y

J
I

J?

/ /

/
,

rLr sL.

*L ;t;L-

I t ///. /

4S/-X.__ i.

.t- A

,/.^

.l*~*~f

/,

SHORT HISTORICAL

LATIN

GRAMMAR

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

LONDON

EDINBURGH

TORONTO

GLASGOW

MELBOURNE

HUMPHREY MILFORD

NEW YORK

BOMBAY
M.A.

PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY

SHORT HISTORICAL

LATIN

GRAMMAR
BY

W. M. LINDSAY, M.A.
FELLOW OF JESUS COLLEGE, OXFORD

SECOND EDITION

OXFORD
AT THE CLARENDON PRESS
1915

NOV 21

1953

BY THE SAME AUTHOR

8vo, cloth, price 21s.

THE LATIN LANGUAGE

AN HISTORICAL ACCOUNT
Of

LATIN SOUNDS, STEMS, AND FLEXIONS

PREFACE TO THE FIEST EDITION

of Latin Grammar have for a long time
of a book which will exhibit the hisneed
the
felt

TEACHERS

development of Latin Accidence and explain

Latin Declension and Conjugation,
which will explain, for example, how itinens became the

torical

the anomalies of

Genitive of
legit,

why

tier,

the

magnificentior,

a by-form

how

Comparative

why

circa.

volo, vis, vult differ

In

of

from

magnificus

lego, legis,

should be

the Preposition circum should have

this Short Historical Latin Grammar,

designed for the Universities and the Higher Forms of

Schools, I have tried to present this information in an
intelligible and,

if

possible, interesting form.

While

full use of the discoveries of

Comparative Philoin
which
have
recent
added
so much to our
logy,
years
I
of
have
avoided
the technical
Latin,
knowledge

making

vocabulary of that science, and in quoting parallels to

Latin words have restricted myself to the Greek, to
the exclusion of Sanscrit, Gothic, and the other Indo-

European languages. It is true that each and every

problem of the Latin language has not yet been solved,
but for all that the stability of most of the results
reached by the methods of Comparative Philology is
beyond question; and every one who has studied the

vi

Preface

the First Edition

to

subject with any minuteness

knows which

results are

and which may have to be modified by subsequent

I have endeavoured to steer a middle course
research.

certain

between leaving difficulties untouched and offering exFor

planations which may have to be discarded later.
a discussion of questions which are

still

subjudice,

and

for

a detailed account of the evidence on which judgements in

this book are grounded, I refer the reader to my larger
work, The Latin Language (Clarendon Press, 1894).

W. M. LINDSAY.
OXFORD

September, 1895.

PEEFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION

THE

last

twenty years have not contributed much

There have been some new and

to Latin Philology.
attractive

theories,

which however cannot be

called

certain, such as the clever suggestion that the changes

at first of the opening syllable,
of Latin Accentuation
of
the
then
antepenultimate or penultimate should be

ascribed to the Etruscan domination and to the influence

But a manual like this must always lag beof Greece.

hind the vanguard of research, and I have not made too

many

alterations of the first edition.

Of new
purpose
<

sacer ',

is

the most

inscriptions

the

important for our

Forum fragment, with

DIOVESTOD

<

justo

'.

its

SAKROS

Otherwise Epigraphy

Preface

to

the

Second Edition

vii

has not brought much fresh material.

Palaeography,
which has made great advance in recent years, has
taught us that the letter/ was used in the cursive script
of the Empire.

For the

sanction, but both

letter v there is

hardly ancient

j and v are necessary for a manual on

A paragraph on these two letters has

Latin Philology.
been added at the end of the

first

chapter.

The paragraph on the pronunciation

of

the Latin

Diphthongs has been re-written in order to expose the

fallacy which underlies the pronunciation of terrae as
if this

Genitive-form were

merely a disyllabic terrdl.

teaches

his

pupils

this

(in

the Golden

Age

of Latin)

I pity the instructor

wrong, though

'

who

authorized \

pronunciation of the Diphthong and then has to explain

to them how the e of prehendo is a shortening of the ae
of prae.

This edition will be found more useful than the

by students of

Romance

first

Philology.

W. M. LINDSAY.
ST.

ANDREWS

September, 1914.

CONTENTS

......
.....

INTRODUCTION

CHAP.

I.

II.

ALPHABET

PRONUNCIATION,

III.

NOUN

IV. ADJECTIVE

V. PRONOUNS
VI.

...

VIII. PREPOSITIONS

73

99

.....

X. HISTORY OP LATIN SOUNDS

WORDS

INDEX

135

144
155

.169
.183

199

204

LIST OF HIDDEN QUANTITIES.

207

B. LIST OF SPELLINGS
C.

APPENDIX A. SPECIMENS OF EARLY LATIN

,,

......79

IX. CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS

XI. FORMATION OP

42

VERB

VII. ADVERBS

ix

AND

ACCENTUATION,

CHANGE OF SOUND

PAGE

209

INTRODUCTION
LATIN was the language

of the Latini,

ancient Latium, the plain at the

mouth

who
o

inhabited

the Tiber.

The subsequent greatness of Rome, the chief town

Latium, made Latin in time the language, not only
the whole of Italy, but also of the

Gaul, Spain, and the

Roman

The languages

like.

of
of

provinces,

of

modern

Italy and these other countries where Latin was formerly

'
'
spoken are called Romance languages \ and it is possible

with the help of inscriptions and parchments to trace

by step the way by which, after the fall of the

step

Western Roman Empire (476

of Italy, France, Spain, &c.,

'

Vulgar Latin
into
the form of
passed

A.D.), the

Italian, French, and Spanish ; how, for example,

Latin caballus, a horse, became Italian cavallo, Spanish

modern

caballo,

cheval,

Portuguese cavallo, Proven9al cavals, French

Roumanian

A language
called the

'

cal.

never stationary ; and if what may be

modern Latin ' of the Romance languages
is

has developed in this way, we may be sure that ancient

Latin had a corresponding development.
Of this we
mark
Prehistoric
several
Latin, the
may
stages
(1)
:

language in its earliest form, (2) Preliterary Latin,

the beginnings of literature at

Rome

till

in the latter part

of the third century B.C., (3) Early or

Old Latin, as

used by the earliest writers, Livius Andronicus, Naevius,

Introduction

Plautus, Ennius, and the like,

Cicero's
'

time,

Golden Age

(5)

'

Classical

Republican Latin, till

Latin, the Latin of the
(4)

from Cicero to Augustus,

(6) Silver

Age

Latin, of the earlier writers of the Empire, (7) Late

Latin, till the fall of the Western Empire.

The Romans took

Some

language.

History

at all times a keen interest in their

the

of

greatest

connected with

are

names of Roman

reforms

of

spelling

or

grammar, statesmen like Appius Claudius Caecus, Scipio

Africanus Minor, Julius Caesar, and the Emperors
Augustus and Claudius.
Lucilius, Accius, were

The

studies of

The earlier writers, e. g. Ennius,

Grammarians

Grammar and

as well as Poets.

Phonetics, imported from

Greece in the last century of the Republic, were prosecuted with the utmost zest for many centuries, the most

famous names being,

in the time of Cicero,

M.

Terentius

Varro; in the reign of Augustus, Verrius Flaccus; in

first century A. D., Probus, the elder Pliny
in the
second century, Velius Longus, Aulus Gellius in the
third, Marius Plotius Sacerdos ; in the fourth and fifth,

the

Nonius Marcellus, Donatus, Charisius, Diomedesj and

in the sixth, Priscian.

Their writings, such as have been preserved to us,

give us a great deal of information, not only about the

language of their own time, but also of the earlier

For these earlier stages we have further

stages of Latin.

the help of the old inscriptions, few of which however

are prior

to

therefore

for

c.

250

B.C.

the second century B.C.

Our materials
a Historical Grammar of Latin from

onwards are

fairly complete.

xi

Introduction

For the still earlier periods we have the help of the

kindred languages of Italy, the Oscan, Umbrian, &c.
They are closely connected with Latin and throw
a great deal of light on the origin of Latin forms and
In fact, if we had enough of these
constructions.
c

'

dialectal

would be few problems

inscriptions, there

of

But unfortuthe language which remained unsolved.

has
not
been
there
yet
any systematic and
nately
thorough search for the records of these kindred stocks,
and the inscriptions that have been discovered are
tantalizingly meagre.

For the

earliest history of all

we must fall back on

The discovery in

the Science of Comparative Philology.

the last century that some Asiatic languages (Indian,

Persian) and most European are so closely connected
that they must have sprung from a common parent
c
Indo-European ', has
language, usually called the

brought into existence a new study, the comparison of

these languages with each other in order to find what
this parent

language was.

Romance words

for

'

horse

possible to conjecture the

By

',

comparing the various

it would be

just mentioned,

form of the Latin prototype

from which they have all descended, caballus. In the

same way we can guess at the early form, what is
called

the

'

'

form, underlying any

Indo-European
cognate group of words in the various Indo-European

languages; e.g. Lat. mater, Dor. Gk. paTrjp, Sanscrit

matar-, Old Irish mathir, Old Slavonic mater-,
mair,

Old English modor, point

mater as their prototype.

to

Armenian

something

like

We may similarly trace

back

Introduction

xii

inflexions to

an

Indo- European

'

form, and

these conjectured words and inflexions

c

may

out of

construct

an

'

Indo-European

Of the

various

alphabet.

members

of the

I.-Eur. family the

most closely related to Latin and the Italian languages

seems to be the Celtic group (Irish, Welsh, and in

Thus

ancient times Gaulish).

have a Passive in -R

vi.

(ch.

Third Declension in -bhos

(e.g.

in Celtic as in Latin
6),

we

a Dat. PI. of the

Gaulish matrebos, O.

Ir.

matrib, Lat. indtribns), a Future in -BH- (e.g. O. Ir.

'
'
carub, I will love ', quasi carabo ', Lat. amdbo) ; and
Irish

Nouns

in -tiu, e.g. mitiu (ancient stem menti5n-)

correspond to Latin in

-tio,

e.g. mentio (ch. xi.

12).

For our knowledge of the relationship of Latin to the

other Indo-European languages we are most indebted to
Corssen, and to the three great Comparative Philologists
for the
Osthoff, and Johannes Schmidt

Brugmann,

history of Early Latin to Bitschl and Buecheler.

NOTE.
Paragraphs in small type

may

be omitted by

An

all

but advanced

asterisk prefixed to a word indicates that the word

does not occur in the extant literature. Italic type is, as a rule,

students.

used for Latin words, stems, and inflexions.

CHAPTER

THE ALPHABET
1.

THE Greeks

of Chalcis in

time founded colonies at

coast of

among

colonies

Campania

Euboea had at an

Cumae and

early

other spots on the

which took a leading place

those mercantile centres of Southern Italy which

played so great a part in Italian civilisation. It was

from these Chalcidic neighbours of theirs that the Latins
first

learnt the art of writing.

The connexion

of the Latin with the

Greek Alphabet

seen plainly enough, even when we look at the later

forms of the two, the forms which we are in the habit
is

of using in editions of the classical authors

(Latin)

(Greek)
(Latin)

(Greek)

ABCDEFG H
ABTAE Z H
QRSTV X
P

of

(e)

KA

MN

(oc)

OP
OH

[YZ]

TT d> X (ch) *

But when we go

IKLMN

1.

farther back and compare the forms

the letters on the earliest Latin inscriptions with

Euboean

those on the earliest

the two

alphabets are one

(Early Latin)
(Early Euboean)

(Marly Latin)

(Early Euboean)

A
A

& C

/~ N
f" H

inscriptions,

and the same

({)

l>

fc

(()

t>

fc

(!)

f-

f*

I*

P 9
P9
(o)

we

see that

Z B
Z B

TV X
TV X

IKU
I

(/>)

(*)

CD

!<

V (ch),

The Alphabet

CH.

the fact being that the Latins took over bodily from
the Greeks of Campania the written signs by which
these Greeks expressed
of their language.

the various words and sounds

Now

it is

clear that the sounds of

the Latin language were not in every case the same

as the sounds formed by Greek lips, so that a Greek
alphabet could not be a

means

perfectly suitable

of

expressing Latin words and syllables ; and, in fact, we

find that it took a great number of years before the
borrowed alphabet was altered and improved to the
satisfaction of the borrowers.
2.

The

first

alteration

signs for the three

Greek

made was the

aspirates,

were written in the Chalcidic alphabet

disuse of the

0, 0,

x-

(0),

These
(0),

and expressed sounds unknown to the Latins,

(V),
the
sound of t followed by an 7^-sound (something like
(1)
l

our th in

an /5-sound
followed

an^-^eap '),
'
(cf. our

the sound of p followed by

sound of k
ujo-^ill '), (3) the

(2)

by an ^-sound

(cf.

our

in/-/$orn').

Since

these sounds never occurred in any Latin word, the three

signs were never used in writing Latin, and dropped out

of the Latin alphabet. 2 This then was the first departure
of the borrowed alphabet
1

of

from

its original.

The use of X for x, Y for ch, and the order X, <> Y are features
what are called the 'Western' Greek Alphabets, as opposed to

the Ionian, &c.

2
Though they were not used to indicate sounds, they were put to
was employed as the
another function, that of numerical signs.
sign of 100, and became in time adapted in form to the initial of
was made the sign of 1000. and came to be
centum and written C
written GO, CO, and finally M, like the initial of tnille; while D, the
half of 0, became the sign of 500, just as V, 5, is the upper half of
indicated 50 and came to be written _L and finally L.
X, 10;

2-4

C,

Again the

3.

and ^-sounds of the Greeks had not

k-

the same sharp distinction as the corresponding sounds

had from Roman lips, so that when a Greek pronounced

he often seemed

his letter K,

to

Roman

to be pro-

l
nouncing a ^-sound and not a ^-sound. This led to
the use of the third letter of the borrowed alphabet,

written sometimes circularly, C, sometimes with an angle,

{, in

a promiscuous fashion, now for a ^-sound,

so that the written signs AC or

for a /-sound,

now

A{

might express either the syllable ag or the syllable ac.

This encroachment of the sign C or { on the sphere of the
sign K was aided by the custom of writing K in two
with the upright part
separate from the
led
to K being rewhich
angular part {, a custom
garded as an awkward double symbol, of which { (appaparts

|{,

rently the right-hand half of the symbol)

was a short

and convenient expression; and the result

was that the letter K practically went out of
being retained in the double capacity of a
a <7-sign. 2

of all this
use, C or (
/('-sign

and

Another double sign was reduced in the same way,

namely fH. This fH was a letter, or rather a letter4.

group, which expressed in early Greek words a sound

that came nearest to the sound of early Latin
(ch. ii.

n.),

and was at

this sound.

Greek

KvQepvw
2

we

is

In time

Kofj.fj.1,

in

used by the Latins as a sign for

too was simplified by the dropping

first
it

gum, was written by the Romans gummi

Roman

Greek

spelling guberno.
Thus on a very old insci'iption, called the Dvenos inscription,
have VI R(O (virgo) and (O$ Ml $ (comis) side by side.

B 2

The Alphabet

CH.

of one of its parts,

and was written without the

a single sign,

fHEK

(or

became

F.

Thus fee-

of.

fecit

fHE<), then fEK

in this

way

would be

(or FE().

first

as

written

The sign for/

identical with the sixth letter of the

borrowed alphabet, and opened the way to a further

For this sixth letter, the Digamma, was used
change.
in the Chalcidic alphabet to express the w-sound heard in
the beginning of such early Greek words as Folvos, the
same as in the Latin vinum or the English wine. After

a while the sound was dropt by the Greeks and became

quite unfamiliar to them, so that we hear of Greek
visitors to Italy finding the greatest difficulty in pro-

nouncing Latin words

like

vinum 9

veni.

The

nearest

they could come to the proper pronunciation was the

use of the vowel n instead of the consonantal w-sound,
It

u-i-num, u-e-ni.

that the
for this

was perhaps through Greek influence

Romans came

to use the sign of the vowel u,

V,

^-consonant as well as for the vowel, so that for

and F were employed promiscuously to express

the %'-sound, in precisely the same way as we found
and C or { to have been used promiscuously for the
The result in both cases was the same. The
/-sound.
a time

sign that had encroached on the province of the other

its rival ; and for the future F held exclusively

sign ousted

the function of

5.

Of

the

first six letters

two have thus

different sounds

while

representing the /-sound,

w-sound was expressed by V (often written U

the same sign as did duty for the vowel n.

ch.

ii.

the
5),

of the borrowed alphabet

in course of time

come

to express quite

from the sounds which they expressed

Z,

in the original alphabet.

C or

expressed the ^-sound, has

come

(,

which in the original

The seventh

sign of the /-sound.

'

voiced

('

Z was

Greek

affected.

of our

s)

Latins at the time

But

letter

as \ &c., a

was likewise

sound in use among the

their alphabet.

on, this soft s-sound

the sound of r (ch. x.

lips

19),

assumed on
so that the

Gen. Plur. termination of the First Declension

4), at

AZO
-arum)

(ch.

iii.

pronounced -asom with soft s, and written

came to be pronounced and written -arom (later

first

M,

and the sign

fell

Roman

in the

a change

is

become the

the letter for the soft s-sound

when they borrowed

went

as centuries

Roman

'

-sound

to express the

F} originally the sign of the w-sound, has

out of use in writing.

alphabet to

This

which we can

We

are told that it was Appius Claudius

give a date.
Caecus, the famous censor of 312 B. c., who was the

author of this reform

and Roman tradition preserves

a curious story that one of his arguments against the

letter was, that the sound which it properly expressed,
the soft s-sound, gave the
grinning teeth of a skull.

was put a new

Carvilius

[*

Ruga

was the

He would

of the

place in the alphabet

(a

freedman of the consul of 293

name (RVGA,

of his family to write his

PAPIZ-.
find

it

This

new

letter

339

B. c.,

name PAPIR-

convenient to distinguish the

from the second of Ruga.

B. c.)

instead of the older

just as L. Papirius Crassus, dictator in

first

instead of

Carvilius

its

G, which came into use as a symbol

and was employed, for example, by

the writing of his

VC A),

In

letter,

of the ^-sound,

in

mouth the appearance

was nothing
first syllable

of

The Alphabet

but the letter

/-sound was meant.

by the addition of a

slightly altered

small stroke to show that

CH.

the #-st>und and

The expression

of

not the

the ^-sound

had thus a curious history in Latin. First the symbol

C was used ; then this symbol came to be used also for
the /(--sound

later use

finally this

use altogether, and a

ousted the older

new symbol was

devised for the

^7-sound.

This collection of twenty-one letters remained

6.

the

official

Roman

alphabet

ABCDEFGHIKLMNOPQRSTVX.
The
strictly

letters

and Z are sometimes added, but are not

Roman

speaking

letters.

They

are nothing but

the Greek Upsilon and Zeta, which came to be used in

Cicero's time in writing
zona, gaza,
e.

Greek loan-words, e. g. cymba,

s (ss) had been used,

where previously u and

g. cumba, sona (Plaut.) (so classical luxus,

ffuberno, massa, &c.), just as

in writing the

French

we

cupressus,

use the Spanish letter

'

canon \ or the
Spanish loan-word
French loan-word f fa9ade'. They

9 in writing the

were never used in writing Latin words, except occasionally in a few which were wrongly believed to be

Greek loan-words,
write
it

'rhyme'

e.g. lacryma,

inclytus;

instead of 'rime'

to

represents the

writers on

Greek

Grammar

pv6/j,6$.

owing

And though

usually include

them

alphabet, they are careful to

make

them and the other

Similarly th t

letters.

much

as

we

an idea that
the Latin

in the

Roman

a distinction between

at the end of the Republic used for the

p/i, ch, rfi

were

more exact ex-

pression of Greek loan-words like Corinthus, Philippus,

6-8

Achilles, Rhoclus,
t,p,

c,

(cf. tus,

words which were

earlier written

with

paenula, a coat, calx, lime, from Gk. Qvos,

and found their way even into genuine

Latin words like pulcer, foomjoolio, wrongly referred to

(paivoXrjs, \dXig),

Gk. 7ro\v\poos and written pulclier

(cf.

ch.

ii.

6).

Traces of the Older Alphabet. So conservative were the

Romans that the old forms and significations of the letters were
7.

C retained its old signification

often retained in isolated cases.
of the gr-sound in C., Cn., the symbols for the proper names Gains
(a trisyllable ; older Gavios, connected with gaudeo, gamsus) and Gnaeus
(older Gnaiuos

connected with

(gf)wascor, (g}natus}.

K was retained

in the proper name Kaeso, written shortly K. and there were oldfashioned people even in Imperial times who in their correspon;

dence always spelt karissime with k, not c (cf. the spellings Kalendae,
kalumnia, and other words where the guttural precedes
was retained as symbol of the
The old five-stroked form of
a).
while the ordinary
proper name Mdnius, and came to be written
form of the letter was used as symbol of Marcus. Legal phraseology
was especially retentive of ofd forms thus the -e of jure dicundo,
interkalaris,

solvendo aere alieno is a relic of

the very early usage of denoting the

ei-diphthong by E as in the early Greek writing.

8. Other modifications of the Alphabet. Some changes of the
original form of writing were permanent, others lasted only for

To the first class belongs the practice of writing double

consonant which was pronounced double (ch. ii.
9), a practice
introduced by the poet Ennius. Thus buca was the old spelling of
bucca.
To the second belong such changes as
(1) writing double
a long vowel ( e, u, ando?), 1 e.g. PAASTORES, a practice favoured
(2) writing El for long i.
by^the poet Accius, but soon dropped
This practice came in about the middle of the second century B.C.,
when the diphthong ei (ch. x. 11) had come to be pronounced like
a time.

*a

long

i,

and remained

till

the beginning of the Empire

(3) indi-

cating a long vowel (a, e, o, u} by a stroke above, called the apex,

e.g. pisTORES (first two centuries of the Empire); (4) indicating

a long

by the tall form of the

letter, e. g. M!LIA.

also used to denote the y-sound

1

by

9)

and

II indicated the double y-sound of

Cicero cmo, Maiia (ch. ii.
3).

This tall form was

also for initial

words

(5) in-

like aio, Maia, written

en.

The Alphabet

dicating a doubled consonant by a curve above, called the sicilicus,

e.g. OSA (time of Augustus).
Many, or most, of these practices

were borrowed from Oscan

orthography. Another change introduced, but without much sxiccess, by the poet Accius, was borrowed
from Greek, viz. the use of g for n before g, c, e. g. aggulus, agcora (cf.
Gk. dyKvpa). Equally short-lived were the additions to the Roman
l

alphabet by the Emperor Claudius,

viz.

|-

for the it-sound of optimus,

&c. (ch. ii.

D for ps ; J for v (Tac. Ann. xi. 14). The by-forms
1)
of E and F, which found favour with the uneducated classes, viz.
;

||

on inscriptions with I) and |', are interesting,

because they must have originated from writing on wood, where
the scratching of horizontal lines was not easy to read.
9. In their cursive script, that is to say their everyday writing,
(often confused

the

Romans

(at least in

Imperial times) distinguished the t/-sound

words like cujus, jam from the vowel in words like pius, etiam.
For the ?/-sound (often called consonantal i ') they used a long form
of the letter i. This i longa was often projected below the line as
well as above, and from it has arisen our letter j.
The unsound in words like vos they sometimes distinguished from
the vowel in words like tuos. To express the former (often called
consonantal u ') they doubled the letter u, and from this has arisen
our letter w ('double u '). They indicated, for example, Virgil's
in

'

'

'

'

trisyllabic pronunciation ('tenwia') of the Neut.

writing tenuuia.

At the time

PL

of the invention of printing a fashion

of tennis

had come in

by
of

and U, for the

utilizing the two rival forms of the Roman letter u,
distinction of the consonantal from the vocalic tt-sound. The early
printers followed this convenient fashion and printed vos (VOS),
tuos

(TUOS).

Nowadays many Latin books

are printed without the use of

and u (cuius, iam, plus, etiam, uos,

editors can justly claim that in so doing they are following the practice, not merely of inscriptions during the Roman
period, but also of the older Mediaeval MSS., at least those written
a separate sign for consonantal
tuos),

and

in bookhand, as opposed to cursive script.

is the name given to the language of the Samnites, who
Samnium and Campania. So that Campania, the birthplace of the Roman alphabet ( 1), continued to influence Roman
writing for many centuries.
1

Oscan

lived in

CHAPTEE

II

PRONUNCIATION, ACCENTUATION, AND

CHANGE OF SOUND
Vowels. THE rule for the pronunciation of the

1.

Latin Vowels

is

Give the vowels

simple enough.

the

same sound as in Italian, letting the long voivels have what

'

is called the
'

'

sound

open

in English

'

close
is

e.

precisely

the

g.

of

what
(

led

is
'

is

The

'

sound, the short vowels the

open

'.

given to short vowels

open e, and Latin sed

should be pronounced with exactly the same vowel ; the

is
of ' not
open o, and so was the o of Lat. nota.
'

The

short Latin vowels accordingly offer little difficulty

But though the close ' sound is in

was in Latin, associated with the long
c

to English lips.

English, as

it

vowels, our long vowels,

'

'

say ',

fate

',

fail

',

e.

g. the

long

e- vowel

the long <?-vowel in

really not simple vowels but diphthongs

'

know ',

for

in

they
'

',

no', are
(

'

they ', say ',

1
fate ', ' fail ', are in reality pronounced with the close
}
'
'
<?-sound followed by y, know , no ', with the close o;

So, if we would pronounce the

long vowels of Latin with exactness, we must take care
to give them the simple sounds of the French or Italian

sound, followed by w.

vowels, pronouncing, for example, the e of se-des like the

By the e-vowel is meant the Continental e-vowel, the sound

Germ. 'See' (cf. Engl. 'say'), not of Engl. 'see', which has
rather the i- vowel (Germ. sie ', Fr. si ') by the a-vowel the
Continental a-vowel of Germ. sah ', Engl. 'father ', not of Engl.
1

'

'

of

'

'

'

'

'

'

'

say

'.

'

10

CH.

Pronunciation

e- sound

of Fr.

etc

and not

',

like the ey- or ez-sound of

Engl. 'say'.
Latin a had however the same quality, when long and
when short, the only difference being in quantity. The
a of pater

is

the same sound as the a of

mater, only

we aim

at exactness,

uttered more rapidly.

we must not
our

'

Here

too, if

give the short Latin a the same sound as

though we may give the long

short a-vowel',

Latin a the sound of our a in

a

'

is really

'

'

a different sound from our

in fact halfway between an a

For our short

'

father'.

and an

long a

e,

as

',

we

standing
see, if

we

(
'
compare our pronunciation of words like man ', hat
with the German of 'Mann', er hat'. The German

'

'

vowel

is

the same as the a of Engl.

'

father

'

or

Germ.

'Yater', while our 'man', 'hat', 'bat' have in them

'
'
something of the sound of men ', bet '. Latin pater
then should not be pronounced like our 'patter', 1 but
'
with the a- sound of ' father rapidly uttered.

Another exception to this rule of the different quality

and short Latin vowels is furnished by the -it of

of long

the 3 Sg. Pres. Ind. of the Fourth Conjugation.

This i
was a long vowel till the second century B.C., when it
to the difficulty found by the
up the long sound of a vowel before
But this -it, when it became a

was shortened owing

Romans

in keeping

a final

-t

short

16).

syllable,

retained

quantity, of long
1

i,

the quality, though not the

-it of, let us
say prodit,

so that the

This was a Roman cockneyism of the fourth or fifth cent.

we hear of a mispronunciation at that time by the lower
'

'

A. D., for

classes at

Rome

of stdtim so that

it

sounded

like stctim.

11

of Vowels

f rom prodeo, or vincit

had the

vincio, or condit

of our

i- sound

Ital. si),

si,

from condio}

unlike the

-it

of

vinco, condo, which had the

And it is probable that some

from /??*0f/0,

prodit, vincit, condit

open

from

close ^-sound (Fr.

'

'

it',

bit'.

other short Latin vowels also, which were originally long,

continued to retain the close sound of the long" vowel (see

In dies, where it stood before a vowel, # had the
16).
close sound, like our

The

'
sound of ' the before an

initial

vowel.

which took the place of u in

the spelling of Julius Caesar's time, had a sound between
u and i', the sound of German modified u (written it) or
short

of optimum,

'

the u of Fr. lune

given any short

and a preceding v seems to have

sound in the time of the Empire,

this

e.g. w,rt vwgo, virtus^

Here
vowels

A
A.

is

a scheme of the pronunciation of the Latin

Engl. a in 'father', 'path'.

the same more rapidly uttered,
grandfather

E
K
!
I

Fr.

in

',

footpath'.

/in'ete'.
e in

Engl.
Fr.

Engl. a

'

'

of

<

led', 'wet'.

fini

of

Engl.

'.
<

'

in',

finish'.

The sound of a Latin vowel was often affected by a neighbouring

Thus jdjunus, the older form, became jejunus, the a
having assumed the sound of e (open e} under the influence of the
1

consonant.

Vulg. Lat. Jenuarius for Janttarius, Ital. Gennaio,

took the close sound (a sound approaching to u}
before rn and other consonant-groups, such as nd (cf. the spellings
e took the close sound (a sound
turnus for tornus, frundes for/rondes)

repeated j

(cf.

with open

e)

approaching

to

i)

before rg

(cf.

the spelling

Virgilius for Vergilius).

12

Pronunciation
'

Fr. au in

6 Engl. o in
U Germ, u in

chaud
'

not

'.

'.

'

gut

(Plautus compares the repetition

'.

of the pron. tu to the hooting of

The
1

Engl.

it

call

',

'

'

in
'

&c. was
pull

short u

',

not a

is

which we

y- sound

tune

called

'

en.

u in

insert before

unknown

oo in

an owl. 1

in Latin.)

wood '. (What we often

e.g. the

vowel-sound in ' but \

-sound at

but

all,

the obscure vowel

is

properly

'.)

Care should be taken to give long vowels their correct

sound, both as regards quantity and quality, in what-

Thus the

ever position they stand in the word.

with the same

sound as the

close

must be the same

'

differ as Ital.

which has

ns,

close

bello
e,

',

and

similarly mollls

of si
'

as the e of legis

illex,

the

must

'

and

which has open

e}

stella

and

this close e should be

and

',

alluring

illex,

bellus

of lex

lawless

'

be pronounced differently from

must have the 0-sound of nonus

on.

of

must be pronounced with the same length and

nobls

long

'

non

should
stella

pronounced

(from corona), and so

corolla

The long sound was always given to a vowel before

Thus the preposition in, pronounced like our
nf.

'in',

became

in-

like inficio, insilio

'

(more like our 'e'en') in compounds

con- (Engl.

like Engl. cone ')

disappeared in pronunciation, as
fif, 'five'
1

(Germ,

'

con

in consul, &c.

fiinf), gos,

it

')

became

con- (more

and the n eventually

disappeared in O. Engl.

'goose' (Germ. Gans).

See the story in Hardy's novel, told in 3 n.

Engl. 'pool', 'wooed' approach to the Latin

u.

13

of Diphthongs

It will be found that the

of Latin poetry will

rhythm

much improved by giving

be

the Latin

vowels their

proper sounds, instead of the English sounds, as we may

gee, if we reflect how a French or Italian line would

we were

suffer if

English vowels.
poetical

to pronounce the

But the

full

rhythm can only be

vowels in

appreciation

when we

attained,

it

of

like

Latin

learn to

assign the proper difference of duration to the long and

short vowels, by

dwelling, for

example, on the

first

syllable of mater double the time that the voice rests

on the
2.

first syllable

of pater.

The

Diphthongs.

Latin Diphthongs

is

rule for the pronunciation of

often stated thus

Give loth voivels

of the diphthong their own voivel-sounds, and combine the

two sounds in one syllable.
And this is true in many

Thus the diphthong of

cases.

neu, the shortened

of ne-ve, combines in one syllable the ^-sound

w-sound

ain (a monosyllable) of aim vero

had the -sound and the -sound of

form

and the

may have

disyllabic ais in close

combination.

But

this rule overlooks the fact that the first vowel of

a Latin diphthong was usually affected, coloured, attracted

by the second vowel, in much the same way as the vowel

a of jdjunus (p. 11 n.) was modified by the influence of

the two neighbouring j's and became e,jejunus.
When
the Gen. Sing, terral (3 syllables) first became terrae,
this ae would, no doubt, have the pure sound of a followed

by the e-sound.

But

in course of time the a

was tinged

neighbouring e, and in the age of Cicero ae must

have sounded more like a long open e (something like our

by

its

14

CH.

Pronunciation
'

scaeptrum

'

For
protracted or rather doubled).
scaena were approved by purists as the

eh

Interjection

'

',

'

most exact rendering- of Gk. a-KrJTrrpov, o-Krjvrj, which

would be absurd if they were pronounced ' sca-e-ptrum ',
And when the Preposition prae was shortsca-e-na '.
'

ened before a following vowel

it

came

in prehendo, a clear proof that ae

correctly, the diphthongal)

form of

to be written pre

was the long (more

e (the short

'

'

open eIn
was
later
of
when
the
vowels
times,
sound).
quantity
we
find
e
the
short
confused,
persistently written for ae,
sound substituted for the long. We may suppose that
the

part of the Latin diphthong ae had the sound

first
'

of our

short a

been already

words

'

men

'

in

'

man

'

bat

'
t

said, approaches the

'

',

which

bet

'

a sound which, as has

'
open ^-sound of the

'.

found in a few legal and poetic words

Oe,
like foedus, amoenus, as well as the Greek loan-word
poena (ch. x.
11), must have had its first element
is

similarly affected, the o

modified

(written o), for

express the

German

long Greek

modified

'

our a in water ', wall

1

Gk.
2

v,

The a

n.

by the accompanying u
'

having the sound of German

we find oe sometimes used to

}
}

which had a sound

of au

like

was influenced too

in the direction of the sound of

with the result that au ultimately 2

had the 'open' e-sound, Latin 5 the 'close' similarly with

and Latin o.
The pronunciation of ae as e (open e) and of au as o (open o) was

Gk.

77

ta

a feature of country dialects (cf. plostrum, olio] much earlier. In the

latter part of the second century B. c. Lucilius laughed out of fashion
a 'simplified spelling' of Caecilius 'Ceciliuspretor' ne rusticu' fiat.
:

Cicero himself in his letters often uses the

with

o,

e.g. loreola for laureola,

and his

more homely spellings

was the first of

rival Clodius

15

of Diphthongs

reached the sound of long o (open

in all these

The

o).

element

first

diphthongs was affected by the second.

Scheme of Latin Diphthongs.

AE

Pronounce with the vowel of

<

'path',

'

man

'

of

(not

footpath') rapidly followed by the

<?-vowel.

AU

'

Pronounce with the vowel of ' water (not of path ',

{

'

OE

followed by the #- vowel.

') rapidly
neutro (e followed by u).
Pronounce with Germ, o rapidly followed by the

UI

Pronounce with Germ,

footpath

EU

as in Ital.

'

'

e-vowel.
ii

rapidly followed

Hui expressed a

i-vowel.

by the

whistle of astonish-

ment.

Consonants.

3.

much

difficulty.

The Latin Consonants do not offer

p, d} t, g, c, the
give

We may

ft,

English pronunciation, being careful however always to

'
(
give the two last the hard sound which we are in the
'
'
y and K, and never the soft
sound, which the letters have in English
vowels like e, i. We must pronounce the c

habit of giving to Greek

(palatalized)

words before

of civitas, as of cavitas,

and the g of

agito, as of ago, like

the gens to change the name Claudius to its plebeian form Clodius,
with the view of conciliating the mob. There is a story of Vespasian
being reproved by a certain Florus for using the pronunciation

and turning the tables on his critic by addressing him as

The word Florus would be pronounced with close 6,
plostrum with open o, so that the Emperor's retort would not satisfya phonetician. We may however gather from the story that Latin
au was still a diphthongal sound in correct pronunciation at the
plostrum
'

Flaurus

'

'.

close of the first century A. D,

'

16

of our

we

cavity
'

city

V had

'

the c of our

if

CH,

Pronunciation
and the g of our f ago

and the g of our

the sound of our w,

',

not like the

'

'

agitate

age

',

j the sound

'.

of our

give these letters their proper sound,

have much

ij

we

and

shall not

difficulty in seeing the etymological relation

and neu (with the final e dropt, 12), ca-vi-tum

and cautum } jam and effiam, &c., nor in understanding how
of ne-ve

the

caw

of a

crow

could be mistaken for a cry of ave, ave

2
(Phaedrus). Between vowels / was doubled in pronunciation ; ejus, for example, was pronounced ' ey-yus (with
'

open
the

'

e),

and was often written EIIVS

littera

of a dog

canina

',

(cf. hirrio,

to growl),

sound of French and Italian

Final

(p.

n.).

R, called

because its sound resembled the growl

should not be

must be given the

trilled

r.

sounded, but the preceding

vowel should be pronounced as a nasal vowel, so that,

(
e. g., -om will sound like Fr.
on '. In poetry when the
next word begins with a vowel the a of, e. g., illam
igitur is elided like the a of ilia igitur, the

being that the a of illam

is

And

nasal.

only difference
that this was

not a mere poetical convention, but the actual pronunciawe learn from animadverto for anim(um) advert o

tion
(cf.

magnqpere, tantopere for magnet operey tanto opere, &c.).

A Roman

could pun on Domitius and

domum

'

itio,

home-

is like Hardy's in
Far from the Madding
owl in a tree happened to be crying Whoo-whooand Joseph, all in a tremble, said Joseph Poorgrass of
Weatherbury, sir.'
2
V was often dropped between vowels, especially similar vowels
e. g. lavcibrum (the old form) became labrum, a bath, si vis became sis,
if you please '.
Cf. our Hawarden pronounced with loss of w.
1

Phaedrus' story

Crowd
whoo
!

'

'

'

'

<

'

'

of Consonants

17

going \ Before g the letter n (as in angnlus) had the

same sound as our n in ( angle '. S must always have the
(
hard sound that it has in our noun ' use ', never the
'

'

'

sound of our verb

soft

to use

'

so

pronounce

mus

like our noun, not like our verb.

Scheme of Latin Consonants.

as Engl.

as Engl. k.

as Engl.

as Engl.

as Engl. g in

as Engl.

J as Engl.

as Engl.

as Engl.

'

ago

',

not as g in

'

age

'.

y.

M as Engl., but when final Lat. -m should be dropped

and a nasal pronunciation given to the preceding vowel,

as Engl.

as Engl.

Q
R

as Engl.

e.

g. Lat. -om like Fr. on.

as Scotch or Continental

r,

stronger than r in

'

opera'.

as Engl. s of the
(

use

as Engl.

V
X

as Engl.

noun use
'

',

never as

of the verb

'.

as Engl. w.

4.

Greek Letters.

To

these

we may add the Greek

18

Pronunciation

letters, y,

only in

z,

tJi,

ph,

c/i,

Greek loan-words

which, as
(ch.

i.

CH.

we have

6).

seen, occur

Y (Greek Upsilon)

had the same modified u- sound as the i of optimus

the soft 5-sound of our verb 'to use';

pronounced as in our

tJt

ant-heap

',

ph
'

up-hill

cJt,

had

were

ink-horn

',

'.

5. The Pronunciation of V.
The use of the sign v, which
suggests to those who pronounce Latin words as if they were
English words a sound like that of Engl. v for Lat. vos, &c., is not
ancient.
F and u were not distinguished in Latin inscriptions or

for
early MSS., the discrimination in MSS. of the capital form
consonantal u, and of the Uncial (also Minuscule and Cursive) form

U for vocalic

u being of a late date (ch. 1. 9). The sound of our

indeed the sound to which Latin v (bilabial) ultivostro ', from Lat. vaster, has our
mately developed (e. g. Ital.
t>-sound, as Ital. 'giurare', from Lat. jurare, our j-sound) and the
but whether Cicero's prechange probably began with initial v
ference of con- to com- in compounds like convocat, convalescit, can be
taken as evidence that wcat, valescit, had already in his time a labiodental sound is very doubtful. Intervocalic v certainly retained its
bilabial sound till much later, as we see from mispronunciations of
the Empire like paimentum for pavimentum. 1 B, which from a bilabial mute (our &) had between vowels become a bilabial spirant (our
w) is regularly used for intervocalic v in the third century A. D., and it
was probably not till the fifth century that Latin v came to be sounded
like our v. After r, the bilabial spirant v came in Imperial Latin to be
sounded ^ike the bilabial mute b, whence spellings like corbus (Fr. corbeau) for corvus, and theclassical/er&m', Perf. offerveo. On Latin j see 7.
6. The Pronunciation of H, TH, PH, CH. 'Greek 0,
x had
been in loan-words expressed by t, p, c in the Latin of the Republic.
Plautus puns on Chrysalus (Crusalus} and crucisalus, from crux and
salio (Bacch. 362), on Charmus (Carinus) and careo (Pseud. 736), on
Thulem Ace. (Talem~) and talentum (Capt. 274). We find also b for $
in old spellings like Ennius' Bruges for &pvy(s, and in ballaena for
<aAA.ati/a, a whale; and the Vulgar Greek pronunciation of x as k-kh,
has left traces of itself in the conversational Latin of Plautus
v (labiodental) is

'

<j>,

The

There was at
'

(cf.

all

times a tendency to drop

v before

conversational form of avunculus in Plautus' time

French oncle '), a trisyllable.

the accent.

was aunculus

of Consonants

5, 6

(Acc(ti)eruns for 'Axe/xwv),

of H,

CH

TH, PH,

and in the form admitted into

19

classical

usage, bracc(h}ium from /JpaxtW. But at the time of Cicero, when

the Greek study of Phonetics was introduced into Rome by Tyrannio,
it was felt necessary to
more accurately by th, ph, ch and this
pronunciation was carefully followed in polite circles. The struggle

the teacher of Cicero's friend Atticus,

express the Greek Aspirates
to attain the

new

shibboleth of fashion led to ludicrous misappliby the uneducated classes, which have been

cations of the ft-sound

satirized

by Catullus in his famous epigram on Arrius

'

Chommoda
dicere, et

'

'

dicebat, siquando

hinsidias

'

commoda

(84)

vellet

Arrius insidias.

