years research in soil

Publ. 79, NBSS&LUP, Nagpur, 428 p.

Challa, 0., Kurothe, R.S., Velayutham, M., Samra,

and water conservation in ravine lands of

J.A., Gajbhiye, K.S. and C. Mandai (2000).

Gujarat. Monograph No.2, Central Soil and

Study of land resources for assessing soi l

Water conservation Research & Training

erosion and planning in Konkarn region of

Institute, Research Centre, Vasad.

Maharashtra. India. Presented in Int.

Shyampura, R.L. and Sehgal J.L. (1995) soils of

Conference on ICLRM held at New Delhi

Rajasthan for optimizing land use. NBSS publ.

during Nov. 9-13. 2000.

No. 51, NBSS&LUP, Nagpur.

Gunnel Singh, Ram Babu, Chandra, S. (J981). Soil

Singh, G., Ram Babu and Chandra. S. ( 1981 ). Soi I

loss research in India. Bull. No. T-12/0-9

loss prediction research in Indian. Bull. No.

CSWCRTI, Dehradun pp 70.

T-12/D-9, CSWCRT1, Dehradun.

Kurothe. R.S., (1991-92). Detennination of'C' and

Singh, G., Sastry. G. and Bhardwaj, S.P. (190).

'P' factors of the USLE for important crops

Watershed response to conservation measures

and management practices in Vasad region.

under different agro-climatic regions of India.

Annual Report, Central Soil and Water

indian J. Soil Cons. 18(3): 16-22.

Taley, S.M. and Dalvi, V.B. (J991). Rainfall

Conservation Research & Training Institute,

erosivity in Vidarbha region of Maharashtra.

Dehradun, p. 100-10 I.

Indian J. Soil Cons. 10(3): 49-55.

Kurothe, R.S. (!993). Iso-erodent map ofGujarat.

Velayutham, M., Mandai, O.K., Mandai, C. and

Indian J. Soi l Cons. 21(1):1-6.

Sehgal, J. (J 999). Agroecological subregions

Kurothe, R.S. (1997). Soil erosion map ofGuajrat.

ofIndian for development and planning. NBSS

Indian J. Soil Cons. 2S( I): 9-13.

29

SOIL EROSION IN RAJASTHAN

Pub!. 35, 452p .. NBSS&LUP, Nagpur, India.

Verma, B Tajwani, K.G., Kale, M.V. and Patel,
A.P. (1968). Evaluation of different cropping
patterns for runoff and soil loss in the ravine
lands ofcentral Gujarat. Il1dian J Agrol1 13(4):
262-270.
Wischmeicr, W.H. and Smith, D.O. (1978).
Predicting rainfall erosion loss - A guide for
conservation planning. Agr. Ilandbook No.
527, USDA, Washington, D.C.
Raina, P., Joshi, D.C. and Kolarkar, A.S. (1991).
Land degradation mapping by remote sensing
in the arid region of India. Soil usc and
management 7: 47-52.

30

Skidmore. E.L. and Williams. l .R. Modified EPIC

Wind erosion model In . Modeling Plant and
Soil systems, Madison WI : ASA-CSSA-SSSA
Agronomy Monograph no. 3 I. 1991.
SIOgh. S., Kar. A., Joshi. D.C., Ram, 8., Kumar,
S., Vats, P.C., Singh, N .. Raina, P.. Kolurkar.
A.S. and Dhir,R P. (1992). Desert ification
mapping in western Rajasthan Annal" of Arid
Zone, 31 : 237-246.
USDA (1978) Predicting rainfall erosion 10sses"A
guide to conservation planning" Agri I.
Handbook 282, Science and Education
Administration. USDA.

Appendices
APPENDIX -I
Sample of data used for estimation 01 soil loss in Rajasthan
Topo
no.

Grid
no.