Nigidius, a Grammarian of Cicero's time, emphasized the imrusticus fit

portance of correctness in the use of the letter h
:

sermo si adspires perperam and the dropping of h seems to have

been even in the time of St. Augustine an unpardonable breach of
manners (Confess. 1. 18 si contra disciplinam grammaticam sine
;

adspiratione primae syllabae ominem dixerit, displiceat magis

hominibus, quam si contra tua praecepta hominem oderit, cum
'

'

'homo'). Cicero (Orator 48. 160) tells us that he was forced in

spite of his convictions to yield so far to popular usage as to prosit

nounce pulcher, Cethegus, triumphus, Karthago, though he still adhered

to Orcivius, Mato, Oto, Caepio, sepulcrum, corona, lacrima.
Quintilian
5. 20) says
diu deinde servatum ne consonantibus [veteres]
adspirarent, ut in Graccis et in triumpis '. Erupit brevi tempore
nimius usus, ut choronae ', chenturiones ', ' praechones adhuc
:

(i.

'

'

'

'

'

quibusdam in inscriptionibus maneant, qua de re Catulli nobile

epigramma est. By the fifth century A. D. had become a spirant,
x
differing from Lat./only in being bilabial, while/ was labiodental
and from this time onward /is the normal equivalent of in Greek
loan-words, e.g. strofa (Gk. arpoQri}; cf. Ital. filosofia, &c. The
difference between the two sounds in Cicero's time is seen from
Quintilian's story of Cicero ridiculing a Greek witness who could not
pronounce the first letter of the name Fundanius (Quint, i. 4. 14).
Between vowels the omission of h was sanctioned by current
(f>

</>

usage in a
(dehibeo"),

By

the

number

of words, such as nemo (for

*ne-hemo)

debeo

from prehendo).
had established themselves

praebeo (praehibeo"), praeda (for *prae-heda,

first

century

A. D.

prendo

and

nil

Latin / was originally bilabial, but became labiodental in the

last centuries of the Republic.
Its bilabial character is seen from
old spellings like imfronte, comfluont (class, confluunf).
1

c 2

20

Pronunciation

CH.

in current usage, also deprendo, though reprehensus was heard as well

as reprensus. Vehemens seems merely to be a fashion of spelling vemens

(from

ve-

and

mens).

The Pronunciation

of TI, CI, &c. The same wave of Syncope that passed over later Latin, reducing vetulus to veclus (cf. Ital.
'
vecchio), &c. ( 13), made Tityus out of Titius, hodye out of
l
uncya out of uncia, Sec. Through this combination of our
hodie,
7.

'

'

'

'

y-sound with a preceding consonant in unaccented syllables, a new

series of sounds, unknown in Latin, has arisen in Romance. Latin
'
slmia, a monkey, has become Fr. singe (through simya'), Lat. apium,
'
parsley, Fr. ache (through apyum' ), Lat. rabies (-bio) Fr. rage (through
1
'
Lat.
rabya '),
cambiare, Fr. changer (through
cambyare '). Dy
became identified with gi, ge, and Latin j (our y), and has assumed

in Italian the sound of

whence our 'journal'

our.;',

e.g. Ital. giorno

from Lat. diurnus,

while ty has developed in Italian into the

sound of ts, a sound reduced in French to an s-sound, in Spanish to
a sound like our th in 'thin (written in Spanish z\ e.g. Ital. piazza,
;

'

from Lat. platea through 'platya'. The

Empire have fortunately left us a good
many remarks on this change of sound, so that we can trace pretty
clearly the course of its development in Latin. The palatalization
of t seems from their account to have begun in the fourth cent. A. D.,
and to have been fairly established by the fifth. About the same
time cy became assibilated and so confusions of -ci- and -ti- before
a vowel are common in late inscriptions and in MSS. ( 10).
The palatalization of c before e, i, e.g. decem, was much later than the
Fr. place, Span, plaza, all
grammarians of the later

palatalization of q/, e.g.

decies,

certainly not before the sixth or seventh

For no grammarian hints at a difference of sound in c

before a broad and before a narrow vowel, although the assibilation of
Greek transcripti, ci, before a vowel is mentioned again and again.
tions of Latin words with c invariably reproduce it by K, in cases
centuries A. D.

like

in

KHN2ON for

Welsh

positions,

censum,

(first to fifth
e. g.

KPH2KHN2

for Crescens

Latin loan-words

show that Latin cwas hard in all

cera), ciwdawd (Lat. civitatern), and

centuries)

Welsh cwyr

(Lat.

similarly German Keller (Lat. cellarium\ Kiste (Lat. cista), &c. ;

it is not till the seventh century that spellings like paze for pace
G before e, i may have assumed
assert themselves on inscriptions.

the sound y at a somewhat earlier period.

But the dropping of

between two vowels

in late spellings like rinti for viginti (the precursor of Ital. venti), trienta for trlglnta, cannot be dissociated from
g

spellings like'frualitas forfrugalitas,

where

it is

dropt before a broad

7-9

of L,

E;

21

of Syllables

vowel, and points merely to intervocalic g having become, when

pretonic, a spirant, like g of German Tage, just as intervocalic
b became a tw-sound in the third cent. A. D. (
5).

The Pronunciation of L, B. The Latin writers on Grammar

8.
tell

us that

had a 'pinguis'

or 'plenus sonus' in

two

cases, (1)

when it ended a word or when it was followed by another consonant,

e. g. sol, silva, albus, (2)

and an

'exilis' or

'

in combinations like

tenuis sonus

',

(1) at

fl, cl, e.

g. flavus, cldrus

the beginning of a word,

double I, e. g. ille, Metdlus,

lana, lupus, and especially (2)

The development of Lat. I in the Romance languages points
to post-consonantal Z having been pronounced with what phoneticians
call an 'off-glide', e.g. cflarus (Ital. chiaro from
clyaro), and preconsonantal I with an on-glide e. g ahter (Fr. autre from aultre).
I.-Eur. e in Latin became o before I, e. g. wlo, but remained before II
and before I followed by the vowels e or i, e. g. velle, velim, which points
to II, le, li, having had more the palatal Z-sound. So in Spanish the
e. g. lectusj

Catullus.

'

',

sound known as 1 mouillde

a hprse ', the sound given by
'

'

'

is

given to Latin

Italian, to Lat.

li

II,

e. g.

caballo,

before a vowel

(&/),

'

<
miglia (cf. our million '), bigliardo (our billiards ').
Metathesis of r (and Z) was as common in bad Latin as in bad

e.g.

English, and mispronunciations of the kind are often censured by

the Latin Grammarians. We have in Plautus e.g. Phyrgio
(Aul.
508) for Phrygio,

corcotarii (Aul. 521) for crocotarii.

Columns is the
Adjective from corulus, a hazel.
At the end of the third century B. c. the (dialectal ?) substitution

found its way into the literary language in a few words,

seemed to be sanctioned by etymology. Lingua (cf. Engl.
tongue ') became lingua (by analogy of lingo, I lick), dacruma (cf. Gk.
Sdtfpu) became lacruma (by analogy of Zacer?), dautia, the entertainment of ambassadors, became lautia (by analogy of lautus), *odeo
(cf. Gk. ofa) became oho.
Another temporary pronunciation, which did not however leave
a permanent mark on the language, was the substitution of an rsound for d before /and v about the same period. This is seen in old
spellings like arvena for advena, arfari for adfari, and is preserved
in the legal formula scribendo adfuerunt (written SCR. ARF.).
of

for d

where

it

'

9. Syllable -Division.
A caution too must be given
about the pronunciation of Latin Syllables, which
should follow the Italian more than the English fashion.

22

Prommciation

Each

syllable should be

due share of utterance

if

nant,

CH.

pronounced distinctly, with its

it should never end in a conso-

the consonant can be pronounced at the beginning

And

of the next syllable.

double consonants must be

pronounced double, as in Italian, with one at the

of the first syllable

end

and the other at the beginning of

So pronounce pro-fu-gus, not ( prof gus

ben-e ', bucca and penna like our ' book-case

the second.
be-ne, not

'

'

penknife

so on. 1

and

',

',

',

Scansions like agri and agri

seem to indicate two pronunciations

(from
of mute with liquid, either a-gri (making an iambus) or
ager, a field)

But other explanations

(making a spondee).

ag-ri

of

this difference of scansion are possible.

s and double I passed in certain circumstances
the lengthened sound, hardly distinguishable in
the case of these consonants from the repeated sound,

Double

into

and were reduced to single

and single

l\

ss,

after

Thus
a diphthong or long vowel, II, after a diphthong.
'
'
the explanation of
caussa, glossa, a difficult word ', or
a difficult word (Gk yXSxra-a), formossus, paullum, the
'

spellings of Cicero's time,

the Imperial

with

Age

between long
vilicus, a farm

II

willle,

became

at the beginning of

So

causa, glosa, formosus, paulum.

i

and another

bailiff,

from

i, e.

g. milia, Plur. of

villa,

and with nn

in

cdnubium, conecto, conitor for cotmubium, &c.

double consonant at the end of a word

in Latin.

Thus we have

milU- with the

1

Nom,

miles for *miless

Sg.
'

suffix -s (ch.
'

iii.

is

not found

from the stem

8)

es,

thou

mispronunciation like jusit for jussit, ile' for ille was,

which the Greeks were especially liable.

are told, one to

we

10

23

Orthography

art, for *ess

-s (ch.

from the root

vi.

19)

es-,

to be, with the 2 Sg. suffix

hoc for *kocc

(cf.

hoc-ci-ne)

from the

Neut. Pron. *hod with the particle c(e) (ch. v.

3).
Before a word beginning with a consonant these would at
times have their double

all

and

s,

this pronunciation gradually

But in the time

a vowel also.

syllable of such

reduced to single

came

of Plautus

words always a long

s,

c,

into fashion before

we

find the last

syllable,

and even in

the classical time hoc (and after its example hie, ch. v. 3)
is found
as a syllable long by position, pronounced,

though not spelt, kocc before an

o and double c.
f

Doublet '-forms

initial

vowel, with short

like these, es before

an

sonant, *ess before an initial vowel (cf our

initial
'

a consonant,

an

'

before a vowel) are

On ac (for *atc) and atque,

see

12.

Final d,

common

con-

'

before

in Latin.

and negue,proin andproinde,

which was at an early period dropt in
nee

pronunciation after a long vowel, passed through this

'
'
doublet stage, the d-less forms having been originally
confined to cases

when an

initial

consonant followed. In

the time of Plautus the only relics of -d after a long vowel

are the monosyllables med, ted, sed (not used by Plaut.),

hand.

They have the

d-less

form before a consonant,

e.

g.

me tamen, hau scio, and the first three often before a vowel
too, e. g. me enim as well as med enim.
By the classical
time the d-less forms, me, te, se, have driven the d-forms
off the field, but the form hand continued to assert itself.
10.

Orthography.

Latin spelling was phonetic,

representing the actual sounds uttered in pronouncing

the word, the cases where a spelling was due to Gram-

24

Pronunciation

CH.

marians' theories being few and exceptional.

Such a
'
grammarians' spelling was the bs of urbs, which was
'

pronounced (and often spelt) ps3 it being impossible to

pronounce b along with the Latin s } which had the hard
(unvoiced) sound of our

with

due

noun

'

use

'

3).

The

spelling

analogy of the Gen., Dat., &c., urbis,

urbi.
A variety of spelling may generally be taken
to represent a variety of pronunciation.
For example
b is

to the

spellings like hospicium for hospitium (from hospes,

-itis),

concio for contio (from

co(n)uentio), nuncius for nuntius
1
(from noventius) are spellings not earlier than the fifth
when ti and ci had both, before a vowel, come

cent. A. D.,

an *-sound

to be sounded with

7); spellings like hereo

by which
had become indistinguishable in

for Jiaereo are later than the fourth cent. A.D.,

time ae and e (open

pronunciation

2)

e)

spellings like autor for auctor are also

and point to the pronunciation of ct as it (cf Ital. otto

from Lat. octo) On the other hand optumus, maeumus,&Lc.

late

are early spellings, before the time of Augustus (see

1)

so are the double-consonant forms, caussa} formossus, &c.

(see

9)

equos, &c., loguontiir, &c., are the oldest spellings,

then ecus, locuntur, then in Trajan's time equus, loqiiuntur

The uncertainty about the pronunciation of
(see p. 36).

6)

is

reflected in spellings like arena for karena, olus

for holus, vegetable, ariolus for hariolus, a soothsayer,

1
This is not quite true. There are earlier examples due to the habit
of substituting c for t before a consonant (like our vulgar 'a cleast'
for 'at least').
Just as t before the consonant I became c in veclus
'

vecchio) from vet(u)lus, so t before consonantal i (our y)

c in nuntius (0. Lat. noventio-} producing the form nuncius
'

(Ital.

became

(pronounced 'nuncyus').

Accentuation of

11

Word

humeo and humiclus for umeo and umidus.

25

Often a wrong

due to a perverted etymology; thus dellro

spelling
was written delero, as if connected with Gk. AT; poo ; letum
is

was written lethum

\rj6r)

Engl. lethal) and referred to Gk.

(cf.

sepulcmm, from sepelio (ch.

derived from

was written

x.

20), was fantastically

without, and pulcer, misspelt pulcher, and

se,

sepulclirum (on pulcher, sylva, &c. for pulcer,

'

'

sylvan ) ; cena
at
a
time
as
coena, through confusion
appears
very early
with Gk. /coi^oy; comminus (cum and manus) was wrongly
silva see ch.

i.

cf Engl.

sepulchre,

written cominus on the analogy of eminus, and so on.

The

Accentuation.

11.

rules of the Latin

Accent

was never found necessary to

indicate by accent-marks the syllable on which the
In Latin
accent was to fall, as was done in Greek.
are

simple that

so

it

the quantity of the penultimate syllable regulates accentuation, as the quantity of the final in Greek.

When
upon

the penultimate syllable

it

when
decores.

decores,

short,

This

is

long, the accent rests

on

the

antepenultimate,

is

also

the

natural

e.

g.

English

There are however a few points of difficulty.

Monosyllables with a long vowel, like fids, mos, res,
;
had a ' Circumflex Accent, the voice rising first and
practice.

then falling slightly, and so had long final syllables

of words whose last vowel has been dropt by Apocope
or Syncope, e.g. illw,

there/ from

*illice, nostrds,

'of

our country/ from nostrdtis (Plaut.), audit for audwit,

adduc for adduce, while monosyllables or apocopated
finals with a naturally short vowel had the ordinary
(

Acute

'

Accent, e.g. nix (nivis Gen.), pa,rs9

illinc

from

26

Accentuation of Sentence

*illim-ce.

CH.

Again the Voc. and Gen. Sg. in -i of Nouns

from the beginning of the Empire, or

in -ivs, -ium, were

pronounced with the accent on the paenultima,

when the paenultima was short, e. g. Faleri,

earlier,

even

Vergili, tuguri.

writers on

This accentuation, introduced by Latin

the mistaken idea that these

grammar under

forms were contractions of an

tugurii) &c. (ch.

iii.

the educated classes

of the usages of

must be
if

6),
(cf.

what

is

12 on
called

noticed, for the accent

uttered separately,

assigned to
a sentence.

it,

earlier

was followed

may

Valerii,

nostrds).
'

Vergilii,

in the speech of

Further, some

Sentence- Accentuation

which a word would bear,

be different from the accent

when standing with

The Greek Preposition

other

777)69,

words in

for example,

mentioned by itself, an acute accent. But in the

sentence its accent was obscured by the Noun which it
had,

if

governed, e.g. Trpoy TroAi^, and this by the Greek system

was expressed by replacing its acute with a grave accent.
Similarly in Latin a Preposition, say supra, or a Relative,

say

qiialis,

est qualis

were in sentences like supra moenia

stat, tails

Cicero fuit, united with the following

word

which took the ordinary accent of

a single word, supra-moenia, qualis-Gicero. The Adverb
supra and the Interrogative qualis were not subordinated,
into a word-group

but retained their independent accent, supra habitat,

Other words which became suborqudtis fuit Cicero ?
the ordinary utterance of the
various parts of the Substantive
the
(1)
Verb, e. g. amdtus-est (often written by the Romans
amdtust)} (2) the Personal and Possessive Pronouns,
dinate

or

enclitic

sentence were

in

27

Accentuation of Sentence

11

unless specially emphasized, e.g. in-me, dd-me

Trpoy

fj,,

npos

or our

ere,

stress of the voice

is

'

on
'

emphasized, as in

for

for

for

him
'

',

with him

',

with

',

Gk.

(cf.

',

with the

unless the

Pronoun

me, but not for thee

'),

meus-

dominus, mea-domina (Ital. Madonna), (3) the Demonstrative Pronouns, when unemphatic, e.g. ille-dominus

(pronounced with Syncope of -e, ill'-dominus). From

unemphatic use of the Demonstrative Pronoun has

this

sprung the Romance Definite Article, e.g.

f

padre

Span.

',

Ital.

'il

padre', (4) Conjunctions like ett sed,

el

Auxiliary Verbs, such as volo in volo9c4re> cave in

(5)

cave-facias.

Such Auxiliaries have

in

the languages

derived from Latin been reduced to mere Tense-signs,

f

f
j'aimerai' from Lat. amare-lia(be)o, j'ai fait'
from Lat. ha(be)o-factum. The subordination of many

e.g. Er.

words was indicated by the Roman way of

writing; the Preposition was often written along with
its Noun in one word, just as it was
along with its Verb
of these

in a

Compound Verb,

incurrum, like incurro (cf imprimis,

.

15), while Auxi-

odviam, ddmodum, denuo, for de novo,

liaries

like lufat, volo,

were in certain cases similarly

treated, e.g., quolibet, qudmvis, quantumvis.

And

spell-

ings like quomodo, quare, postridie (for posteri die), decemviri

show that these Nouns, modus,

res, dies, vir,

were

subordinated in Latin speech, just as in English ' thing ',

}
1
kind ', { part , &c., are used without stress in phrases
like

'

something (nothing) of that kind', 'some parts

of England'.

The

I.-Eur. Enclitics

We

saw above

Enclitics -que, -ve are examples of

(cf.
(

Gk.

re,

*fe in

T}-

from

*f fe).

9) that the Latin pronunciation, like

Law

The Early Accent

28

modern

Italian,

gave each syllable

its

en.

due share of utter-

ance, while the English slurs the unaccented syllables,

and so has/ for example, reduced 'fantasy' to ' fancy 7

and has given

'

minit

is

'

minute' (Lat. minutum) the sound of

But this difference between Latin and English

'.

not more than one of degree.

For the Latin Accent
like ours a stress-accent; at all events it was an

was

accent mainly of stress, though this stress was probably

accompanied by a slightly higher tone than the tone of

And

the unstressed syllables.

stress-accent Latin had,

like all

though not

languages with

to the

same extent

as

English, the tendency to weaken the unstressed syllable,

a tendency still seen in its modern representative, the
Italian language (cf Ital.
.

'

to shout

'

',

'

gridare

shout for protection

'

',

from Lat. quwtiare

'
balsimo from Lat.

'
balsamum, albero' from arborem). The Latin stress-accent
left traces of itself at all
periods of the language in the

Syncope, the Weakening, and the Shortening of unaccented vowels, three processes which have so materially
altered the appearance of the language that they must
be treated in detail in separate paragraphs.
12. Syncope of Unaccented Vowels. For a century
or

two before the

literary period the

which was mentioned

tima

Law

',

as

law of accentuation

in the last paragraph, the

it is called,

did not prevail.

was at that time accented on the

'

first syllable.

words had, of course, as they had at

all

Paenul-

Every word

Long

periods of the

1
language, a secondary accent as well as the main accent,
1
Cf. any English long word, say
characteristical
which has
the main accent (') on the antepenultimate, the secondary Q on the
'

',

first syllable.

The Early Accent

12

Law

29

but in them, as well as in shorter words, the main

accent rested on the

Law

Paenultima

first

The change

syllable.

to the

of Accentuation began in these long

words with the substitution of the main accent for the

secondary, the secondary for the main

e.g. tempest&tibus

became tempestdtibu9, elementum became elem&ntum

The change to the Paenultima
our 'elemental').

(like

Law

was not wholly completed at the beginning of the literary

period, for the accent was still on the first syllable of
like jfdciliitf, ddlinitum (later lialneiiwi) , that

words

is

to

say words of the scansion \j w w , in the time of Plautus.

Instances of Syncope under the Early Accent Law are
of Prepositions in Compounds, e. g. anculus, an
(1)
:

word

'

(whence ancilla), for *ambi-quolus

(Gk. a/z^'-TToAoy). By Syncope of this kind the old
Preposition ambi was reduced to am- in Compounds;
old

for

servant

similarly the old Preposition endo, indo, or indu

was reduced

and became confused with the Preposition in ;

induperator came to be pronounced as imperator,

to ind-j in-,
e.g.

indugredi as ingredi;

member

first

from

liostis

of a

(2) of the

Compound,

in its old sense of

second syllable of the

e.g. hospes for *liosti-pet-s,

'

a stranger

'
;

princeps for

*pnml-ceps forceps, the smith's tongs, for *forrni-cepshom

18);
formus, hot, connected with Greek 0ep/z6y (ch. x.
quindecim from qmngue and decem ; widecim, from uniis
;

and decem
(3)

of

of a

the

vindemia, vintage, for *mni-clemia, from demo-,

first

syllable of

Compound Verb,

the

Reduplicated Perfect

e.g. reUuli for re-tetuli (ch. vi.

10), repperi for re-peperi, reccldi for re-cecidi,

where the

double consonant preserves a trace of the Syncope.

30

Change of Sound

CH.

When a short vowel following r was syncopated, the

pronunciation of r without a vowel (as in the final syllable
Thus *sacro-dos,
of Fr. { sacre', &c.) led to the form er.
*sacr%-dos

became

sacerdos

accent as ul (older

became

ve

ofo>

for

*sacro-lom became *sacerlom,

Similarly -U- appears in the syllable after the

sacellum.

ol)

mfacuUas, &c.

syllable like

6F-i<*>),

ft

for the older lavdbrnm, audissem for andivissem,

'like,

Syncope n in autumo for *&vl-tumo (cf Gk.

auceps for *am-ceps. But forms like Idbrum

after

and the

are not due to Syncope, but to the habit of dropping

in pronunciation

'vowels

between two vowels, especially similar

Nor should we

.).

a change as dixti for

refer to

dixisti, muse for

Syncope such

mississe, delilitare for

debilitatare,idolatriatQi idololatria,wheTe,owing to the un-

pleasant effect of two neighbouring syllables having the

same sound, one has been suppressed (ch. x. 20). Saeclum

not a syncopated form of saeculum, for saeclnm is the

is

older, while in saeculum a

tween the

and the

parasitic * of mina, a

we may compare
'Knif ', or the

vowel has been inserted be-

to aid pronunciation, like the

Greek loan-word,

Fr.

'canif',

fj,vd,

with which

German

loan-word,

parasitic u of Tecumessa (TtKfirjo-o-a), for

which Tecmessa was

first

used in Cicero's time. 1

-culum, and -dug, -clum,

On

see ch. xi.

this
9.

ending -culiis,
Later instances of Syncope, after the time when the
Paenultima Law had come in, are calfacio, for cale-facio,
originally cale-facio

lammma

16), lamna, a bar of metal,

(Plaut.), objurgo, to scold,

from

from

objurigo (Plaut.).

Other examples of the Parasitic Vowel in the early forms of

Greek loan-words are the Plautine techma, drdchuma, Alcumena.
1

12

31

Syncope

Soldus (Hor. Sat. ii. 5. 65 metuentis reddere soldum),

solifhiSj is the form that represented the ordinary

for

pronunciation of every-day life, and caldus, we are told,

was the form approved by the Emperor Augustus;

though

it

was only

few words that Syncope after a

Law was admitted

in a

short syllable under the Paenultima

into the literary language, e.g. valde, of

form valide

which the

full

found in Plautus.

is still

Syncope of the

was a great feature

final syllable

of

the Oscan and other Italic languages, but not of Latin.

The Oscan word

for

Campanian ',

mimics

Oscan pronunciation in

this

the conquered Campanians (Trin. 545)

was

for example,

Campans, while the Latin was Campdmis

and Plautus

his cruel sneer at

:

Campa"ns genus

Surorum iam

Mult<5
'

friend

Campans

endurance/

'

',

far ahead of the Syrian race in

however

is

syncopated in Adjs.

dcri-, -ros in ager

belongs to a period earlier than this

Appendix

countryman
Plautus,
trds, &c.,

is

1).
',

(Gk. aypoy),

The Forum inscription, with its

6).

(ch.iii.

sacer

now

-m

Masc. of the stem

like acer,

&c.

is

Final

antidit patientia,

of

The

-ffis

which the

SAKROS

Syncope

of words like nostrdtis,

full

(see
c

our

forms only are known to

usually said to have been reduced to

-(f)s

in nos-

by Syncope; but the new Nominative may rather

be due to the analogy of a declension like amans, Nom.,

amantis Gen., where -s in the
in the Gen. case.

'

for

Nom.

case corresponds to

-tis

A Gen. PI. like deum is sometimes called

'

form of deorum, but most mistakenly

-um (Gk. -<*>v) is an earlier suffix of the Gen. PI. of the

contracted

Change of Sound

32

CH.

Second Declension, while -drum, formed on the analogy

of -drum of the First Declension, was an innovation
introduced about the beginning- of the literary period
iii.
But a final -e (i) was dropped in pro6).
(see ch.
nunciation, especially in words closely joined with the
word that followed them, e. g. nee for neque,ac (i. e. *atc) for
atque, neu for neve, seu for slve, qnin for qulne (ch. ix.
tot

for *tott

(cf.

tdti-clem).

were much used in word-groups,

lost their final -e in the

In Plautus the

second century B.C., cUc, due, and/rt<?.

full forms are still used when there

pause after the word

cf Kill.
.

and especially Rud. 124

tu, siquid

(pnfer

opus

see ch. vi.

15),

Three Imperatives, which

256

dice,

is

anything of a

monstra, praecipe,

est, dice.

Die quod te rogo.

14.)

The conditions under which

13. Details of Latin Syncope.
Vowel-syncope was carried out differed at different periods. A
vowel between n and m was not syncopated, because the consonantgroup nm was difficult to pronounce, e.g. anima not anma, though

Komance development of the Latin language we find that

Syncope has been pushed a stage further, e.g. Old Fr. anme, alme,
arme, Fr. ame, Span, alma, Ital. alma (in poetry). (So frigidus
appears in all the Romance languages in a syncopated shape,
Analogy also may often prevent
e.g. Ital. freddOj Fr. froid, &c.).
Syncope, or, after words have been syncopated, may restore them

in the

to their original form. Thus porgo, for example, was restored to

by the analogy of the Perfect porrexi and the analogy of other

porrigo,

where

was preceded by some

uncombinable consonant, e.g. frigidus, may account for the existfor the consonants
ence of un syncopated Adjectives like calidus
in calidus, I and d, are of a kind that would easily combine.
There are then two cases in which Latin vowels resisted Syncope
(1) when they stood between consonants which did not easily

Adjectives in

-%dus,

this termination

is

33

Syncope

combine, (2) when in whole classes of words Syncope was prevented or effaced by the analogy of unsyncopated forms. With
these exceptions it seems to have been the rule in Early Latin that
I in the syllable after the accent always suffered
e,
syncope, unless

they were long by 'position'. This 5, i, might be original e, i, or

the reduced (post-tonic) form of original a (o). The Early Latin
accent fell, as we have seen, on the first syllable of each word, so
that every 8, I in a second syllable, not long by position, 1 must
have suffered Syncope.
The new law of accentuation, the Paenultima Law, brought with
it the possibility of a new
variety, namely, suppression of the
syllable preceding the accent, Pretonic Syncope. It is often difficult to say whether a case of Syncope is pretonic or post-tonic.
In words like ardere, drdorem, for example, we say that the Syncope

of

of aridere, aridorem is due to the new accent on the penult,

aridorem ; but it might possibly be referred to the influence

aridere,

of the old accent on the first syllable, dridere, aridorem.

like artama (Gk. dpvTcuva], perstroma (Grk. irf pier pupa), both

Forms

used by
Lucilius, and both borrowed no doubt after the old Accent Law

had ceased to operate, are clearer cases of Pretonic Syncope. And

the influence of the following accent, rather than the mere addition
of extra syllables, seems to be the real factor in the Syncope in the
literary period of such words as frigddria (Lucil.) beside frigidus,
calddrius beside cdlidus, portorium beside portitor, postridie beside posteri,
beside dlteri. The unaccented -m- of avidus, which resisted

altrinsecus

Syncope in the simple adjective-form, succumbed to the influence

of the following accent in the lengthened Derivative *amdere, audere,
to dare, properly to have a mind for
cf. si audes, if you please
'

'

(Plaut.), class, sodes.

The analogy of these lengthened Derivatives,

e. g.

ardere, ardorem,

caused or aided the Syncope of the simple Adjective, e.g. ardus

(Lucil.).
Similarly aet- for atvit- in aetcts may have come into use
first in the lengthened cases aetdtis, aetdti,
aetdtem, or in Derivatives
like aeternus.

But

in the literary period, as in the earlier, there

was

always the tendency to Syncope, and a word like aridus would, we may
be sure, in the careless utterance of every-day speech be pronounced
ar'dus, though circumstances might operate in preventing this form

The Forum inscription, however, our oldest i*elic of Latin, offers

lOVESTOD/usfo. In such words (cf. monslrum for *monestrum) length
by position did not prevent Syncope.
1

34

Change of Sound

CH.

from being accepted in literary Latin. Quintilian (i. 6. 19) tells us

that Augustus stigmatized as a piece of affectation the use of caiidcs
for caldus: rion quia id non sit latinum, sed quia sit odiosum, et,
ut ipse Graeco 'Verbo significavit, irtpitpyov,
sonle centuries after (Appendix Probi 198.

and yet a Grammarian

K.j puts cahla under

3.

the same condemnation asfrigda, virdis.

Post-tonic Syncope, under the new accent-law, seems, during the
Republic and Early Empire, to occur only when the accented

vowel

is long, e.g. bdrca (our 'barque'), from *bdrica, a word

introduced at the time of Caesar's naval displays in the Circus,
although we find it in the period of the Early Literature in words

more syllables where three short syllables preceded the

battn&um (Plaut. and Ter.), a spelling which did not yield
time to later balneum. Opitumus was apparently the form

of four or
final, e.g.

some

for

in use about the beginning of the literary period, but soon became
These words, as we saw above ( 12), had in the time of
optumus.

Plautus and Terence the accent on the first syllable, bdlincum

1
producing balneum, &C.
Similarly opificina (Plaut.), accented
op(/?ana, produced officina
puerilia, accented pueriiia, produced the
But forms like caldus from crdidc.s,
ptiertia of Horace (C. i. 36. 8).
;

from vlridis, domnus for dvminus, vedus for vetulus, are a feature
of colloquial or Vulgar Latin, and were not as a rule established
in the language till the later Empire
though valde, older vcilide

virdis

and a few other words were current at a much earlier time.

The same wave of Syncope that reduced viridis, dominus, vetulus,

(Plaut.),

forms attacked u, i in hiatus (before a vowel). As

early as the latter half of the first century A. D. tennis varied between
a disyllable and a trisyllable
cardus, for carduus, a thistle, mortus,

&c., to disyllabic

Romance forms (Ital.,

Ital. morto, Span, muerto, Fr. mort)
while the
Span, cardo
similar reduction of i (e) led to that palatalization of consonants

for mortuus, &c., are the precursors of the

;

which has

so transformed the

whole appearance of the Romance

languages, e.g. Ital. piazza, Span, plaza, Fr. place from Vulg. Lat.
7).
*ptotja, L&t. platea, &c. (see

Weakening of Unaccented Vowels.

14.
aijo
1

The a

remains unchanged in the simple Verb, where

The

rival

original
cnl'uymini

forms columen and

Declension

(pronounced

of

has

explained by the
(pronounced culminis\

culinen are to be

columen, col(u}minis
citlmini), &c.

it

35

Weakening of Utiaccented Vowels

14

the accent, but in a

classical period

Greek

This change

/.

and

like dyao),

andy

(e.g.

like abiyo it has

compound

become

is

not

is

an

by the

known

effect of

in

the

Latin Stress-accent. In the period of the Early Literature

we

find e instead of

a labial

rapio;

e.g*.

-u,

before

r,

men-,

or

is

the vowel

e.g.

e.g. abego (Plaut.),

2,

still

peperi from

found in the

pario, but

classical

memim from

a consonant-group,

before

and before

from sub and

surrupid, siirruptus (Plant.)

e.g.

age

the root

remex from

remus and ago, princeps from primus and capio.

Even

diphthongs were changed through loss of stress, their

first element being affected, ai became * (through ei), au
became n (through eu) e.g. occldo (earlier occeido) from
t

from

caido (class, caedo), occludo

claudo.

But not long

vowels, e.g. invddo from vddo, irrepo from repo 3 imploro

from jploro.

Unaccented

became u about the same time

that e passed in the unaccented syllable to 2;

when an

and

u,

followed in the next syllable, passed

or into that it -sound which was written * ( 1);

especially
into #

e.g. exsoles is the old

Latin form of exnles, from which

comes exttium-} quercubus became quercibiis (cf. optumus

and optimus, 1) But o, when not before a Labial, remains,
.

e.g. in

Labial

Compounds like iuvow, advoco, and even before a

when a vowel precedes, e>g.Jiliolns. 1 In the final

syllable it
1

legit

So
So

was invariably reduced, 2

remains after

became I,

e. g.

3 Sg. from *leg$t

i,

e.g. vicns, older -os

e. g. ebrietas, societas,

parietem.

from *matres, Ugls 2 Sg. from *leges,

But as a final vowel 8 took the place of t, e. g.

matris Gen.

mare for *mari, triste for *tristi(ch. iii. 8), and perhaps of any short
r
vowel. If a consonant is added, -e becomes again, e.g. ills but illic
(used for

ilk

in the Dramatists).

Hence si cine,

D 2

hoccine, &c., for s?-c(),

36

Change of Sound

(cf.

Gk.

OLKOS))

en.

although after u or v the spelling with

was long retained to avoid the awkward collocation uu,

e.

g. vivoSj divos, equos (written ecus in the

Augustan Age,
In the Imperial Age the fashion of
preserving in Compounds the vowel of the Simple Verb
later equus,

came

in, so

10).

now

that consacro, for example, was

for consecro, the older spelling

Accent was, at

least in the vulgar speech, shifted

Preposition to the

Verb

written

and at the same time the

e.g. demorat

is

from the

the Vulgar Latin

form of demoratur,whence Ital. dimora, Fr. demeure; from

renegat, Ital. reniega (cf. Shakespeare's

'

renege').

Vowel-weakening. These changes of short

vowels and diphthongs are proper to the syllable next the accent,
the weakest syllable in every language with Stress-accentuation, that
is to say the second syllable of every word under the Early Accent
Law ( 12). A syllable with a secondary accent, like the paenultima
of *pdrrica\da (so accented under this law), would not be liable to
change, but often did in fact change its vowel after the analogy of
kindred words, where the same vowel followed immediately on the
15. Details of Latin

accent, e.g. *6c-caido

whence

0. Lat. paricidas (ch.

iii.

4).

On

the

other hand, the analogy of the simple word with accented root- vowel
would often save the vowel of the Compound from being changed,
e.g. vades etsubvades,

(XII Tab.), where the a ofvades

is

not weakened

inpraevides (on an early inscr.), later praedes. And at any

period in the history of the language the sense of the relation of
a Compound to a simple word might lead to the restoration of
as

it is

a vowel to

its

accented quality.

This

'

'

Recomposition

was stimu-

by the grammatical studies imported from Greece towards the

close of the Republic, and prosecuted with zest for many centuries,
so that in the period of the Early Literature, the change of unlated

accented vowels

is

more the

rule than

it is later, e.g.

the weakening

of the diphthong ae (<n) in O. Lat. forms like conslptum, obslptum.

The analogy of the Nominative preserved from change the vowel in

with the Interrogative

and the like.

ftoc-(ce)

-ne

added, quippini for quippe with

ni,

37

Details of Vowel-weakening

15

the Oblique Cases of arborem, fulguris, &c., as on the other hand the
in the Nom.
analogy of the Oblique Cases has substituted $ for
integer

and the analogy

of the

spelling of the less used Simple

which were made

Compound Verb has changed

Verb in

the

Compounds,

spicio, plico.

were rarely employed,

conqueror of the enemy (ch. iii. 4), urbicape Voc. (Plaut.), would escape the change which befel a word
established in use, like prin-ceps, muni-ceps. But with these exceptions
the change of the short vowels and the diphthongs of the second
too,

for the occasion, or

like 0. Lat. hosticapas, a

syllable is very regular in Latin

though a very old inscription,
Manios medfefaked 1 Numasioi, 'Mariius me fecit Numeric ', belongs to
an epoch when this law was not in operation, and when Latin was
less removed from the state of the other Italic languages, which
;

do not change the unaccented vowel

(cf.

Umbr.

Propartio-,

Lat.

Propertius).

The usual course taken by the weakened vowel might be altered

by other Phonetic Laws. It is, for example, a Phonetic Law of
Latin that e became ? before ng, e.g. tingo from *tengo (Gk. reyyo;)
(ch. x.

4).

Hence we have

and not *infrengo,

same law of the influence

infringof confringo,

offrango. The
that leaves velim,

*confrengo, &c., as

compounds

of I on a preceding vowel
velle beside wlo, volt (
8),
gives us 0. Lat. famelia as the earlier stage of fnmilia, the Collective
of famulus, O. Lat. *famolos. The Latin tendency to assimilate the

vowel of neighbouring syllables

ch. vi.

in

10)

(cf. momordi, from earlier memordi,

especially antagonistic to the Law of Weakening
like exemo, elego, neglego, the better spellings,- and

was

Compounds

explains why we have surripio beside surrupui in MSS. of Plautus,

and in class. Lat. incolumis (incolomis Plaut., &c.), monumentum
(as well as monimentum"), elementum, sepelio, coluber, segetis Gen., Seneca,
tremebundus, atom's, aucupis Gen.
Examples of the older spelling of weakened vowels are : in
medial syllables (1) o for u : on early inscriptions, consoluerunt,
consoleretur, consoltu, consol, consolibus, poco/om, conciliaboleis,

Plautus exsolatum,

mama ('Unimamma

',

in

MSS.

of

on early inscriptions, Oinuan Amazon), testumonium, in MSS. of Plautus

incolomis, (2)

magnufice, sacruflcem, carnufex.

for

Manufestus, dissupo, victuma are the

anteclassical, manifestos, dissipo, victima, the classical spellings, like

optumus and optimus (p. 11), (3) e for i : on early inscriptions, meretod
'
merito ', oppedeis, l oppidis ', in MSS. of Plautus abegit, of Lucretius
^

The letter/ is written fH

(ch.

i.

4).

38

Change of Sound

We have in final syllables, e. g. O.

cc?df).

dederont, nequinont

nequeunt',

CH.

Lat. cosevHont 'consontiunt',

donom, Salutes

opos, Venos, filios, Litdwii,

Gen. Sg.
Other examples of the change in classical forms are
before a consonant-group
inlex from 0. Lat. lacio, I allure,

(beside genitor), obstefrix

expers
folio

(2)

(cf.

IT

conetituo),

(1)

genetrix

condemno (older condumno)

from pars perennis from annus incestus from custus fefelli from
miles (older miless,
9) from stem milit- remex Nom. from ago,
before r
aequipero, impero, pauper, all from paro ; cineris Gen.
;

(beside cinis Nom.), (3) n, i before a Labial : incipio, decipio, and other
of capio, surripui (also surpuf).' U remains in nuncupo,

Compounds

which seem

occupo, contubernium,

the

to be old

forms preserved, while

of vinolentus, somnolentus (cf. sanguinolentus) may be due to confusion with rino lentus, &c., (4) i in other short syllables
dimidius
o

from medius,

from pater, sistite (cf. Gk.

torctTf), eotnpitum ubi viae competunt ', dlinico from mnco (cf. mo<io\
in (earlier en) used enclitically (11).
U has become i in satira (and
saturn*) inditus (and inclutus), supercilium (cf. Gk. KV\CL, the part under
the eyes), but remains im-tutudi, pecudem, contumax, &c.
has
become u in venustus from Venus, older Venos, angustus, retustus, and
the like, alumnus (cf. Gk. T/)e</>o/>tj'os), homullus from *homon-lo-, &c.,
s?/m (earlier *som), an enclitic ( 11).
tessera (rtaaapa\ Agricfpntuw,
Examples in Greek loan-words are
Jupiter (better spelt Juppiter)
'

Ace.), Hecuba, 0.
epislula

},

trutina

and

epistola (trnvroXri),

talentum,

(rpvravrf},

and balneum

(Plaut.)

to

case of accented
e. g.

Pttnius

(i'Aatoj'),

(Ta\avrov\ phalerae (<f>a\apa\ balineum

(&a\avtiov).

from

lira,

when

the following syllable has an

plenus, Jilius,

i in
hiatus,
'a suckling', fromf&o.
Anltelus
from ^an-enelus, the a of Iwlo, from

lit.

may have come

having been changed to e while

(older anhellue*)
*(inslo,

tnachina (Dor.

we have

as

the correct form, from

e

('Etfajfi?;),

AcMvi ('Axatot), olivum

Defiro is
seen, did not suffer change.
a furrow, not delero ( 10). The change
in deUnio (beside delenio), suspicio (Noun) is found also in the

Long Vowels,
of

Lat. Hecoba

Profeslus is a

compound

of festus

its

quantity was still short.

not of fastus, fas (cf.

(cf. ffriae),

nefastus).

Compounds with
benefacio, arefacio
e. g. persalsus

per,
cf.

'very', are Separable

Lucr.facit are),

Compounds

(like

and do not change the vowel,

(beside insulsus), persapiens (beside insipicns), perfacilis

1

Cf. per pol saepe peccas, Plant.

16

UiwwHtwl

Shortening of

(beside

so that Lucilius

difficilis^

was right

nse of perilsus by Scipio Africanus Minor

Quo
'

Av, ov become

'

in his objection to the

quam

hominem, non pertaesum,

u, e. g. eluo

from

lavo,

.">{)

facetior uideare et scire plus

Perfcisum

\'<>irds

denuo for

cle

ceteri,

dicis.
noco.

16. Shortening of Unaccented Vowels. So sensitive

was the Roman ear to the difference between a long and

a short vowel

through
the

in

syllable

that a long- vowel was shortened

1)

loss of stress in special positions

only, chiefly

syllables of

final

was

found themselves unable

final

et

especially

rested on the
e.g.

in

disyllabic

when

to

maintain the length of the

syllable of

like

cave-facia*

usually

now given

Vowels

is

'

the

first

the main stress of the voice

initial

phrases

words whose

In such a word as cave the Romans

short.

the
(

following word,
11).

The name

law of shortening of Latin

of the Breves Breviantes', i.e.

to this

Law

the law of the short (syllables) shortening (a follow-

ing long syllable) ; and this law plays a great part in

the prosody of the Republican Dramatists, whose verses
pronunciation of every-day life, and so exforms like cave-facias, vdlo-scire, as well as volnpIdtew, egesidtem, where the syllable scanned as a short
'
It is
syllable is long not by nature, but by position '.
reflect the

hibit

this

Law

of Breves Breviantes

close connection

which has

effected the

vowel of iambic words used in

shortening of the final

with or subordination to other words,

e.g. lene, male(ci. lene-fdcio, male-fdcio, male-sdnus), cito,

inndo, mill i, til*,
1

Bene, male

s'ibi.

The

never show

f,

finals of these

words,

though

not even in the verse of Plautns,

40

CJianye of

Sound

CH.

diction they often appear with the long

no doubt in ordinary speech by Cicero's
were
quantity,
time short or at least half-long vowels.
Quintilian tells
in poetical

us that the

-e of

the salutation have (ave) was in his time

1

pronounced long only by pedants, and the reduction of cale/#cz0(conceivably writtenastwo words) to calfado points to

an intervening stage when only calefacio was heard. From

Auxiliaries like volo the shortening of the final -o spread

and finally, by analogy, to all

few centuries of the Empire, and the

to other iambic Verbs,

Verbs in the

first

shortening of
*terra),
(ch.

iii.

Nouns

final -d of

(e.g.

terra, originally

which was fully effected before the literary period

4), had probably taken the same course.

In the absence of

certain

stress,

final

consonants

caused in the second century B.C. the shortening of

preceding long vowels, viz. (i) -Z, e. g. tribunal Ovid, but
bacchanal Plaut., both from earlier -die ( 12), (2) -r, e.g.
exemplar Hor. from earlier exemplare,
shidor, curer,

but -dr }

mittat, millet, cur at, audit, diocit,

Before

final

-m

too,

class, mittar, miltor,

-or, -er in Plautus, (3) -if e.g. class.

which was

but

-at, -et,

-U in Plautus.

in pronunciation dropped, 3

1
There is however a doubt whether the salutation have was really
Imper. 2 Sg. of avere, to be eager. It may be a Carthaginian
word.
2
We find a similar difficulty in giving the o of note as long
'

a sound as the

o of, let

us say,

'

node

'

'.

3
The dropping or weakening of final consonants in Latin was
another result of the Stress-Accentuation. We find on plebeian
inscriptions ama for amat, fecerun for fecerunt, &c. In the earlier
poetry it is the rule, not the exception, that final s before an initial
consonant does not lengthen a preceding short vowel by 'position ',
but Cicero (Orator 48. 161) tells us that this pronunciation was in
his time considered subrusticum '. It occurs only once in Catullus,
'

Shortening of Unaccented

16

41

Vowels

giving the preceding vowel a nasal sound ( 3), we know

that the short quantity was used, e.g. rem (stem re-).

long vowel or diphthong, even when accented,

Any

which preceded another vowel was reduced in quantity in

Latin pronunciation, e.g. illms became ilffius, praehendo

became prehendo. So in the utterance of the sentence

a final long vowel would be reduced before an initial
This tendency

vowel.

is

often reflected in poetry, e.g.

amaiit Virg., especially in the older poetry,

qm

and no doubt

its share to the shortening of final -a, -0, which

has just been mentioned.
This explains why the Law of
Breves Breviantes affected long vowels when final, but less
frequently when preceding a final -s, -n } &c. (e.g. mclen).

contributed

One

other case of the shortening of long vowels calls

namely the shortening of the long mono-

for mention,
syllable

tn

in siquidem,

and

(in the older poetry) of me,

tu, in mequidem, tequidem, tuquidem,

te,

which has been com-

'
pared to our shortening of 'sheep', know', &c., when a syl-

lable

is

added,

e.

'

'

g.

the vowel did not, strictly

but changed

its

know-ledge '. Probably

speaking, become a short vowel,

shep-herd

',

accent from a circumflex to an acute

11).

tu dabi'
probably in the earliest of his extant poems (cxvi. 8)
supplicium. How far the colloquial Latin forms amatust, &c., for
amatiis est, &c., are connected with this slurred pronunciation of
final s is not clear. When the ending is is, we find in the older
Dramatists -est and not -ist, at least in the case of Adjectives, e. g.
:

brerest for brevis est, levest for levis est.

(Onpotest for potts

was written in

est

'

he

is

able

',

colloquial form amatumst

or amatust, the latter spelling being probably the more exact expression of the pronunciation ; amata est was written amatast, and
see ch. vi.

23.)

Amatwn

est

CHAPTER

III

THE NOUN
Declension. The I.-Eur.

1.

Noun had

three Genders,,

Masc., Fern., and Neuter; three Numbers, Sing., Dual,

and Plural; and at

least eight cases,

Ace., Voc.; Abl., Instrumental,

Abl., Instr.,

Plural

(cf.

Nom., Gen., Dat.,

and Locative. The Dat.,

and Loc. were not always distinguished in the

Athenis, 'for

'

A/, 'from A/, 'with A/> at A/).

The three Genders are retained in Latin, but of the

Numbers the Dual has disappeared. Traces of it remain
in the Numeral chid Nom., dnolitx Dat., rind, afterwards
flud$y

Ace. (on octo see ch.

iv.

5),

and

in the

Pronoun

awlo Nom., ambobu* Dat., awbo, afterwards amljds, Ace.

Greek cfyi0< and Homer's Svoo, both of which aro
(cf.

On

Duals).

early inscriptions,

when two members

a family are mentioned the Dual (in

M. C. Pomplio Marcus, Gains Pompilii

o)

is

of

used, e.g.

'.

Of the Cases

the Voc. hardly survives, except in the

of
Second Declension (e.g. domine Voc.,
the
Singular

dowinu* Nom.), for elsewhere the Nom.

and even in the Second Declension we

Nom.

is

used instead

find,

e.g. pner

used as Voc. in classical Latin, though in the

is pur re (on ileiis, &c., Voc.

Latin of Plautus' time the Voc.

The Instrumental, a case which denoted not

the
instrument
but also the manner or accompanimerely
ment of an action, may survive in some Adverbs like
see

6).

43

Declension

moflo, cito,

though

this is doubtful (ch. vii.

1).

The

Locative Sing, of the First Declension, ending in -di

(a long diphthong) which passed in time into -ae, was
identical

came

form with the Gen. and Dat. Sing., and

in

upon as a Genitive case (e.g. Romae,

had
the
same
form as Romac., of Rome, and was
Rome,
called a Genitive) ; similarly in the Second Declension,
to be looked

at

and passed under

the name of Genitive (e.g. CorintM, at Corinth, had also
the sense ' of Corinth ') ; in the Third Declension it ended
where

ended originally in

it

originally in

-i,

-eit later -1,

and was used as an Ablative,

later -e,

well as a Loc., under the

name

of Ablative

(e.

as

g\ Cartlia-

Carthage, had also the sense 'from Carthage').

and other traces of the Locative see
these
4, 6, 8,
(On

gine, at

10, 11, 13.)

The

I.-Eur. Cases were indicated sometimes

addition of suffixes, e.g.

-?

for

Nom.

by the

Sg. Masc., -m for

Ace. Sg., sometimes by a modification of the stem,

f
a father',
e.g. pater, Nom. Sg. of the stem pater-,
1

sometimes by both, e.g. *patr-os or *patr-e* Gen. Sg.,

In these Geni*palr-om Gen. PL of the same stem.
tives
-es

we

see not merely the addition of the suffix -os or

(Gen. Sg.) and the suffix -dm (Gen. PL), but also the
This
the stem from pater- to pair-.

modification of

modification of the stem played a great part in the I.-

Eur. Declension, but has been effaced in Latin by the

natural tendency to make one case like another in every-

thing but the

1

By

added

'

to

'

suffix.

Thus the Ace. Sg.

stem is meant that part

form the different cases,

to

which the

of paler

was

case-suffixes are

The Noun

44

originally *paterem, but has

CH. in

become patrem on the ana-

logy of pair-is, patr-i, patr-e, as in

Homer we

find the

Gen. Sg. Trarepoy on the analogy of irarepa Ace.

By

Heteroclite

'

Declension

is

meant the appropriation

of different stems to different cases.

Eur. Heteroclite Declension

is

An

example of

I.-

the declension of certain

Neuter Nouns/ which had an R-stem in the Norn, and

Ace. Sg., but an N-stem in the Gen., Dat., &e. ; and Latin

femur Nom., feminis Gen.

Examples

of

sion of (1)
in the

retains

this

ancient type.

Latin Heteroclite Declension are the declen-

iter,

a journey, where the stem tier- is used

Sg., but the stem itiner- for the other

Nom. and Ace.

2
cases, e.g. itineris Gen., itineri Dat., (2) senex,

man, with the stem

Senec-a, ch. xi.

11) in

an old

an old man,
the Nom. Sg. and the stem seni-

settee-

(cf.

senee-io,

3
(or sen-) in the other cases, (3) supcllex, furniture, a Fern.

Noun

(or rather

from super and

super -leg-, ch.

an Adjective agreeing with res) derived

lego, I lay, with the stem supelleg- (for
19) in the

xi.

Nom.

lectUi- (for super -lectili-,\\^s>lectilis

1

and
its

Sg. and the stem supelbeing Verbal Adj. from

Sanguis, M. may be a relic of a Neuter I-stem with -i in the Nom.

-n- in the other cases. Hence the confusion between its I- and

N-stem.

In Lucr. we have sanguen Neut.

(for *sanguin-s}

Nom.

(i.

837, &c.)

and sangws

1050) ; sangui Abl. in Ennius.

seems to be a patchwork of the R-stem of the
(iv.

2
The stem itinerNom. iter- and the N -stern

of the Gen. iten-.

So jecinoris, beside
In the older poetry we find that the classical
usage has not yet established itself, e. g. ignoti iteris sumus, we
and even Lucretius has concusses
do not know the road ', Naev.
itere (v. 653) and itinerque sequatur (vi. 339).
3
Priscian quotes from Plautus a Gen. Sg. sen-ids. Probably the

jecoris.

from

jecur.

'

declension of juvenis influenced that of senex, through the frequent

Association of the two words in the same phrase.

Gender

2
lego as eoctilis, cookable,

The

from

45

coqu-o)

in the other cases.

rarity of I-stems caused the I-stem vis to be declined

numerous S-stems

like the

(ch. xi.

19) in the Plural,

though we have vis, the older Nom., Ace. PL

even in Lucretius (iii. 265 multae vis; ii. 586 vis multas).
(
Defective' Nouns are for the most part obsolete
vires, &c.,

Nouns, isolated cases of which have been preserved

adverbial phrases, e.g.
(ch. vii.

2), forte,

willingly.

sjjoiite,

(ttcis

in

causa, for form's sake, secus

by chance (cf. forsitan, ch. viii.

Instar, an equivalent (e.g.

35),

instar

montis equus { a horse as large as a hill '), connected with

of a balance, is perhaps
iusto, to be steady, in equipoise,

an

Inf., instar(e)

(cf.

ii.

16), used as

certain

nouns are mas-

exemplar(e) ch.

a Noun.
2.

Gender.

The reason why

culine, others feminine, and others neuter in Latin, is

not always to be found.
In I.-Eur. the names of fruits

were neuter, and so in Latin, e.g. mdlum, an apple (Gk.

fjirjXov),

while the

name

of the mother-tree, that bears

feminine in Latin, e.g. mains, an apple-tree

(Gk. /zTjXea). The names of the months and winds are
masculine in Latin, because they are really Adjectives
the fruit,

is

agreeing with mentis or ventus, e.g. Januarius (mensis),

Februarius (mensis), Martins (meusis), Auster (ventns),

The reason why the

Favonius (ventus).
names of rivers are masculine in Latin seems to be that
Canrus

fiuvius

in

(ventus),

masculine, just as they are masculine

masculine.
Trora/zoy, a river, is

(cf. ainnis) is

Greek because

But the proneness of Nouns to take a new Gender by

analogy of a Noun, which had the same termination or

The Noun

46

en. in

a kindred meaning', or with which they were often joined

in speech, made great confusion among the original

Thus the

Genders of Latin.

occasional feminine Gender

of dies

may

be due to the analogy of nox} a word with

which

it

frequently joined, e.g. dies noxqne maesta,

is

most Nouns with

dies noxque lonya, or to the fact that

the termination

The

Fern,

feminine.

-ies are

(render

was

originally

associated

with

Abstract Nouns, e.g. Lat. optio, choice.

If however an
Abstract Noun came to be used as a Concrete, it would
its

change

gender; and so optio 3 in the sense of 'a cen-

was masculine.

turion's assistant',

Similarly ayricola,

'

'

(from ager, a field, and colo, I till),

became masculine in the sense of f a field-tiller''; and
literally

freld-tillage

why A-stems

this is the reason

(i.e.

First Declension

Nouns), which were associated with the Fern. Gender

in I.-Eur., are often masculine in Latin.
O-stems (i.e.

Second Declension Nouns) were similarly associated with

the Masculine (with Nom. Sg. in -6s, classical Lat. -us)

and the Neuter Gender (with Nom., Ace. Sg. in -om,

class. Lat. -urn) ; but we have a few feminine O-stems
in

Latin, e.g.

names of

these feminine O-stems

the

trees like

Fourth Declension, e.g.

till Sulla's time
(6).

Noun

culine

mains.

show a tendency

and neuter O-stems

domtis,

a Second Decl.

The confusion

may

In Latin

to pass into

of mas-

be illustrated by the

words collum, the neck, which in Plautus is collus, and

which was masculine in I.-Eur. (cf. Germ. Hals, 'the
neck ', Masc.), and uterus, which in Plautus as in I.-Eur.
is

neuter, uterum

6).

The

heteroclite declension of

Number

masculine nouns like

locus, with*

47
Neuter Plural

loca, is

usually the result of a primitive practice of using a Fern.

Sg. Collective A-stem as a Plural of a masculine O1

Thus

stem.

a Fern. Sg. meaning a cola district ', was used as the Plural of

loca, originally

lection of spots

'

'

a single spot', and received the declension of

locus,
a plural, locorum Gen., fom Dat., &c.
clear example
of this practice is the Greek p.ijpa, meaning f a mass of

thigh-bones/ which was originally a Fern.

lective, but was treated in common use as

Sg.
if

it

Col-

were

a single thigh-bone '.

The origin of
the Neut. PI. in -a from a Collective Fern. Sg. explains the

a Plural of

'

//T/poy,

use in Greek (and the earliest Sanscrit) of a Singular

Verb with a Neuter Plural Noun, e. g. jjLrjpa Kaitrai.
3.

Number.

Some nouns

are from their nature con-

fined to the Singular or to the Plural

Nouns

are

Number.
the

naturally Singular, though

Abstract
Plural

is

often found in a concrete sense (e.g. opera, work, exertion,

operae,

workmen;

troops), occasionally

auxilinm,

help,

anxilia,

auxiliary

with transference of this concrete

Singular (e.g. accedes opera agro nona

Sabino, 'you will be thrown in as ninth hand on my
Sabine farm/ Hor. Sat. ii. 7. 118). The use of the Plur.

sense to the

in certain
tenebrae,
(cf

Gk.

words dates from Indo-European times, e.g.

and

in

names

of parts of the body, e.g.praecordia

0pei/ey), cervices for *cere-vehices

'

head-carriers

',

the muscles of the neck (cervix was a poetic innovation).

Often a

Noun

has a different sense in the Singular and in

the Plural, e.g. acdcs, Sg. a single room, hence ( a temple ',
PI. a house (cf. Homer's $o/zoy and 86p.oi). Liberi is Plur.

The Noun

48
'

of the Adj.

liber,

CH. in

the freeborn children of the house', as

opposed to the vernae.

4.

The First Declension. The Latin First Declension

These A-stems were, as we saw

consists of A-stems.

in the last paragraph,

originally feminine, but sometimes

became masculine, when they changed their meaning

from an abstract to a concrete sense. Agricola, from ager
and colo, indicated originally the abstract idea of ' fieldtillage

',

(Greek

and

masculine

man who
in our

in this sense

0i>y?j),

when

tills

it

words ' relation

relationship

',

like fuga, flight

It

became

passed to the concrete sense of

the fields

'

was feminine,

any other Abstract Noun.

or

',

by the same transition as

is

seen

'

youth \ which meant originally

'youthhood', then secondly <a related
',

person', 'a youthful person'.

Concrete A-stems took an

-s

In Greek these Masc.

in the Norn. Sg. like

O-

stems, e.g. veavias, a youth (from a lost vtavta, the period

of youth), with the

same ending as i/eoy, young; and in

two very early Latin words we seem to have a trace of
a similar usage, viz. hosticapas, a capturer of the enemy,
1
parricidas, a murderer.

and paricida.8) or

But

if

Masc. A-stem Nominatives in

A-stem Nominatives

beside Fern.

-as ever existed

in -a in Latin, they

had dropt out of use as early as the time of Plauj-us, for

with him, as with all subsequent writers, the Nom. Sg.
ending of masculine and feminine A-stems alike is -a.
This -a must have been originally long (cf. Gk. x<opa),
but had been shortened at a very early period,
1

The word

is

with one r in the ancient spelling,

was never written double (ch. i. 8).

spelt

a double consonant

first

in

in

which

49

First Dedeiixiou

iambic words like fuga, mom (see ch. ii.

16), then by
Even in the earliest poetry
their analogy in all words.
there

no trace of

is

-a.

The Gen. Sg. ended

common

is

originally in

in feminine

Nouns

-els',

an ending which

in the early poetical lan-

guage/ and which, owing to the conservative spirit of

Roman Law, was retained in the legal phrase paterfamilias,

lit.

'head

of

the

household

Masculine

'.

A-stems, following the analogy of O-stems (2 Decl.),

took the ending -i, an ending which they added to
the final -oofjbheir stem, e.g. agricold-l, and this ending came to be assumed by feminine A-stems too as
early as the time of Plautus (cf.
Through the
5).

Roman
vowel

habit of shortening a long vowel before another

ii.

(ch.

16), -ai

became

-al,

and the two vowels

were united into a diphthong -ai } class, ae (ch. x.

11).
In Plautus' verse the two forms seem usually to play
the part of what phoneticians call

'

doublets

'
;

-al is

the

prevocalic doublet, -ae the preconsonantal, e.g. terrdlagros

(with elision of the i), terrae monies. By Terence's time

the ending -al had probably quite disappeared from
'
actual speech (as the disyllabic form of the ending f -tion

disappeared from English), although poets like Lucretius

and Virgil, who love

1

Ennius'

Examples are

to insert archaic

forms in their

lines

Et densis aquilfi pinnis obnixa uolabat is a case of

lengthening in arsi like his 'Sic expectabat populus atque ora
tenebat'. This lengthening in arsi was an imitation of Homer's
prosody.
'

'

Latonas, escas, Monvtas, Liv.

Andronicus

Terras,

Naev. vias Enn. Even in Virgil the commentator Servius

favours the reading auras for aurae in Aen. xi. 801.

fortunas,

1070

The Noun

50

CH. in

for the sake of poetic effect, offer

aulai Aen.

many

examples, e.g.

354; aura?, vi. 747; aquai, vii. 464.

Notice the dignity which it lends to a famous passage
iii.

of Lucretius

84-6)

(i.

Aulide quo pacto Trivial virginis aram

Iphianassai turparunt sanguine foede
Ductores Danaum delecti, prima virorum.

To Martial
Latin poetry

it

(xi.

seemed typical of the uncouth, early

90. 5)

'

Attonitusque legis terrai t'rugiferai ',

Accius ft quicquid Pacuviusque vomunt.

The Dative Sg. ending was

originally -Hi (a long

This
diphthong;
ending, according to
^oopa).
its position in the sentence, would assume the forms -a
cf.

ordinary diphthong, with the

'or -ai (the

short)

Gk.

and

in

early inscriptions

we

first

find

element

both these

forms, e.g. IVXONEI LOVCINA and LOVCINAI, 'to Juno

1
In time, howLucina', PROSEPXAJ, 'to Proserpine'.
was
the
second
form, -ai,
preferred to the other
ever,

and developed into the

classical -ae.

The Locative Sg. ending was

diphthong), which became
-ai (originally -eft) became

likewise -di (the long

-ae at the
-ae.

same time as Gen.

Examples of Locatives
Grammar and

Latin writers on
(called Genitives by the

modern imitators) are Romae, at Rome,

warfare, on the field, and Plautus' phrase

their

militiae, at

for

'next

door', 'at the next house', viz. prosumae viriniae.

In the Ace. Sg. ending,

1

This was at

a Genitive.

first

An

-an/,

the a was originally long

wrongly road PKOSEPXAIS. and supposed

early Latin

'

Genitive in

-at's' is

a fiction.

<<.

IK

51

First Declension

but, like all long vowels before final -m

Gk. y&pav),

(cf.

in Latin (ch.

ii.

16),

The Abl. Sg. had

became

short.

This

-del.

originally

final -d, like

9),

was dropt

in pronunciation before the time of Plautus,

though we

final

every

find

used

it

d after a long vowel

ii.

(ch.

an archaism like Virgil's

(as

the Aeneid) by Naevius in his Epic

olli

for

illi

in

Noctu Troiad exibant capitibus opertis,

'cloaking their heads they passed at night-time from Troy.'

The Nom.

Greek, discarded the

an ending modelled after the
the diphthong -al, written and

PI. in Latin, as in

original ending

-as for

Second Declension,
pronounced in the

viz.

But

classical period -ae.

-a*

remained

and apparently it is a dialectal Nom.

Plur. of this type which is found in a play of Pomponius,
descriptive of life in an Italian country town
in dialects of Italy,

Quot

laetitias insperatas

modo mi

inrepsere in siiium.

The Gen. PI. ending in I.-Eur. was -asom, which by the

Latin laws of sound became -drom, classical -drum, e.g.

deamm

(see ch. x.

first -d<*>v, e.g.

The
have

19; ch.

Homeric

ii.

16, 14),

then

6ed<t>v 3

by the Greek,

e.g. Att. Beans.

Dat., Abl., Loc., or Instr. Plur. (these cases, as

we

seen, are not always to be distinguished in the

Plural)

had originally the ending

became

-eis (ch.

we

-5>v,

find another

ii.

14), then

ending -abus

-is

(cf

-ais (one syllable),

(ch. x.
.

11).

which

In old Latin

the ending of the Third,

Fourth, and Fifth Declensions) ; and in legal language

was kept up in a few nouns for the sake of distin-

this

guishing them from cognate D-stems, e.g.

E a

filial/ 11$

(but

The Noun

52

CH. in

Masc.), deabus (but dels Masc.), libertabus (but libertis

Masc.), just as we, without the same justification, keep up

filiis

the old Plural suffix in a few words like

dropped

oxen

',

but have

'

in the rest, e.g. 'shoes' (earlier

it

shoon').

The Ace. Plur. had -as from -cms.

5. Thus the scheme for the First Declension

will

be:Sing.

Nom.

which became

-d,

Gen.

-a.

(1)

-as,

retained mfamilia*.

(2)

-dl,

which became

-ai, -ae.

Dat.

-at,

which became

-ai, -ae.

Loc.

same as Dat.

Ace.

-dm, which became -am.

Abl.

-del,

Nom.

-ai } -ae.

Gen.

-dsom, which became -drum.

which became

-ti.

Plur.

Dat.
|

Loc.

(1) -dbus

(2) -ais,

Ace.

(from -abhos), retained in filial/us, &c.

-els, then -is.

which became

-as.

same as Dat., Loc.

Abl.

Greek Proper Names sometimes retain

their

Greek

declension in poetry, e.g. Pelides, Ace. Peliden, Gen. PI.

Atnd-um

ampJiorum, drachmum}.

(cf.

of slaves, freedwomen,

Greek Gen. Sg.

-aes

and the

like,

And
we

in epitaphs

often find the

in -77? expressed in Latin characters

e.g. Faustinaes, Anniaes (Greek

1

The

poetic caelicolum

is

77

by
had the long, open

a Graecism.

5,

vowel-sound of Latin

words

53

Second Declension

ae-,

see eh.

ii.

Most Gk.

2).

Early Latin into the Fifth Decl.,

as is natural, since they were Proper Names used mainly
in the Singular, and the only case of the Singular which
in -77? passed in

could suggest the First Decl. was the Vocative.

declines Hercules in the

with Gen. Herculvi

same way

Plautus

as he declines fides,

13) or Herculel (-/),

(like fidei,

although the word afterwards was transferred to the

Third Decl.

Cicero retains this Gen.

Sing, in

consideration that a Latin Gen. Sing, in

expression of a
Troirjrrjs

Gk. Gen. Sing,

in -ov.

-i

in

by the

Achilli, Aristidi, &c., being possibly influenced

was the
But words
-I

true
like

which were freely used in the Plural became

Nouns

of the First Decl. in Latin.

6.

The Second Declension.

The Latin Second

Declension consists of 6-stems, which are either Masculine (with

Nom.

(with Nom.,

Sg. in

-os,

class.

Lat. -us), or Neuter

Ace. Sg. in -dm, class. Lat. -um).

The few

Fern. O-stems, e.g. domus, a house (Gk. 56//oy Masc.);

a distaff (Gk. TroAo? Masc.), nurus, a daughter-inlaw (Gk. vvos), and names of trees ( 2) like mains, an

coins,

apple-tree, launis, a laurel-tree, tend to pass into the

Fourth Declension (Nom. PI. laurus and

Pelagus, a Greek loan-word (TreAayosyeo?)
treated as a Second Declension

Noun

lauri,
is

in Latin,

&c.).

curiously

much

as

words \\k.Qpoema in the Plural, e.g. Dat., Abl. poematis.

In the Nom. Sing., masculine RO-stems 1 dropped
1
Not LO-stems. Lucretius' famul infimus (iii. 1035)
imitation of Ennius' famul oltimus,
famulus ultimus

is

seems to have borrowed the form from his native Oscan.

'.

a direct

Ennius

The Noun

54

some

at

early

preceding- the r

the

period

OH. in
8#

final

had a short vowel,

the

if

syllable

e.g. vir, not *?;2m<?

(*virus) f satw, not *sat&ro8 (*8aturtts), ager,

not *agro*t

Gk. aypoy). The oldest extant Roman

(*agrus-,
still
shows the ending, SAKROS ESED
inscription
cf.

'

If a long vowel preceded the

sacer erit'.

os

was

retained, e.g. severus, amdrus.

too in words whose r was originally $

the dialectal

name

mos and ger o (Perf

man's humour ',

Numisius)-,
ges-si,

g.

numerus

(cf .

morigerus (Plaut.) from

f

was retained

It
e.

the final

r,

Sup. yes-turn)

bearing another

'

'

complaisant

ferus,

umerus,

erus.

These are not RO-stems but SO-stems. Whether Plautus'

socerus

and Ennius' volturus

to the rule is
socniSy

8 n.) are actual exceptions

doubtful, for the true readings may be

an O. Lat. by-form of
abiit socrus (socerus

and

volturis (?).

Uterus

socer

(Men. 957)

MSS.), abiit medicus,

was

and pirus (with jwti-pirus,

1

in O. Lat. a Neuter, uterum,

'

Juno-'s pear', like ju-glans

be
influenced
Propems
may
bypiruni.
a later coinage from the Verb properare (see ch. xi.
lit.

Jove's acorn')

is

20)

the older and more correct formation of a

pound Adj. from the Verb paro appears

in

pan -per.

stems took in familiar language the ending

as -ios (class, -ius), in the

the Ace. -im, in the Voc.

Nom. and
-?.

in the

-is,

ComIO-

as well

Gen.

-iy

in

For example, in an early

law of Plautus' time, the Decree of the Senate against

Bacchanalian orgies (the S. C. Bacch.), the consuls'

names

are written

in the ceremonious form, Marciua,

Postumiux, while the secretaries' names have the other

55

Second Declension

ending, CIaudi(*), Valeri^), Minuci(s)

equos, ecus, eqmis, &c., see

The termination

cli. ii.

of the

Gen. Sg.

One
satisfactorily explained.
like lucri facer e
to make a
(

40

(p.

(On

w.).

10.)
7

has not yet been

theory finds in phrases

'

profit of

(lit.

make

of

profit*) the original type, a type employed in Sanscrit.

Another assumes that I.-Eur. El, when unaccented,

became

in

Latin from the

this termination

earliest period

El

the Loc. Sg. ending

OIKCI (beside OIKOI), &c.

and

lO-stems too show

in his investigation of the plays of Plautus,

sees in

Gk.

of
?.

e/eeT,

Varro,

found that the

had been confused

plays of another dramatist, Plautius,

with them, owing to the similarity of the Gen. Case Plant i

In the Augustan age it became the fashion

in the title.

to use -n as the

ending of the Gen. Sg. of lO-Noun-

stems, e.g. jwaedii, consilii, Virgilii, as -w had been at

a previous period used in Adjectives, e.g. patrii sermonu

er/estas Lucr.

The Dat. Sg. ending was

-oi (the

Gk. OIK), which, according to

sentence, would assume the forms
diphthong).

long diphthong
its

-o

position

in

cf

the

or -oi (the ordinary

These two 'doublets' are both found

in

very early Latin (cf. Numasioi Numerio ', p. 37), but

the contest between them was decided before the literary
period in favour of the first.
(Contrast the history of
'

the Dat. Sg. of the First Declension,

The Voc. Sg. had

-e,

changed, e.g. doming, though

a Hy*
1

(l

eus (always), vos

Faliscan Zextoi

is a

4).

an ending which remained un-

we

find the

Nom.

occasion-

Pompilius sanguis (Hor.

Dative ('for Soxtus

'},

not a Genitive.

56

Tlw

CH. in

Notiif

A. P. 292).
(On the variation of e with o in I.-Eur.
declension and conjugation see ch. x.
12.)

The Abl. Sg. ended originally in -od, class. -6 (ch. x.

'
e.
g. Gnaiuod Gnaeo on a Scipio epitaph. A by-form
c

17)

in -ed (class,
e}
<

was reserved for Adverbial Ablatives,

'
on the S. C. Bacch. (see ch. vii.

e.

facillirne

facilumed

The Nom.

Masc. of

Plur.

g.

4).

O-stems borrowed the

ending of the Pronoun Declension, viz. -oi (e.g. Gk. OLKOL

which in Latin became first -ei, then -? (ch.

like OVTOL),
ii.

The 0-diphthong

seen in a very early phrase,

pilumni populi), 'the tribes armed

14).

is

pilumnoi poploi (i.e.

with the pilum', a description of the Romans in the
Carmen Saliare, the ancient hymn of the leaping priests
of Mars.

In the Latin of Plautus' time

we

-s

find

an

added

to this

(see ch.

iii.

5)

ending for Pronouns, with the

particle ce added, e.g. heisce or hlsce (class, hi) illeisce or

but not for Nouns; although, on in-

illlsce (class,
ilfi),

scriptions of a century later,

we

find the irregular

Nom.

PI. magistreis or magistris for magistn, &c.

The Nom. Ace. Neut.

which

Plur. in -a

had originally

-a,

Nom.

Sg. of the First Declension ( 4) had become short before the literary period.
(On the origin of the Neut. Plur. in -a from a Fern.
like the -a of the

Collective Sing., see

The proper Gen.

ii.

PI.

16), then -urn (ch.

few Genitives

like

2).

ending -dm, which became -om

(ch.

was retained

in a

ii.

14) in Latin,

deum, nnmmum, triummrnm. But an end-

ing -orom (class, -drum), originating in the Pronoun Declension, where it followed the analogy of the -drum of

A-stems

4) (e.g. Ulorum

like

ilfarum), spread

from

57

Second Declension

Pronouns to Adjectives, where it was found useful in the

discrimination of Gender (e.g. bonomm 1 beside bonarum),

and ultimately to Nouns (e.g. filiorum beside Jlliarum).

In Nouns it did not succeed in fully asserting itself
against the proper ending -urn till the time of Cicero, who
tells us that he yielded to the new fashion in certain words,

He al lowed pro deorwm fidem ! or pro

but only triumvirnm, sedertium, nummum, &c.

but not in others.

deumfidem

(Orat. 46. 155).

'

milk),

(sc.

One

of these Genitives Plural, sestertium

a thousand

The
Gk.

',

Dat., Abl., Loc., Instr. Plural

OIKOLS),

11).

(of) sesterces

which became

The oldest form

Carmen

7.

-eis (ch.

ii.

to be regarded
sestertia.

ending was -ois (cf.

14), then -is (ch x.

of the ending appears in the ancient

Saliare, in the

the sense of singulis.

came

and formed a Plural

as a Neuter Singular

word

priviclois, i.e.

The Ace.

PI.

pnvwulis, with

ending is

-os,

from -6ns.

Scheme of the Second Declension,

Sing.

Nom. M.

which became

-6s,

-us.

(dropped in

N.

-dm,

RO-stems,
which became -urn.

Gen.

-l }

Dat.

-01,

which became

-<?.

Loc.

-cl,

which became

-I.

Ace.

-dm, which became

Voc.

-<?.

Abl.

-del,

also the

Gen.

suffix of

which became

e.g. ager).

lO-stems.

-urn.

-6.

We have duonoro(m\ the old form of bonomm, in an early epitaph

of one of the Scipio family in the phrase duonoro optumq uiro, i.e.
'

bonorum optimum virum', where the

than Gen.

PI.

last

word

is

rather Ace. Sg.

58

TJlP

'Xwtit

HI

CJT.

Plur.

Nom. M.

-d,

Gen.

Gen.

which became

-oiy

N.

which became

which became -6m } then -um.

-dm,

(2)

-0^02, originally proper to Pronouns,

-ois,

which became

also.

then

-eis,

-Is.

Ace.

-ds

Voc.

same

Abl.

same as Dat., Loc.

Dual Nom. in <?, see

On
8.

-v.

(1)

then to Adjectives
Loc.

then

-ei y
-a.

the old

(from -ons).

Nom.

as

The Third Declension.

1.

This should properly be

divided into two declensions, (1) Consonant-stems, (2)

I-stems, but these two are so similar and so intermixed in
certain cases, that the Latin writers on

them

into one.

I-stems have a Gen.

Sg. in -im, and an Abl. Sg. in

have a Gen.

PI. in -KM,

-*

Grammar

PI. in -iitm,

(earlier *ld)

Cons. -stems

an Ace. Sg. in -em y and an

(properly Locative) Singular in

joined

an Ace.

-e (earlier -2).

'

But,

Abl.'
e.

g.,

an I-stem, has vatum Gen. PL, and most I-stems

assumed in time the Cons.-stem Ace. Sg. and Abl.' Sg.,
rati- }

although Neuter I-stems kept the Abl. in -7 for the

sake of distinction from their Nominative Case (e. g. mari
Abl., mare Nom.).

the I-stem endings.

And Consonant-stems
The Gen.

Plur.

is

sometimes show

the case where the

distinction

between Consonant and I-stems has been best

retained.

In the Nom. Sing, some I-stems retain their

but it is lost in sors (nortis Plant.), Arpinas

ij

e.

g. vest-i-s,

Third Declension

(Arpinatis, Plant.),

59

(stem imbrl-\ &c. (see ch.

i-wbci-

ii.

12).

The Consonant-stems
e.

g.

consist of (1) Guttural -stems,

dux (stem due-, the weak form of the root deuc-, to

lengthened form of the root reg-,

lead), rex (stem reg-, the

'

govern '), &p(stem wfy-, the weak form

f
'
1
meaning to be wet ', to snow').
(2) Labial'

to stretch

of a root

',

to

stems, e.g. princeps^caelebs?

(3) Dental-stems, Q.g.pes
(stem ped-), heres (stem hered-), anas (stem anat-\ comes

(stem coin-it- from <?/

and

are mostly Present Participles,

(4)

'

lit.

crawling

e.

g. serpens (stem serpent-),

'

lit.

rudens,

e. g. cinis

S-stems,

The numerous NT-stems

<?0).

rattling

(stem cims-),

honor, older ^owo* (stem honos-).

The

0n>0*

',

Sol.).

(sc.

tellus
?

(stem tellm-\
has found its way

Nom. from the Oblique Cases, where s stood

between vowels and so became r by the Latin phonetic

into the

law), opus, earlier opos (stem opos-, opes-) t Venus, earlier

Venos (stem vends-, venes-, originally neuter and

'

glamour

philtre

(5)

').

g.

frater,
e.

L-stems,

-tris, conditor,

g.

The
gw

g of this root
(cf. ninguit}.

Latin (ch.
2

-loris,

meaning
c

lit.

a love-onis,

R-stems,

(6)

fur, furis.

of Masc.

(7)

and Fern. Nouns adds

Nouns the bare Stem

few

is

-s to

used.

was a Labiovelar' guttural (see ch. x.

Between vowels a g of this kind became
'

18) ; so we have in the Genitive niv-is.

of uncertain derivation. The etymology of the

18),
v in

x.

A word

Grammarians quasi caelestium vitam ducens

'

sal, sol.

the Stem, but in Neuter

1

*ven8-num

N-stems, e.g. homo, -mis, sermo,

The Nom. Sg.

like

for

with the M-stem hiems, -mis.

caro, -nis,
e.

whence venenwn

',

Qens, mens, &c., are I-stems, g

n-t-i-,

m e n-tt-

'

will not do

(ch. xi.

12).

Roman
!

60

Tlic
of Masc.

Examples are

Noun

CH. in

and Fern. I-stems, jini-s, civi-x,

and of Masc. and Fern.

vesti-s, sors (sorti-s Plaut.), pars,

Cons.-stems, princep-s, dux for *duc-s, heres for *hered-s

of

Neuter I-stems, mare (originally *man,

ch.

Gk.

tnste, Neut.. of tnstis, originally *tristi (cf.

iSpis,

i'Spi

with Lat.

Cons. -stems,

allec,

for *ayes-nos),
in -es, see

The

-e

crtis,

tristis,

tristis,

aes

caput,

(I.-Eur. ayes-

(On

.),

i'Spis,

of Neuter

triste),

opus, carmen, rer.

14

ii.

cf.

Fern.

aenus

Noms.

13.)

of Neut. I-stems

was often dropped (cf. ch. ii.

Neuter of the Adj.

12), so that animate (properly the

animalis)

became animal with consequent shortening of

the a before

calcar

then

'

lit.

spur,

final I (ch. ii.

calcare (sc.ferrum), a
16)
the (iron) fastened on the heel (calx) ', became

Icicle,

lac,

the form found in Plautus, became lact and

owing

to the difficulty of pronouncing -ct at

the end of a word, the same difficulty as we have with

a group like -mb in ' lamb
*corde in the same way
'

became

a form that should perhaps be written in

lines of Plautus where the word is scanned as a long
syllable, then cor.
cord,

Masc. and Fern. E- and N-stems formed their

Sg. in a different
(class,

way, R-stems

Nom.

in (1) -or, e.g. datdr

dator), (2) -er, e.g. mater (class, mater) (cf.

Swrcop, naTrjp), N-stems

in -5

Gk.

e.

g. card, flesh,
(Gk. -a>v),
a portion of anything ', then ' a portion of
(connected with Gr. Kipa>, to cut), homo, said to
'

originally
'

flesh

be connected with humus, the ground. 1

see ch. x.
1

(On

this e

and 5

12.)

In Old Latin

we have

a by -form hemo

(cf.

nemo for *ne-hemo) and

Third Declension

61

The Gen. Sg. ending of Cons. -stems was (1) -es, (2) -os.
Of these the former was adopted in Latin, and became
ii.
There are
14), e.g. reg-u.
the latter in early spellings on inscriptions

in class. Lat. -fa (ch.

traces of

nomimis for

like

class, nominis,

hominus for

class, kominis.

I-stems properly took -eist which would be in class. Lat.

-Is, but there is no instance of a Latin I-stem using any
other than the Cons.-stem ending, e. g. turns, partis (on

an

second cent.

inscr. of the

The Dat. Sg. ending

which became

-ei

and

B. c.

we

find partus).

of Cons.-stems
in class. Lat.

Latin I-stems show the same ending,

the

-e

of jure dicundo, &c., see ch.

i.

was perhaps
e.

-I,

e.

g. regi,

g. turn.

-ai }

and
(On

7.)

In the Ace. Sg. m was added to the stem, making in

and in
Latin Cons.-stems -em (ch. x.
14), e. g. reg-em,
I-stems -im,

e.

But the I-stems came almost

g. turrim.

in time to take the Cons.-stem ending, e.g. t-urrem,

all

parfam.

When

an I-stem Ace. was used as Adverb

however the older ending was retained, e. g. partim (but

and -im is insaltern with -tern by analogy of au-teiii)
;

variable in vim (an I-stem,

10).

The Abl. Sg. ending o I-stems was

which became

in the latter part of the third cent. B. c. (ch. x. 17),

-I
e.

-ul,

g. turn.

(class.

Lat.

Cons.-stems used their Locative, ending in

-<?),

gin-e, as the

instead of an Ablative,

Gk. Loc. was used

e.

-*

g. reg-e, Cartlia-

as Dat.,

e.

g. yepovr-i.

These two endings are often exchanged,

e.

a by-declension in -6ms, -om, &c., e.g. Enn.

Volturus in spinis

g. for I-stems

miserum mandebat hemonem.

1

the

On
'

a leaden bullet (glans) used in the siege of Perusia is carved

Trochaic' line

Antoni

calve, peristi Caesarus victoria.