Latitude

Longitude Texture

Sand Silt+Vfs: Organic Structure Permeabl- K factor

M (%)
(%)
(%)
code
lity code

45L

G40

24:43:00

74:53:00

7.80

41 .60

1.03

27.771

45l

G42

24:38:00

74:05:00

cf

9.90

61.70

0.96

41.408

45L

G43

24:40:00

74:14:00

cl

9.70

60.90

0.50

41.751

45L

G44

24:37:00

74:18:00

51

35.20

45.20

1.15

26.086

45l

G45

24:40:00

74:22:00

cl

13.60

54.70

1.96

33.165

45L

G46

24:38:00

74:30:00

sci

29.00

50.20

0.72

30.046

45L

G47

24:38:00

74:38:00

gscl

70.10

18.50

1.93

9.774

45L

G48

24:38:00

74:44:00

cl

25.60

45.60

1.15

31.190

45L

GS

24:00:00

74:22:00

22.50

37.20

1.53

28.360

45L

G51

24:26:00

74:01:00

sci

13.00

65.00

0.76

39.520

4SL

GS2

24:32:00

74:05:00

sci

7.00

70.10

0.33

44.134

45L

GS3

24:32:00

74:14:00

sci

31 .10

42.10

0.93

22.062

45L

G54

24:33:00

74:22:00

22.70

32.10

1.98

24.539

45L

G55

24:33:00

74:24:00

cl

26.40

39.50

2.72

23.509

45L

G56

24:33:00

74:30:00

23.20

33.60

0.74

26.994

45L

G57

24:33:00

74:38:00

gscl

33.70

37.90

0.95

19.054

45L

GS8

24:33:00

74:44:00

cl

21 .80

46.00

0.69

31.101

45L

G61

24:28:00

74:01:00

sl

24.50

57.90

0.36

38.171

45L

G62

24:28:00

74:05:00

gel

5.60

60.00

2.58

30.560

45L

G63

24:28:00

74:12:00

scI

34.30

37.90

0.52

19.985

45L

G64

24:28:00

74:22:00

cl

18.90

41.30

1.36

24.851

45L

G66

24:39:00

74:35:00

cl

17.10

45.00

1.60

26.788

Vfs = Very fine sand

31

SOIL EROSION IN RAJASTHAN

APPENDIX -II

District-wise ErosIvIty (RFactor) In Rajasthan

Total

Classes

Districts

200-299

300-399

400-499

500-599

600-799

>800

Area sq.km and percent

Ajmer

0
0

112
0.03

8309
2.43

J
0

0
0

0
0

8421
2.46

Alwar

59
0.02

1068
0.31

6248
1.82

332
0.10

120
0.04

0
0

7827
229

8answara

0
0

0
0

5069
1.48

0
0

0
0

0
0

5069
1.48

Bharatpur

37
0.01

48
0.Q1

146
0.04

434
0.13

4404
1.29

0
0.00

5069
1.48

Bhilwara

0
0

0
0

8957
2.62

752
0.22

763
0.22

0
0

10472
3.06

Bundi

0
0

0
0

284
0.08

2322
0.68

3211
0.94

0
0

5817
1.70

121
0.04

389
0.11

7518
2.20

ns
0.23

1550
0.45

0
0

10354
3.02

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

3008
0.88

0
0

3008
0.88

Dungarpur

0
0.00

0
0.00

3855
1.13

0
0.00

0
0.00

0
0.00

3855
1.13

Jaipur & Dausa

659
0.19

1296
0.38

8381
2.45

1254
0.37

2866
0.84

0
0.00

14456
4.22

Jhalawar

0
0.00

0
0.00

0
0.00

872
0.25

4846
1.41

602
0.18

6320
1.85

Kota & Baran

0
0.00

0
0.00

63
0.02

187
0.05

11439
3.34

515
0.15

12204
3.56

0
0.00

0
0.00

4450
1.33

0
0.00

0.00

0
0.00

4450
1.33

Sawa; Madhopur
& Karauli

0
0.00

0
0.00

515
0.15

383
0.11

9145
2.67

0
0.00

10043
2.93

Siron;