The Noun

62

tnrre, parte, for Cons. -stems

majon and

Bacch.

be a combination of the

TheLoc. Sg.
which

Locatives); class. Lat.

had

may

pair.

would become

daylight; of Cons. -steins

Loc. as

in early inscriptions

-eel

ending- of I-stems

in Latin

in early Latin

'contione') on the S. C.

militi Plant., couentionid (i.e.

and the occasional

CH. in

-i

-e.

was

-eyi (Gk. 7roXe(y)i),

-ei, class.

-I,

e.

g. luci, in

(sometimes omitted in I.-Eur.

The use of the Cons. -stem

an Ablative, e.g.

this result, that

CcuiJtayine, from Carthage,

Cons.-stems sometimes took the

I-stem ending for the sake of distinction ; e. g. run,

might be contrasted with mre, from the

in the country,

I-stems often show the Cons.-stem ending,

g. mane, in the morning.
The Nom. Plur. ending of Masc. and Fern. Cons.-stems

country.
e,

was properly -es, which would be in class. Lat.

14), and of I-stems -eyes (Gk. TroAe^ey),
-es (ch. x.

13).

But there

is

-is (ch.

in

ii.

Latin

no trace of a Latin Cons.-

stem with any but the I-stem ending. 1 I-stems sometimes show -eis, class, -is, properly the ending of their
Ace. PI. (see below).
In the Gen. PL -dm (Lat. -out, then -urn, ch. ii.
16,
14) was added to the stem, so that reg-um, turn-urn are
correctly

formed examples of

a Cons.-stem

and an

But the usual interchange is found. We have

vatum from the I-stem vdti-, ferentium Masc. from the
NT-stem ferent- (cf. Gk. 0e/xW-o>j>), and the like 2
I-stem.

is a mere shortening like vidvs, avc (ch. ii.

Caesar used panium, Verrius pannm; Caesar partKin,

Plautus' canes

partiurn.

10;.

Pliny

63

Third Declension

though as a

rule the formation of the

best test whether a Third Decl.

The

Cons.-stem.
this case

Noun

is

Gen.

PI. is the

an I-stem or a

was better preserved

distinction

in

than in the Ace. and Abl. Sg.

In the Dat., Abl., Instr., Loc. Plur. the I.-Eur. ending

was -bhos, Lat. -&os, class, -bus. An I-stem Dat. like
ttirri-bus is
I

regular

of the I-stems to

but the Cons. -stems borrowed the

form

their Dat.,

e.

g. rey-i-Lns instead

of ^-fey-bins, uiU'd-l-bns instead of *milit-bu9.

The Ace.

PI.

was formed by adding -us to the stem.

-Us from -ens, Lat. I-stems -is

Latin Cons.-stems show

from

wyes, turrix.

-ins, e. g.

came

to be lost sight of,

and

the end of the Re-

By

public and the beginning of the

Empire

tin-rex,

this distinction

paries,

and the

like,

were allowed instead of turns, partis.

sional use of -is in the

Nom.

(On the occaPI. by confusion with the

Ace., see above.)

Scheme of the Third Declension.

9.

I.

Consonant-stems.
Sing.

Nom. M.,

F. (1)

(2)

-s.

Vowel lengthened
e.

in

R- and N-stems,

g. dator (class, dator), homo.

N. The bare stem.

Gen.

-eSj

which became

Dat.

-ei

(perhaps from an original

Loc.

-i

Ace.

-cut

Abl.

(see Loc.).

-is.

used also as Abl.

(from an original

-e

m).

-ai).

Hie Noun

64

CH. in

Plur.

Mv

Nom.

(the I-stem ending

F.

was

used).

N. -k
Gen.

which became -om then

-dm,

(the I-stem

-uni.

ending was used).

(from -ens from an original

Ace.

-es

Abl.

(same as Dat v Loc.).

II.

-e

ns).

I-stems.

Sing.

Nom. M.,
N.

F.

-ix.

-i 3

which became

Dat.

-e (dropped in animal, &c.).

Cons.
-stem
(the
ending was used).
-stem
Cons.
ending was used).
(the

Loc.

-ei

(from

Gen.

Ace.

-im.

Abl.

-iff,

-eyi),

which became

which became

-i.

-i.

Plur.

Nom. M.j
N.
Gen.

-6 6-

(from -eyes).

-iuin.

Loc.

F.
-la.

-ifjds

(from -i-bh5s), which^ 'became

Ace.

-is

(from -Ins).
(same as Dat. ; Loc.).

Abl.
10.

Other Third Decl. Stems.

Jupiter (better spelt Juppiter)

They

-ibu*.

are Diphthong-stems

Nouns

must be treated
lov- }

like

Jov- (I.-Eur.

dyeu-), the latter being the same stem as

Ids,

separately.

is

ou-^

found in

dies

Hos

13).

I.-Eur.

65

Fourth Declension

io ; ii

g being

18), but a

probably not a true Latin word,

by v, not b, in Latin (ch. x.

is

represented

word of some country

dialect.

Its

bourn stands for bov-um with loss of v before

13
6, u,

Gen. PI.

(ch. x.

Dat. PI. bubus, bobus (from gw oubhos) shows

)
the long vowels to which the original diphthong ou
;

its

developed in Latin (ch. x.

Ju-piter (cf. Diespiter)
11).
is, of course, a compound, like Mars pater, its first part

showing u

(older ou), the

sound to which the original

diphthong eu developed in Latin (ch. x. 11). In early

Latin we find the spelling Diovem, Diove, &c. (see ch. x.
On ws (Gk. fy, l-tf>i), an I-stem (Ace. vim), and
13).
its wrong declension as an S-stem in the Plural, vires,
virium,

&c.,

see

1.

Sus (Gk. uy) was originally a

U-stem, with stem su- before consonants (e. g. su-bus ;

cf. Gk.
S-y), su(v)- before vowels (e. g. sn-is, su-l, su-em).
Navis was an I.-Eur. Diphthong-stem nau- (Gk. i/aiJy),
but has passed in Latin, like I.-Eur. U-stem Adjectives,
g. levis (Gk. eAax^y) (ch.
the I -declension.

e.

11.

iv.

The Fourth Declension.

ch. xi.

13), into

The Fourth and

Fifth Declensions do not preserve their individuality so

well as the others.
The Fourth, consisting of U-stems,
does not always keep itself separate from the Second,
while the Fifth is closely connected with the First. In the

ordinary Latin of every-day life it is doubtful to what

extent of their declension U-stems would show a different

treatment from O-stems

res,

and even the most careful

few Fifth Declension Nouns, e. g.

throughout in what may be called a Fifth

writers decline only a

The Noun

66

The U-stems

Declension form.

CH. in

of the Fourth Declension

are Masculine or Neuter.

There are a few Feminines, e. g.

which
to have been originally O-stems
seem
domuSj lanrus,
but it is possible that at an earlier period there
(see
6)
;

were more, for there are traces of Abstract U-stems like

metus, fear (cf. Ion. Gk. dprvs, a fitting, F., but Lat.
a limb, M.), having been Feminine in early Latin,
nee
metus ulla tenet, Ennius.
g.
The U-declension, being in a manner the property of

artus,
e.

the educated section of the

Roman

world, was greatly

The proper

subjected to the theories of Grammarians.

Nom.

Sg. Masc. ending -us was by some Grammarians

pronounced -us, just as some made the -u of Nom. Sg.

Neut. long, others short; the I.-Eur. Gen. Sg. ending

-eus, in Latin -ous, then -us (ch. x.
11), was by many
discarded for the Gen. Sg. ending of XT-stems
e.g. senatuis, domuis (cf. Ter. Haiit.
1

to oblige that old

woman '), an

287

10), -ids,

eius anuis causa,

ending which suited the

Dat. Sg. ending -m, older -uei (from I.-Eur. -ewai).

Emperor Augustus, who

like

The

his

great predecessor,
Julius Caesar, paid great attention to matters of Gram-

mar, and

is

said to

the vulgarism

isse

have cashiered an

officer for

instead of ipse, always

Sg. of domus domos.

more than a coinage

This domos,
of

Augustus

if

using

made the Gen.

it

to suit

be anything

some theory

may be a genuine relic of another I.-Eur.

ending -ous, which would be in Latin -ous, then -o$

of his own,

(ch. x.

But the Second Declension form

11).

Genitive, used
itself

against

in

all

of the

popular Latin, steadily maintained

these rules and theories of the

Gram-

67

Fourth Declension

11

marians,

and

Quintilian

in

the

century A. D.
Genitive as senatus.
first

senatl to be as good a
In the Dative, beside -ui, there is an occasional use
of -u, which seems to be the Locative ending (cf.

declares

noctu, in

the night), from I.-Eur. -eu (ch. x.

11).

(On the use of this Locative in the Second Supine, see

ch. vi.

16.)

In the Nom. Plur. we should expect -nes, -ms, from

I.-Eur. -ewes (Gk. 7rrjx (^) ^)) but ^ ne ^cc. ending is
used instead, -us, from -uns.
The Gen. PI. often shows

Second Declension ending) as well as the U-stem

14, 16)
ending -uum, older -uom, from -uom (ch. ii.
(I.-Eur. -ewom, Gk. 7rri^(F)(iov) e. g. mille passum or

-um

(the

mitte passuum, a mile,

the Dat. PI.

-tfms (ch.

-iibiis

ii.

14),

lit.

'

a thousand

(of)

paces'.

the sake of distinction in words like arcubus,

'

(cf. arcibus,

In

became by the Latin laws of sound

but the older form was kept up for
'

to

bows '

to citadels').

As regards Neuter U-stems the Latin Grammarians

disputed, as we have seen, whether the -u of the Nom.
Sg. was short or long. The Augustan poets certainly
show the scansion
u

is

difficult

though the length of the

There was usually a Second

cornu, &c.,

to justify.

Declension by-form in -nm t

Praeterea

e.

g. cornum, Lucr.

lumen per cornum

F 2

transit.

ii.

388

68

The Noun
12.

Scheme

cu. in

of the Fourth Declension.

Sing-.

Nom. M.

-us.

N.-w,
Gen.

(1) -us

(from

(3)

-i,

-eus).

(from -uwes, the U-stem

(2) -uis

the O-stem

suffix).

suffix.

Dat.

-ui, older -uei

Loc.

-u

Ace.

-urn.

Abl.

-ud} which became

(from -ewai).

from -eu (used

also as Dat.).

-u.

Plur.

Nom. M.
N.
Gen.

(1)

(2)

(see Ace.).
-ita.

-uum (from -ewom).

-urn from -dm, the O-stem
-tfto, older -ubos, later

Ace.

suffix.

-2to (from

-tibhos).

-us (from -uns).

(same as Dat., Loc.).

Abl.

The Fifth Declension. This may be called the

E-declension, or all the Nouns that belong to it end
their Nom. Sg. in -es and show the long vowel e in at
13.

least

some

cases.

But

widely differing stems.

in

-e, e.

AbL

it is

We

a veritable medley of most

have

(1)

Verbal Noun-stems

g. sorde- (cf. sorde-re Inf v sorde-facio, &c.),

sorde

and Gen.

Latin sordium)

PI.

with

sorderum (in Plautus, but in late

similarly

from facio, fades, and from

69

Fifth Declension

112, is
speeio, species.

(2)

Verbal Nouns in

-ies

Third Conj. Verbs whose Present has

from

rabies

rabo, scabies

from

derived from

not

-o,

scabo, pernicies

-io, e.

from a

g.

lost

3 Conj. Verb neco, along with its synonym permities.

(3) Nouns in -ies, which are not Verbal Nouns, e. g.

from tempns, especially Nouns in -ties

vastities, from vastus, mollities from

temperies, derived

from Adjs.,
mollis,

e.

g.

segnities

from

seynis, amicities

from amicus.

(4)

dies, with stem dyew-, a by-form of dyew-, meaning

'
The stem dyew- is the stem of Jovis
sky ', day '.
Jovi
Dat., &c. ( 10).
Gen.,
(5) res, with stem rey-,
'

and

spes,

with stem sphey-.

To

these

may

be added

Gk. Proper Names in -rjs, at least in Early Latin,

e.g. Periphanes, with Gen. Periphanel (Plaut.) or Peri(6)

phanei

(-ni).

Even Hercules belongs

in Plautus (see

to the Fifth Decl.

5).

Dies and res are the most consistently declined accord'

ing to what is called the Fifth Declension ', e. g. Abl.
die, re,

Gen.

PI. dierum, rerum,

comes

spes,

which however

PL

speres, as if it

the I-stem

vis,

in -ies belong as

Dat. PI. diebus, rebus. Next

given by Ennius a
were an S-stem (cf. mres Nom.

1).

is

Nom.
PI. of

But the Verbal and other Nouns

much

to the First Declension as to the

Fifth, for they have by-forms in -ia, e.g. vastitia, temperia,

effigia,

and the farther back we go

in the literature

the more does this side of their nature show

itself.

In

Plautus the ^-forms are generally confined to the Nom.

and Ace. Sg., while he prefers -me in the Nom. PI., e. g.
intemperiae,

Abl. Sg.,

e.

and in the Dat. Sg.,

g. barbarid,

-i'is

e.

g. materiae, -id in

in the Abl. PI.,

e.

the

g. moUitiis,

The Noun

70

and
the

on (but facie Abl.,

so

number

which

of

Nouns

specie Abl.).

in -ies

After his time

and the number

of cases to

this E-declension is extended steadily increases,

though the Plural

for

CH. in

the

rt-forms.

always reserved by good writers

All this points to those IE-stems
is

having been originally lA-stems; and as we know that

the presence of i had in certain circumstances the effect
of giving a the sound of e (open

thought possible that the

e)

in Latin/

greater

has been

it

Fifth

the

part of

Declension Nouns are due to this change of sound. Verbal

Nouns in -es, on the other hand, have affinity with I-

stems

(ef.

plebes

and

pl&bs),

and most of them show the

E-declension to a very limited extent only,

e.

g.

tale

Abl. 2

Eequie Abl. (for requiete), requiem Ace. (for requietem), may be due to the false analogy of the Nom.
Sg. requies (for *reguiet(i)t)*
The formation of the Cases

is

closely modelled

on the

First Declension, e being substituted everywhere for a.

The Gen. Sg. has -&i, which was allowed to keep

when an i preceded, e. g.faciei, but shortened it

circumstances, ficUi
Jltlel

(in

early Latin fidei,

e.

its

long

in other

g.

at the end of a hexameter line of Ennius).

pknii

This

shortening was in accordance with the Latin custom of

shortening a long vowel before another vowel (ch. ii. 16),
1
Jdjunus became jejunus, and Jtnuarius was the vulgar form of
Januarius (cf. Italian Gennaio) (p. 11 w.).

2
Many so-called Nominatives in -esare really Nominatives Plural
of I-stems, e. g. ambages, nubes (with a by-form nubis}, saep'es (with
a by-form saeps). Some feminine animal-names seem to be dialectal,

e. g. fclcs,

janes

[LIBRARY]

TT&

is

palumbes.

They take the I-stem

Fern., caw's Masc.

declension.

In 0. Lat.

71

Fifth Declension

13

and

in point of fact affected the

ing

it

to

then to

-iei,

facii, pernidi

-ie,

as well, chang-

Some Grammarians changed

in order that the Genitive

-vowel, which

show the

-iei

ending

for the Republican writers have

progenii, &c.

ending -n to

this

-ii

of the Fifth Declension

might
was the distinguishing mark
and Julius Caesar, we are told,

stamped with his approval forms like specie and die.

Others preferred the old Gen. in -ies (like -as, the old
of a
Gen. of the First Declension,
4) ; and we hear
the
die
was
dil
or
as
dies
or
to whether
great controversy

form used by Virgil

in a line of the Georgics

(i.

208)

Libra dies somnique pares ubi fecerit horas,

and whether the same poet wrote

of the god in Aen. i. 636

dii

of the

'

day

or del

'

<

Munera laetitiamque

The

-el

faml

of

and the

ficlei,

like,

dei.

also appears as

with a
(Lucilius), tribunns pleli,

Jide in

Horace

(C.

iii.

7. 4)

by -form in

-l }

e.g.

-<?, e.

g.

Constantis juvenem

fide.

The ending of the Dat. Sg. was not (as our Grammars
and the Grammars compiled under the Roman Empire
It
identical with the Gen. Sg. ending, eJ.
it)
never disyllabic in the earlier poetry ; though how it
should be written, whether e (e. g. Jide, Hor. prodiderit

represent
is

commissa

*
(earlier el) is
fide) or

not certain.

The

first

word to admit a disyllabic ending was res. Though

Plautus makes the Dat. of res invariably a monosyllable,

we

find rel in Lucr., rei in Hor.

tury

A. D.

Even

in the second cen-

the grammarian Aulus Gellius

tells

us that

The Noun

72
purists

preferred facie

CH. in
In

to faciei.

this

difference

between the Gen. and the Dat. ending the Fifth Declension follows the First (see

Of the

other cases

PI. in -ebus,

found in

Scheme

14.

4).

we need mention only

of the Fifth Declension.

Plur.

Sing.

Nom.
Gen.

-es.

-es.

(1)

-el, -el, -el, -7.

(2)

-es (cf. 1

-erum

(cf. 1

Decl. -drum).

Decl. -as).

Dat.

-e (?).

-ebus

Ace.

-em from -em.

-es

Abl.

-e

from

the Dat. Abl.

red us, diebus.

-ed.

(cf. 1

Decl.

(from -ens).
(same as Dat.).

-di

CHAPTER

IV

THE ADJECTIVE
Distinction of Gender.

1.

It

is

impossible to draw

a hard and fast line between the Adjective and the

Noun. Words like veteranus, veteran, tiro, recruit, are

much

as

Adjectives as Nouns,

e.

g. veteranus exercitus,

and the declension of the Adjective was the

tiro exercitus

same as that of the Noun, though it occasionally trenched

on the Pronoun Declension, 1 e. g. tolius, Gen. of totus, like
illius,

Gen. of

ille (ch. v.

of the Adjective

is its

thus veteranus, -a } -nm

Noun.

To

8).

distinguishing feature

distinction of the three Genders

indicate these the Adjective Declension took

advantage of the connexion of

6-stems with the masculine

and neuter and of A-stems with the feminine

e.

g. I.-Eur.

nova, novum.
ch.

iii.

6).

an Adjective, veteranus M. a

is

newos M., newa

F.,

newom

(On Nom. Sing. Masc.

(cf.

iii.

2),

N., Lat. novus,

-er for -rus} see

Besides the vowel a the vowel

with the feminine gender

(ch.

was associated

Lat. neptis beside nepos),

and U-stem Adjectives, for example, formed their Fern,

in this

way, so that,

form.

The ending

e. g.,

tennis is properly the feminine

-ia (e. g.

Gk.

(f>epova-a for *<pepov ri/a)

1
In German the Strong' Declension of the Adjective (where the
Adj. is not preceded by the Def. Article) is a trace of the Pronoun
Declension.
'

74

CH. iv

TJte Adjective

may have

been an old Latin formation of the feminine

was early relegated

Pres. Part., but

forming Abstract Nouns,

e.

to the function of

g. pollentia, abnndantia, (cf

repulsa, an Abstr. Noun, beside repulsus, -a, -um ; tesctura

beside textwus, -a, -um).
In Latin the distinctions of

have been greatly effaced. 1

Tennis was used as Masc. as well as Fern., and all the
in

gender

the Adjective

U-stem Adjectives show the same treatment,

(Gk.

(3

payys)

KvOa>v,

e.

g. brevis

pinguu (Gk. Trayvs)

ferens, &c.
became the Fern, form

(cf.

Xevcra-cw Eurip.)

though an

earlier stage of the

language possibly had

and, since final -nt became

*ferentis> &c. (ch.

ii.

by a phonetic law

of Latin ns (ch. x.

12)

too,

\7) } ferens is also

the Latin representative of *ferent Neut. (Gk. 0epo*/ for
Similarly Neuters like duplec (cf. the Neut.
*0epoi/r).

Noun
The

allec)

became assimilated to the Masc. form

duplex.

O-stem Adjectives
in Latin even better than in Greek, for the Greek usage
of the Masc. form of Compound O-stem Adjs. as a Fern.,
e.

distinction, however, is kept

g. fio8o8aKTV\o$ 'Hoos-,

is

up

in

unknown

in Latin, 3

and in

Bl-stems the fashion came in of distinguishing the

Masc. in -er from the Fern, in -m, e. g. deer M., dcris F.
O-stems
only
1

lost their distinction

when they

Veins M., F., N.

between Masc. and Fern,

passed into I-stems.

was originally a noun (Gk.

(f )TOJ, a year),

seems to have taken its adjectival use from the phrase vinum
one-year wine' (cf. anniculus 'a year old').

and
veins

'

2
'

'

PoSoSa/crvXos

Dawn
8

was perhaps

Rose-finger

really a

noun

in apposition to

'Hd>y,

'.

The Columna Rostrata has

(class. Lat. -mesgwe) naves'.

triresmosque naueis

triremosque

75

Comparison

2, 3

was a course often taken by Latin O-stem

Thus O. Lat. iuermus, -a, -um is class. Lat.
Adjectives.
This

inermis,

and

-e}

-is,

borrowed from

liilanis^

Greek (Gk. /Xapoy),

the

borrow terms for the

French

(e.

finer

nuances of feeling from the

soon became

g. triste),

Romans
just as we

a word which the

hilaris.

form
Comparison.
and Superlative of Adjectives were
(weak grade -is-, ch. x. 12), -isto- (e. g. Gk. f]8ia)

The

2.

I.-Eur. suffixes used to

the Comparative
-yes-

Gk.
Ace. for *r)8ioo-a, Engl. sweets, with r from s
rj8i<TTos, Engl. sweet^), and to some extent also -tero;

In Latin
and -temo- (-emo-) (Gk. f)8vTepo$).
for
was
used
the
Comparative, e. g.
(-is-)

(-ero-)

the suffix -yes-

suavior from suavios with ending -yos, the 0-grade of -yes

(ch. x.

12)

but -temo-

like intimus, iiltimus,

and

is

found only in

-tero- is used to

e.g. breviter (Gk. ppayyrepos)

dexter (Gk.
see ch. xi.

^e^repoy has
8), as

and

finitimus, maritimus (ch. xi.

7).

Superlatives

form Adverbs,

local Adjectives, e.g.

this suffix in the

we have -temo-

'

'

same function;

in the local Adjectives

Postumus

may

be a

shortening of pos(ti)-tiuuus, posterns of po$(ti) -terns. But

-mo- and -emo- appear as Superlative suffixes in summits
for *%up-mu8 (ch. x.
to the
(ch.

Comparative

ii.

16), iwfimus

and imas, and (appended

suffix -is-) in maocimus for

*magwmu8

12), sacerrimus for ^sacrisimns (ch.

ii.

12),

19). Neither the origin

nor the date of
-issimus
of the usual Superlative ending

facillimus for *faclisimus (ch. x.

e. g.purissimus, Old Lat. purimus.

Irregular Comparison. The irregular Comparison
}
;
'
bad is a relic of a
of simple Adjectives like 'good ,

its

introduction are clear,

3.

76

The Adjective

en. iv

very early time when different roots were used to express

a Positive, a Comparative, and a Superlative (Gk. ayaQos,
afjLttvtov
Engl. good, better), e. g. Lat. bonus (older
;

diiomtt

opes.,

and

benevolus

from the root

melior^ optimum (older ojntumus

),

op- of opto.

The

&c.).

coexistence of such forms as

benevolens produced a type of

like magnifieus,

Comparison

magnijicentior, magnificenlissimus

while

'

fruylj
'

which was a Dative Case of a Noun, for fruit ',

good fruit (cf Plaut. tamen ero f rugi
'

for bearing

fit

bonae), had recourse for

The

to the Adj. frngdlis.

with

its

anomaly
Ter. Adelpli. 770

in

(ch. vi.

come from

3),

which

is

dis

(Gk.

12) in the other Degrees,

quidem

dives (but

Demea),

esses,

ditior,

Plus, plurimus, older Xplois,

plo-, a grade (ch. x.

11) of plea development of the root pel-, c to

'

fill

retention of v in the Positive,

the Comparison of

ditissimus ; juvenis, junior.

*ploisomos,

Comparative and Superlative

ii.

suppression (ch.

causes the
cf.

its

irXrjprjs, TrXeioov

from

*Tr\r]-y()i>v i

TrXeTo-ros

from

*7rA?7i0-roy, Lat. ple-nus, plerique).

Major comes from
r
*mahio r from a root magh-, while magis, maximus show

another form of
are

nequissimus

the root, viz.

curious

mag-.

coinages for

Superl. of the indeclinable Adj. ne-quam,

(cf.

O.

Lat.

lit.

Comp. and
'
'
a no-how

Greek, oWy.

Thus on

Odor

nequalia, nuisances, drawbacks).

(Gk. COKLCOV) lacks a Positive in Latin, though

one in

Potis,

and

Nequior

the

it

has

the Positive of potior,

a Scipio epitaph
Hone oino ploirume cosentiont
:

Duonoro optunio

Romai

fuise uiro,

hunc unum plurimi consentiunt Romae bonorum optimum

virum.'

fuisse

Numerals

4,5

preferable, has the sense of

possum, ch. vi.

a master, lord.

Of

Numerals.

4.

1-3 are inflected:

-5 j
1), -ae,

ch.iii.

and

23),

units

is

'

able
in

77
',

e.

g. potis

sum

Greek the Noun

Numbers

the Latin Cardinal

t

-a, -urn ;

duo

(a

Dual form,

an I-stem, tri-)
The Numeral Adverbs

-ires, -es, -ia (Plur.

not 4, as Gk. recro-apey, -?, -a.

(class.
TTOO-IS,

of

from 5 upwards end in -iens or -ies, the I.-Eur. ending

For the fraction half ' w"e have
-yent (ch. x.
17).
'

Gk.

f)fj,i- }

while

as

semi- (I.-Eur. semi-,

our

'

sand-blind

'),

O. Engl. sam-, whence

an

Adjective

climidius

and medius] was used. ' One and a half is

for *semisque, with the same syncope as is seen in
'

(from dis
sesqui-,

sestertius,

two and a half ', for *semu-tertius

(cf .

drittehalb).
5.

Scheme

Card.

of the Latin Numerals.

Germ,

78

CH. IV

TJie Adjective
Card.

from *quenque

5. qulnque

Adv.

Ord.

Eur. penqu e, Gk.

qum(c)tus.

(I.-

qulnquie(n}s.

TreVre).

and sweks,

6.

sex (I.-Eur. seks

7.

septem (I.-Eur. sept

8.

odo, a Dual-form, lit. 'two

sets of four' (I.-Eur. okto,

sextus.

sexie(ri)s.

Gk. ?).

Gk. OKTU).
novem (I.-Eur.

m, Gk.

septimus.

septie(n}s.

octavus for *octo-

vus

(ch.

octie(ri)s.

x.

8).

newe n,

Gk.

nonus.

.ev-vea}.

10.

20.

d&em

(I.-Eur.

dek e m, Gk

(I.-Eur. wi-(d)k mti,

a Dual-form, lit. 'two decades ', Dor. Gk. p^'iKari,

v'tgintl

Gk.

Att.

30. triginta,

decimus.

decie(n)s.

vlccsimus, older

tfcie(ri)s.

vicensumusfor
j

*vicent-hnni(s.

t-KOffi).

lit.

'

three decades

',

&c.
100. centum (I.-Eur. (d)k
lit.

'

a decade

'

mtom,
of de-

[sc.

cades], Gk.

1000.

vrittte.
illle,

originally
1
Sing. I-stem,

e. g.

Neut.
mille

peditum, with Plur.,

peditum.

e. g.

tria milia

Distributive
ter-ni

and

Numerals have the

suffix -no-,

differently, singuli (from the root sem-,

semel).

Multiplicative Numerals have

root plek-,

'

to fold'

(Lat. im-plico,

'
simplex (like Scotch aefauld

and Proportional
e.

g. simplus.

e.

tn-ni, but the Distributive of unus

(On

e.

whence

from the
(

'

pel-,

honest
to

fill

'),
'),

8.)

So in Old Latin ducentum,

Nouns with the Gen. of the thing

argenti sescentum, Lucilius.

formed

',

TrXe^o)), e.g.

one-fold, for

qnotus, see ch. v.

mill!.

one

-pleas f

Gk.

-plus (from the root

Plautus has the Abl.

&c. are used as

', i.

'

g. h-ni,

is

trecentum.

specified, e. g.

CHAPTER V
THE PRONOUNS
1. Personal. Ego represents an I.-Eur. ego (Gk. eyo>).
This was the I.-Eur. form used for the 1 Pers. Sing.
Pronoun when subject to the verb, while another stem

was employed

same Pronoun when considered as

for the

This me-

object, viz. me-.

is

the stem of the Latin Dat.

pronounced as one syllable, ml, like nil from

ii.
6), which was in older Latin *me-hei, and

miJil (often
nihil, ch.

of the Abl. me, older

ferent stems in the

med

ii.

(ch.

Nom. and

9).

The use

in the other cases

of dif-

is

one of

the peculiar features of the I.-Eur. Pronoun Declension,

about which more information will be found below

3).

For the Accusative we find exactly the same form used

in Latin as for the Abl., viz. me, older med, so that the
Abl. seems to have taken the place of the Ace. in Latin
in

much

the same

as the Dat.

way

'

him ' took the

place

For the Gen. the Gen. Sing.Neut.

the Possessive Pronoun is used, mei, e. g. amicws mei,

of the Ace. in English.

of

'

lit.

a friend of mine

sionally a Gen.
of

Nouns

(ch.

My

but in older Latin we find occa-

formed with

iii.

-es,

the Gen. Sing. Suffix

in this line of
1), viz. mis, as

Ingens cura mis

'

'

cum

Ennius

concordibus aequiperare,

earnest care to match with

men

like-hearted to me.'

80

Pronouns

TJie

We

have thus

en.

Nom.

ego (originally ego, then shortened to ego, ch.

Gen.

mei (Gen. Sg. Neut. of meus).

Dat.

milii

ii.

16).

On

the second

Ace.

me

Abl.

me (from med9 with the Abl. Sing.

Suffix -d,

(from me-hei, ch.

14.
tibi).

(really Abl.).

ch.

Tu

ii.

below on

part -hei, see

4;

iii.

ii.

9).

represents an I.-Eur. tu, seen in the

Homeric form

Tv-vrj, while the ordinary Greek orv, older TV, represents

an I.-Eur. tu. This is another feature of the I.-Eur.

Pronoun Declension that forms with short and with long

vowel are found side by side (cf. ch. ix.
For the
1).
oblique cases the I.-Eur. stem was twe- and (when unemLat. tibl was earlier *te-bei.
The b which

phatic) te-.

appears here and in the Dat. of the Reflexive Pronoun,

may

be a

relic of

a Pronoun-stem bhe-, so that

sibi,

ti-bi

would be originally a Compound ; and the k of mi-hi has

been similarly referred to the Pronoun-stem ghe-, the

same as appears in the Demonstrative

hie

3).

The

other cases have the same formation as the 1 Pers. Sing.

Pronoun

and

like

Gen. mis beside mei, we have in the

older literature a Gen.

1

If the reading of the

paestic line

tis

MSS.

beside tuL

is

right in Plaut. Mil. 1033

an ana-

quia tis egeat, quia te careat,

the scansion is tis. Some make the true forms mis, tis, and derive
them from the old Locative (Gk. /xot, <rot), which in Horn, often
plays the part of a Gen. (e. g. /j,r]repi /J.QI). In Latin these Enclitics
would become *ml, *ti and (with a perverse addition of the Gen.
ending) ml-s,

fl-s,

81

Personal

Nom.

tu (the I.-Eur. form,

Gen.

tui

unchanged).
(Gen. Sg. Neut. of tuns, meaning literally

'

Dat.

of thine').

tibi

(from
to

te-

word, ch.
Ace.

te (really

Abl.

te

(from

with the same change of

through the unaccented use of the

*te-bei},

ti- t

14, as of me- to mi- in mi hi}.

ii.

Abl.).

ted).

In the First Plural Pronoun the one I.-Eur. stem ne(no-)

(Gk.

v$>i

Dual,

from I.-Eur. n

s),

from I.-Eur. n e s-me-, Engl. us

used in Latin to the exclusion of

f^iets

is

Nos is perhaps
the other stem we- (wo-) (Engl. we).
Ace.
and
not
Nom.
older
no-beis, adds
No-bls,
properly
to *nobei

(cf.

*te-bei, *se-bei)

the plural suffix

For

-s.

the Genitive, besides the Gen. Sing. Neut. of the Possessive, nostri3 e. g.

amicus

'

nostri,

lit.

'

a friend of ours

the

Gen. Plur. was used, nostrum or nostrorum and it came

to be the rule that the latter form should be employed
whenever the idea of plurality was strongly present.
;

Thus we have omnium nostrum

(in

Plautus omnium nos-

trorum} 'of all of us

of us

',

with

-is

&c.

nostrum (pars nostrorum} 'a part

', pars
Obsolete forms are (1) of the Dat. Abl. nis,

of Second Declension

the Ace. enos} in the

Hymn

Nouns

of the

Enos, Lases, iuuate

(ch.

iii.

6), (2) of

Arval Brothers

Enos, Marmor, iuuato,

'

Nos, Lares, juvate

nos, Mars, juvato.'

Nom.

nos (perhaps properly Ace.).

Gen.

nostri,

nostrum (really Gen. Sing. Neut. and

Gen. Plur. of the Possessive).

82

Pronouns

Tlie

Dat. Abl. nobls (older

no-bei-s,

with the

-1m of

suffix

increased by the plural suffix

ti-bi, si-bi

Ace.

CH.

-s).

nos.

Vo% shows the I.-Eur. 2 Plur. stem we- (wo-)

other I.-Eur. stem yu- (Gk.

u-yzeTy,

for the

Engl. you) was, like

the I.-Eur. 1 Plur. stem we- (wo-), discarded in Latin.

Its declension is similar to that of nos.

Nom.

vos (perhaps properly Ace.).

Gen.

vestrij

vestrum (Gen. Sing. Neut. and Gen.

Plur. of the Possessive).

Dat. Abl. vobis (older

Ace.
vos.

The

vo-bei-s).

Reflexive Pronoun (I.-Eur. stem swe- and,

when

but we have no
unaccented, se-)
similarly declined
Old Lat. Gen. *sis, like mis and tis, and (a common
is

feature of the I.-Eur. Pronoun Declension) the

are used for the Singular

Gen.

sui (Gen. Sg.

Dat.

sibi

and

same forms

for the Plural.

Neut. of suus,

lit.

'

of his

'

',

of

theirs').

(from *se-bei, as

tlbi

from

*te-fjei t

on which

see above).

Ace.

se (really Abl.).

Abl.

se

2.

cb. xi.

ch.

ii.

(from

sPd).

Possessive.

Meus

is

I.-Eur.

meyos

3), tuns, older *touos^ I.-Eur.

(ch. x.

tewos

15), suus, older souos, I.-Eur. sewos.

(ch. x.

From

13;
4;
the

Relative and Interrogative Pronoun was formed after the

same type

cujus, older *quoiiost a

form which was avoided

purists under the idea that it was nothing but the

Gen. Sg. cujus used by vulgar error as an Adjective,

by

83

Possessive

cujns y

-mn.

-a,

Virgil however stamped the form with

his approval in the line (Eel.

iii.

1)

An

Die mihi, Damoeta, cujum pecus?

a line which his critics parodied

'

cujum pecus anne Latinum ?

"
"
me, Damoetas,
cujum pecus good Latin?'

Die mihi, Damoeta,

'Tell

Meliboei?

'

is

Beside I.-Eur. sewos (Gk. eo?) there was another I.-Eur.

form swos (Gk. oy for *o7r oy),, which may appear in

O. Lat. forms like sas, sis, as in a line of Ennius (imitated

by Lucretius

iii.

1025)

Postquam lumina

sis oculis

bonus Ancu'

reliquit.

These must not be confused with O. Lat.

sas,

sOs for

not impossible that we have here

merely Ennius' spelling of that monosyllabic pronunciation
eas, eos

3),

but

it is

of (unaccented) snas, suis, &c., which

of Lucretius (v. 420)

we

find in this line

Ordine se suo quaeque sagaci mente locarunt.

In this line the u of suo was pronounced

and similarly the

like our

(a dactylic

'

e of meo, meos, &c.j

like our w,

was pronounced

in such a line as that of the old Scipio epitaph

Hexameter)

Virtutes generis mieis moribus accumulaui,

I made my character crown the merits of our race.'

For the Possessive of the Plural Pronouns the

used was -tero- (Gk. ?7/z-repoy)
ves-ter}

older vos-ter (ch. x.

so 1

PJ. nos-ter,

suffix

2 PI.

8).

These Possessives are really Adjectives, not Pronouns,

and properly belong to chapter iv. They have the
1

Or

else

(under the Breves Breviantes Law, ch.

G 2

ii.

16) suo.

84

TJie

Pronouns

CH.

ordinary Adjective declension, the only point that calls

mention being the Voc. Sing. Masc. of meus, which is

J
form (as die of dice).
mif for *mei(e) } the apocopated
On the use of their Gen. Neut. as Gen. of the Personal

for

Pronouns

see the last paragraph.

Both the Possessive Adjectives and the Personal Pronouns are often strengthened by the addition of the
Particles -met, -pte (on which see

3), e.g. ego-met, tibi-met,

sibi-metj nos-met, vos-met, mea-met, suis-met, miU-pte,

Tu often adds the Particle

pte, suo-pte.

tu-te (cf. tu-ti-met, ch.

ii.

13), a

-te,

mea-

and becomes

form not to be con-

with Ace. te-te ; for this Ace. form is merely the

doubled for the sake of emphasis (cf. se-se).
There was a great variety of
3. Demonstrative.
Demonstrative Pronoun-stems in I.-Eur., some of which
f oun^ed

Ace.

te

appear in some languages as Adverbs, Conjunctions and

Particles only, but as Pronouns in others. Thus the stem
ke- (ko-) appears in Latin in the
'

give here

',

and

Adverb

ce- of ce-do,

in the Particle -ce of kujus-ce, illis-cey

&c., but in English it supplies the ordinary Third Sing.

'

Pronoun

he

'

(gho-) of Lat.

Particle in

and on the other hand the stem ghe-

Jti-c

Greek

ho-c appears as a
Latin Conjunctions like
dum are all descendants of I.-Eur.
(O.

Lat.

Jie-c),

ov-\i, i/ai-^t.

nam-j nem-pe, e-nim }

Pronoun-stems which in other I.-Eur. languages appear

as actual Pronouns ; and so are Latin Particles like -pc
1

The

full

form *meie would become me, which

is

perhaps pre-

served in me-castor, me-hercle (from *me-herde), unless these ai-e AcPlautus uses meus with a Second
cusatives, me Castor juvet,' &c.
Decl. Noun whose Nom. is used for a Vocative, e. g. Asin. 664 da,
'

me"us ocellus,

mea

rosa,

mi anime, mea

uoluptas.

85

Demonstrative

of nem-pe, quippe, -dem of ejus-dem, ibi-dem, -tern of au-tem,

i-tem } &c.j as well as the

Pronominal Particles mentioned

paragraph -pte, -met, and the like.

The stems used in Latin for Demonstrative Pronouns

in the preceding

are

I.-Eur. se- (so-),

(1)

Nom.

ally confined to
(to-)

which seems to have been originSg. Masc. and Fern., a stem te-

being used elsewhere (Gk.

Masc.,

for *o-, Fern., TO, for

77,

This stem

Masc., &c.).

is

eum ',

as in this line of

oy, for *cro, *cr6?,

*ro, Neut., TOV Ace. Sg.

found independently in the

'

Old Latin Demonstrative sam

'

and

Ennius

earn

',

sos

'

eos

',

sum

Constitit inde loci propter sos dia dearum,

'

Then

(inde

But

loci)

the heavenly goddess took her stand beside them.'

it appears in independent form

an Adverb or Conjunction, turn, tarn, &c. ; while
in Pronouns it is always a pendant to some other stem,

in classical Latin

only as

e.

g. ille for *ol-se,

(see below),

where

it

is

a pendant to the stem

ol-

&c.

is-te,

from
(2) I.-Eur. ghe- (gho-) supplies Lat. Me Masc.,
O. Lat. ke-c?- haec Fern., for hai-c, hoc Neut., for *kod-c,
The scansion of hie
all augmented by the Particle -ce.
as a long syllable,

e.

g. Virg.

Manibusque meis Mezentius hie

represents a pronunciation

lead of

'

hocc

'

(cf.

'

hlcc

',

est,

which followed the

hocci-ne) for *hod-c.

Hicc and hocc

would be the pronunciation before vowels,

1

This form

is

found on a Scipio epitaph

Hec

Me and

cepit Corsica Aleriaque urbe,

'hie cepit *Jorsicam Aleriamque urbem.'

hoc

86

The Pronouns

before consonants

But

ch.

(cf.

with a long

hie

ii.

CH.

9 on these doublets).

was an Adverb,

'

here

and hoc

',

with long o was the Ablative. The unaccented use of

the Demonstrative (ch. ii.
11) led to the change of
O. Lat. kec to class. Lat. hw (ch. ii.
14), and similarly
of the Neut. hoc (hocc) to hue (hucc),

though the

last

came

to be reserved for the Adverbial sense of

place

',

hither

(ch. ix.

5).

e.

',

The

hue venio, in Plautus hoc

g.

form

to this
iienio

of hai-c is a peculiarity of the I.-Eur.

Pronoun Declension
the Pron. stem q

(cf.

quae, O. Lat. quai, Fern. Sg. of

u
o-,

6).

(3) I.-Eur. 61- (Lat. ul-tra} ul-timus

see ch.

viii.

41),

a grade of the root al- of Lat. al-ius, Gk. d'AAoy, appears

with the I.-Eur. stem se- (so-) appended in Lat. ille from

(On the change of Is to II, as in velle for *vel-se}

The Neuter we should expect to be
19.)
but this form was adapted to the
*ultud from *ol-tod
*ol-se.

see ch. x.

pattern of the Masc. and Fern, and became ollud, class.

illud.

The change

of o to

must be

referred to the

unaccented use of this Pronoun, which culminated in

reduction to a mere Definite Article
11).

Hie, older

olle,

in late Latin (ch.

its
ii.

seems to stand for an original

with weakening of final o to e (ch. ii. 14), so being

one form of the Nom. Sing. Masc. in I.-Eur. (Gk. 6 for

ol-so,

united with the Preposition into one word in the

e. g. Ital. al, Fr. au (for ad ilium), Ital. del, Fr.
du (for de Hid}. Even in Plautus we find ellum (for em ilium) which
For the Demonstratives the Romance
survives in Ital. ello.
languages use Compounds with ecce which appear as early as
1

This

Eomance

is

languages,

Plautus, e. g. eccillam (Ital. quella, Fr. celle), eccistam (Ital. questa,

Fr. cette).
^

87

Demonstrative

The

*0-o).

other form sos (Gk. oy for *<ros,

in O. Lat. ollus for ol-sos, but *ittus

the classical language

From

(4)

I.-Eur.

(cf.

he

')

appears

was discarded in

ipse

and

ipsus).

and eyo- (Engl. it) comes

(ei-)
Pronoun (i. e. the pronoun which

i'

'

the Latin

below on

'

Anaphoric

something previously mentioned) u Masc., ea

Augmented by
Fern., from eya (ch. x.
13), id Neut.
a combination of the Particle -pe with the Pronoun-stem
refers to

se- (so-),

a combination which expresses

'

self

',

it

forms

the Latin Pronoun of Identity, ipse M. for i-p(e)-so, ipsa

1
N. In class. Latin the first part of this comF., ipsum
bination remains undeclined in

its

bare stem-form i-psa,

i-psum, &c., but in the earlier literature

we have

declen-

sion of the first part with or without declension of the

e.

second,

psum?).
'

the same

g.

Augmented
',

Mem

Fern.,

(and

ea-pse

ea-psa

?),

eum-pse (and eum-

by the Particle -clem

Idem, older u-dem, Masc. (ch. x.

it

expresses

19), ea-deni

(not *id-dem) Neut.

The Declension

of these stems followed the I.-Eur.

Pronoun Declension, which, as we have seen, was very

different from the Noun or Adj. Declension, though it
became more and more assimilated
time, and in Greek had
this

is

come

to this in course of

to be almost identical.

Greek assimilation of the Pronoun-

to the

It

Noun-

Declension which makes the Greek Pronouns easier for

1

We

should expect

Like 0. Lat. ottus beside olle (class.

Plautus seems to use the form ipsus
where special emphasis is intended. Since the extrusion of s in
i(s}pse, i(s)psus (see ch. x.
20) would be the natural result of
Latin Phonetic laws, perhaps is, and not the bare stem i-, was the
ill

first

is

*iptud.

O. Lat. ipsus beside

part of

ipse (as

ipse.

of Idem}.

88

TJie

Pronouns

CH.

a school-boy to learn than the Latin. The Nom. Ace.

Sg. Neut. was formed, not like O-stem Nouns in -m,
e. g. donum, but in -d, e.
g. is-tud (I.-Eur. tod, Gk. TO
for *ro$),

the
e.

Nom.

ill-lid

the

Nom.

Ace. Plur. Neut.

Sing. Fern, (with which went

see ch.

g. O. Lat. hai-ce, class, haec

(O. Lat.

-ce, ille

these from a very early time,

'

6's

e.

g. Lat.

olle)

he

'

for *<ros), sa F. (Gk.

e.

17

Nom.

hie,

-ai,

Sing.

for ghe-

for ol-so (Gk. 6 for

But the Noun-endings were used

%o).

ended in

2)

while for the

Masc. the bare stem was used,

with Particle

iii.

side

by side with

g. I.-Eur. sos

and

for *<ra),

M. (Gk.
we find

so

in Latin ilia, for ol-sa, beside O. Lat. illaec, for ol-sai

with Particle
O. Lat.

-ce,

and along with O. Lat.

ollus, for ol-sos.

class, ista beside

O. Lat.

suffix -oi, -ei (the Loc.

ch.

iii.

olle

we have

(Cf. O. Lat. ipsus beside ipse,

islaec,

The

ip-sum Neut., &c.)

Sing, suffix of

Noun

O-stems,

was in the I.-Eur. Pronoun Declension used

6)

in a case which seems

to have acted

not only as a

Thus

Locative but also as a Dative and as a Genitive.

Greek

which we

JJLOI,

call

a Dative, has the function of

a Genitive in such a phrase as ftrjrepi IJLOL f to my

mother '. In Latin ittl, older ol-lei from ol-soi or ol-sei
(ch.

ii.

14),

that place
it

was both Dative

'

',

there

to

by

restricting

with the Particle

unknown

mark

in

illi

who

in

classical period

to distinguish the

to the Dat. sense,

-ce, illlc, 'to

to Plautus,

Dat. and as Loc.

him ' and Locative

and though by the

had been found convenient

uses

is

',

'

two

and the form

the Loc., this distinction

uses

The Genitive

illi

and

illic

equally as

received a distinguishing

Latin by the addition of the

Noun Gen.

Sing.

89

Demonstrative

3
suffix -os (ch.

iii.

1) to this

Dat.-Loc.-Gen. form, kujus

(pronounced huyyus, ch.

3), older *hoios, from */wi
with an appended -os ; so ejus (pronounced eyyus) from
1
from illi, &c. In the rapid utterance of
ei, illius
ii.

ordinary speech these new Genitives assumed, when

2
unaccented (ch. ii.
illu, istis,
11), the pronunciation
r
ips is, huis, els. Thus we have illl(u)s modi (four syllables)
Ter. Ad. 441, or in one

with

19).

dropped before

The Nom.

viz. -oi,

Nouns

was

word

illimodi (cf. cuicuimocli),

as in primus for *jprismus (ch. x.

Plur. Masc. suffix of

O-stem pronouns,
by O-stem

in Latin (as in Greek) borrowed

(see ch.

iii.

6).

Scheme of the Demonstrative Pronoun Declension.

(Stem ghe-, gho-)

The Pronouns

90

Scheme

of the Demonstrative

Pronoun Declension.

Sing, (continued).

(Stem ghe-, gho-)

CH.

The

Particle -ce

Plur. (continued).

(Stem ghe-, gho-)

91

The Pronouns

92
The tendency
12) reduced

CH.

of Latin pronunciation to syncope of final -c (ch. ii.

to -c, but the full form of the Particle is seen, for

-ce

example, when the Interrogative -ne is added, hici-ne, hocci-ne (on

14 n.}.
the change of -e to -i- see ch. ii.
A Nom. Plur. Masc.
5. O. Lat. forms of the Demonstratives.
older heis (hisce, heisce) is found on inscriptions and in Plautus
and even, according to the Grammarians, in Virgil, Ed. iii. 102
His certe, neque amor causa est, vix ossibus haerent.
his,

Plautus uses this Nom. Plur. Masc. (always with -ce added), hisce
(also illisce, istisce) before a word beginning with a vowel, but only hi
(also

before a

illi, istf)

homines, hi

word beginning with a consonant,

e. g. hisce

viri.

Dat.-Abl. hibus occurs in Plautus Cure. 506

hibus, like Ibus, from

diurn.

is,

in Plaut. Mil. 74 ibus

parissumi estis

dinumerem

stipen-

The old form ollus was still used in Cicero's time in the announcement of a public funeral ollus leto datus est, Quirites and when the
herald made his proclamation at the elections he used the phrase
olla centuria and not
ilia centuria
just as we keep up the old
Norman French oyez, oyez in Royal Proclamations. Virgil and
:

'

',

'

'

the later Epic poets are fond of the forms otti, ollis, e.g. Virg.A.
Olli subridens hominum sator atque deorum,

i.

254

which some of the Latin commentators understood olli as

an Adverb with the sense of at that time ', then
Olim, an
Adverb derived from a by-stem 6l-, had originally this meaning,
a line in

'

'

'.

'

at that time

',

e. g.

Plaut. True. 65 olim

the hottest time of the year '.

An early Ace. Sg. Masc. of
clause of the
a witness

si

im or em,

is

maxime

'

at

preserved in that

in ius uocat, ni it, antestamino igitur em capito, ' If

and B refuses to go,
must first take a bystander to

witness (antestamino for

6.

viz.

caletur

Twelve Tables which gives directions how to subpoena

A summon B

The

is,

quom

ante-testamino'),

Relative, Indefinite,

then lay hands on B.'

and Interrogative.

I.-Eur. Relative-stem yo- (Gk. oy for *yoy) does not

u
supply the Latin Relative, which shows the stem q o-_,

a short sword, stiletto, shows us that plebeian Latin used ha

A gladiator had his sword broken in a combat but refused
the offer of a new one, saying sic ha pugnabo 'I'll fight with this as

slca,

for hac.

it is.'

5, 6

93

Relative, Indef., Interrocj.

a stem originally proper (with q u i-, qu u-) to the Interrogative and Indefinite Pronouns (Gk. r/y ; and TIS, TTOV ;
TTOU, Engl. who ?) but used also as a Relative (Engl.

and

I.-Eur. o/o-, qui-,

who).
quis

We

&c.

?, si-quis, ali-culi,

qid (stem q

u
q u- appear

in the Latin qid ? y

may roughly distinguish

u
as the
o-) as the Relative, quis (stem q i-)

Interrogative and Indefinite Pronoun, though the stems

frequently overlap; e.g. in the Latin o Cato and the
earliest inscriptions qnes is the

qui (guei) of the Relative

Nom.

but in

PI. of the Indefinite,

class.

Lat. both are qui.

In the Dramatists quis is the Fern, of the Interrog., quae

of the Relative, but qui, the I-stem Abl., which probably

was

originally confined to the Interrog.-Indef. use,

is

477 psaltriam parauit, quicum

written quis (ch. x.
11), which

also Relative, e.g. Ter. Ad.

uiuat,

was

and

queis, later

originally Rel. only,

I-declension Neuter

junction (ch.

ix.

is

also Interrog.-Indef.

The

only as a

Con-

PI. quia survives

12).

In the

Italic

languages

(as in

and elsewhere) a curious declension of the Relative

(and Interrogative) was in vogue, a case-form of the

Celtic

Relative-stem being prefixed to a Demonstrative, like

modern Greek TTOV rov for ov in such a sentence as azrroy
'

that

the

man whom

saw

eiW

The

old spelling of the Dat. Sg. of qui, viz. quoiei,

dVfyay TTOV rov

elda,

is

'.

may

1
Cato began his Origines with the words siques homines sunt,
quos delectat populi Rornani gesta discribere and on the Senatus
Consultum de Bacchanalibus, an inscr. of Plautus' time, we have
sei ques esent, quei sibei deicerent necesus ese Bacanal habere,
'siqui essent, qui sibi dicerent necesse esse Bacchanal habere.'
2
Even in Plautus we find (Trin. 1023) quorum eorum unus one of
:

'

whom

',

for quae,
(Cist. 691) quae ilia

(Pseud. 226) quae ea for quae.

94

Pronouns

27? e

show

it

to be a

OH.

of this kind,

compound

second element the Dat. Sg. of

if it

(O. Lat.

is

has for

eiei),

its

so that

would represent qno-eiei ; and Gen. Sg. quoiios, then

quoins (class, cujus), would consequently represent quoquoiei

Whether

eius.

method

this

other instances in Latin

the Italic Relative

nominal Particle *

is

was used

in

Another feature of

clear.

tendency to append the Pro-

its

Gk.

(of

of declension

not

is

and this is

ovros-l, &c.) ;

mark

in Latin as the discriminating

of the

Masc. of the Relative, qui (O. Lat. quoi) from

utilized

Nom.

Sg.

quo-l.

On

-a, -um, older quoins, -a, -um, with

the Possessive cujus,

stem qu o-yo- formed by means of the Adjective-suffix

u
yo- (ch. xi.
3) from the stem q o-, see above ( 2).
Singular.
Relative.

Nom. M.

Interrogative-Indefinite.

0. Lat. quoi (fi-om

qui,

Nom.

q o, the bare stem,

with the Particle I).
F. quae, 0. Lat. quai

(from

u
(from stem q i- with

quis

Adj.
quae,

the

Sing, suffix -s)

qui.

and

cujus, 0. Lat.

0.

Lat.

pended

quoios

*etos

pended
cm',

an Adj. qua (with

as

Nom.

(stem q

Dat.

as an

Sing, ending of the

Adj. Decl.) [in 0. Lat. quis

ai).

N. quod (Pronominal Neuter of stem qu o-).

Gen.

Noun

and

u
i-)].

(Pronominal Neuter of
stem qu i-).
(possibly from quo Instr. with ap-

Gen. of

quid

is).

(possibly from quo Instr. with apDat. of is).

Quoi was still the spelling in

quoiei

eiei

Quintilian's youth.

Ace. M.
F.

Abl. M.
F.
1

quern (stem

i-).

quam.
quo (stem qo-)
|

qua

The distinction

Pron.

(e. g.

[and in

Q Lat

qu (stem

^_^

of qui Adj. (e. g. qui homo venit ?)

is later than Plautus.

quis venit?)

and

quis

95

Relative, Indef., Interrofj.

Plural.

Nom. M.

qui, 0. Lat. quoi

and

(in unaccented \ [inO.Lat.<jwes(stem

u

q i-) for Interrog.use) quei (stem q o-).

[
) Indef. only].
quae, O. Lat. quai (same as Sing.).
quae, 0. Lat. quai (same as Fern. Sing.).

F.

N.
Gen. M.
F.

quorum (stem q o-).

u
quarum (stem q o-).

Dat. Abl. quibus (stem qu i-) [O. Lat. *quois,

which in unaccented use

became first queis, then<$ms, comes from stem qu o-, and

was originally
M.

Ace.

F.

7.

[O.Lat.gitls (stem

i-)

for Interrog.-

Indef. only].

Derivatives of the Rel. and Interrog. -Indef. Pro-

nouns are

ali-quis,

with

Rel. only].

q o-)
n
quas (stem q o-)
quos (stem

alio-,

a compound of the stem

some (connected
which preec-qiiis,

ali- f

other), and the Indef. Pron. ;

fixes *ece (connected

with

ecce) to quis

quis-nam, which
6) to the
(ch. ix.

appends the Interrogative Particle nam

*
Interrog., as qm-dam (for quit-dam> like idem for is-dem)
appends a similar Particle from the Pronoun-stem do- ( 3)
to the Indefinite; qm-vis adds vis,

you wish, and

qul-libet

pleases ; on the appendage -cumque of

(Hbef),
ix.
2 ; qnisque, each, has in Old Latin
ch.
see
quicumque,

adds lulet

it

the sense, of quicumque ? e.g. Plaut. Capt. 798 quemque

offendero
c

'

whomever

any-how ', was used

come

across

'

quis-quam, any,

lit.

especially in negative sentences, its

I-stem Abl. being employed as an Adv. in ne-qulquam ,

'
(
lit.
not anyhow ; quis-piam is a Compound of

in vain,
1

Some

say it is merely et quis.

So had the simple Indefinite

MSS.
an old plebiscitum
minore parti familias

It is often so spelt in
quis, e. g.

in

quis uolet magistratus multare, dum

taxsat. liceto, what magistrate soever desires to fine

eum

'

so

up

to less

than half of his belongings.'

him may do
?

96

The Pronouns

*quispe (the I-stem Abl. of which

is

CH.

the Adverb quippe, for

qulpe) with jam, as nunciam of mine with jam.

8. The Pronominal Adjectives.
These are

from I.-Eur. alyo- (Gk. a'AAoy) with by-forms *

Nom. Sg. Masc. and alicl in Nom. Sg. Neut. (cf.

(1) alius
alis in

Cornells for Cornelius, eh.

alienus

-mo-

is

iii.

The

6).

derivative Adj.

for ali-lno- (by Dissimilation) with the suffix

(ch. xi.

(2) alter is

5).

formed from the root

al-,

seen in alyo-, by

the addition of the suffix -tero- (ch. xi.

8), while other
show a similar formation from the root

I.-Eur. languages

an- (Germ, an-der, Engl. o-ther, from ' on-ther ).

It is
often used (like O. Engl. oder) as an Ordinal Numeral,
'
'
still
second '.
say every other man I meet '.

We

(3) ullus is

formed with the LO-suffix

units (see ch. iv.

which

4),

also belongs to the

The

Declension, Gen. unius, Dat. uni.

is

(ch. xi.

9)

from

Pronoun

opposite of ullus

nullus with the negative prefix ne- of n-usquam, n(e)-

utiquam

(ch. ix.

nullus, *ne-ullus}

there

was a time

1 7)
'

and

not a

ullus

little

in Latin

was coined on the type of

one \

when

'

not even one

nullus

was

',

so that

in use but not

Like nullus, but used properly of persons, while

nullus was used normally of things, is nemo from *ne-hemo?

ullus.

(On hemoj a by-form of homo,

see ch.

scarcely used as a substantive

is

iii.

till

late

.)

Nullus

Latin, but

Catullus Ixvi. 28 quod non fortior ausit alis.

Lucretius i. 263 quando alid ex alio reficit natura.
Since these by-forms do not appear till the end of the Republic,
some prefer to regard them as formed on the analogy of is, guis,
1

e. g.

and
2

to

have arisen from such combinations as quis

is therefore a Pleonasm.

Plautus' nemo homo

alius ? quid aliud ?

Pmnowhutl

97

Adjectives

and nnUo take the place of new in is and nemine in

As the Neuter of millus nihil (usually pro-

nullius

Latin.

class.

nounced
ne-

and

ch.

iii.

compound

(On the scansion

id/til,

of the negative
earlier

id/ill,

see

16.)

seems connected with the Adverb

solus

(4)

employed,, a

nil) is

h'ilum.

apart (e.g.

sed-itio,

formed from

so-,

a going apart'), and

a grade of

suffix -lo (ch. xi.

(5) totus

lit.

se- (see ch. x.

se,

sec/-,

may

9).

be connected with the I.-Eur. teuta,

may

be

12) with the

community', whence the name Teuton, and be derived

from the root teu-, to swell ', be large ' (cf. Lat. tumeo).
'

'

one of those Latin Relative (Interrog.-Indef .)

forms beginning with 11- (cf. ubi, ut) which seem to come
(6) uter

is

from the stem qu uever

6).

O. Lat. quisque,

(cf.

opposite of uter

is

addition of

-qite,

becomes uterque. The

trisyllable) with the negative
7), it

neuter (a

prefix ne- of neqneo, &c.

With the

Altervier

is

a compound of alter

sometimes with both elements declined, sometimes with the second only (cf.
3 on ipse).

and

utert

All of these take the Pronominal Gen. and Dat. Sg.

and -?', but only alms takes the Neut. Sg. (Nom.-

in -iug

Acc.) in

-d,

aliud

(cf.

Gk. aXXo for *&\\o8). True

to their

Adjectival character however they admitted more readily

than

ille, iste

Noun

and the other Demonstrative Pronouns the

Declension forms in these cases, e.g. unae

(Gen.), Cic.

tarn nulli consili, Ter.

colons

ulli,

rei

Plant.

For the Gen. Sing, of alius the

Romans discarded altus, which was liable to confusion

alterae legioni, Caes.

with the Nom., and used instead the Possessive Adj.

98

The.

dienm

I 'mri

mm

CH. v

or else the Gen. Sing, of alter, alterins.

scansion see

(On the

n.)

There are other Adjectives called ( Pronominal ' Adjectives, because they are derived from Pronoun -stems.
These, like the Possessives

From

Declension.
(I.-Eur. tali-

cf.

2),

belong to the Adjective

the stem to-, te- comes Lat.

Gk.

rr)\L-Kos

),

tan-tm,

preserved in toti-dem (I.-Eur. toti-;

for *roTioy), and (with O-suffix, ch.

Manilius

iii.

420

detrahitur

cf.

Gk.

older

ttiti-,

roo-(cr)oy

2) totus (e.g.

xi.

summae

tot,

tails

tota pars, quota

From the Relative (Interrog.-Indef.) stem

demitur).
comes Lat. qndlis (Gk. TTT]\I-KO$), qnantas, 1 qntit, older

q*m-

(I.-Eur. q

and (with

ofci-

cf.

Gk.

O-suffix) quoins (e.g.

7roo-((r)oy

Horace

for *7ror<oy),

j5/?/?.

i.

5.

30: tu

(
quotus esse velis rescribe, write back how many other
'
guests you wish to meet you ', lit. which number in the

series

you wish

to be

').

Cottldie

a by-form, and stand for

(On
the

ce-leri, see ch. ix.

Numeral

duo, ch.

iii.

may come from

*qv%tttus,

with Syncope of
and on ambo, a Dual like
.

quot(i)tl-die,

4,

1.)

1
The misuse of tanti, quanti in the sense of tot, quot, which lias
produced the Romance words for so many ', how many is as
oM as Propertius (e. g. quanta milia).
'

'

',

CHAPTER VI
THE VERB
1.

Thematic and Athematic.

had two Conjugations

(1)

The

I.-Eur.

Person-suffixes were attached to the Verb-root

of a connecting Vowel, e or o (ch. x.
'

Verb

the Thematic, in which the

by means

11), called the

Thematic VoweF, e.g.Gk. Aey-o-/^, Aey-e-re, where the

Person Plural, -/**>, and the suffix of

suffix of the First

the Second Person Plural, -re, are attached to the root

of the Verb, Aey-,
(2)

by means of the Vowels

attached directly to the Verb-root

of

and

e;

the Athematic, in which the Person-suffixes were

this

connecting vowel, e.g.

Thematic Conjugation had

used the diphthong
Aey-oi-re.

The

its 1

oi in its

Gk.

without
f-/*er,

the

Sg. Pres. Ind. in -6,

Optative, e.g.

Gk.

help

The

f-re.

and

Aey-o>,

Athematic Con-

1 Sg. Pres. Ind. of the

jugation had the suffix -mi, and in the Optative ie was

used in the Sing. Act., elsewhere T, e. g. Gk. eT-yLtt, io-Ta-irj-i>,
la-ra-l-fj.^ (ioraifMv).

Latin Verbs like sum,

The

so-called

'

'

irregularity

of

mainly due to the fact

that they belonged to the I.-Eur. Athematic Conjugation.
The root of the Verb sum is es- (cf Inf. es-te) ; and es-t,
eo, volo, is

es-fis differ

from

leg-i-t, leg-i-tis

merely in the absence

of the connecting vowel e (class. Lat.

H2

ch.

ii.

14).

100
So
1

Tlic

CH. vi

l-s (older *ei-$) ) i-tix (older *<?/-/?>)

'

to

go

sum

to wish

'

(ch.

ii.

on

vis see

ei-,

from the

The -m

23).

the Athematic -mi of the 1 Sg. Pres. Ind.

is

and the

from the root

mil-t (older vol-1), vul-tls (older vol-tis)

root wel-,
of

Verl

ie

Subjunctive

of the Optative appears in the so-called

(l)
',

s-ie-s

(class,

su), s-l-tis.

But

in Latin

a great many thematic forms are mixed with these Athematic Verbs. Thus their First Singular Pres. Ind. is
13), vol-o, and
usually thematic, e-o from ey-6 (ch. x.
l
their Third Plural of the same tense, e.g. eimt from ey-ont

And throughout the Latin Verb we shall

mixture
of thematic with athematic forms.
find a strange
(ch.

ii.

2.

14).

The

To

First Conjugation.

belongs the large

this

Conjugation

number of Derivative Verbs from A-stem

from planta, a plant, plantare, to plant, ' to

make into a plant ', horn fug a, flight, /%?<?, to put to
This form of Verb became associated with
flight.
Nouns,

e.

g.

a Transitive sense,

'

to

make ',

certain state or condition

derived from other stems,

tive

meaning,

xcelerare, to

into dust, to

reduce anything to a
and was extended to Verbs

if

these Verbs had this transi-

make

coloured, from color,

make

guilty, from scelus, pulverare, to turn

cover with dust, from pulvis. A section of the

Verbs belongs

such as std-re from the root

is

',

e.g. colorare, to

First Conjugation

tra-

'

sta-,

to a

very ancient type,

to stand ', in-trd-re, \v\iere

a Verb-root, a derivative of the root

'

'.

'

ter-,

to

through ', pierce

Athematic Conjugation, while Derivatives

to the

The athematic form would be

have been in use.

to

go

This ancient type belonged properly

i-nt,&

like

form which seems actually

First.

iitjare

101

Conjugation

were thematic and used the

form

suffix -yo- to

The two types have been blended

such a way that both form their 1 Sg. Pres.

their Present Tense.

in

Latin in

Ind. thematically, with the addition of this suffix -yo-,

and the
have

rest of their Persons athematically

and

intro (from -trd-yo) like/w^o (from -gd-yo)

so

we

fugd-s

like intrd-Sjfuffd-tis like intrd-tis.

The

First Conjugation

was the favourite Latin Con-

jugation, and verbs taken from other languages were

impressed into it/ e.g. propmare, to drink a person's

health, from Greek Trpoiriveiv, atticissare, to ape the

Athenian fashion, from Greek OLTTIKI^IV. It includes

the numerous class of Iteratives or Frequentatives, e.g.
pulso, I

strike frequently, the

Frequentative of pello,

formed from Perf. Part. Pass. -stems or rather from the

Fern, of these used as a
repnlsa

beside

Noun

repulsus).

(cf. offensa

beside offensus,

They sometimes double

the

TO-suffix, e.g.fac-ffi-to, ven-ti-to.

O. Lat. sonere, e.g. Lucr.

iii.

156:

Caligave oculos, sonere auris, succidere artus,

comes directly from the root swen- (Lat. son-, ch. x. 13)
as let/ere from the root leg- (see
4), and formed its
Perfect and Supine regularly, sonui, sonitum.

Derivative from a lost Verbal

Noun

Sondre, a

*gona, existed side by

with sonere and in time ousted the Third Conj. form,

though the Third Conj. Perf. and Supine were retained.
side

Hence the
1

So in

ieren.

irregular conjugation

German

loan- verbs take the

sono} sonui, sonitum,

ending -wren,

e.g.

cummuml-

The Verb

103
sonar e.

(cf.

jugation

Gk.

from a

implico,

Noun

olt

TrXe/co))

and

of the First

gave rise to the blended conimplicui and impUcavi, implicitum and

In the case of

*cela } concealment,

Third Conj. form

oc-culo (from

Noun

Verbal

lost

Gk.

(cf.

TrXoKri)

implicatum, implicare.

Verbal

to fold'

plek-,

im-plico (1 Conj.)

Decl.

coexistence of im-plico (3 Conj.)

tlie

Similarly

from the root

CH. vi

celo is

and

celo)

from a

celo

from the root

cc!-,

lost

the

found only in Compounds, e.g.

while mprofligare beside fligere,
it is the First Conj. form

occupare beside capere, &c.,

which appears

form

in the

Simple Verb.

grade of the root do-,

sta-, 'to stand', see
3.

Compounds, and the Third Conj.

in the

(On

to give

',

dare,

with da-, the weak

and on

stare

from the root

23.)

The Second Conjugation.

Here too we may

discriminate an ancient type of Athematic Verbs, e.g.

im-ple-re with the root pic- (cf. P. P.P. imple-tiis)^ by-form
of the root pel-,

to

fill ',

from the great mass of Derivafrom the

tive Verbs, e.g. claude-re, to be lame, derived

O-stem Adjective

clawing, lame.

These Derivatives of

the Second Conjugation contrast with the Derivatives

of the First in that they are derived not from A-stems

but from O-stems and have not a transitive but an intransitive

meaning.

means

Clarere, for example,

while clarare means

'

to

make

clear

'

to be clear

',

Like the Derivative

'.

Verbs of the First Conjugation these Derivatives of the

Second formed their Present Tense stem originally with
the suffix -yo- and belonged properly to the Thematic
Beside the Simple Verb dare
(from donwm) donarc to gift '.
1

'

'

to give

'

stands the Derivative

103

Second Conjugation

Conjugation.

In Latin the intermixture of the thematic

and athematic forms has had the same

First Conjugation,

result as in the

namely that the First Sing. Pres. Ind.

was formed thematically with the YO-suffix, the other

Persons athematically, e.g. impleo(trom -e-yo)]ikec/audeo;
claude-s} claude-tis, like imple-s, imple-tis.

But

there

is

a further element of confusion in the

Second Conjugation. Thel.-Eur. Causative and Intensive

Verbs, whose Present-stern was formed in -eyo- with the
O-grade of the root (ch. x.
Conjugation in Latin ; and

12),

were attracted into this

so, e.g.

moneo, I remind, cause

remember (with Present-stem moneyo-), the Causa'

tive of the Verb-root men-,
to remember ', is a Second

to

Another verb of

Conjugation Verb.
Causative meaning

from the root

or Intensive
nex).

The

'

ters-,

is

torreo,

to be

meaning

is

dry

'.

noceo

form with

this

I cause to

become dry,

Another with Causative

from the root

nee- (Lat.

absorption of these verbs into the

Second

Conjugation brought about the strange result that

though the Second Conjugation type is associated with

an intransitive sense, a small body of verbs of

jugation have a decidedly transitive meaning.

this

Con-

The intransitive character of these Second Conj.

Verbs, the E- Verbs as they may be called, is due to
the fact that the Verb-stem with this suffix -e- had an
intransitive sense.

In Greek the Verb-stem with the

was used as a Passive, e.g.

struck, or merely an Intransitive, e.g.
In Latin
in a state of madness.

E-suffix

Verb-stem

in c appears in cale-facio, to

-TV7rr)-v,

was

t-jjidvr)-v }

was

this

intransitive

put into a state

The Verb

104

CH.VI
warmth

of warmth, cale-Jio, 1 to be put into a state of

Noun-stems

closely connected with it are Verbal

e.g. sorties Plur. (cf. sorde-facio) , the declension of

iii.

e,

which

between the Fifth and the Third Declension

varies
ch.

in

(see

There are a large number of these Verbs

13).

in -eo indicating state or condition in Latin, e.g. caleo,

timeo, paveo,

each with a corresponding

(an S-stem, ch.

8; ch. xi.

iii.

and an Adj.

j>avor,

-i-dus }

in

Noun

in

-or

18), e.g. cahr, tin/or,

e.g.

calichis,

(iiitidux,

'Inceptive' Verbs, which denote the passing

into a state or condition, e.g. calesco, to pass into the

.pandas.

state of

warmth,

liquesco,

to

pass into a liquid state,

are so closely associated with Intransitive E-Verbs that

they are often used as their Present Tense, e. g. inardesco

(inardeo is not found), convaiesco (not convaleo). So remote
are these Verbs from a transitive sense that a construction like horrere aliquern, pavere aliquew

before

Cicero's

time.

To make

is

not found

Transitives of

them

the Auxiliary Verb facio was brought into requisition,

e.

g. pave-facio, cale-facio.

Third Conj. Verbs which had an intransitive meanThus

ing tended to pass into the Second Conjugation.
fervo} the older form, e.g. Virg. Aen.

Jam

became in
from

from

(Qi.fitlgeo

homfulgo,

scateo

intuor.)

The Third Conjugation.

This

Another explanation makes these merely

(Neut.)/ocio.

567:

fervere litora flammis,

Lat./mw.

scaio, intueor

4.

class.

iv.

is

the

calensjio

common
and

calcns

105

Third Conjugation

receptacle for Verbs of all kinds but the Derivative

Verbs, derived from

to

Nouns

YO-

or Adjectives, which belong-

Such Derivatives

the First, Second, and Fourth.

from U-stems however are included in this Conjugation,

Verbs
e.g. statno (from -tu-i/6), derived from stains.
in -io not derived from Nouns or Adjectives, which for
a time wavered between the Third and Fourth Conju-

gations, have been mostly absorbed

by the Third, such

as

facio (2 Sg. facts 3 Conj., but older fads 4 Conj.) par w

The
5, end).
(Inf. parere, but in Plautus panre) (see
j

Derivatives from
able

Nouns and Adjectives

from them by their Perfect

in -wi

are distinguish-

and P. P. P.

in

e.g.Jinivijfinitus, though even this form of the Perf.

Ind. and Part. Pass, occurs in a few Third Conj. Verbs
-it us,

like lacessot

The types

which had by-forms in -io } *lacessio, *capessio.

Verb which this Conjugation contains are

of

therefore very numerous.

We

have

(1)

the

common

type

Thematic Verb, with the ordinary form of the root,

e.g. leg-o from the root leg-, dlco (older deico) from the

of

root deic-j duco (older douco with ou for I.-Eur. eu, ch. x.

11)

from the

root dene-. (2) with Reduplicated Root,

e.g. gi-gn-o (Gk. yi-yv-opai)

from the root yen-.

(3)

with

Nasalized Root, the nasal being either inserted in the

root, e.g. ju-n-g-o from the root jug- (I.-Eur. yeug-,
weak form yug-), to join, li-n-quo from the root liq- 9
leiq-f to

leave; or appended, e.g. sterno from the root

sfer-j to

strew, lin-o

Sometimes a

from the root

li-,

lei-,

to smear.

appended, e.g. sternuo, I sneeze,

syllable
a
Verb
of
which
minuo,
corresponds to Greek Verbs
type
r -wo*, e.g. Trrdp-vv-fAai (cf. fAi-vv-Oa)). (4) with
is

106

The Verb

YO-suffix,

e.g.

cn.vi

These wavered

specio.

between the

Fourth and Third Conjugations, unlike the Derivatives

1 Sg. Pres. in -io from 'Myo, e.g.fitiio,
which belong exclusively to the Fourth (see below, 5).

from I-stems with

'Inceptives' with the SKO-suffix, which are not

(5)

rightly called

'

Inceptives

',

since they denote the passing

'

'
becoming rather than beginI become warm, liqnesco, I pass into

into a state or condition,

'

ning^, e.g. ca/escOj

a liquid state ( 3), and the archaic
esco

(used

by

'

'

Inceptive

of sum,

These modifications of the

Lucretius).

Root by Reduplication, Nasalization, addition of YOand SKO-suffixes were made with the object of forming
a Present-Tense Stem, and were properly discarded in
the Perfect and the tenses related to the Perfect.

The

'

stem fligno- otgigno had the idea of continued production',

so that gigno

meant

'

the state of producing

I continue to produce
'.

To form

'

',

am

in

the Tenses expressing

momentary, past action such a stem could not be used

we

so

form

find the Perfect genui exhibiting the root in the

gen-, not in the

form gign-

2 Aor., beside ytyv-o-juu

will be discussed afterwards

Gk. k-yev-o-^rjv

(cf.

These Tense-stems

Pres.).

7-12) ; but meanwhile we

a
not
that
unnatural
confusion a stem
out
by
point
may
which properly belonged only to the Present Tense was
(

often retained throughout the Verb

(e.

g. junxi, junctus

retain the n of the Pres. -stem), or a stem

Present which properly belonged

was used

rudo, beside ruclo (older *reudo) } geno Lucr.

1

in Greek after a consonant became

*0-/iT-?/o-/.tat,

corresponds to Lat.

spccio.

in the

to other Tenses, e.g.

T,

(On the use

so Gk. aKtirroiMu, for

of

107

Fourth Conjugation

5
'

'

Inceptives

in -sco as Present of Intransitive

e.g. incalesco, not *incaleo, see above,

5.

The Fourth Conjugation.

E- verbs,

3.)

This, like the First

and

These are
Second, consists mainly of Derivative Verbs.
not merely Derivatives from I-stems, e. g. flnio (Pres.-

stem

fini-yo-) derived

from the I-stem

finis,

but Deriva-

showing the usual Derivative

suffix
e.
Present-stem
g. cnstodio, I am a guard,
-yo-,
from custos. As the First Conj. Derivatives had a transitives of various origin, all

tive,

the Second Conj. Derivatives an intransitive sense,

Fourth Conj. Derivatives are to some extent asso-

so the

ciated with the idea of a mental or bodily state, especially

a state of disease, e.g. raucio, I

teething.

am

hoarse, dentio, I

am

Desiderative Verbs (which were used more in

conversational Latin than in the literary language) be-

long to the Fourth Conjugation,

e.

g. esurio, I

am hungry,

They are formed

with the YO-suffix from Verbal Noun-stems in -tor-, e. g.

I desire to eat, emptnrw, I desire to buy.

esurio (older *e$orio)

from

esor (*ed-tor) % an eater, empturio

(older *emplorio) from emplor, a buyer, and must be distinguished from a small class of Verbs in -urio (also

written -urrio), e. g. ligurrio, I lick, scaturio, I gush, which

are Derivatives from Verbal Nouns in -tiri-s, like securis,

an axe (from seco), or -tira, \ikefyura (trom Jingo).

The Fourth Conjugation is connected with the Third

by the accident that a large number of Verbs of the

Third Conjugation had by-forms made with the YOsuffix, e. g. pinsio

beside pinto

(cf.

lacessivi, &c.,

from

*lacessio, a by-form of lacesso), and that several of the

YO-vcrbs did not retain this suffix throughout their Con-

108

The Verb

en. vi

jugation, e.g. ./ado has InLfacere, cnpio has Inf. cupere.

Facio and cttpio are

by the

classical period entirely sepa-

rated from any connexion with the Fourth Conj., though

Plautus has fads, cupls like

auttis

and the same

is

true

of adgredior (but adgredimur Plaut.), adorior (but adontur

Lucr.),

iiiorior

(but

monmur

Enn.), and the like.

It

is

perhaps to the connecting-link furnished by these Verbs

in -io of the Third Conjugation 1 that we should refer the
remodelling of the Imperf. and Fut. Ind. of the Fourth
Conj. on the type of the Third, which was fully effected
before the classical period

finiebam replacing the older

8, 9).
fiuibam t finiam the older finilo (see
The three Voices of Greek, Active,
6. The Voices.
;

Middle, and Passive, are in Latin

Grammars reduced

to

The Latin Deponents howtwo, Active and Passive.

over take to some extent the place of the Greek Middle
;

and seqiwr

an example of an I.-Eur. Middle which

in
the I.-Eur. languages with the Middle or
appears
is

Passive endings

(e.

g.

Gk

7ro-/tai,

These endings are explained

in

Early Irish sechur).

In the Italic and

21.

Celtic languages their distinguishing feature

is

the letter

O. Ir. sechur, sechethar),

(e. g. Lat. seqiwr, seqnitur ;
and there are traces that the Passive R-forms were
r

originally restricted to an Impersonal use in

which

this

was added immediately to the root of the verb. If this

be so, a supposed form *ama-r would in very early times
r

Since these Third Conj. Verbs in -io have a short vowel in the
e. g. capio, facio, while the Fourth Conj. Verbs have a
long
vowel, e.g. sagio, it has been suggested that the Latin Phonetic
Law known as the Law of Breves Breviantes' (see ch. ii. 16) may

Stem,

'

have often been the factor which produced the diversity of type.

Passive,

mean
Case

'

there

'

and would govern an Accusative

would receive a Personal suffix, ama-fo-r

is

loving

later it

109

Deponent

(class.

Lat. amatur, ch.

Noun

as a Subject, not as

ii.

and gradually take the

14),

an Object. *A-mar liommem

would become amatur hominem,, then amatur homo. This

Impersonal use of the Passive was a great feature of

PRIVATVM.
Latin, e.g. itur in antiquam silvam, Virg.
;

(On the Fut.

No

'

PRECAEIO ADEITVR,

Admittance', on an inscription.

amatum

Inf. Pass,

early literature

we seem

iri

see

In the

15.)

Noun

to find occasionally the

vitam vivitur, Enn.

Another trace of the I.-Eur. Middle in Latin

in the Accusative, e.g.

Perfect Active, whose ending

the

is

it

to be

10), so that

Present

the other hand the rare Perfects gavisi, 1

were in

solid, ausi

-ei)

goes naturally with a

a Perfect like reverti

On

(older

shows

not an Active form (see

a Middle and

revertor.

-I

.correct

Latin replaced by the usual

Deponent type of Perfect, gavisus sum, solitus sum, ausus

a curious attraction, coeptus sum, desitus sum
sum and,

by

were used when a Pass. Inf. followed, e.g. urbs coepta

aedificari.

The
cating

est

I.-Eur. Middle
states

condition of

of

life,

was associated with Verbs

feeling,

&c.

operations

of

the

senses,

and the Latin Deponents are

indi-

still

true to this type, e.g. reor, vereor, irascor, contemptor,

aemutor? Like the Reflexive
poetor, dominor, auguror,
1

e. g. Liv. Andronicus
quoniam audiui paucis gauisi.
So in the early writers potestur, poteratur, possetur, nequitur,
:

turn, e. g.
3

Lat.

nequi-

quod tamen expleri nulla ratione potestur.

-on corresponds to Greek -tveiv, e. g. Lat. dominari to Greek
Lucr.
'

rvpavveveiv,

iii.

1010

to be a tyrant

'

',

to play the part of a tyrant

',

110

Verl

TJte

use of the Greek Middle

Examples

is

CH. vi

Lat. duff or for

ciiujo

me, &c.

of Frequentative Middles are hortor (Frequen-

Gk.

tative of 0. Lat. honor), meditor (from a lost *medor}

fjLtSofjiai),

imitor (from a lost *imor

cf. imd-go), nitor for

*nivitor (from a root with a Guttural

ch. x.

As

cf.

nixus,

and

see

18).

in

Greek

a Verb of Active form

aTroOvijo-Kco

is

used as the Passive of onroKTeivto, so in Latin vapulo

is

the Passive of verbero, to beat, veneo (vennm eo) of vendo,

to

sell,

fio otfacio, to

The

make.

older \\A.fiere

was

in

Latin changed to suit the form of the ordinary

Passive Inf. and became fieri3 much as Plautus uses

classical

veniri for venire.

The type

of Conjugation, soleo, soli f us sum, solere,

widely spread in Early Latin,

maerere,

tacitus

taceo,

sum,

e.

was

g. maereo, maestns SUM,

tacere-,

so-called Adjectives maestns, tacitus

whence come the

(cf.

pransus, potus,

iuratits, &c.).
7.

Tenses.

The Present.

The various Tenses

of

the Verb had each their Tense-stem, formed from the

root of the Verb by the addition of some suffix or by
some other modification (e. g. Reduplication, 10). In
addition, the Past Tenses

Prefix of

the
'

signifying

and Sanscrit

Augment

then

'

',

might be distinguished by the

e-,

there

'

a Demonstrative Particle

but in the

Greek

of the Present-stem

and

it.