118
0.03

144
0.04

2443

1030
0.30

1092
0.32

350

5177

0.71

0.10

1.51

Tonk

0
0.00

0
0.00

3892
1.14

1139
0.33

2147
0.63

0
0.00

7178
2.10

UdaIpur

0
0.00

0
0.00

14617
4.27

0
0.00

0
0.00

0
0.00

14617
4.27

Total

994
0.29

3058
0.89

74765
21.83

9484
2.77

44604
13.02

1467
0.43

134372
39.24

Chittaurgarh
Dholpur

RaJsamand

32

APPENDICES

APPENDIX -III
District-wise Erodibility (K-Factor) In Rajasthan
Classes

Districts

<0.10

0.20-0.25

0.10-0.20

Total

0.25-0.30

>0.30

Area sq.km an~ percent

Ajmer

697
0.20

4146
1.21

2101
0.61

763
0.22

714
0.21

8421
2.46

Alwar

920
0.27

3726
1.09

1704
0.50

965
0.28

512
0.15

7827
2.29

Banswara

22
0.01

796
0.23

1499
0.44

1843
0.54

909
0.27

5069
1.48

Bharatpur

153
0.04

1701
0.50

1206
0.35

1331
0.39

678
0.20

5069
1.48

Bhilwara

0
0.00

3002
0.88

3922
1.15

3093
0.90

455
0.13

10472
3.06

Bundi

9
0.00

246
0.07

1929
0.56

2322
0.68

1311
0.38

5817
1.70

Chittaurgarh

313
0.09

1572
0.46

3400
0.99

3557
1.04

1512
0.44

10354
3.02

Dholpur

0
0.00

993
0.29

700
0.20

569
0.17

746
0.22

3008
0.88

Dungarpur

0
0.00

28
0,01

346
0.10

1615
0.47

1866
0.54

3855
1.13

Jaipur & Oausa

5931
1.73

5557
1.62

1723
0.50

766
0.22

479
014

14456
4.22

Jhalawar

0
0.00

277
0.08

1123
0.33

2483
0.73

2437
0.71

6320
1.85

Kota & Baran

6
0.00

735
0.21

2961
0.86

3932
1.15

4570
1.33

12204
3.56

Rajsamand

46
0.01

1019
0.30

1808
0.53

1047
0.33

530
0.15

4450
1.33

Sawai Madhopur
& Karaull

194
0.06

2252
0.66

2843
0.83

2296
0.67

2458
0.72

10043
2.93

Sirohl

132
0.04

2151
0.63

1700
0.50

1020
0.30

174
0.05

5177
1.51

Tonk

2943
0.86

1860
0.54

1003
0.29

394
0.12

978
0.29

7178
2.10

Udaipur

275
0.08

3640
1.06

4620
1.35

3824
1.12

2258
0.66

14617
4.27

11644.3
3.40

33709.8
9.84

34596.8
10.10

31828.2
9.30

22592.94
6.60

134372
39.24

Total

33

SOIL EROSION IN RAJASTHAN

APPENDIX -IV

District-wise topographic (LSFactor) In Rajasthan

Classes

Districts

0<0.5

0.50-1.00

1.00-2.(1()