The formation

has already been

treated in the

in Latin there seems to be no trace of

earliest

literature this Particle is often omitted,

Ennius in the description of Homer's Metempsychosis has

fiere pauom,
I remember becoming a peacock.'

memini me

'

7,8

111

Present, Imperfect

account of the Latin Conjugations.

idea of present or continued action

To

indicate

the

we have seen that

the root of the Verb was modified in the First, Second,

and Fourth Conjugations by the addition

e.

is

g. amd-yo-,

whence

love,

amo

of a YO-suffix

the Present-stem of the Verb amare, to

1 Sg. Pres. Ind. *amd-jo,

which became

Third
(stem ple-yo-), &c.
Conjugation Verbs show various modes of forming the
so

for

pleo

*ple-jo

Present-stem,

such

(stem gi-gno-

cf.

Gk.

g.

ster-n-o

N-suffix,

(2)

e.

from the root

root pag-j this

lei-,

as

or

(1)

yiyvo-fjiai)

from the root

N. -infix,

g.

from the Root

ster-,

e.g. pa-n-g-o

gif/no

gen-,
11-n-o

from the

disappearing usually in the Perfect, &c.,

g. stra-vif h-vi, pe-pig-i or peg-i.

e.

e.

Reduplication,

A common

Third

Conjugation type however shows the ordinary form of

the root with no addition but the thematic vowel (e. g.

from the root

leg-o

root dew-).

and
I

leg-

dwo, originally deic-o, from the

The SKO-suffix gave the notion of becoming,

was adapted to the Present Tense,

become warm, Perf. incalm (see 3).
so

8.

e.

g. incalesco,

The Imperfect. This Tense belongs to the Present-

system, being really the Preterite of the Present Tense.

Its Preterite sense is given to it in Latin by the addition
in the First Pers. Sing, of -bam.

The -bam

of this Tense

really an Auxiliary Verb, a Preterite of the I.-Eur.

'
cf. ch. x.
root bheu-, ( to be
(Lat. fui, O. Lat. fuo

is

16),
1

1
appended to a Verb-stem,

Some

e.

g.

amd-bam, vide-bam,

say, to the Pres. P^rt., *amans-bam, *dens-bam, *videns-bam,

But this theory does not suit dcibam, nor yet the Fourth

*legens-bam.

Conj.

for audl-bam

was the older form, not

audie(ns~)-bam.

These

112

CH.VI

The Verb

lege-bam, auih-bam (class, audie-bam, remodelled after the

Third Conjugation, 5). Eram stands alone in dispensing

with this Auxiliary.
It is a Preterite from the root
'

es-,

to be

',

of the

same formation

as -bam

from the

root bheu-.
9.

Future.

Like the -bam of the Imperfect, the

Future conceals an Auxiliary Verb, a Future,

or rather Subjunctive of the root bheu-, ' to be \
Ero,
-bo of the

which corresponds

to the Homeric eo), Att. o> (from *eVo>),

a corresponding Subjunctive from the root es-, c to be }
with that future sense which belonged to the Subjunctive
in early times (p. 116 .). This formation of the Future in
is

-bo is peculiar to the three

Conjugations which are

pecially the Conjugations of Derivative Verbs, that

say to the First, Second,

and

and Fourth,

is

es-

to

e.g. amd-bo, vide-bo,

r
Early Latin aud i-bo, though by the classical period
the Fourth Conj. Future was remodelled on the pattern

in

of the Third Conjugation, audiam like legam

5).

This

Future of the Third and Fourth Conjugations

nothing but the Subjunctive ( 13), the A- Subjunctive form being used in the First Person Singular, the
so-called

is

E-Subjunctive forms in the other Persons, e.g. legam

(originally legd-m, ch.
lege-tj ch.

10.

ii.

16).

Perfect.

ii.

6),

lege-s,

(originally

lege-t

(On these Subjunctive forms see 13.)

The completeness with which the

Verb-system has been preserved in Greek in contrast

with Latin is nowhere more clearly seen than in the
theorists explain similarly the Fut.,^fna(ws)-&o, &c. also the oKl
Tense awm(wVs?'w, &c. (see
12-13); also Verbs like cale(ns\facir>
;

(see

3).

Future, J 'erfect

9.io
Preterite

While Greek

Tenses.

113

preserves

a First Aorist, better called the S-Aorist,

(1)

from the root

for *-8tiK-(r-a,

better called the

weak

root (ch. x.

weak form

the

find

single Preterite,

driven

all

separately
g. e-Stig-a

a Second Aorist,

Weak-root Aorist, because

it

shows the

12) of the verb, e.g. e-iriQ-ov

from irW-,

of the root ?rei0-, I.-Eur. bheidh-, (3) a

showing the Reduplicated Verb-root, e.g. /ze/zo^a,

in Latin all three mixed up together into a

Perfect,

we

SeiK-, (2)

e.

which we

into the

call

the Perfect Tense, and

same groove

of declension.

The

S -Perfect, which corresponds to the Greek First Aorist

earlier deix-ei (like e-deig-a), the true Perfect,

e.

g.

e.

g. memin-i (like Gk.

disci,

//e/zoi'-a),

and Perfects

like ////,

the Greek Second

sc%di, which some compare with
1
Aorist, are all declined in the same way disci, dixisti,
:

dixit ;

On

memini, meministi, meminit

the other hand

we have

scidi, scidisti,

scidU.

in Latin a type of Preterite

not found in Greek, the Y-Perfect, e.g. ama-v-l,

mon-u-l, audi-v-i, the origin of which is not known.

which

The

is

declension too of

the Perfect shows traces of

having been pieced together from various materials. The

ending i (older el) of the First Person Singular is I.-Eur.

The Third Sing,

the ending of the Middle Voice.
Middle had the same ending in I.-Eur.,
but in Latin -i (the usual 3 Sg. suffix,
20) has been
-ai,

of the Perfect

added to distinguish the Third from the First Person,

The Third
-ei-t becoming -it, then -it. (ch. ii.
16).
and similar forms, used by Plautus in prohibime attigas, &c., are more certain traces of the
Second Aorist in Latin. Cf. p. 106, on riido, ijeno. Parens stands to
pariens in the same relation as Gk. TCKWV to jixrcav.
1

Aitigas, attulas,

tions, &c., e.g. ne

ir,7.v

114

TJie

CH. vr

Vcrl)

Person Plural in -nmf, older -rout (eh. ii.

14), shows
the same r that appears often in the 3 PI. of the I.-Eur.
Verb.
The First Person Plural is an Active form, e. g.

me minimus

(cf.

Gk.

/ie/zoz/a/zer).

Although the I.-Eur. Perfect had as a rule a Reduplicated stem, there were a few Unreduplicated Perfects,
e.

woid-, the Perfect-stem

g.

see,

know

'

from the root weid-,

to

(Greek ol8a represents the Active, Lat. mdl

the Middle), *ed-, the Perfect-stem from the root sed-,

1

to sit

'

In the second example the raising

e to e seems to take the place of

(Lat. sedi).

of the root-vowel

from

Reduplication, parallel to which

(beside pfynffi), legi (root

But undoubtedly

%-),

we

egi (root ag-)

and the like.J

the original Perfect-type had Redu-

and most apparently Unreduplicated Perfects

Latin like tuli, scidi were Reduplicated at an earlier

plication,
in

1
period of the language, and lost their Reduplication

first

in

Compounds under

the Early Accent

Law

12), then by analogy in the Simple Verb also.

became

ret(e)tuli

with Syncope of
i

(hence always spelt

became

e, at-tetuli

until at last the use of -tuU in

of tuli in the Simple Verb.

but concurri,

incttrri,

(ch.

ii.

Re-tetttli

with double

/)

and

so on,

Compounds led to
we have

the use

altuti,

Similarly

citcitrri

&c.

The Vowel of the Reduplication Syllable was originally

but owing to the Latin tendency to Assimilation (p. 37)
adapted itself to the vowel of the following syllable,
e,

e.

g. cncurri, momordi.

Tetuli is

the form

This was the formation

known

to

Plautus

cf.

Latin peyi I

find in

O. Lat.

in

vogue

sricitU.

115

Pluperfect, Future-Perfect

11,12

we

at the classical period, but in the earlier literature

find cecnrrij memordi, &c.

and even Cicero and Caesar

seem to have allowed the older forms.

The shortened forms

of the

V- and S -Perfects,

e.

audisti for audivisti, dixti for dixisii, are produced

g.

by

two tendencies of the language, (1) the tendency to

drop v between two vowels, especially between two
similar vowels, such as
of obliviscor, I forget,
ch.

ii.

i-i

(cf.

ws

12), (2)

semodiu$

(cf.

idolatria for *idolo-latria) &c., ch.

for

dix-isti,

misti

for

11.

'

if

syllables

e.

for

*semi-modius,

12).

We

have

where

the

two

ii.

mi-si-sti

syllables are similar, but not,

where the two

'

you please
the tendency to drop one of two similar

neighbouring- syllables

dixti

an old by-form

obliscor

for si vis,

g. *cep*ti for ce-jri-sli,

have not similarity of sound.

Like the Imperfect in -bam, and

the Pluperfect in -eram is an Auxiliary

Pluperfect.

Future in

-bo,

formation, -eram being the Preterite of the root

be
e.

'

g.

(8), which

is

amdv-eram,

'

es-,

to

apparently added to the Perfect-stem,

monu-eram,

memin-eram,

dix-eram,

andlv-eram.
12. Future-Perfect.

This Tense adds apparently to

the Perfect-stem the Auxiliary ero

adds eram,

e.

9), as

the Pluperfect

g. amdv-ero, monw-ero, dlx-ero, memin-ero,

Early Latin there were forms in -sso,

which are replaced in classical Latin by Fut.-Perf. forms,
audw-ero.

In

but which are of an entirely different origin, e.g. amasso.

They seem to have been originally Subjunctives of some
S-tense, like the

Greek S-Aorist, and are

exact equivalents of Greek Futures like

I

in fact the

Tt/j.rjarco,

which

The Verl

116
stands for

Tifiao-o-CD,

and

is

CH. vi

properly the Subjunctive

of

Similarly dlxo (cf.faxo) may be compared with

eTifjL-rja-a.
Gk. SLO>. (On the Optative of this Latin S-Aorist,

amassim, &c., see

13.

Moods.

13.)

The Subjunctive.

As

Latin

the

Perfect Tense combines Perfect- and Aorist-forms

10),

Latin Subjunctive Mood includes the relics of

the Optative along with the genuine Subjunctive forms.
so the

Optative are

all

the so-called

'

'

Subjunctives

in

-/'///.

They show the Athematic Optative, which properly

had -ie- in the Singular, -I- in the Plural ( 1), a type
preserved only in Old Latin siem } sies, siet, slmns, M/M"
has by the classical period been
(sient) ; and even that

reduced like the rest to the uniform use of the

SIM,

<$?, sit.

in the older

So edim,

edis, edit j

language duim, duis,

-forms,

velim, velis, velit,

and

duit.

Of the two Subjunctive-types, the A-Subjunctive and

the E- Subjunctive, the former is used by the Second,
Third, and Fourth Conjugations,
cale-at ; leg -am, leg-as, leg -at ;

e.

g. cale-am, cale-ds,

audi-am, audi-as, audi-at,

The
the latter by the First, e. g. am-eut, (nn-es, am-et.
reason for the use of the E-type in the First Conjugation

is

that the A-type must have been confused with

The E-type
e. g. amas, amat.

Pres. Indicative forms,

was
its

also pressed into the service of the

model

5) of the

Third and after

Fourth Conjugation

in the capacity

1
I.e. the Athematic Subjunctive, which had o, e where the
Thematic had w, 77. Thus Tip.rfaop.fv (cf. rtiao^cv Subj. in Homer)
The I.-Eur. Subj. had often
is Athematic, Ti^rjaca/Jitv Thematic.
a Fut. sense, a feature of the old language which is still retained

in the

Greek of Homer,

e.g.

Oct.

xvi. 437 ov8' tWertn ou5e

117

The Subjunctive

13

of a Future Indicative

12

n.), this

type being chosen

from the Pres. Subjunctive

for the sake of distinction

though curiously enough in the First Person Singular

of the Future, the A-form was used, e. g. legam,, leges,
the A-form in

had been

single Person

the

The reason

audiam, audies, audiet.

leget ;

tention of

fashion

Future-tense

this Person

in use as a

for the re-

was that

this

Future long before

was introduced of dropping the proper

in its
(
9) and using Subjunctive-forms

place.

Audiam had established

itself in

use before audiex,

audiet

replaced audilis, audibit, &c.,

and though we

find traces of a

temporary

effort at

uniformity by the

substitution of audiem, faciem, &c., the old-established

form maintained

its

ground.

The E-type was adopted by the true Subjunctive of

sum, if we may infer this from the fact that sem and
not sam

is

the Auxiliary used in the formation of the

Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, e. g. ama-rem,

amd-res, amd-ret, with r from an older s (ch. x.
19) ;
amavis-sem } amavis-ses, amavis-set.
*vel-sem (ch. x.

Vellem comes from

\9),ferrem from *fer-$em

But from/^c>, an obsolete

n
(
'fect, we havejfoffw
^

(ch. x.

19).

Pres. of

which fui

Tiffin

cf . Virg. Aen. x.

is

Tros Rutulusve fuat nullo discrimine habebo.

the Per-

108

Forem

seems to stand for *fuerem } as Marcipor, an Old Latin

slave-name, for *Marcipuer.

duam

Edim and

edan/ }

duim and

are the last examples of the coexistence of rival

Opand Subjunctive forms in Latin. They illustrate

how, the Opt. and Subj. having become identical in
(
meaning (both edim and edam have the meanings O that
tative

118
I

en vi

The Verb

may

eat

'

',

let

me

eat

'

',

[that] I

may

eat

'),

one of the

forms (usually the Optative) was dropped as superfluous.

The

old Optative sense

sical

Optative-forms in -ssim, e.g. amassim,

is

preserved in the ante-claswhich occur

in early Latin prayers, e.g. Juppiter prohibessis scelus;

di mactassint,

and the Augural formula

bene sponsis
These forms in -ssi-m, often called
:

beneque uolueris.

Mood 1

Perfect Subjunctives, are the Optative

forms in

-sso, e.g.

amasso, mentioned in

of the

12.

In the 2 Sg. Act. of the Present

of the Verb was used, e.g.
the
bare
stem
Imperative
Athematic el (class. Lat. l) from the root ei-, to go,
14.

Imperative.

Thematic lege from the root leg-, to gather. But

a particle was often added, e.g. -61 in Gk. i-Oi, &c. ;

and

so -tod (which

of the Demonstr.

3 Sg.,
-tod

'

gives

e.

g. es-to, older estod

from that'
it

became

-to,

Pronoun stem
'

(Gk.

17) (Abl. Sing,

3) in the 2,

to-, ch. v.

eV-roo).

The

addition of

to the 2 Sg. Pres. Imperat.

,
thereupon ',
a Future Imperat. sense,

Si

ch. x.

e.

g. Hor. C.

iii.

14.

23

per invisum inora janitorem

Fiet, abito,

the hateful porter detain you, go

if

away

',

lit.

'

go

away thereupon '. Memento is I.-Eur. mem ntod (Gk.

The 2 Plur. of the Future Imperative adds -te
fjLfjLdTQ>).
e

(the 2 Plur. suffix,

e.

g. abi-te) to the Sing, form,

e.

g.

abito-te.

Fer, vet (used as a Conjunction, ch.

ix.

3), es are

1
An old inscription of Luceria (in Apulia, on the borders of Oscan
territory) seems to replace this ss by it (written 2), like Attic Gk.
It offers fundatid for ' fundassit ', parenlatid
irp&TTOj for npaaata, &c.

for

'

parentassit

'.

14, 15

119

Imperative, Infinitive

regularly formed Athematic Imperatives from the roots

fir- (I.-Eur. bher-), vel- (I.-Eur. wel-),
-do (originally -do, ch.
ce-j

the Demonstr. Particle (ch.

'to give'

v.

4)

Gk. &-&, Imperat. of

(cf.

Another

its-.
'

16) of ce-do }

ii.

give here

',

is

from

and the root

do-,

Si-SoD-pi).

The

genuine Imperat. of dare has been preserved in this

Compound
First

only,

Declension.

Imperatives,
(ch.

ii.

But

and so

of

'

ingere

mi

die,

is

18), properly

(Cf. Catullus xxvii. 2

Analogy of the
fac are Thematic

follows the

representing

12),

ch. ix.

for da

an

due,

earlier

em (used

dice,

as

the Imperat. of

ingermi

face

duce,

an Interjection,
emo,

take.

calices amariores, instead

'.)

The I.-Eur. Infinitive was merely

15. Infinitive.
a Case (usually Dat. or Loc. Sg.) of a Verbal Noun.
Thus Lat. da-rl (O. Lat. da-sei) is Dat. of an S-stem
like the

Noun

generi, Dat. of the

18); Lat. da-re (earlier da-si)

S-stem genus
is

(ch. xi.

Loc. of the same

stem (on genere, Loc. used as Abl., see ch. iii.

8)
es- } to be, dedls-se, fer-rc
from
root
es-se
the
similarly
For
for *fer-w (ch. x.
19), vel-le for *vel-se (ibid.).
;

we have the Dat.

Inf. Pass, of the Third Conjugation

not of an S-stem but of a Boot-stem (ch.

e.

g. leg-l (not leger-i).

from the

Thus the Latin

xi.

19),

Inf. Pass, differed

Inf. Act. only conventionally, the Dat. case

being reserved for the one use, the Loc. for the other,

and had no distinctive Passive

suffix.

Whether

present in the O. Lat. by-forms legier, darier, &c.,

this is
is

not

certain.

For the Perfect Inf. Passive the Perf. Part. Pass, was

120

The Verb

en. vi

used with the Auxiliary Verb case, e. g. constat id factuni

for the Fut. Pass, the 1st
esse, constat ea facta esse
;

Supine with iri, Inf. Pass, of eo, to go, e. g. constat id

factum iri, constat ea factum iri. 1 The Fut. Act., e. g.
constat id eventurum (esse), is most naturally explained
as a combination of the Fut. Part. Act. with esse
its

Old Latin indeclinable

e.

use,

though
meos

g. credo inimicos

dicturum (from a speech of C. Gracchus), has suggested

the theory that it is a compound of the 2nd Supine in
-tu with a supposed old Inf. of SUM, viz. *erum (from
*et8m)i

dicturum

personal diet urns,

same way

'

dicendum

dicenda est oratio

The Supines.

a Verb of motion,
a

'

TU-stem

(ch. xi.

to the seeing

'
f

is

The

18).

13),

e.

First

g. ire spectatnm,

like ire flomum, to

iii.

orationem' changed

est
'

Supine, used after

a Verbal Noun,
Ace.
of
the
Sg.

Romam, to go to Rome.
The Second Supine, used
Loc. Sg. (ch.

made

(the Fut. Part. Act.) in the

-a, -inn

as O. Lat.

to class. Lat.
16.

for *dictu-erum being in time

after

11) of the

go

lit.

'

to

go

to the house, ire

an Adjective,

is

the

same Verbal Noun, e.g.

nimble in running.

This Loc. Sg. in -u of

U-stems often played the part of a Dat. (cf. curru for
currni in Virgil) ; and we find the Second Supine used
agilis cursii,

not only as a Locative, but as a Dative,

e.

g.

(fabula)

Impersonal Passive like Virgil's ititr in antiquam silvam

that the sentence literally means it is agreed that there
is a going to do these things '.
quotation from a speech of Cato
contumelia mihi factum iiur, shows the same tendency to make this
1

Iri is

'

6), so

Impersonal Passive personal as produced

vitam vivitur

6).

vita vivitur

out of 0. Lat.

16, 17

121

Supine, Participle

where in the older

lepida memo-rat u,, pleasant for telling*,

language the Dative proper in

memoratui

well

as

(Plaut.),

-id is used,

the

as

e.

g. lepida

Locative,

e.

g.

ridicula audit'u (Plaut.). 1

This TU-stem appears frequently in the language of

Plautus and the older Dramatists, e. g. obsonatu redeo,
I return from buying food for dinner, essum vocare, to
invite to dinner,

(cf. Baccli.

ire is

ita faceres

Quamobrem

565 mi

and thwart

my

ires

ire,

consultum male,

The use

interests').
is

common

to go to help, infitias

ire,

'

ires liberos

you would go

of the Accusative

in early Latin in phrases

malam crucem, go and be hanged

(Plaut.), suppetias

to deny, exsequias ire} to

The Supine use thus

to a funeral.

In

meque meosque perditum

without a Preposition
like

dare, to give in marriage.

used almost like perdere

nuptum

AuL 736 perditum

go

arose naturally out

Like nuptum dare

and nuptum ire are venumdare or venundare (vendere) and
venum ire (venire) pessumdare orpessum dare 2iQ^.pessum
of the tendencies of the language.

which may be regarded as survivals of the Plautine

idiom.
(Cf perire and perdere.)
ire,

17.

The

Participles.

merely Verbal
suffixes

The

Adjectives

mentioned in

I.-Eur. Participles were

formed with

ch. xi.

Thus

the various

for the Perf. Part.

form certain Verbal

Pass, the TO-suffix

was used

Adjectives which

Latin took the function of Perfect

in

to

1
In Plaut. End. 294 this Loc. plays the part of a Predicative
Dative
Suut nobis quaestu et cultu,
'They are our trade and pursuit.'
:

122

The Verb

CH. vi

1
Participles Passive (Gk. Ot-ros, Lat. cre-M-tns, re-ple-tus},

or

the

Adj.).

NO-suffix (Engl. bound-en; of. Lat. ple-nus

For the Gerundive the YO-suffix was used in

various I.-Eur. languages, traces in Greek being words

'

like

venerable,

dy-ios,

worthy of veneration

ago/tai, and in Latin, eximius,

out ', from exemo, to take out.

The

worthy

'

from

of being taken

Pres. Part. Act. (and all Active Participles, except

2

the Perfect
12), e.g.

took the suffix -ent- (-ont-, -nt-

Gk.

Middle

Pres. Part.

ch. xi.

0ep-o)j/, -o^roy, Tj&t. fer-ens, -entis.

(-mono-, -mno-;

(or

ch. xi.

The

Passive) was formed in -meno12), e.g. Gk. 0e/5o-//j/oy, but

dropped at an early period out of use in Latin ; though

it is found in the 2 PI. Ind. Pass., e.
g. ferimini (sc.
esiis ; see
21), and in nouns like alumnus (cf. Gk.
6 r/)e06yuei/oy, see ch. xi.

The

see

6).

(On 2

PI.

Imper. ferimini,

Fut. Part. Act. in -turns

is
21.)
probably
a formation with the suffix -ro- from a TU-stem Verbal

Noun,

e.

scnpturus (stem script uro-) from the stem

g.

scriptu- of scriptus, -us, picturus from the stem pictu- of

Gk. iV^u-poy from icrxys. (For

For a Participle the
another explanation, see
15.)
Latin writers, especially the poets, often substituted an

pictus, -Us, &c., like

e.

Adjective,
ora, Virg.)
1

Aegrotus

g. lacer for

laceratus (lacerum crudeliter

and these Adjectives or

'

truncated Parti-

maybe a trace of a Latin 0-Conjugation like Greek Srj\6oj.

was -wes-, -us-. Some find traces of a Perf. Part. Act.

Its suffix

words like cada-ver, papil-ver others in O. Lat. ynarures

knowing (e. g. Plaut. Most. 100). Memor is not a Perf. Part.,

in Latin in
Plur.,

but an Adj. derived from a Perf. Part, stem, as Gk.

(Eurip.) is a Noun derived from

17

ciples'

have to some extent encroached on the Perf.

Romance languages,

Part. Pass, in the

'

beside trovato,
see ch. xi.

The

found '.

'

and

It

seen in words like rudens, a rope,

is

benevolens, a friend, used as a

rattling

Plautus.

between Participles, Adjectives,

relation

'

e.g. Ital. trovo

(On Verbal Adjectives in -bili,

12.)

close

and even Nouns

lit.

123

Participle

was

this

benevolus, insciens

close

and

Noun by

relationship of benevolent

inscius, indigens

and

indigus,

congruens and congruus, &c., which led to a type of Com-

parison like benevolus, -entior, -entissimus (ch.

iv.

3).

Very early examples of Pres. Participles used as Nouns

or Adjectives are dens, a Pres. Part, of the root ed-, to eat,
and

sous, a Pres. Part, of the root es-, to be, so that dens

properly means

'

the eater', sons*

'

being ', 'truly being ',

'

whence truly charged ', guilty '. (Our ' sooth is the same
The Perf. Part. Pass, had the same tendency to
word.)
'
become an Adjective, e. g. wtus, swift, lit. bestirred
'

'

'

catus, originally sharp,

(cf. cos,

from the root

co-, to

sharpen

a whetstone), then (metaphorically) (1) piercing,

'
the shrill clarions',

of sounds, e.g. cata signa, Enn.,

(2)

shrewd, of persons

broad,

lit.

'

Idtns,

O. Lat. stldtus

extended', from the root

Of Past

extend.

Parts. Pass, as

So Engl. friend

is

19),

stel-, to spread,

Nouns we have

e.g.

When

used

natus, a son, legatus, a lieutenant, deputy.

'loving').
2
Sons has the

(ch. x.

properly a Pres. Part. (Goth,

frijonds,

ONT-stem, a form of the Stem of which traces

occur in Athematic Verbs in Latin like eo, volo (euntis Gen., beside
voluntas beside rofens).
iens Nom.
8
Varro tells us the word had this meaning in his native district.
;

124

The Verb

en. vi

as Adjectives, they sometimes passed into I-stems, the

form

favourite

fort is, O.
'

sanates

of stem for Adjectives (ch. xi.

12), e. g.
Lat. forctus, apparently an old P. P. P. ;

restored to loyalty

Nouns the Neuter

fatum, destiny,

lit.

phrase fari fatum

and

(especially

Feminine,

e.

The Past

weak grade
from

',

e.

something spoken
the

doom

from the old

',

or spell

of Abstract

case

used as

g. tectum, a roof,

'

alictti, to lay a

in

When

for sanati.

often appears,

on one,

Nouns) the

g. ojfensa, repulsa.

Part. Passive took, as a rule, in I.-Eur. the

12) of the Verb-root,

(ch. x.

e.

g. cln-to-

cleu-j to hear (Gk. K\VTOS, Lat. in-dutus]

from duco.

duc-tiis

sometimes influenced

Lat.

The Perfect Ind. Act. has however

its

The same

vocalism.

caused the substitution of -sus for

-tus,

influence

the <s-form being

originally and properly confined to Dental Verb-stems,

e.g. tensus for *tend-tMS,

jiexus for

mus

(older ussus) for *ut-tus,

*jiect-tus, salsus for *#ald-tu8, perculsus for

*per-c ldtus from the root celd-, to strike

and

tt

17).

(cf. clddes) (dt

became by the Latin Law of Sound ss, ch. x.

But where the Perfect Ind. took s or x, this

consonant was given by false analogy to the Part., e. g.

*
farms from fareio, Perf farsi for fare-si ; focus from
.

Jigo, Perf. Jixi

tersus

from

tergo, Perf. tersi, just as

analogy of haesl produced the late

liausi (P. P.

P. kaustus) hausurus beside haiisturus.

in the earlier literature

tertus.

18.

we have

the forms with

(So in Plautusjow^o for class. puho>

The Gerund and Gerundive.

dive (Adj.) in -ndo- has beside

it

the

form haesurus and

But

-tus, e. g.
2.)

The Gerun-

Gerund (Neut. Noun)

125

Gerund

18
in -wlo- 3

same

which seems to stand to the Gerundive in the

an Impersonal to a Personal Verb,

antiqnam silvam being- Impersonal like
The Adjectival use seems to
itur in antiquam silvam.
relation

eundum

as

est in

have been the original one. 1 In the older Latin writers,

when this formation is turned into finite form, i.e.

made by means of it, the usual

to employ the Gerund with est governing
e. g. agitandum est vigilias, imperandum est

when a statement
method

is

an object,
servis,

carendum

is

est

urbe;

but

in classical

Verb

Latin the

one which governs

preferred
the Accusative, e. g. agitandae sunt vigiliae. but still as
and
before, imperandum est servis, carendum est urbe

Gerundive

if

is

the

is

the transition from the impersonal to the personal mode

of expression, marked by a construction like Plautus'

nominandi

istorum

copia (a

construction

allowed by

Cicero with a Gen. PI. for the sake of euphony, e.g.

agrorum condonandi) is like the transition from

'
'
factum itur contumeliam to Cato's contumelia factum

facultas
c

itur'

In

(15

.).

the third and

fourth

Early Lat. both -ondo-

Conjugations we find

(e.g. ayundus)

and

in

-endo- (e.g.

the classical
agendus), the latter being selected as

form

This ayondo- has been

(but secimdus beside seqnendus).
referred to a possible *agom ) Ace. Sg. of a Verbal Noun,
'
with do-, a Verbal Adj. stem meaninggiving' or
Curiously enough the construction of the Gerundive Gen. of
e. g. Tac. Ann. ii. 59 Germanicus Aegyptum proficiscitur
cognoscendae antiquitatis, occurs not only in the early Latin
a usage of the Umbriau
writers, e. g. Lucilius, but also was
language, so that its antiquity cannot be denied.
1

Purpose,

126

The

'

'.

Similarly

curandus to *curam-dus
(of.

dive

is

(of.

of Active

and Passive
Gerun-

so peculiar a feature of the Latin

'

forms,

(of.

cwra), rulen-diis to *rubem-dus

The combination

rube-facio).

sense which

*luem-dw

luendus to

causing

rn.vi

V<>rl>

e.g.

est

agitandum

Act.,

vigilias'

and

'

agitandae sunt vigiliae Pass., may be explained from

the double sense that can be attached to an expression
like ruborem dare, (1) to blush, Neut.,

(2)

to cause to

blush, Act.

With the Gerundive

suffix

the suffixes of Adjectives in

are evidently connected

-I undo-,

-eundo-, &c.,

e.

g.

errdbundus, irdcuudm, fdcundits (from fari), mdftcundus,

rotundus.
The b of the first of these seems to belong to

the root bheu- of fui, &c., the c of the second to the

Diminutive

suffix

seen

in

rubi-care,

albi-care,

&c.,

to be red, to be white, ^c.

19.

The Person-endings.

The

I.-Eur.

Person-

endings were slightly different in Primary Tenses (the

Present Ind., Future Ind., &c.) and in Secondary Tenses
(the Preterites Ind., the Tenses of the Optative

Mood,
was
3
-t
the
the
3 Sg\
suffix,
&c.).
Sg. Primary
suffix
of
In
the
Active
Voice.
the
Perfect
Secondary
Tense an entirely different set of Endings was in use,

Thus

-ti

and in the Imperative

the persons were often distinguished by the addition of
e.

g. -a 1 Sg-. Act., -tha 2 Sg., &c.;

Particles (see

14).

In Passive and Deponent Verbs, Latin departs widely

from the I.-Eur. scheme of Passive or Middle Personendings (contrast Lat. feror, seqnor with Gk.

<pepo-fj.ai,

127

The Active Person-endings

19,20

Latin, as well as the kindred languages of ancient Italy

Celtic family of languages, uses as the character-

and the

mark

istic

Old

(cf.

of its passive

and deponent

flexion the letter r

sechemmar

Irish sechur 1 Sg., sechethar 3 Sg.,

PL, sechetar 3 PL with Lat. sequor, teguitur, sequimur,

This r cannot, as was once believed, be consequuntur).
1

nected with the Reflexive Pronoun swe- (ch. v. 1) (Lat.

between vowels does not become r

se Acc.), seeing that s

in the Celtic

languages as

Latin

Irish sechur could not represent a

19), so that

(ch. x.

form

20. (a) Active.

1 Sg.

Athematic Conjugation
tlfjLi,

am,

1)

Gk.

g.

Gk.

The

lego).

Opta-

The Latin Perfect

amaveram, &c.

shows the I.-Eur. Middle ending -ai, e. g.

(On -ei from earlier

dedei, vidi older veidei.

ii.

suffix

Conjugations was -m,

e-0epo-*>, for *e0epoyLt, Lat. eram, sim (an

13), ama-ljam t

tive,

Thematic the

in the

Aeyo>, Lat.

in the secondary Tenses of both

e.

the

6.

The Primary suffix of the

was -ml (e. g. Gk. Ttdrj-^i,

for eo--/n, Lat. sum)

Pers. ended in -0 (e.g.

On

seqiw-se.

early Impersonal use of these y-forms, see

dedi, older
-ai, see ch.

14.)

2 Sg.
TiQrj-s,

ch.

ii.

-si

and

were the I.-Eur.

-s

suffixes

e-0epe-y, Horn. Gk. kv-vi; Lat.

9],

ftffis

[earlier *age$, ch.

Latin Perfect shows

-st~i,

older

-stei,

ii.

e#

(e.

g.

Gk.

[earlier ess,

14], eras).

e.g. dedisti.

The

(On the

Imperative 2 Sg. Act., see

14.)
3 Sg. -ti (Primary) and -t (Secondary) were the I.-Eur.
endings (e.g. Gk.
*-</>epe-r

Lat.

eo--Ti, TiOrj-o-L for TiOrj-ri,

est, agit [earlier *aget 3 ch.

The Secondary ending often appears

in

ii.

-0epe for
14], erat).

Early Latin as

d,

128

The Verb

CH. vi

e.g.feced 'fecit', %ied 'sit' on the Dvenos inscription,

esed <erit' on the Forum inscription.
In the Latin
Perfect the ending was -eit (class. -it y ch. ii.
16), being
the I.-Eur. Middle ending -ai (Lat. -ei) with t added to
distinguish it from the First Person which likewise
-ai (Lat. -ei).
The long quantity -it is found
Plautus and the older writers; and even in Ovid we have

ended in
in

after i in the compounds of eo, e.g.

(On the Imperative 3 Sg. Act., see

interilt, abiU, rednl.

it

1 Plur.

-mas

In Latin we have in

tenses the ending

14), while in the other I.-Eur.

have a variety of endings, e. g. Att. Gk.

(class, -miis, ch.

languages we
fyepo-fjLev,

14.)

all

ii.

-<j)epo~fjLv,

Dor. Gk. 0epo-//ey, e-0epo-/iey.

2 Plur. The ending -te of Gk. 0epe-re, e-(/>epe-re, &c.,

appears in Latin only in the Imperative, e. g. fer-fe.

(On the 2 Plur. of the Future Imperative in -tote, e. g.

Elsewhere it was replaced by -tis
fertole, see
14.)
(older -te*, ch.

3 Plur.

ii.

The

14),

e.

g.fer-tis (cf. dedisti*).

I.-Eur. suffixes end with

but not in Secondary Tenses,

12) and -ont (-ent,

-e

nt).

-i

viz. -onti (-enti,

The form

in

Primary

-e

nti, ch. x.

tremonti for tremnnt

quoted from an interesting passage, but one of doubtful reading, from the Carmen Saliare

is

Cumne
'

cum

(?) tonas, Leucesie, prai tet tremonti,

tonas, Leucesie, prae te

tremunt

',

and

-ont

found in the early literature and inscriptions,

'
'
consentiunt on a Scipio epitaph (ch.
tiont,

The endings

of the Perfect, -erunt

are difficult to explain.

any apparent

and

e.

is

often

g. cosen-

iv.

n.).

-ere (earlier
-en,)

The Roman Grammarians, without

reason, declared the latter to be a

Dual

The Imperative seems

ending.
*tod, as
e.

129

Person-endings, Passive

21

to

seen in the 2 and 3 Sg.

is

add the same particle

14), to a 3 PI. form,

g.ferunto for *feront-tod.

In Old Latin we

find 3 PI. Pres. Ind.

forms in -nunt,

f
dant', nequmont 'nequeunt'', explenunt explent', which have been explained by the theory that

e.g.danunt

the 3

PL

of the Pres. Ind.

had once ended in

-n,

*dan

*neqmn, *explen, and that these forms were a second time

provided with a 3 PI. suffix, much as Greek eT, thou art,

and became

for *eo-i, took a fresh 2 Sg. suffix

efy.

21. (/?) Passive (Deponent).

The Italo- Celtic
ending was -or in the Pres. Ind., e.g. O. Lat. sequor, class.
seqwr (ch. ii.
16), O. Ir. sechur, apparently an addition
1 Sg.

of Passive -r

6) to

the Active ending

Those Tenses and Moods which

-o

20).

Latin formed their

in

Sg. Act. in -m substitute in the Passive ~r for -;//, e. g.

fera-r Fut. and Subj., fereba-r Impft., except in the
Perfect group, where a periphrastic form is used, e. g.
1

latus sim, latus essem, not

ero,

not

tuleror

<

tulerir

'

',

'

tulisser

also latus

'.

2 Sg. Of the endings -m, -re, the latter is usual in

Early Latin and even in Cicero. They are most simply
explained as mere by-forms, since final

vowel was slurred in the

s after

earlier pronunciation (p.

a short

40

.).

We

may suppose that originally the s remained before

a word beginning with a vowel and was dropped before
a word beginning with a consonant, e. g. amaberis hodie,
But in the Imperative 2 Sg., where only
amabere eras.
-re is

found, this

-so (e.g.

-re

Gk. eVou

can hardly be anything but I.-Eur.

for eVeo,

from

eVe-o-o, Lat. seque-re,

130
p.

The Verb

35

CH.VI

Therefore some think that

M.).

-ris

merely adds

to this the ending- -s of the 2

Sg. Act., *sequere-8 be-

coming
tur

ii.

sequeris (ch.

The

3 Sg.

14).

Italo-Celtic ending

is

tor (e.g. Lat. sequi-

from *sequetdr} O.

Ir. sechethar), formed by adding

Passive -r to the I.-Eur. Secondary ending -to
(e.g. Gk.

e-0e pe-ro).

The Imperative changes

Particle -tod, which

Active

14), Q.g.ferlor Pass, beside

1 Plur.

The

Italo-Celtic ending

sequimur for *sequ6>Ttdr,

changing to
2 Plur.
Part. Pass,

the

to -r the -d of the

appends to its bare

it

O.

Ir.

stem

-mor

is

in the

Act.

eric (d)

(e.g. Lat.

sechemmar), formed by

of the Active -mos

20).

(.

In Latin the Nom. Plur. of the old Pres.

is

used with ellipse of

estis,

e.g.

fen-mini,

(Gk. 0epo/ze*>oi, 17), in the Present Tense and analogical

formations in the others, e.g. fereba-mini, fera-mini,
ferre-mini.

same with
old

The 2
ellipse

Infinitive

PI.

of

(Gk.

Imper. ferimini
este,

is

probably the

though some make

0epe^ei>ai)

used

in

it

an

Imperatival

sense.

The Italo-Celtic ending is -ntor (e.g. Lat.

from
sequuntiir
*9equ8ntdr, O. Ir. sechetar), formed by
3 Plur.

adding Passive

r to the I.-Eur.

Gk.

Secondary ending -nto

e/z-7rA 77-^70 with Lat. im-

(Gk. e-0e po-vro).

(Cf.
In the Imperative the d of the particle -tod
appended in the 3 PI. Act. ( 20) is changed to -r,

ple-ntur).

e.g.femntor Pass, beside fernnto(d) Act.

Scheme of the Latin Person-endings

22

Scheme of the Latin Person-endings.

22.

Plural.

Singular.

Active.
Ind.

I.

Pers.

-w() (Athematic Primary), e. g. sum,

-o (Thematic Primary),

e. g. sumus, legieramus, legebamus.

-mos, class.-miis,

mus ;

e. g. lego,

-m
2 Pers.

(Secondary),

eram, legebam.
-s() (Prim.), e. g.
legis

*es-s(i},
*

e. g.

for

es

-tes,

class,

from

-tis,

e.g.

estis, legitis;

eratis, legebatis.

-s (Sec.), e.g. eras, legebas.

3 Pers.

-t(i)

(Prim.),e.

-nt(t)

g. est, legit

-t

(Sec.

(Prim.),

from

from

*leget(i}.
e. g. erat, legebat.
),

e. g. sunt,

legunt

legonti.

-nt (Sec.), e.g. erant, legebant.

seech, x.
17.)

(But

II. Imperat.
1 Pers. (the

Subjunctive
e. g.

is

(the Subjunctive

used),

legamus.
-te, e.g. es-te

legam.

2 Pers, Pres. (the Verb-stem

is

used),e.g.es(Athem.),

is

used),

e. g.

legi-ie.

(Them.).
Fut.' (adds to (d)< thereupon'), e.g. es-to, legito
lege

'

Pers.

-tote, e. g. es-tote, legi-tote.

from *lege-tod.
(same as 2 Pers. 'Fut.').

nto

from

-nto(d),

e.g.

sunto,

legunto.

Passive and Middle.

Ind.

I.

Pers. -or (Act. -o), class, -or,

e.g. legor.
-r (Act. -w), e.g. kgebar.
and (its weak pro-ris
2 Pers.
1

nunciation

?) -re, e.g.

-mur, class, -miir, e.g. legimur.

(Nom.

PI. Masc. of Pres. Part.

Pass, is used),

e. g. legimini.

legeris, legere.

3 Pers.

-tor, class. -tur,

e.g. legitur.
II.

Pers. (the Subjunctive is used),

e.g. legar.

2 Pers.
3 Pers.

-re

from

-tar,

-ntor, class, -ntur, e. g. leguntur.

Imperat.

-so, e.g. legere.

class. -lor, e.g. legitor.

K 2

(the Subjunctive is used), e. g.

legamur.
(the Nom. Plur. Masc. of the
Pres. Part.Pass.),e.g. legimini.
-ntor, class, -ntor, e.g. leguntor.

132

Some

23.

The

Irregular Verbs.

irregularity of
roots for

different

Verb shows the

many verbs

consists in their use of

The Substantive

different tenses.

ES-

root

in others, e.g. Perf.jfye

of verbs like

CH.VI

Verb

Tlie

'

to be

in

tenses, the root

and the

to

',

some

go

',

BHEU-

heteroclite conjugation

seems to date from the L-

Eur. period. Other Latin examples are/70 (for *ficw, from

bhw-, a weakened form of the root bheu-) &ndfactu3 sum;
ferio and percussi

Gk. TtrXdvai)

few and

with Prep, sub, suls)

convictus

sum

medicatus

sum;

tuli

tollo (for *tol-no)

;

surgo differs

vei-

arguor and

and porngo)

(whence

the same
e.g.

folio,

(Compound

from surrexi and surrectus

comes from a root

sustuli

and recordatus sum ; medeor and

in being syncopated (cf porgo

volo

and

and pastns sum

vescor

reminiscor

(from the root of

which had

invitus),

meaning as the root vel-, to

velim, and vol-, e.g. volo, see ch. ii.

vis beside

wish.