Total

2.00-3.00

>3.00

Area sq.km and percent

Ajmer

5656
1.65

1844
0.54

385
0.11

237
0.07

299
0.09

8421
2.46

Alwar

3586
1.05

1233
0.36

1754
0.51

895
0.26

359
0.10

78.27
2.29

Banswara

1344
0.39

1535
0.45

786
0.23

488
0.14

916
0.27

5069
1.48

Bharalpur

4879
1.42

66
0.02

109
0.03

15
0.00

0
0.00

5069
1.48

Bhilwara

6564
1.92

2860
0.84

689
0.20

201
0.06

158
0.05

10472
3.06

Bundi

3548
1.04

2178
0.64

25
0.Q1

21
0.01

45
0.01

5817
1.70

Chitlaurgarh

6429
1.88

2199
0.64

636
0.19

356
0.10

734
0.21

10354
3.02

Dholpur

2853
0.83

155
0.05

0
0.00

0
0.00

0
0.00

3008
0.88

Dungarpur

1001
0.29

436
0.13

589
0.17

573
0.17

1256
0.37

3855
1.13

Jaipur & Dausa

11118
3.25

1074
0.31

749
0.22

526
0.15

989
0.29

14456
4.22

Jhalawar

3945
1.15

1875
0.55

375
0.11

125
0.04

0
0.00

6320
1.85

Kola & Baran

9983
2.91

1695
0.49

359
0.10

74
0.02

93
0.03

12204
3.56

Rajsamand

1353
0.40

581
0.17

1059
0.34

859
0.25

598
0.17

4450
1.33

Sawai Madhopur
& Karaull

7857
229

1210
0.35

452
0.13

208
0.06

316
0.09

10043
2.93

Sirohi

1544
0.45

574
0.17

776
0.23

595
0.17

1688
0.49

5177
1.51

Tonk

2669
0.78

4509
1.32

0
0.00

0
0.00

0
0.00

7178
2.10

Udaipur

3047
0.89

3909
1.14

1440
0.42

1504
0.44

4717
1.38

14617
4.27

77397.7
22.60

27940
8.16

10185.6
2.98

6678.51
1.95

12170.18
3.55

134372
39.24

Tolal

0
34

APPENDICES

APPENDI X -v
District-wise cover and management (r.-factor) In Rajasthan
Classes

Districts

<0.05

0.05-0.10 0.10-0.15

0.15-0.20

Total

0.20-0.25

0.25-0.30

>0.30

Area sq. km and percent

Ajmer

0
0.00

26
0.01

69
0.02

108
0.03

329
0.10

611
0.18

7278
2.13

8421
2.46

Alwar

0
0.00

0
0.00

3
0.00

27
0.01

53
0.02

83
0.02

7661
2.24

7827
2.29

Banswara

0
0.00

89
0.03

320
0.09

491
0.14

754
0.22

895
0.26

2519
0.73

5069
1.48

Bharatpur

0
0.00

0
000

7
0.00

26
0.01

23
0.01

22
0.01

4991
1.46

5069
1.48

Bhilwara

0
0.00

64
0.02

287
0.08

645
0.19

961
0.28

1262
0.37

7253
2.12

10472
3.06

Bundi

0
0.00

0
0.00

35
0.01

141
004

211
0.06

259
0.08

5171
1.51

5817
1.70

Chittaurgarh

32
001

700
0.20

990
0.29

1000
0.29

882
0.26

93(,
0.27

5820
1.70

10354
3.02

Dholpur

0
0.00

0
0.00

3
0.00

22
0.01

30
0.Q1

48
0.Q1

2905
0.85

3008
O.BB

Dungarpur

0
0.00

20
0.01

122
0.04

241
0.07

1244
0.36

365
0.11

1863
0.54

3855
1.13

Jaipur & Dausa

0
0.00

3
0.00

38
0.01

89
0.03

133
0.04

156
0.05

14037
4.10

14456
4.22

Jhalawar

0
0.00

0
0.00

669
0.20

562
0.16

365
0.11

378
0.11

4346
1.27

6320
1.85

Kota & Baran

6
0.00

187
0.05

446
0.13

558
0.16

977
0.29

1083
0.32

8947
2.61

12204
3.56

Rajsamand

0
0.00

67
0.02

140
0.04

169
0.05

297
0.09

353
0.10

3424
1.03

4450
1.33

Sawai Madhopur
0
& Karauli
0.00

8
0.00

45
0.01

105
0.03

194
0.06

268
0.08

9423
2.75

10043
2.93

Sirohi

0
0.00

97
0.03

643
0.19

913
0.27

764
0.22

675
0.20

2085
0.61

5177
1.51

Tonk

0
0.00

0
0.00

0
0.00

0
0.:>0

0
000

0
0.00

7178
2.10

7178

97
0.03

1504
0.44

1137

1148
0.34

2040
0.60

1480

0.33

043

7211
2.11

14617
4.27

135.Q1
0.04

2765.37
0.81

4955.11
1.45

6246.49
1.82

9259.11
2.70

8870.16
2.59

102140.73
29.83

134372
3924

Udaipur
Total

2. 10

35

List of Figures
J

Location of Rajasthan in India

Physiography map of Rajasthan

Drainage map of Rajasthan

Rainfall in Rajasthan

Soil erosion problems in Rajasthan

Erosivity (R-factor) map of Eastern Rajasthan

Erodibility (K-factor) map of Eastern Rajasthan

Topographic (LS-factor) map of Eastern Rajastllan

Cover and Management (C-factor) map of Eastern Rajasthan

J0

Soil erosion classes in Eastern Rajasthar:

J1

Wind erosion in Western Rajasthan

12

Wind and Water erosion in Rajasthan

13

Landform and soil of Sandy arid plain (Marusthali)