(On

vel-,

8.)

Other verbs, classed as Irregular, are the Defective

is found in
coepi, the Present of which, coepio,

Verbs

O. Lat., e.g. neque ego

pound

of

cum and

lites coepio, Plant.,

apio, to fasten,

and

whence

is

a com-

apiscor

and

(
aptns; inqwm, perhaps a Subj.-'Fut., I will say', from
the root seq u -, to speak (cf. O. Lat. inseqne or insece ),
other parts of which are Pres. Ind. inquis, inguit, in]

for *a7iio from the

quiunt and Imper. inque (Plaut.) ; aio,
'
root agh-, to say ', and infit are other Defective Verbs of
c
kindred meaning to inguam. (Cf our Defect. Vb. quoth '.)
.

The
1

irregularity

of

Ennius' translation of

Musa.

Verbs
(vveire,

like

sum,

eo,

volo,

&c.,

MoDaa was: inseque (insece),

23
consists, as

we have seen

1),

133

Verbs

Irregular

in their

having belonged

to

the Athematic Conjugation (hence 1 PI. sumus, volwiius

with u not

of

2),

which there are not

Latin as in Greek

so

many remains

Greek verbs

(e.g. all the

in

-\JLL

in

are

thematic in 1 Sg. Pres. Ind.

ed-o, but athematic in the other persons, which are disEdo, to eat,

athematic).

is

tinguished from similar parts of sum by their long vowel,

e.g. est 'eats', essem Impft. Subj. for *ed-sem, esse Inf.

Fero has been attracted into the Athematic

for *cd-se.

Conj., fer-s 2 Sg., fer-t 3

*fer-sem, ferre Inf.

for

Sg v ferrem

Impft. Subj., for

Imper.

*fer-se, fer

Do

(root

DO-, in weak form Lat. da-) was originally athematic and

must have been declined *dom(i) *dd-s, *do-t, *rfa-wo#,
*da-tes, dant (cf.

Gk.

but the a of danms,

Si8o^v, and cf. ch. x. 12) ;

&c., has caused its partial trans-

8i8oofu 3

datis,

(On ce-do } Imperat.,

was confused with another -do, meaning

ference to the First Conjugation type.

see
'

It

14.)

to place' or

'

put' (root

DHE-, Gk.

ri-B^-fjn), to

which
'

belong the Compounds condo, to put together', suMo, to

put under ', &c., and which must have been declined *condB-m(i), *con-de-s, *con-de-t, *con-da-mos, *eonda-tes, &c.

Here the

syllable (ch.

to
ii.

which a was reduced in the unaccented

14), con-di-mus, con-di-tis, &c., caused

the transference of condo, suMo, &c., to the Third Con-

jugation type.
(ch. x.

I.-Eur. dh

when

with Plur. *famos, &c.

fdc-io, with the c of which we
*fe-s,

of

Gk.

initial

became^in Latin

would be ^ffe-m(i] i
derivative from this is

17), so that the simple verb

e-6rjK-a.

STA-, Gk.

Sto

'i(TTr)fj.i

may perhaps compare the K

was another Athematic Verb (root

for *cn-OTa-/n, PI. 'i-a-Ta-^v), with

The Verb

134
an original declension,

en. vi

*std-m(i), std-s, std-t } *sta-mos }

but in a verb of this kind the transference

*sta-tes, slant,

Conjugation was easy. Sto seems to have

Early Latin the transitive sense of Gk. icrTrjfjii,

to the First

had

also in

but in

form

class.

Lat. this sense was confined to the transitive

(Gk. LO-TTJ/JLL for *<n-crra-/a), which appears as

a Third Conj. Verb.
Prae-sto 'I afford', < set before',
is

si-sto

'

transitive, prae-sto

I excel

',

stand before

',

is

neuter.

Both are to be distinguished hompraes- (s)to I guarantee ',

'

'

stand as bail

'.

Compounds

these Athematic Verbs are possum,

of

Possum

uolo 3 mdlo.

is

found in the older writers in

its

uncompounded form potis sum and pole sum, e.g. potis est
Lucr. i. 452 potesse i. 665.
Pote is not only the Neuter
;

but also the careless pronunciation of Masc. (and Fern.)

potis (p. 40 n.). This led to the indiscriminate use of potis

and pole for any gender, number or ease, e.g. potis est,
f
it is possible' Ter. Phorm. 379; credo equidem potis
esse te, scelus, Plaut. Possum stands for pote-sum (on the
Syncope of -e see ch. ii.
12), possim for pote-sim, &c. ;
and possem, posse (iorpotessem, potesse) have followed their
analogy.

Mdlo, a contraction of mdvolo (Plaut.), comes

(a by-form of magis) united into

similarly from mage

a word-group (ch.

Negative

ne~

written mdvolo

ii.

11) with viSlo;

and

nolo

from the

*Mdg(e)-volo became mavvolo,

*ne-volo (O. Lat. ne-vis, ne-volt) became

*novolo (ch. x.
(ch.

ii.

and

12) nolo.

4)

volo.

and with

loss of v

The Imperat.

noil

between vowels

may

be due to the

use of noils (Opt.) in Imperatival sense, the -s being

dropped to suit the type of the Imperative 2 Sg.

CHAPTER

VII

ADVERBS
for the

nouns.

I.-Eur. Adverbs were

Origin of Latin Adverbs.

1.

most part cases of Nouns, Adjectives, and ProThe cases most frequently found in Latin are

the Accusative (cf Gk. nporepov Ace. Sg. Neut., paKpciv

Ace. Sg. Fern., Kpv(f)a Ace. PI. Neut.), the Ablative (or In.

strumental

cf.

Gk.

oi\Xrj }

OLKOL, avaiptoTei, CKOVTI).

which have become obsolete

case-forms

retaining

Xddpd), and Locative (cf. Gk.

Often we find Latin Adverbs

the ordinary declension.

Thus

-im, the original

in

form of

the Ace. Sg. ending of I-stems (ch. iii.

8), which in
classical Latin was replaced by the -em of Consonant-

stems

(e.g.

parteni

from the stem

and

in the

Examples

milit-),

is

parti-, like

Noun I-stems.
l

raptim from an old *raptist -is

of rapio), sensim from *sensis (Verbal

of these are

Noun

militem

retained in Adverbs like partim,

Adverbial Accusatives of Verbal

Gen. (Verbal

Noun

from the stem

of sentio), uni-versim

from

*versis (Verbal

Noun of

Again now, an old equivalent of noctu, seems to

verto).
be an early by-form of noctu Gen. ; -e (older -ed), the
suffix

by which Adverbs derived from Adjective O-stems

formed

are

in Latin,

-0, earlier -od, ch. iii.

1

is

an Abl. Sg. suffix (parallel with

6), which has been reserved for

These old Verbal Nouns in

replaced by lON-stems,
era's

Gen.

(ch. xi.

12).

-Us, -sis

raptio, -onis

became obsolete and were

Gen.,

dissensio, -onis

Gen.,

versio,

136

The Adverbs

Adverbs alone.

vn

The Adverbial

suffix -tus (I.-Eur. tos) of

in

some I.-Eur. languages

is

divim-tus, &c.,

ftnuU-tuSj

CH.

used to form the Abl. case of Nouns.

The Adverbs derived from Pronouns,

with the Particle

(i.e. illim

referred to their proper cases,

the full

number

owing

e.g.

ibi,

illinc

4), are not easily

-ce, ch. v.

to our ignorance of

of the case-suffixes used in the I.-Eur.

declension of the Pronoun

(cf.

ch. v.

4).

Often an independent word has been relegated to the

function of an Adverbial suffix.
Thus versus and versum
(older versus, vorsum, ch. x.

8),

the

Nom. and

Ace. Sg.

of the Perf. Part. Pass, of verlo, appear in qudqudversus

(-m), aliovorsum (contracted alionum, ch. ii.
12), retrovorsum (contracted retroi'sum, retrosum), rursus (-m) for
reverses (-m).
Tenus of hdctenus, aliqudtenus, &c., is the

Ace. Sg., used adverbially, of the old neuter noun tenus,

a stretching (ch. xi.
18), used by Plautus in the sense
of a string or snare (ch. viii.
In the Romance
39).
Abl.
of
is
the
chief Adverbial
mens,
languages mente,
suffix,

and

e.g. Ital.

is

often added to already formed Adverbs,

quasimente.

Adverbs

like aliovorsuw, aliqiiatenus are

thus really

composed of two independent words olio vorsum, aliqua

tenns.
Other examples of Adverbial word-groups are (1),
and
Noun ad-fatim, sufficiently, lit. ' to weariness '
Prep,
:

(cLfatlyo)
sedulo

from

ad-modum; de-nuo for de now (ch.

se, an old by-form of sine (ch. viii.

ii.

14)

36) and

Plautus once (Pseud. 132) uses penitus

Lit. from the base '.
Adv. in the sense of from within the house
ipse egreditur penitus,
but elsewhere makes it an Adj., e. g. fuucibus penitissimis.
1

'

'

'

From Nominative

dolo (cf
tell

Plant, dicam sedulo and Jiaud dicam dolo

the truth

ch. x.
licet

137

19)

%-lico

')

(2)

from

Verb and Verb

142), perhaps for

(p.

Verb dnm-taxat

and

in

(ch. v.

sloco (old
i-licet,

ire-licet,
ft.),

The Comparative Degree

&c.

'

I will

form of

loco,

scl-licet, vide-

(3)

Conj. and

&c.

of the

Adverbs derived from

in Latin, as in Greek, expressed

Adjectives
by the
Ace. Sg. Neut. of the Comparative of the Adjective,
.g.pejii$,longuis (Gk. aofy&Tepov); the Superlative by the
is

old Abl. Sg. in -e (older

-eel)

of the Superl. of the Adj.,

e.g.pessime, longissime (in Greek by the Ace. PL Neut., e.g.

Adjectives (and Participles) of the Second
(ro^oorara).
Declension (O-stems) form their Adverbs in -urn (Ace.

Sg. Neut.), -e (Abl. Sg.) or -6 (Abl. Sg.) ; Adjectives of

the Third Declension, in -ter (Nom. Sg. Masc., 2), e.g.
mult urn, amice, subito, breviter ; but in the earlier literature Adverbs in -ter from O-stem Adjectives are
e.g. amiciter.
niter,

but

2.

common,

Cicero in his earlier writings used huma-

finally discarded it for

humane.

The Nom. Sg.

Nominative Adverb forms.

Masc. of an Adjective might become an Adverb by being

used without reference to number or gender.
Just as
potis,

M.

F., able

lized, so to speak,

(Gk.

TTOO-IS,

a master), became crystal-

when used with

potis est ille,potu est illud (ch. vi.

^gradually passed into an

esse,

potis sum, poiis

es,

23), so rursus (reversus)

Adverb when

it

came to be

not merely in phrases like rursus eo, rursus

but also in rursus it ilia, rursus emit illi.

is,

rursus

In the

used,

it ille,

earlier

rursum (Ace. Sg. Neut.) competes with rursus,

(pro-vortum) witbjprorsut, sursus (sub-versus) with

literature

138

The Adverbs

sursum, demus

Gk.

(cf.

rry/zoy)

CH.

with clemmn, &c.

vu

but by

the classical period one of the rival forms generally has

the monopoly, e.g. rursus, prorsus, sursum, demum. Such

Nom. Adverb forms end

Latin

in (1) -s, e.g. rursus,

and

other compounds of versus ; deinceps, in O. Lat. declined,

deincipis Gen., deincipi Dat., &c., like princeps j eminus

and

commiuus

Gk.

(ch.

avro^etp of
of an old

ii.

x ct'p

10),

compounds

of manus, as

intrinsecus, extrmsecus, &c.,

compounds

Adj secus, following (cf secundus). (2) -r. This

a very numerous class, comprising all the Adverbs

is

These are Nominatives Singular of

a formation with the suffix -tero- (ch. xi.
which in
8),
Greek often assumed a Comparative sense (eg. Ppa\vrepoy, shorter), but not always, e.g. ^e^irepoy, on the
in -ter, e.g. breviter.

more on the right '. Thus breviter corresponds

exactly in formation to Gk. /Jpax^repoy, as ager to Gk.
right, not

<

The i before ter belonged properly

aypoy (ch. iii.
6).
Adverbs from I-stem or O-stem Adjectives (e.g. breviter from brevis, stem b)-evi- } humaniter for *humano-ter,
to

ii.
14, beside auddc-ter from audax, stem
but has been extended to Cons.-stem Adjectives

ch.

from fallax.

fallaciter

menter, impudent er,

by

NT-stems have

aiif/tie-),

too, e.g.

-nter, e.g. ve/te-

Dissimilation, for -nti-ter (ch. x.

On simulter from *simli-for faeulter from *facli-ter

20).

Another example of an Adverb in -r is

uuper, Nom. Sg. Masc. of an Adj. nupero-j for *now-pero- s
from novus and paro. The Adj. is used by Plautus
see ch.

Capt.

ii.

12.

718:
Recens captum liominem, nuperum, novicium,
just captured, newly acquired, a newcomer.'

'A man

From

3
3.

139

Accusative

Accusative Adverb forms. The Adverbial use of

the Accusative Case was a great feature of I.-Eur. syntax.

In Homer, for example, we find that Seivov, (3apv, &c., are

In Latin we

the usual Adverb forms, not Seivoos, /Japecoy.

have

(1)

Ace. Sg. Neut. of Adj. in -um, e.g. commodum

;
pleruntque from an old Adj. plerusj*
connected \vithjolenns, full ; sursum, and other compounds
a few Superlatives like minimum
of versum (see
2)

(beside commode)

(usually minime)j potissimum;

form of which was facul

in his description of the

in -e, e.g. facile,

ii.

(ch.

Roman

an old

12), used by Lucilius

patricians

Peccare inpune rati sunt

Posse, et nobilitate facul propellere iniquos,

simul (older semul), the Ace. Sg. Neut. of similis and

still used like similUer in Plant., e.g. Men. 748 novi cum

Calcha simul

'

know him

as well as I

impune from impunis (in B,nd.j)oena} ch. xi.

Adjs. as a rule formed their Adverbs in

know Calchas

(2)

12), but I-stem

-tier,

the forma-

tion in -e being reserved for poetry, e.g. dulce ridentem

dulce loquentem, Hor.

'

Ace. Sg. Fern, of Adj. in -am,

wrongly (sc. viam), from perperus

and paro), with the same sense of per as in perjurus,

e.g. perperam, falsely,

(per

swearing falsely (Gk. ndpa of TrapaKOTTToo, I forge money,

&c.) (ch.
(sc.

viii.

vices).

26).

(3)

The Ace.

almost confined to poetry.

e.g. praesertim

from

Ace. PI. Fern, in -as, e.g. alia*

PI.

Neut., e.g. torva tueri, is

in -tim,
(4) Ace. Sg. of Noun,

sero, lit.

at a trot (connected with tollo)

1

'

in the front

row

'

tolutint,

passim frompando; statim,

periere Danai, plera pars pessum datast, 'the

E.g. Pacuvius
lost, the greater part gone down.'
:

Banai are

140

The Adverbs

at once,

'

CH.

vu

'

'

on the spot (like ilico,

1) ;
in -dtim derived from Nouns, e.g. guttafim,

lit.

standing

and many
in drops, from

',

gutta, gradatim

from gradus. The Nouns

become obsolete, being

in -Us have, as has been mentioned,

replaced

by forms

in

But the Nouns

e.g. statio.

-lio,

remain from which other Ace. Sg. Adverbs are derived,

e.g. vicem,

maximam partem,

Sg. of

X&P -*)'
'

secus,

id genus

(cf.

Gk.

y^dpiv, Ace.

yirifa secus (e.g. trecenti occisi

sunt

virile

three hundred were killed of the male sex')

either Ace. or else

omne genus

Nom.

in Apposition

(cf.

is

coronamenta

Adverbs in -f&riam,

serantur).

indicating division, e.g. li-fariam, quadn-fariam, are Ace.

Sg. Fern, of Adjs. in -farms (cf. Gk. -<f>dcrios from
-0arioy, e.g. rpi(f)d(rios).
4. Abl. and Locative Adverb forms.
From OStem Adjs. we have Abl. Adverb forms in (1) -e, older
-ed, e.g. facillime,

which

is

written on the S. C. Bacch.

FACILVMED

(this is the usual formation of Superlative

Adverbs), valde (valide Plant.), ferme, Superl. of fere (2)
;

-6, older -od, e.g. certo (beside certe), vero (beside vere).

(On cilo, moflo, lene, male, see ch. ii. 16.) From O-Stem
Nouns we have, e.g. vulgo (from vulgus), principio. The
Third Declension
Locative, ch.

iii.

'

Abl/

(originally a

Consonant-stem

8) in -e appears in forte, sponfe, opere of

magnopere (for magno opere), tantopere, &c., temere, lit.

(
in the dark ', from a lost Neuter *temns, -eris, darkness.

The Abl.
nothing,
gratiis)

PI. in -is is seen in gratis

(gratiis Plaut.), for
lit.

'

for

mere thanks 3

for is, outside,

lit.

'

(cf

Ter.

at the doors

(Gk. Ovpa), used with verbs of

rest, e.

'

si

non

pretio, at

horn fora, a door

g.foris manere, while

From

4,5

foras, the Ace. PI.,

go

Loc.

Abl.,
is

used in a phrase like foras

Of Abl. Sg.

outside.

at the

(sc. via),

exire, to

Fern, in -a examples are eddem

same time,

(sc. opera),

right, recta

141

Pron. Advs.

clextera (sc. parte),

on the

directly, extra, supra, contra, &c.

The

Abl. Sg. Neut. of the last is seen in contro-versia ;

the Ace. PI. perhaps in O. Lat. contra (with frustra,
juxta).

Pronominal Adverbs.

5.

ubi (on

ibi,

ubi see ch.

Locative O-stem

which

These

show various

(1) -bi (older -bei) with locative sense,

suffixes

in

ii.

16)
e.

suffix,

g.

e.

g. ibi,

(older -ei), the

-I

(2)

O. Lat.

isti,

illi,

there,

Latin always have the particle

classical
v.

-ce

(3) -6 (older -od),

4),
appended (ch.
which looks like Abl. Sg. Neut., but indicates motion to

Hll-c, istl-c;

(originally route or direction

O. Lat. hoc,

porro.

istoc,

Neut., for class. Lat. hue,

short
(4)

o,

but with

?),

e.

g. eo, quo, isto, alio,

are probably Ace. Sg.

illoc

istnc, illuc

points to -de with

doubled in pronunciation

(ch. v.

3)

-a (older -ad), Abl. Sg. Fern., indicating direction,

manner, &c.,

e.

g. qua, ea, praeter-ea

-im, which

(5)

looks like Ace. Sg., but indicates motion

illim,

istim,

particle

-ce,

which
illinc,

in class.
istinc

(cf.

with similar sense, in wide,

by Syncope of the

final

hiuc,

incle

vowel

from, e.g.

Lat. always append the

dehinc);

this inde

(ch.

ii.

(6)

is

-nde,

shortened

12) to -in in the

Compounds proin, dein, eocin, &c. Other endings like

-dam of quondam (cf. quidam, ch. v. 7), -dem of qindem,
tandem, with the sense of
tanti-dem

(cf.

'

'

'

exactly

idem for is-dem, ch.

',

v.

precisely
3,

and

in ibi-dem,
is

demum),

-tern of item, -ta of i-ta, are apparently case-forms of

142

The Adverbs

pronominal stems

(cf.

3), as

ch. v.

Fern, of the stem quo- (ch. v.

}

leap

became

3),

Saltim,

6).

Ace. Sg. of an old Verbal

of

-quam

vn

tmqnam,

7) appears to be Ace. Sg.

(cf. quuquai*, ch. v.

usquam

CH.

Noun

in class. Lat. saltern

*saltis

'

by a

from

salio

lit.

on the analogy of

autem, %tem, &c.

6.

Adverbial word-groups. Other examples are

parum-per, from parum, Ace. Sg. Neut. of
:

(1) in -per,

a by-form of parvus, and the Preposition per ;

from
*sem one ', Ace. Sg. Neut. (Gk. eV for sem)
sem-per
and the same Preposition * so paulis-per, tantis-per,

parus,

little,

'

aliquantis-per,

*tod-per.

stem

and

in O. Lat. topper, immediately (for

(On tod, Gk. TO(), Ace. Sg. Neut.

to-, see ch. v.

3.)

(On

nuper, see

of

Demonstr.

2.)

From

ol-viam was formed the Adj. obvim, as from

se-dulo (cf. se dulo malo in an old Agrarian Law), the

Adj. sedulus. Like obviam (and inter-vias with vias

Ace. PI.) is ob-iter, a word regarded with suspicion by
purists, though the Emperor Augustus gave it his
sanction,

and reproved Tiberius

instead.

Ilicet,

scilicet,

videlicet

writers the construction of ire

licet?

'

The

e.

g. Plautus Capt. 469

Ilicet parasiticae arti

profession of diner-out

for

have

licet,

using per main

in the earlier

scire

licet.,

videre

maxumam
may

nialam crucem,
go hang itself on the highest

possible gallows.'

The Adj.

sempiternus stands for *semperlernus as praestigiae for

praestrigiae (ch. x.
2

20).

which may come from a lost verb *fortare from

and may be
to assert
fortis (like affirmare from firmus) meaning
the Imperative Mood of a Tense like amasso from amare or, more
So

also/orfasse,

'

',

Adverbial Word- Groups

Lucretius

210

i.

143

Esse videlicet in terris primordia rerum.

Virgil revived the use of

sense of

ilico, e.

g. Aen.

Ilicet in

muros

Preposition with a

in-cassum} in vain,

lit.

ilicet,

xi.

468

it

curiously the

tota discurritur urbe.

Noun
'

but gave

(or Adj.) appears also in

into the

'

empty

(cf

cassa

nux

Actutum is perhaps
Plaut.) ; im-primis and cum-primis.
Neut. of an Adj. *actutus (formed like astutus, artutus,
versutus).
probably, Ind. 2 Sg. (a careless pronunciation of the correct form
see p. 40 n.) Cf. Plaut. Asin. 36 te fortasse dicere, perhaps
;
'

fortassis

you say

',

lit.

'

you will

assert that

you

say.'

CHAPTER

VIII

PREPOSITIONS
1.

History of Latin Prepositions.

Prepositions
which came to be specially used in con-

are Adverbs,

Noun

nexion with certain cases of the

or in composition

with a Verb.

In the early stage of I.-Eur. languages

the cases alone were sufficient to indicate the sense, but
as the force of the Case-suffixes

became weakened, or

as

the necessity for clearer definition was more recognized,

the

Case-suffix

an Adverb.

was strengthened by the addition

Thus

the mountain

'

indicate the

first

monte ex

monte de;

or

monte might

ire

to

which, owing

to

'

to

of

go out of

go down from the mountain '. To

the Adverb esc was used, ire

sense,

the second, the Adverb de, ire

to indicate
ex-ire

mean

monte, de-ire monte.

Those Adverbs

meaning, are

most frequently

their

associated with particular cases of Nouns, or are used

in composition with Verbs, are called Prepositions

and

the process by which Latin Adverbs became Prepositions may be seen in operation at various periods of the

language.

Thus

contra,

which has hardly passed the

Adverb stage with Plautus and Terence, is a Preposition

in classical Latin and governs an Accusative Case;
coram

is

not a Preposition

Augustan poetry and

Late Latin
It

is

till

simul in

prose; retro not till

get thee behind me').
in writing Latin to write the PrepoSilver

Age

(e.g. vade retro me,

customary now

Cicero's time;

'

Origin of Latin Prepositions

sition

and the Verb

one word,

in.

the Preposition and the Noun,

e.

e.

145

g. exire,

but not

g. ex monte, although

Romans usually wrote exmonte, &c., and always pronounced the Prep, and Noun as one word-group (ch. ii.
This close union of the Preposition with its
11).

the

Verb and Noun

led at an early time to the syncope of

the final short syllable of a Preposition,

became

e.

g. indo-gredior

*ind-gredior, a form confused with in-gredior

O. Lat. induperator and

In the

(cf.

class, imperator).

later stages of a

language the use of Prepositions increases more and more.

In Latin this culminated in the loss of Case-suffixes, and the use of Prepositions in their place, as we see in the Romance languages
(cf.

Fr.

je vais a

Rome

'

with Lat.

early as the first cent. A.D., a

that in manus aqua

is

older aqua manibus.

vado

Romam

As

').

grammarian points out

the phrase in vogue instead of the

New

distinctions of prepositional

meaning were expressed by compounding Prepositions

with one another,

e.

g. de-ex, de-sub, ab-ante (Fr. avant),

just as I.-Eur. Prepositions often

Gk.

-ere (e.

g.

had a Particle appended

Such Particles were

to define their

meaning.
Gk. <% e, Lat.

abs, ex, sus-)

(1) -s(e),

(2) -d(e),

Gk.

Lat. prod-eo, O. ~L&i.postid, antid); (3) -n(e)

Sofj.oi'-Se (e.g.
Germ,
vo-n, Lat. pone for *pos-ne). They are related
(e .g.
to the

Pronominal stems mentioned

In the

earlier stage of

in ch. v.

3.

every language the Prepositions

elasticity, sometimes

must have been used with great

with one case, sometimes with another, the restriction

of Prepositions to a particular case being a late feature.

Thus

in potesfatem

esse

instead of in potestate esse

is

146

Tli e Prepositions

a usage of archaic Latin.

CH.

vm

Their position too varied in

In I.-Eur. the Preposition seems to have

the
preceded
Verb, but to have followed the Noun, while
between the Prep, and the Verb a Particle or Enclitic Procourse of time.

noun might be

inserted

(cf.

O. Lat. anti-d-eo, sub vosplaco,

the archaic phrase for supplico vos retained in Latin prayers,

In classical Latin a Preposia

tion, especially
monosyllabic Preposition, precedes the
ob vos sacro for obsecro
vos).

Noun

(hence 'Pre-position'), except in particular circumstances (e.g.metu in magno), but in the older literature of ten
follows

(1)

form

it,

just as our 'in here'

was

earlier 'here-in'.

List of Latin Prepositions.

2.

Ab, from,

is

I.-Eur. ap (Engl. of,

of apo (Gk. airo), of

waspo

off),

a curtailed

which another curtailment

(Lat.po-sitnSypdnoioi' po-s(%)no, O. ~L&t._po-lubrum,

a wash-basin, po-lire). The form ap- appears in ap-erio, 1

and was no doubt the pronunciation of the word before
an initial p, t, c, &c., e.g. db templo; ab is due to the

same Latin preference

written aps, ch.

of final

ii.

10), in

augmented by the Particle

position before

p
to

it is,
s,

-It

to -p as substituted ob

The form ad* (pronounced and

for op (see below).

t, c, e.

-s(e)

often

which the Preposition

(Gk. dty),

is

used in

is

Com-

g. abs-trako, abs-condo, while before

by a law of Latin phonetics

(ch. x.

20). reduced

e.g. as-porto for *ap9-portot as-pello for *aps-pello.

It appears also in the O. Lat. phrase absqne

esset (foret), e.g.

me

(te,

&c.)

Plaut. Trin. 1125 exaedificavisset

ex his aedibus, absque te foret, ( he would have evicted

me
me

1
The opposite was op-erio, e. g. Plaut. Capt. 524 o'perta quae fuere,
'
aperta sunt, what was shut is now open '.

AbAnte

2-5

147

The phrase
this house, had it not been for yon/
seems to have been originally parenthetical ' and without
'
(lit.
away from') you, it would be (a fact)'. At a later
from

period absque me, &c., was used without the verb, and
'
absqne came to take the sense of sine, without'.
may be

another form of ab as

e of ex, e.g. d-mitto for ammttto, ab-

mitlo, as e-mitto for *emmitto, ex-mitto (ch. x.

20).

Au- of

au-fugio, au-fero, however, represents an entirely different

I.-Eur. Preposition awe, which was brought into requisi-

tion in these

Compounds before an initial f to avoid

Compounds of ad, e. g. affero. A

confusion with the

curious Preposition of, used in Cicero's time occasionally

in

name

account-books, with the

whom money had been

received,

of the person

some

declare to be a

from
mere

with the symbol F (the Greek

Digamma) employed to denote the u- or 20-sound.
is a different
3.
(2) Ad, at, to, I.-Eur. ad (Engl. at),
(Greek

trick of writing,

?)

word from the Conjunction

confused with

it

in

Roman

or, e.g. arfuerunt, arvorsum,

of

d to an r-sound before/,

at,

I.-Eur. at,

spelling.

On

though often
the old form

due to the phonetic change

v,

see ch.

ii.

8.

each side, I.-Eur. ambhl

4.
(3) Ambi-, around, on
(Gk. dfj.<pi), a Locative of the same stem as I.-Eur. ambho,
both (Gk. afj.(pG, Lat. ambo], appears in Latin com'

'

pounds in the form am- before a consonant,

plector, am-icio for am-jicio (see ch.

ii.

12).

e.g.

am-

This must

be distinguished from an-, a curtailment of I.-Eur. ana,

'

on

'

(Gk. avd, Engl. on) in an-kelus, an-quiro.

5,

Ante, before, I.-Eur. anti (Gk. avri, opposite,

(4)

instead of

Engl. an-swer), a Locative Sing, of some

L 2

148

The Prepositions

stem connected with Lat.

antes,

CH. viu

rows (Engl. end) of

which Gk. dvra, opposite (cf. avr-qv), is another case.

In anti-stes, the i of I.-Eur. anti, not being final, does
not sink to

e (ch.

14

ii.

n.).

Apiid, which

is also
spelt aput t seems to be
the I.-Eur. Preposition apo (of which Lat. ab is a cur-

6.

(5)

augmented by the Particle d(e) or t(i), and

must have been originally *apod or *apot (cf. Dor. TTOTI).
7.
(6) Circum, around, the Adverbial Ace. Sg. of

tailment),

circus (Gk. KpiKO$} a

ring),

is

In

the older form.

class.

Lat. a by-form circa appears, first found as a Preposition

in the time of the Gracchi, a formation on the
type of
&c.
vii.
which
was originally
supra, extra,
(ch.
4),

employed with verbs like esse owing to a feeling that

circum was suitable only for verbs of motion, e. g. legates
circum clmtates mittere, 'to send ambassadors a tour of
circum urlem, c to go a circuit of the city '.
Circiter, an adverbial formation like breviter (ch. vii.
2),

the states

came
'

',

ire

to be restricted to the logical sense of

almost

',

The form

e.

Plant,

g.

loca haec

'

circiter,

appears in the Adverb

in qno-circa, with another logical sense.
8.

circo

(7)

'

about',

hereabout

'.

id-circo, as circa

Cis, citra, on this side, are formed from the

I.-Eur. pronominal root k!-, 'this' (Gk. -KL of OVKI, TTO\\CLKI, Engl. he), exactly as their opposites ills, ultra, on
that side, from the I.-Eur. pronominal root 51-, 'that'
(ch. v.

3),

the second
(ch. xi.

the

first

by the addition

of the particle s(e),

(an Abl. Sg. Fern.) with the suffix -tero-

8).

The Adv.

sponds to citra as ultro

(e.

citro

(Abl. Sg. Neut.) corre-

g. ultro citroque) to ultra.

6-14
9.

Clam, an Adverbial Ace. Sg. Fern, from

(8)

the root kel-,

had

149

Dis-

Apud
'

to hide

'

(Lat. celo, occulo, &c., ch. vi.

2),

by -form *clam-d$} whence was formed

in O. Lat. a

It governs the Ace. (not the Abl.),

the Adj. clandestine.

Comedians another, apparently a Diminutive form, clanculum, e. g. Ter. clanculum patres.

form still retained in
10.
(9) Cum, older com (a

and has

in the

Composition, e.g. com-es, a companion), is I.-Eur. kom.

4, and on
(On the change of 6 to u in Latin, see ch. ii.
the loss of -m in

suffix -t(e)ro-

contra,

co-eo, &c., ch.

ii.

3.)

(10) Contra, formed from com, cum with the

11.

e.

g.

the earlier literature

8), is in

(ch. xi.

Enn.

quis pater aut cognatu' uolet nos contra tueri ?

father or kinsman will care to look us in the face ?

What

an Ace.

PI.

Neut.

(ch.

ii.

5),

like citrd (Abl. Sg. Fern.;

Neut. contro- appears in

12.

(11)

Coram,

but in

class.

'

Lat. contra

The Abl. Sg.

see above).

contro-versia.

in presence of, is

an Adverbial

Ace. Sg. Fern, of an Adj. *corus, compounded of cum and

6s, Gen. or is, the face.
13.
(12) De, down from, concerning, cannot be an
Abl. Sg. form like Adverbs in -e (ch. vii.
4), for it is
written de, not *ded, on the S. C. Bacch.
14.

by-form

(13)

Dis-,

apart,

comes from an unaccented

of the root dwo-, dwi-,

(cf. ch. v.

1 fin.

on swe and

se).

'

two

',

With

wanting the w
the w the same

formation expressed the Numeral Adverb, dwis (Lat.

Before a vowel clu- becomes, by the
lis, ch. iv.
5).
phonetic law of Latin, dir- (ch.

x.

19), e.g.

dw-imo,

150

The Prepositions

and before voiced consonants

ch-

vui

CH.

(ch.

e.g.

19),

di-moveo.

Erga, originally local (e.g.

'
Plaut. quae erga aedem sese habet, the woman who lives
15.

(14) Erga, ergo.

opposite the temple'),

may

possibly represent an e *rega,

and

like e regione, opposite,

the direction ', then 'on account

originally 'von

an

ergo

of

Erga

Wegen').

is

e *rego } lit.
(cf.

'

from

Germ, wegen,

not restricted in

the earlier literature to the expression of friendly feeling,

e.

g. Plaut.

me

ne malus item erga

sit,

ut erga ilium

fuit.

(15) Ex, out of, I.-Eur. eks (Gk. e), adds to

a Preposition ek the Particle se. In Latin compounds it
16.

often appears before the letters/in the form ecin

e,

MSS.,

e.g. e-mitto, e-lego (like

17.

(16)

Extra

(cf.

Gk.

Before voiced consonants

e.g. ecfatus.

is

telaim

*tex-la, ch. x.

it

CAC)

was

20).

formed from ex as contra from

cum, com.
18.
in).

(17) In, older en, is I.-Eur. en (Gk. kv, Engl.

The same form

is

used in Latin and other lan-

guages with the two senses (1) in, (2) into, but in
Greek the second is distinguished by the addition of the
particle se, evs, Att. cty.

indn (I.-Eur. endo;

cf.

The O. Lat. Preposition endo,

tvSov), when reduced by

Gk.

Syncope to bid- (ch. ii.

12),
perator, was confused with in,

and so dropt out of

use.

e.g. ind(u)-gredior, ind(u)e.g. in-gredior, im-perator,

Thus Terence

uses in-audio

only, though Plautus still retains ind -audio.

19.
(18) Infra is an Abl. Sg. Fern,
connected with the Adj. inferns.

like

extra,

151

ErgaPer

15-26
20.

(19) Inter, between,

is

formed from in by the

addition of the suffix -tero- (ch. xi.

formation as

and

ultra

inter,

ultra),

(ch. vii.

8).

an Abl. Sg. Fern, of the same

while intro is an Abl. Sg. Neut. (cf.

(20) Intra

21.

and

is

Adverbial ending -tos

intus has the

Intus wavers between an Adverb and a

1).

Preposition in such a phrase as Virgil's

'

in such temple within

tali intiis templo,

J

'

within such temple

',
first
as a Preposition by
used
22.
(21) Juxta,
is
Abl.
Fern,
of
a
stem
Caesar,
jtixto-, connected
Sg.
or

with jungo and meaning ' adjoining '. The Ace. PI.
Neut. by-form (like contra beside contra ; see above)
appears in Catull. Ixvi. SQjnxta.
23.

(22)

Ob, I.-Eur.

ently a variety (ch. x.

retains its -p in Latin
op-tineo,

qp-erio

(see

ch.

op(i)

12

(Gk. tm-vOev), appar-

of epi

spelling
ii.

(Gk.

in

10).

often

ZTTL),

Compounds
In

classical

like

Latin

has the sense of 'before' (e.g. ob oculos ponere, to

'
in the earlier literature
describe) or on account of ', but

it

also of

'

to

24.

e
',

(23)

Fern,

Sg.

of

near

',

&c.

Palam, like its opposite, dam, an Ace.

some stem connected with pdlari, to

wander, be dispersed abroad. It

position till the Augustan Age.
25.

a person)

(24)
is

not found as a Pre-

Penes (governing the

a suffixless Locative

-0m, from the root pen26.

is

(ch.

Ace., usually of
iii.

8)

Q^penitiis, pene-trare.

I.-Eur.
(25) Per, through, connected with
'

'

pero,

of penns

I transport, bring or pass

Lat. ex-perior), corresponds to

through
Gk. Trept

(cf .

Gk.

iretpm,

in its intensive

152
sense

(e.

g. per-lonyus,

sense of

its

CH.

TJie Prepositions

fldus; Gk.

Gk.

Trepi-yUTy/c?;?)

or injury

wrong

7rap-6fj.vv/j.i,

(e. g.

to

vm

Gk. irapd

in

per-jums, per-do} perthese two Gk.

TTapa-f3aiv<>),

Prepositions being really different cases of the same root

per-, as are also Lat. pr-o, pr-ae.

27.

(26)

Post, O.

Lat. paste, for

became in Compounds through

pos e. g. posquam was according

loss of

to

the proper spelling in Virg. Aen.

stand for po*(t)-moerium.

to

suffix -ne

1) it

'

'

(27) Prae, before,

being in

iii.

With

behind', not

command

is

'

20)

po-merium said
of the

addition

after

local sense

'

(in time).

a Dative formation from

Prae-xens has the old sense

the root per- (see above).

of

(ch. x.

some Grammarians

becomes pone, which has a

in early literature,

28.

*po*-tl, often
t

'

(cf

prae-fectus, prae-positus) in

the inscription on the Columna Rostrata, praesented

dictatored olorum ' praesente dictatore illorum\
29.

(28) Praeter, past, except, is

formed from the

preceding by means of the suffix -tero- like the Adverbs

breviter, &c. (ch. vii.

30.
early).

(29)

Pro

2).
is

I.-Eur.

(Gk.

pro

737)6,

/, e.g. pro-Jici*cor, pro-fundo (but pro-ficio)

early literature pro-

the classical period

is

much more
form.

augmented by the particle -de

Procul

but in the

frequent than

the Adj. pro-bus

L'7rep-0u?7?) preserves this

is

Trpa-i,

It retains in class. Lat. the short vowel before

(cf.

it is

super-bus,

In pradeat, prodire, pro

(

1).

formed from pro by the

suffix (ch. xi.
11) and some L-suffix.
32.
(31) Prope, with Super!, proximo, seems
31.

(30)

is

in

Gk.

KOalso

Post

27-38

153

Super

formed from pro\ how exactly,

to be

is

a matter of

doubt.
(32) Propter, near, on account of, is formed

33.

from prope by means of the

prae, circiter from circum.

suffix -tero-, as praeter

from

34.
(33) Be-, back, has a by-form red-, with the
addition of the particle -de (' 1), which in class. Lat.
remains in red-eo, &c., but is before a consonant dis-

carded for

35.

From re-

in reduce (O. Lat. red-duco), &c.

re-

was formed the Adverb

(34)

retro, like in-tro, ci-tro, ul-tro.

Secundum, according

to, close

behind,

is

Ace. Sg. Neut. of secundus, following

the Adverbial

In plebeian Latin secus (Nom. Sg. Masc.

'
of an Adj. -stem seco-, folio wing ') was used for se(ch. vi.

18).

cundum.

The Adverb

secus of phrases like secus accidit,

non secus atque (Comp. sequins) has been referred to this

Preposition 011 the theory that it originally meant
1

following but coming short of

(35) Sine for

Pronoun-stem (ch. v.

36.

*sene,
1)

l
',

from

less

'.

s(w)e-, the Reflexive

and the particle -ne

1).

In

Early Latin there was another Preposition with the

sense of ' without ', sed, later se (ch. ii.
9), an Abl. form
of the

without guile (whence

fraude esto 'let it be
shall be free from penalty ', are phrases

same Pronoun

without hurt
of

common
37.

'

',

it

(36)

Sub

38.

in-ter

(37)

is

Laws

of the Republic.

I.-Eur. upo (Gk. VTTO for VTTO) with

Sub-ter

s.

and

Super

clolo,

6), se

vii.

occurrence in

a prefixed particle

from sub as

e.g. se

the Adv. sedulo, ch.

in-tus
is

and sul-tus are formed

from

in.

I.-Eur. uper (Gk. vnep for vnep)

54

The Prepositions

vin

CH.

with a prefixed particle s. Super-ne adds the

particle
-ne ( 1).
Supra is an Abl. Sg. Fern. (ch. vii.
4).
39.
(38) Tenus is Adverbial Ace. Sg. of a Neuter

S-stem

tenus, derived from the root ten-, to

and meaning in old Latin ' a cord ', e.g. Plaut.

pendebit hodie pulcre

ita

stretch,

intendi tenus.

Pro-tenus, protinus, a Compound of this Preposition, had

the sense of (1) ' forward ', f onward ' (of space or
time),

en ipse capellas Protenus aeger ago, Virg.

vives protenus, Hor. ; (2) without interval of
space,

e.

g.

Virg. A.

iii.

416

cum

(3)

g.

protinus utraque tellus

Una

foret,

of the traditional connexion of the Italian

shores

sic
e.

without interval of time,

and

Sicilian

forthwith

(its

usual sense).

40.

Verb

(39)

Trans has been connected with a supposed

found in

*trare, said to be

iu-trare, pene-trare (ch.