14

Landform and soil of Semi arid transitional plain

15

Soil and Water conservation in Western Rajasthan

16

Landform and soil of Aravalli landscape

17

Landform of Eastern Rajasthan upland

18

Dominant soils in Eastern Rajasthan upland

19

Landform and soils of Pathar and Bundelkhand upland

20

Landform and soils of Malwa plateau

21

Soil and water conservation in Eastern Rajasthan

'Red and Lalentlc Solis of India Resource appraisal and

Management, Bull,No.37, 1993
' Soil Degrada~on In India Status and Impact. Bull.No 38, 1994
'Growing PeTiod tor Crop Plannmg Bull No.39 1993
' Soll Senes of India Bull No 40. 1994
'Soil Temperature Regimes In India Bull No 41 , 1994
'land Evaluation for Land Use Planning (Papers of Indo-UK
Workshop), Bull No 42, 1993
'SOII Moisture Regimes of India, Bull No 43, 1994
' Soil ClimatiC Database for Crop Planning In India, Bull No.53,
1999.
'Soil Climatic EnVIronments In India, Bull.No.58, 1995
'Soil Based Land Use Plannmg Senes Udaipur dlst Ralasthan,
Bull.No 63, 1995
' Soil Monoliths Their Collection. Preparation and Display
Bull.No.54 1995
'Soil Resources of Goa for Perspec(lVe Land Use Planning
NBSS Publ 71 199:
'Land Resource Management A Decade of Post-Graduate
Research, NBSS Publ73 1998
'Soils of Madhubanl dlslnct for optimising land use, NBSS Publ
76, 1999
SOIl Resource Atlas of Bhopal Dlstnct (M P), NBSS Publ 77,
1999
'SOil Senes of Madhya Pradesh. NBSS Pub! 78 1999
' Soli Senes of Maharashtra, NBSS Publ 79, 1999
'Soil Resource Atlas - Guna Dlstnct (M P.), NBSS Pub180, 2000
'Agro-eCOloglcal Assessment of SOil Resources of Rajasthan for
land Use Ptannlng, NBSS Pub181 , 2000
' SOIl EroSion In Maharashtra, NBSS Publ 82 2000.
'Significance of Minerals 10 SOil EnVifonment of India. NBSS
Review Series-l , 2000
' Climate Change and Polygenesis in Vertisols of the Puma Valley
(Maharashtra) and Their Management, NBSS Pub1.83, 2000
'A Decade 01 GIS Aided Research - Highlights, NBSS PubJ 84
2001
'Soll Senes of Chhatlsgarh State, NBSS Pub1.85, 2001
' Soli Resource Atlas of Betul Distnct (M.P). NBSS Pub1.86, 2001
'Soll Based Agro-Technology Transfer In Sukli (Dlstt Nagpur),
NBSS Pub1.87, 2001
'Solls of Hugli Dlslnct for OptimiSing Land Use NBSS Publ 88

2001

'Soil Senes of West Bengal, NBSS Pub189, 2001

'Soil Resource Atlas of Dhar Dlst. (MP). NBSS Pub190, 2001
lOOp, ISBN 81 -85460-68X
Soll Series of Himachal Pradesh, NBSS Publ.91 , ISBN'81
85460-69-8.
'Soil Senes of Goa, NBSS Pub192, ISBN 81-85460-70-1
'Soil Resource Atlas of Rat/am Dlstt (M P ), NBSS Publ 93
'Solls of India, ( 11M Scale, 11 Sheets Maps) NBSS Pub194,
ISBN.81-85460-72-8
'Soil Resource Alias of Bilaspur Dlslt (Chhallisgarh), NBSS
PUbI.95. ISBN:81-85450-'l3-6.
'Soli Series of Rajasthan, NBSS Pub196. ISBN 81-85460-75-2

'SOII ErOSion of Tnpura' A model for soil conservabon and crop

performance, NBSS Publ97 ISBN 81-85460-76~
'Sot! Senes of Bihar NBSS Publ 98 ISBN 81-85460-77 -9.
'SOils at AJmer dlslncl lor opbmlSing land use NBSS Publ 99
ISBN 81-85460-78-7
'SOII Resource Atlas of Chhindwara Distt (M'p.), NBSS Publ.loo
ISBN 81-85460-79-5
Soil Senes of Assam NBSS Publl01
'Soll ErOSIOn of Rajasthan NBSS Publ.l 02 ISBN 81-85460-80-9
Soil ErOSIOn of Chhattlsgarh NBSS Publl03 ISBN 81-8546081-7
'Soil Resource Alias of Jadgalpur (Baster) Dlstt (Chhattisgarh)
NBSS PubI 104ISBN:81-85460-825
Soil Series of Sikkim NBSS Publ1051SBN 81-85460-83-3
Soll Erosion Madhya Pradesh NBSS Publ1061SBN 81-8546084-1

Sa lt-Affected Solis of Different States in India

Andaman Nicobar (3 sheets)

Andhra PradeSh (9 sheets)
Bihar (7 sheets)
Haryana (4 sheets)
Onssa (3 sheets)
Punjab (4 sheets)
West Bengal (3 sheets)
Maharashtra (9 sheets)
Kerala (2 sheets)
Kamataka (5 sheets)
Uttar Pradesh (1 7 sheets)
Rajasthan (16 sheets)

For a copy, contact

Natronal Remote Sensing
Agency, Balanagar,
Hyderabad-500 037

BOOKS
'Murthy, R S , Hlrekerur L R, Deshpande, S Band Venkata Rao
B V eds Benchmark Salls of India Morphology, Charactens\lcs,
and ClasSification for Resource Management. 1982, 374p
Soll Survey Staff, USDA SOil Taxonomy, Indian Repnnt 1978
o ' Sehgal, J Blum, WE and Galbhlye. K S Red and Lalenllc SOils.
1998 Vol " 453p, VallI Oxford & BH New Dell11 113p
Sehgal. J GaJbhlye K S Batta R K ana Sarma V:" K Eds
Swell-Shrmk Salls (Verbsols) of India Resource Appraisal and
Management Kalyani PubliShers. New Deihl. 1999. 202p
(For order, contacl Mis Kalyani Publishers. 111 Rallndernagar
ludhrana-14l 008
(II) In Press,

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