On

the change of trans-mitto to tras-mitto,

3 ; ch. x.
20.
tra-mitto, see ch. ii.

vi.

2).

from

(40) Ultra is derived

41.

This uls shows the root

vis.

O. Lat.

ol-

uls as citra

from

of the Pronoun Ufa,

with the particle -se ( 1).

formed from the I.-Eur. Prep,
(41) Usque
ud (Engl. out) in the same way as alsque from ab. Its
Prepositional use, e. g. usque radices, is due to a curtailolle (ch. v.

42.

ment

is

of the proper phrase usqiie ad,

Greek
e.

5)

coy (for coy e/y)

came

g. coy TOV {SacriXea ivaL.

(42)

Versus

(see ch. vii.

much

as in Attic

to be used as a Preposition,

1).

CHAPTER IX
CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS
Origin of the Conjunctions. As Prepositions
from Adverbs of Locality, so Conjunctions are closely connected with Pronominal Ad1.

are hardly separable

These Pronominal Adverbs, as we have seen

(ch.
5), are not always capable of being referred
to their proper case form (e.g. ibi, tibi), owing to our
verbs.

vii.

imperfect knowledge of the declension of the I.-Eur.

Pronoun. Nor is it easy to find their cognates in the
various I.-Eur. languages

older literature

is

so rapidly does the

Thus Latin

of a Conjunction alter.

enim,

a particle of asseveration,

meaning
which in the

'

indeed

by the classical period appropriated the sense of

',

had

for

'
;

and in French pas (Lat. passus) and point (Lat. punctum)

have acquired a negative sense from their use in the
(

phrase

ne

'
.

pas

I.-Eur. Conjunctions

',

is

ne

point

their tendency to

Conjunctions or conjunctive Particles

may append

'.

$77, nep, &c., co?

another
obstacle in the
puts

Srj,

(e.

axnrcp)

way

feature of

append other
Greek

g. coy in

and

this habit

of identifying cognate

Conjunctions in different languages, for in one language

in another
they may appear extended by one particle,

language by another.
tive Particles

is

The exact form

of these conjunc-

also a difficult thing to ascertain

we

156

often see parallel stems in

u

CH. ix

Conjunctions

i-,

are all

u-,

&c.

(e.

Interrogative Pronoun-stem, ch. v.

Gk. au-re,

appear in

and

e-rt),

and with short vowel

Particle)

(e.

g. q o-,

-te

and

-ti

parallel forms with long

and

g. Lat. ne-

ne- } the

and the tendency was always present

q e-,
various forms of the Relative and
-o, -i, -u,

Negative
to adapt

the ending of one Conjunction to the ending of another

Conjunction of similar meaning (e. g. Lat. saltern for
It

adapted to au-tem, i-tem).

saltim,

therefore best to

is

designate these conjunctive Particles according to their

consonants, and in tracing the origin of the Latin Con-

junctions to

mention such Pronouns

Particles) as (1) the

Gk.
Gk.

av-re, c-Tij (2) the

&},

e,

(1)

pronominal

of Lat. dum, ibi-dem,

D-pronoun

o-8c, (3) the

DH-pronoun

the P-pronoun of Lat. guip-pe, nem-pe}

of Lat. num, nam, nem-pe, quis-nam.
2.

(or

T-pronoun of Lat. tarn, i-tem, n-t(%),

Que,

Conjunctive.

of

Gk. eV-0a,

(5)

the N-pronoun

(5)

atque, ac, quoque,

et,

u
Que, I.-Eur. q e (Gk. re), apparently the bare
stem of the Relative q"o-, qu e- (ch. v.
6), is in Latin,

etiam.

as

it

word
final

was

became

had

sentence.

was always

-e

-c

this

an

in I.-Eur.,

the

of

appended to the first

Through Syncope, to which
enclitic

liable

in Latin

initial

12), it

and probably often

consonant in the rapid

I.-Eur. -qu e gave a relative

life.

and

Pronouns

indefinite sense to

fuller

ii.

in ac for *atc (at-que), &c.,

sound before an

utterance of e very-day

so in

(ch.

Early Latin, though

(e.

g. Horn, oy re),

and

in the classical period the

e. g.
ending -cunque was preferred
quem-que
156 quemque in tegulis

Plaut. for quem-cmiqite in Mil.

2, 3

157

Conjunctive, Disjunctive

Videritis alien um

so qms-que, each (ch. v.

This

7).

-cimque, -cnmque (O. Lat. -quomque) seems to be nothing

but cum-que, ( whenever'' (Hor. C. i. 32. 15 mihi cumque
salve Rite vocanti), like qnando-qne.
In O. Lat. atque

often signifies

'

forthwith

',

quoniam conuocaui, atque

and Virgil seems

in Georff. i. 201

e.

g. Plant. Most.

illi

to use the

me

word

1050

ex senatu segregant,
in this archaic sense

Non aliter quam qui adverse vix flumine lembum

remigiis siibigit, si brachia forte remisit,
atque ilium in praeceps prono rapit alveus amni.
u
u
Quoque has some part of the Pronoun-stem q o-, q e-,
Et is the I.-Eur. Adverb eti (Gk.
as its first element.
'

en, further), used in Latin, as in Gothic (if>, and'), for

In etiam, et is associated with the Adverb
the copula.

jaw, now, the j (our y] becoming the vowel i by the

Latin phonetic law in the middle of a word, as in medius

from I.-Eur. medhyos (Gk.

3.

Fe

is

/*eV(<r)oy) (ch. x.

13).

Ve, aut, vel, sive, seu.

I.-Eur. we (Horn. Gk. rj-(F)), a particle which
Disjunctive.

(2)

had also the sense of

'

as

'

',

like

'

(e.

g. Lat. ce-u,

10).

au (Gk. av, again, Engl.

compounded
eke from Goth, au-k [quasi au-ye]), and the T-pronoun

Aut

1).

of I.-Eur.

is

Vel

is

the old 2 Sg. Pres. Imperative of

I wish (ch. vi.

14),

and means

'

literally

volo,

choose', as

Another explanation makes, e. g. quicumque merely who and

uUcumqm where and when similarly ubi quisqm where
and who', and declares quisque 'each', to be merely a reduction of
'

when

'

',

the last phrase.

'

'

158

Germ, wohl
'

CH. ix

Conjunctions

Homerus

(e.

vel

Homer, wohl der grosste Dichter,

g.

summus

poeta

older sei

13),

and

Sive

is

have been

to

compounded

of

si,

Before -u t the curtailed or

-ve.

syncopated form of -ve

said

is

')

originally Imper. of wollen.

(as -c of -que, -n of

Interrogative

the ^/-diphthong was by the Latin phonetic law

-ne),

reduced to

e,

as in ileus

the Conjunction

from

dei(ii)us (ch. x.

13),

and

(before nouns beginning with

took

a consonant) the form seu.

4.

Adversative.

-At, ast, sed, autem, atqui,

tamen, ceterum, verum, vero. At is the I.-Eur.
Adverb atl, ' back ', from ', used in Latin, as in Gothic
(3)

'

'

(aj'-fan,

but

'),

as a Conjunction.

laws with the sense

si

parentem

'if

further

e.

Ast,

found in old

g.

puer uerberet, ast olle plorassit, puer diuis

parentum

sacer esto,
'

had originally the sense of f further merely, being

perhaps ^ad-st^, a derivative from the Preposition ad like
postii)

came

from the Preposition po

2, 27).

It

to be used exclusively in conditional sentences

and

so acquired the notion of

e.

g. in the curious

'

if

'

and even of

'

if

',

refers

addito, at cui auro dentes iuncti escunt, ast

illo sepeliet uretue, se

'

further

law of the XII Tables which

to the use of gold in dentistry

Neue aurum

(ch. viii.

im cum

fraude esto.

but, when the deceased has

gold shall men put in a tomb
his teeth fastened with gold, if they bury or burn him with
that gold, it shall not be a punishable offence.'

No

The Augustan poets revived the

made it a mere substitute for

use of the word, but

at,

where the metre

4-6

159

Adversative, Limitative, Explanatory

required a long syllable

and

Sed, in early

passed into prose.

Latin sedum,

of s(w)tf, the Reflexive

compound

second cent. A. D.

in the

may

Pronoun stem

it

be a

(ch. v.

its loss of -um compare

1) with the particle dum. With
non for noenum ( 17). Autem adds the particle -tern (cf.

Adverb au (Gk.

i-fem) to the I.-Eur.

au-k, p.

157), which

is

av, Engl. eke

probably identical

of au-fero, au-fugio (ch.

ait-

from

with the Pre-

viii.

Atqn\
2).
adds to the Conjunction at the particle gid, so often
used by the early Dramatists as a mere particle of
position

emphasis

(e.

utinam

g. Hercle qui,

qui, ut qui, Plant.) ,

apparently either the Abl., Loc., or Instr. Sg. of the

Taw en, however,

Relative.
related to

'

'

tarn,

so,

equally

none the

less

is

clearly

much ', which was

in the

',

literature used in the sense of tamen

early

tam-etsi

and

tamen-etsi).

Ceterum

is

(cf.

class.

the adverbial Ace.

Sg. Neut. of the stem cetero- (Nom. PI. ceteri), from cethe lengthened form of the Pron. stem ce- (ch. v. 4), as
cetera parce
cetera in such a line as Virg. A. ix. 656
:

puer
in

bello,

war

',

for the rest

is

you

are a boy

deal sparingly

an adverbial Ace. PL Neut.

Verum

is

and

similarly an adverbial Ace. Sg. Neut. of vents, true,

verb an adverbial Abl. (Instr.?) Sg. Neut. of the same.
5.

(4)

and

Limitative

Corrective.

Quidem,

immo.

Quidem shows the stem of the Indefinite Pronoun quis (ch. v. 6) with the particle dem (ch. v. 3).

Immo has been explained as *in-md,''m magis

*mo a supposed old Comparative, more '.

',

f rom

6.

(5)

Explanatory.

quippe, nempe.

Enim

is

in

Enim,

nam,

namque,

O. Lat. an asseverative

160

Virgil,

(cf . class, enim-vero),

merely

particle

84

g. A. viii.

e.

It

a usage imitated by

plus Aeneas tibi enim,

mactat sacra fei-ens.

Quam

'

CH. ix

Conjunctions

tibi,

maxima Juno,

comes from an I.-Eur. Pronoun stem

Nam, Ace. Sg. Fern,

that'.

why

(cf.
'

cf

sense of

'

g. quid
'

'

for

Virg. A.
'

',

v.

because

'

13, x. 6), without that definite

to

which the word

is

in the classical literature (but cf. uti-nam).

qiii-pe

e.

',

of

why, what is the use of paint ?

quisnam, and in O. Lat. poetry quianaw,

cerussa opus
Plaut.

form

of no-, another

this stem, is often used in O. Lat. in questions,

nam ?

this

eno-,

(like Juppiter for Jv-piter),

restricted

Quippe for

adds the particle pe

1) to the Loc. Instr. Sg. of the Pronoun.

Nempe

adds the same particle to a form *nem, which is the

same case-form of the N-Pronoun as -tern is of the T-

Pronoun
7.

(ch. v.
(6)

3).

Conclusive.

Ergo, itaque, igitur.

had in O. Lat. the sense

of the
igitur

XII Tab.

em

8. (7)

si

in ius uocafc, ni

ca'pito (ch. v.

Optative.
Juppiter, ut

5).

If/ 1 her

of turn as in the first

On

Ut, utinam.

it,

law

antestamino,

ergo, see ch. viii.

15.

Ut, in wishes, e.g.

Chalybum omne genus

pereat,

the Conjunction ut, that (older uft, ch. ii.

12),
'
with suppression of the idea ' I wish or ' do thou grant '.
In utinam the final * of ut($) is retained (so in ne-uiiis

quam, pronounced as a trisyllable with the first two

syllables short), and nam has its older sense of a strength3
'
ening particle indeed ( 6).

7-10
9.

161

Conclusive, Optative, &c.

-We, nonne, num, utrum,

Latin -ne is the general

Interrogative.

(8)

In

an, anne, cur, quare.

class.

interrogative particle, while nonne

which expect an

num

affirmative,

is

limited to questions

to those

This distinction

a negative answer.

is

which expect

unknown

to

who

uses nonne hardly at all (-ne being used

Plautus,
and
num, numquis without a negative sense
instead),
It

occasionally.

came

easy to

is

how

see

to be attached to nonne,

'

is

these
.

not

now ', e. g. nonne Jiaec ita sunt ?, t is not this

num haec ita sunt ?, now is this the case ?
(

'

phasis on the

-Ne

word

the case
'

(with em-

is').

Num

is

the I.-Eur.

num, 'now'
Utrum

nunc for num-c(e), ch. v.

4).
(Gk. vvv ;
the Adverbial Ace. Sg. Neut. of uter (ch. vi.
cf.

An

'

I.-Eur. ne.

is

meanings
and num,

',

is

8), like

1
perhaps the same as Gk. dv 'in
Cur (O. Lat. quor) is I.-Eur. q u or, related
that case'.
(
to Engl.
where/, and is quite unconnected with qud-re

Gk.

(cf.

TTorepoj/.

is

cui rei, Plaut., quam-ol-rem, ed re

10. (9)

On

Neut. PI.

'

as

(like siqu-idem,

'

8.
'

Quasi,

and
&c.

si,

or

on that account ').

Ut, uti, quasi, ceu, quam.

Comparative.

ut, see

'

is

p. 41).

as if', either comes

a mere
Ceu,

from qua

shortening of

which

is

quam

si

restricted to the

Epic and Lyric Poets and a few Silver Age prose writers,
is compounded of the Pronoun stem ko-, ke- (ch. v.
4)

and the
*ce-ve
1

particle -we, 'as, like'

(cf.

ce-teri).

The theory that an

Quam

is

Ace.

3),

and stands for

Sg.

is (like proin for proinde,

Fern,

of

the

dein for deinde)

a shortened form of anne (this full form being composed of at with

the Interrogative Particle ne), leaves the Plautine (and subsequent)
scansion an unexplained (cf. ch. ii.
9).

162

CH, ix

Conjunctions

Relative, as tarn of the Demonstrative.

The two words

are

combined in lamquam, lit. ' so as ' ; cf Plant. Epid. 504

A. Novistin
Acropolistidem ? B.Tam facile quam me.
.

11.

ut, ubi.

Cum,

or quom, is

of the Relative.
tive with

Cum, quando, dum, donee,

Temporal.

(10)

Quando

the I.-Eur.

quam-do will mean

'

to

an Adverbial Ace. Sg. Neut.

Ace. Sg. Fern, of the Rela-

is

Preposition

what

'

(time).

do,

'to

so

that

In Plautus quando

mainly temporal, though by Terence's time it is

l
mainly causal, as quandoquidem is at all periods of the
literature.
Dum, which is often a mere asseverative
is

particle, e.g. age

primumdum,
stem do- as

first

dum (Gk. aye

of

STJ),

how

qui&um,

so?,

an Ace. Sg. of the Pronoun

cum of q u o-. Gk. Srj is another

all, is

turn of to-,

case-form of the same stem.

The temporal

clearly seen in non-dum, etiam-duw , inter -dum.

sense

is

Donee

is

in O. Lat. donieum,

which is compounded of *&d-ne (the

and
the
Prep, do, to,
N-pronoun, 1) and cum, when, and
meant to when ', till when (cf. quo-ad). Donieum was
'

'

'

perhaps wrongly apprehended as donec-cum instead of doneso with omission of cum became donee. Donique

cum and
of

Lucretius

(ii.
'

particle -que,

1116, &c.) either adds to *ddtie the

ever

'

(cf .

ever; also de-ni-gue), or

poet,
(cf.

who misunderstood

donee as do-nee.

VI from ii-H

u
uti-nam) adds to the Relative stem q u-

the Particle or case-suffix

1

quando, when, quandoque, whena false coinage of the archaistic

is

On ubi

(ch. v.

6)

see ch. vii.

5.

The shortening may be like that of si-quidem (p. 41).

In Plaut. dum often means 'the while', e.g. Rud. 779:

abi

modo, ego

dum

hoc curabo

-ti

recte.

1).

11-13

Tempora

12.

Causal.

(11)

On cum

quippe.

163

Causa 7, Condition al

7,

Cum, quoniam, quod,

11.

see

cum (quom) and jam, the ^

(y)

quia,

a compound of
becoming by the law of

Quoniam

is

Latin phonetics vocalic in the middle of a word

(ch.

temporal, 'when now'

the
Pres.
Pres.
tense
Ind.,
(with
being required by the

x.

oldest sense

Its

13).

jam), e.g. Plaut. Trin. 112

Quoniam hinc

is

iturust ipsus in Seleuciam,

mihi conmendauit uirginem

and

it is

possible to trace its gradual development

from

a temporal to a causal sense in the course of Latin

Literature.
Quod is Ace. Sg. Neut. of the Relative

O-stem
as Od.

(ch. v.

i.

382

used like Homeric o in such a line

6),

TrjMfjiaxov Oavpafrv b Oapffa\f(as ayopeve.

Qma

is

an Ace.

On

6).

Neut. of the Relative I-stem

PI.

13. (12)

Conditional.

modo, dummodo.
Pronoun stem

so-,

Si,

Si, nisi, ni, sin,

O. Lat.

sei, is

seen in Lat. ip-se, ip-sa (ch. v.

the same word with the enclitic

(ch. v.

4).

17) with

nei,

of

Nisi

si,

sive, seu,

a Loc. Sg. of the

Sic, so, is

(ch. v.

6.

quippe see

is

-c(e)

3).

appended

a compound of the Negative ne

(
Nl, I.-Eur.
literally not if.

and means

perhaps the Negative ne with the deictic particle -i

OVTOO--I, &c., had originally the sense of non or ne,

Gk.

as in quid-ni, quippi-ni,

Virgil's line

and

still

however to acquire the sense of

phrases as

him

si

retains this sense in

ni teneant cursus (A.

in ius uocat, ni

(and) he does not

'

go

it,

nisi

XII

id ni

M 2

iii.

Tab.,

fit,

686).

from
c

It

came

its use in such

if

he summons

pignus dato, Plant.,

164

CH. ix

Conjunctions

me

'

lay

a wager in the event of that not happening

',

that does not happen, lay me a wager.'

Sin is a
si and tie, not the
of
compound
Negative ne, for the
lit.

'

'
negative sense of sin, if not ', is hardly attached to the
word in the time of Plautus, but the Demon str. suffix

seen in alioquin beside alioqui, &c.

seu see ch.

Moclo

12.

ii.

is

15).

On

sive

and

the adverbial Abl. (Instr.

?)

Sg. of modus, measure, limit (cf. Hor. quis desiderio sit

pudor aut modus?), 'only', dum-modo, 'while only'.

A
a

common

sense of wodo

while ago

little

'

even

wish

'

The formation

quamquam, quamvis,

Etsi,

of all these words

is

evident

et-si,

how you
', quam-quam (reduplicated), quam-vis?
however
much
wish
', or
(like quantum-vis,
you
'

if

'

qnam-lilei,
'

the temporal sense, 'only

'.*

14. (13) Concessive.

licet.

is

granted

'how you

licet 9

please'),

'it

is

allowed',

'.

15. (14) Final.

neu, nedum.

On

ITt,

ut see

quo, quominus, quin, ne, neve,

11.

Quo

is

the Abl. (Instr.

?)

Sg. Neut. of the Relative, used with Comparatives, quo

Quominus adds to quo the Comfacilius like eo facilius.
parative minus,

minime,

'by no

'less',

used in a negative sense

means', parum

Quin as a Final Conjunction,

1

is

sciens,

(cf.

'ignorant').

composed of qm, how

This was emphasized in the Praenestine dialect by the addition

of tarn (tarn modo, inquit Praenestinus, 'e'en now, as Praenestine

folk say', Plaut. Trin. 609).
2
In Plautus' Latin quamvis has not acquired the sense of
although ', but is the equivalent of quantumvis. The Subj. of volo
appears in Pseud. 1175 quamvelis pernix homo est / the man is ever
'

so nimble.'

Concessive, Final

14, 15

(Abl.

Loc.

?,

?,

Instr.

In some instances

it

165

and the Negative Particle

?)

represents qui

ne.

(Nom. Sg. Masc.)

with Negative ne} e. g. nemo fuit quin sciret (qui nesciret) ; and the same form was extended to sentences
like nulla mulier fuit
is

quin

as potis Masc.

sciret, just

universalized in the phrase potis e$t and used

Sg.
with Neuter or Plural Subjects

(ch.

in affirmations, e.g. hercle

quin

recte dicis, Plaut., is

vi.

merely the Adverb qui of hercle qui, &c.

Demonstrative suffix -ne (so atquin and

and

alioqui, ceteroquin

and

Quin

23).

4) with the

atqui, alioqmn
Quin in commands,

ceteroqui).

originally with Ind. (and so usually in Plautus),

dicis

?,

then by

constructio ad sensum

usually in Terence), e.g. quin die,

with the Interrogative Particle -ne,

not

Quin in a sentence

?'.

quin comedit quod

like
fuit,

i.e.
eumne dicis qui comedit ?
the same particle (cf. Mil. 13
{

mean

the

man whose

life I

a variety of I.-Eur. ne
enclitic -ve}
(ch.

ii.

the Adverb qui

is

'how not?^,
Plaut. Trin. 360

why

quod non

fuit ?

'

&c.,

is

qui

Nom.

Sg. with

quemne ego seruaui? 'you

Ne is I.-Eur. ne,
saved ?').
1).

Neve adds

to this the

in neu is reduced

by Syncope
For nedum (especially used by Livy, also

or',

12).

which

e. g.
quin
with Imper. (so

'

by Cicero, but rarely by the other authors) ne alone

occasionally found.

which

is

An

early

instance

not employed by Plautus,

is

nedum
lit.

numquam

sufferre eius

is

word,

454

Ter. Ilaut.

satrapa

amator,

of the

si siet

sumptus queat

tu possis,

'ne(dum) tu te posse credas, dico satrapam non

166

CH. ix

Conjunctions

posse ', or 'satrapa non potest,

nondum

tu potes', with

which we may compare Plant. AmpJi. 330

uix incedo inanis, ne ire posse cum onere existumes.
:

Nedum

related to ne, as

is

Liv. xxiv. 4. 1

cf.

vixdum to

visa,

puerum vixdum

nondum

to non

nedum

libertatem,

dominationem modice laturum.

16.

Ne

(15)

Ne

Asseverative Particles.

(nae), -ne.

The cognate
probably the only true spelling.
Greek word vr\ had a by-form vat (cf. $77 and Sat), but
is

nae seems a mere invention of the Italian scholars of the

sense

'

lest

'.

-Ne affirmative

'

Renaissance, to differentiate the sense

verily

from the

found in the Dramatists

is

with Personal and Demonstrative Pronouns, e.g. Plaut.

Mil. 565

egone si post hiinc diem

muttiuero, etiam quod egomet certo sciam.
dato excruciandum me.

(On

ne
17.

ve-.

and

ne, see

cf.

(16) Negatives.

Ne- (I.-Eur. ne)

is

ne

and ne Negative,

In-,

ne-,

prefixed, not only to Verbs, e.g.

ne-queo (Engl. can-not), ne-scio,Q. Lat. ne-vis(ch.

ne-parcunt, &c.,

(cf.

17.)

non, baud,

nee,

O. Engl.

nille,

vi.

23),

nolde), but also to

other parts of speech, e.g. ne-fas, n(e)-utiquam, neuter

I.-Eur. ne, appears in neqmquavtfy

in- (I.-Eur.

n,

Gk.

(ne-,

av-,

a curtailment of I.-Eur. awe (ch.

a-)
1
to
Non is O. Lat. noenum
viii.
Adjectives.
2), only
f
*ne
not
i.e.
unum,
one', ch. iv.
(for *ne-oinom,
4), with

and

re- (I.-Eur. we),

the same loss of -urn (originally before an

initial
'

vowel

1
Improbare, infiteri, iynoscere, not to notice ', to overlook (cf. Ter.
Haul. 218 et cognoscendi et ignoscendi), are seeming exceptions.
i

'

16-18
only) as

Asseverative, &c.

seen in nikilttom nihilum.

is

199 noenu potest)

167

Interjections

Noenn

(e.g.

Lucr.

perhaps a slurred pronunciation of

noenusj representing *ne wins Norn. Sg. Masc. (cf. demus
and demum, ch. vii. 2). Hand, which is confined within

iii.

is

limits than non in O. Lat., being found

with
especially
Adjectives and Adverbs, usually immedibefore
the
ately
negated word, and never in questions,
is
perhaps (like Gk. ov) connected with I.-Eur. awe (cf.

narrower

The

above).

initial

distinguish the

li-

we may suppose, added

was,

word from

aut.

hau, used before consonants,

e.

g. kauscio, see ch.

Nee in O. Lat. has the sense of non.

(Ixiv.

ei

custos non erit'

illi

ii.

9.)

Thus Catullus

83) uses the phrase funera nee funera to express

the Laws of the Twelve

Greek rdfoi dra<poi ;

Tables had ast ei custos nee

the

to

(On the O. Lat. by-form

dixeris.

The

escit (ch. vi.

4),

si

autem

Plautus (Most. 240) has nee recte

of negotium, neglego

neg-

(also

si

spelt

seems to be a trace of this usage.

18. Interjections.
Many Latin Interjections are

neclego),

borrowed from the Greek, especially the exclamations

used at musical or other
sophos, palin, as ours
e.

g. bravo, encore.

Of genuine Latin

old Imperatives, 1 e.g. em,

(cf.

em

tibi,

entertainments,

come from the Italian

lo,

e.

euge,

words, some are

2
Imper. of emo, I take

'take that!', 'there's for you!')

'

g.

or French,

(cf.

Our lo is Imper. of look

Compare Plaut. Capt. 859 A. Cedo manum. B. Em manum, Give
me your hand. There it is with v. 838 of the same play A. Cedo
manum. B. Tene, 'Give me your hand. Take it.' Plautus does
not use em when more than one person is addressed, not e.g. 'em
'

'

'.

'

'

videte

',

but only

'

em

vide

'.

168

CH. ix

Conjunctions

Em (not to be confused with

on vel).

was

of terror, grief, &c.)

which in the Republican writers

Ace. Case) produced ellum,

So

an Interjection

by en (Gk. ijv),
used only in rhetorical
joined with Ule (in the

is

Em

en-umquam?

questions, e.g.

/tern,

later superseded

ellos, &c.,

of the

Comedians

an Interjection of similar meaning,

from the Pronoun stem eko-, eke- (ch. v.
3), joined
(p.

86

(1)

with the Ace. of hie (wanting the enclitic

11.).

duced eccum
(2)

ecce,

(for

with the Ace. of

ille t iste,

eccillos, eccistos,&c. (p.

is

86

(for

n.).

The names
(sc.

juvet),

from

fid-es),

either

pro&c.,

Pro (wrongly

Vae, I.-Eur. wai,

-c(e))

ecce-hos],

produced eccillum, eccistum,

the Preposition or Adverb pro (ch.

'away with it
our Noun ' woe

is

eccos

*ecce-fritm),

is

viii.

spelt proJi)

30), forth,

the same word as

'.

of

deities

me-dius fulius

occur in
('

hercle,

me-hercules

the god of good faith

pol (a curtailment of Pollux), &c.

an invocation of Ceres, or

ecce re,

'

lo

',

eccere

indeed

'.

CHAPTER X
HISTORY OF LATIN SOUNDS

1.
A. Original or Indo-European' a occurs (1) in the First
Declension, e.g. L&t. filicl Abl., filidrum, filidbus (ch. iii. 4),/aw'Kas
Gen. Sg. (ch. iii.
In the Nom. Sg. - was shortened to -a
4).
'

than the literary period (ch. ii.

16), e.g. terra (contrast
Gk. x^pa)
and in the Ace. Sg. we have -dm not -am (Gk. xa'P 5 ''),
because a long vowel was always shortened before a final -m in
Latin (ch. ii.
16).
(2) In the First Conjugation, e. g. fa-ri (Dor.
Gk. <pd/), with its Derivatives fa-ma (Dor. Gk. <pa/id), fdbula.
(3) In Verb-roots like gnd-, strd-, developments of the primitive

earlier

Verb-roots gen-, to produce,

natus],

born, produced,
Idtus for *tlatus

tld-, e. g.
liitus,

came

stir-,

strd-tus,
;

from

broad, lit. 'spread out'

stldta or stlatta, sc. navis,

to strew, e. g. Lat. gnd-tus (class.

strewn.
stel-,

From tel-,

to spread,

19).

From

to carry,

we have

stld, e. g. stldtus, class.

the older form

whence the Adj.

stlattarius,

stldtus

imported

stlata navis', used by Juvenal (vii. 134 stlattaria purpura).

Other examples are grd- of grd-num from the root ger-, to rub, wear
away, make old (Gk. ytpow'), crates from the root cert-, to bind, weave

in a

together.
-

tdt-s

(ch.

(4)
iii.

The Noun
8),

suffix -aco-, -de- (ch. xi.

(6)
(7)

suffix -tat- (ch. xi.

with stem

novitdt-

(Dor. Gk.

11), e.g.

The A-Subjunctive (ch. vi.

Words likefrdter (cf. Gk. ^parcup),

12), e.g. novitds for

j/eo-rar-).

merdcus, verdx
13),

e.g.

The Adj.
Gk. Va).

(5)

(cf.

legdmus,

legdtis.

mater (Dor. Gk. ndrrjp) fdgus,

,

a beech-tree (Dor. Gk. tyayos'), sudvis for *suddvis (Dor. Gk. d5us).
Latin d often represents an original a. which has been lengthened,
2.
1

e.

g. qudlus (older qualhis}, a basket, for *quds-lus (cf. quasillus}.

A. I.-Eur. a occui's in (1) some Verb-roots, e.g. ag-, to

The weakened forms

of the vowels

when unaccented have

Here we are concerned

14, 15.
already been described in ch. ii.
with the true (uri weakened) Latin equivalents of the original or
Indo-European sounds.

170

drive, Lat. ago (Gk. ayca),

and

CH. x

History of Latin Sounds

with lengthened form

tig-,

Lat. amb-ages,

where
Derivative, agro-, a field, Lat. ager (Gk. Hypos'), lit.
oxen are driven in ploughing', scab-, to scrape, dig, Lat. scabo (Gk.
ovraTTTcu), with a by-form scab-, e. g. Lat. scoots, sawdust, ar- } to
'

its

plough, Lat.
(2)

tiro

(Gk.

The Prepositions

(Engl. at), Lat.

(ch.

iii.

d.

with stem

8)

daeru-ma (Gk. 5a/>u),

alius

d/wcu),

to leap, Lat. sulio (Gk. aAAo/icu).

scd-,

dpo (Gk. arro), Lat. 6, ap-erio (ch. viii.

2), ad
(3) Words like sal-, salt, Lat. sal for *saZ-s

(Gk. aA-s), tfacru-, a tear, O. Lat.

lacruma (ch. ii.
8), e%o-, other, Lat.

sal-

class,

(Gk. aAAos).

There was another a-sound in I.-Eur., which occurred in the

weakened forms ( 12) of Roots with A, E, 6. Latin examples
are ddtus (Gk. Soros) from the root do-, to give, of Lat. do-num (Gk.
satus (Gk. Iroy) from the root se-, to throw, throw
5i-8ca-fjii, Su-pov}
;

seed, of Lat. si-men (Gk. J'-Tj-fu for *ai-ai\-\u, rf-^a} ; status (Gk. O-TCITOS)
from the root sta-, to stand, set up, of Lat. sta-re (Dor. Gk. i'-o-ra-/
The a of pater-, Lat. pafer (iraTTjp}, is an a of this
for *<n-oTd/u).

kind, the

word being

meaning

literally

a Derivative from the root^a-, to protect, and

the protector'.
m, n, r in the weakened forms of E-roots ( 12) in

'

occurs after

I,

frdngo, fragilis, from the root bhreg-, 'to break ',flagro from the root
bhleg-, to burn (Gk. </>Ae7cu), gradus, a step, from the root ghredh-,

'to step', &c.

E. I.-Eur.
3.

occurs in (1) Some Verb-roots like se-, to

se-vi, se-men (Gk. 'irj-fj.i, %-na,
2), pie-,
Lat. im-plcr-e, ple-nus (Gk. mV' 7r *- 7?-A"> lt *-'h-P rl s \ a development of the
primitive root pel-, to fill, dhe- (dhey-), to suckle, Lat. fe-mina,fe-lo
e

throw, throw seed, Lat.

(usually
(ch.

fello)

(Gk.

Ori-ff6ai,

BTJ-XVS, Orj-Xr]'),

whence

fi-llus for felius

15), ne-, to sew, spin, Lat. ne-re, ne-men (Gk.

ii.

vrj-v, VTJ-HO.},

and other Verbs of the Second Conjugation (see ch. vi.

3).
Lat. re-s is from a root re- (rey-~), Lat. spes from a root sp^e13).
(2) The Optative suffix, -ye-, found
(sp(ti)ey-} (see ch. iii.
in the Sing. Persons of the Athematic Conjugation (ch. vi.
1), e. g.
O. Lat. sies (Gk. cfyj for *(<r-irj-s'). (3) The E-Subjunctive (ch. vi.
13),
In 1 Sg. amvm, 3 Sg. amet (amet Plaut.),
e.g. ames, ame-mus, ame-tis.
this e was shortened by the Latin law that a long vowel is shortIt was similarly shortened
ened before final -m, -t (ch. ii.
16).

before final
pater (Gk.

Latin

from

Nom. Sg. of TER-stems (ch. ii.

mater (Gk. /W/TJ^).
sometimes due to the fusion of two vowels,
-r

in the

16), e. g.

TTOTJ^P),

e is

prehendo, tres

from

*treyes

13),

sometimes

to

e. g.

prcndo

lengthening

E, I

3-5
'

by

Compensation

*venes-num

a web,

talum,

e.g.

',

171
for

*tex-lum f venenum for

20).

common vowel in the I.-Eur. language

example, (1) In a large number of Presents
of the Thematic Conjugation (ch. vi.
1,4), e.g. Lat. lego (Gk.
18),
A7<w), sequor (Gk. eiro/*at). (2) In Neuter ES-stems (ch. xi.
4.

This was a very

l.

It occurs, for

12).

e.g. Lat. genus (Gk. ytvos}, tenus (Gk. reVos), decus (from root dec- of
decef).
(3) In the Reduplication syllable, e. g. Lat. me-mini (Gk.

This e was assimilated in class. Lat. in mo-mordi (older

yue-ynova).
me-mordi), &c. (ch. vi. 10). (4) In words like the First Pers. Pronoun,
Lat. ego (Gk. fyfy, the Adj. medhyo-, Lat. medius (Gk. /xfVos, older

AWos), the Numerals seven ', ten ', Lat. septem, decem (Gk. cnra, S/ra)
Final e- was found in (5) Voc. Sg. of 0-stems (ch. iii.
6), e. g, Lat.
'

'

(6) 2 Sg.

e. g. Lat. lege (Gk. \tyt}.

12.)
dwc,fac, see ch. ii.
Lat. em, en often represents the I.-Eur. M-, N- vowel (in Gk.
a,
12), e.g. in (1) The Ace. Sg. of the Third Decl., e.g. patrem,
1) (Gk. irarfpa}.
(2) The numerals centum
(for *paterem, ch. iii.

lupe

Aw),

(Gk.

(On the dropping of this

(Gk. k-Karov\ septem (Gk.

see

Latin

die,

ITTT^),

decem (Gk. Sera). (For other examples

represents I.-Eur. ey before a vowel in eo for *eyo, from

in the suffix -eus (I.-Eur. -eyos) of words like
to go

ei-,

aureus, &c.

Before
'

Imperat. Act.,

in

12.)

the root

v I.-Eur. e

On

new ').
5.

13).

I.

became

in Latin,

so- for swe- see

For examples of I.-Eur.

suffix -mo-

(Gk. KopaK-ivos,

e. g.

novus (I.-Eur. newo-,

13.
I

we may take

The Adjective-

(1)

su ^nus
x i^)> e<
found in the Dual and Plural of the
x. 0i

P^ vr)i

see c ^-

The Optative-suffix -I-,

Athematic Conjugation (ch. vi. 1), e. g. Lat. s-l-mus (Gk. ciScf/up
from 6l8e(<r)-t-/*6iO, wH-wws. This -I- has found its way into the
(2)

Singular too in Latin, e.g.

The Noun

sis

(older

siea),

(ch. vi.

veils

for strength, Lat. vl-s (Gk. f-s, tyi)

poison, Lat. virus (Gk. fos for *flaos}.
Classical Lat. 1 comes from earlier ei ( 17) in
(3)

the

Noun

13).

for

words like d'ico

from the root deic- (Gk. 8einvvfju}, fido from the root bheidhof tu-tud-l Perf. from I.-Eur. -ai
(Gk. Tmflcy), and endings like those
-ei (ch. iii.
6), populi
10), Corinth-1 Loc. Sg. from I.-Eur.
(ch. vi.
It is often impossible to
Norn. PI. from I.-Eur. -oi (ch. iii.
6).
decide whether Lat. I represents an earlier -ei or I.-Eur. I. But
the two are distinguished on the earliest inscriptions, till
c.

150

B. o.

172

History of Latin Sound's

CH.

has arisen from a fusion of two vowels in nil, nllum from

not a thread (cf. Lucr. nee proficit hilum), sis for si, vis,
if you please, and the like
and from lengthening by Compensation in words like nidus from *msdus (Engl. nest), dlduco from
Lat.

'

*ne-hllum,

'

'

dls-duco.
6.

I.-Eur.

I.

The Weak form

occurs in (1)

from the root

Lat, in-dico

e. g.

deic-,

(
12) of El-roots,
to point, say (Lat. dlco, Gk.
from the root bheidh-, ' to

Sfimvui}, Lat. fides (Gk. H-mO-ov)

persuade' (Lat. fldo, Gk. nfiOca'), Lat.

red-itus

from the root

ei-,

go (Lat. l-re, Gk. ef-fit), Lat. mi-nu-o (Gk. fu-vv-Ooj}, minor, less,
from the root wet-, to lessen. (2) The I-stem Declension (ch. iii.

to

ovt-s

8), e.g.

(Gk.

o(f)),

ovi-bus.

(3)

The Demonstrative and

Interrogative (and Indefinite) Pronouns, Lat. i-s, qui-s (ch. v.

3, 6).
(4) The Suffix of the Comparative -is- (Gk. Superlative
is-to-, &c.
7.

num,

),

1
e.g. Lat. magis, mag-is-ter, min-is-ter.

6. I.-Eur. o occurs in (1) Verb-roots like

do-,

to give, Lat. do-

do-s (Gk. Si-Sea- fii, Sw-pov\pd-, to drink, Lat. po-tus, po-culum (Gk.

know, Lat. gno-tus, gno-sco, class, no-tus, no-sco (Gk.

a development of the primitive root gen-, to
know. But we have no 0-Conjugation in Latin (cf. aegrotus) as we
have an A-Conjugation, e.g. sta-re from root sta- and an EConjugation, e. g. pie-re from root pie-. (2) 1 Sg. Pres. Ind. of the
Thematic Conjugation (ch. vi. 1), e. g. Lat. lego (Gk. \eyca\ 0. Lat.
),

gno-, to

yi-yvw-ffKcu),

sequdr, class, sequor (ch.

e.g. 0. Lat. da-tor (ch.

atSws),

homo

(cf.

Gk.

ii.

ii.

16).

(3)

Nom.

1), class, dator (cf.

iW).

This

o is

Sg. of R-, N-, S-stems,

Gk.

d<i>-T<up},honds (cf.

Gk.

continued through the oblique

cases in datoris, datori, &c., honoris, honori, &c., ratidnis, rationi, &c.
6).
(4) Abl. Sg. of 0-stems, e. g. Lat. agro from -od (ch. iii.

An

I.-Eur. o, which was a by-form of ou ( 11), appears in 6s, the

mouth, os-culum (with a by-form aus-culum, Plaut.). Latin
o has arisen by fusion of vowels in co-pula for co-dpula, from 0. Lat.
apio, to tie, fasten, with Part, aptus, fit, cogo from co(w) and ago,
copia from co- and -opia (cf. in-opia) and from the lengthening of o by
Compensation inpowo for *po-s(i)no from the Preposition (a)po (ch.
viii.
27).
2) and sino (cf. po-situs}, pone, behind, for *pos-ne (ch. viii.
(open o, ch. ii.
2) is the rustic form of au in plostrum for
face,

'

'

In the Oscan and Umbrian dialects the words corresponding

and minister were used as Comparatives, 'greater ',

to Lat. magister
'

less

'.

6-n

plaustrum, Clodius for Claudius

I.-Eur. ou ( 11).

6. I.-Eur. 6 occurs in

8.

173

U; Diphthongs

0,

and Lat.

(1)

of robus, &c., represents

The 0-grade of E-roots (12),

e. g.

Lat. domiis (Gk. 8o/ios) from the root dem-, to build, toga, from the
root teg-, to cover. (2) The 0-grade of A-roots, e. g. Lat. scobis, sawdust, from the root scab-, to scrape, dig (Lat. scdbo, Gk. OKOLITTO}}.
(3)

The 0-Declension with Nom.

-os,

-om,

(ch.

-6s, M., -6m N. (Gk. -os, -ov\ 0. Lat.

0. Lat. Lucios, donom, class. Lat. vivos, but Lucius, donum
14). (4) The Nom. Sg. of Neut. E^-stems, e. g. 0. Lat. opos,

e. g.

ii.

14). (5) The

(cf. Gk. 7^05); class, opus, Venus, genus (ch. ii.
Thematic Vowel, e. g. 3 PI. -ont(i), 0. Lat. cosentiont, class, consentiunt
14).
(6) Words like the Numeral 'eight', the Noun
(ch. ii.

Venos

octo (Gk. OKTW), potis, able (Gk. iroais, master), the

Prepositions 'forth' and 'with', Lat. pro-ficiscor, com-es.
Before v Lat. 6 became a, e.g. cavus, older covus, lavo (Gk. \oucw).

'master', Lat.

So apparently

became a in octavus from octo.

v Lat. o became e in the middle of the second
e. g. versus, older vorsus.
Scipio Africanus Minor is
6

After initial

century

B. c.,

said to have brought the new spelling into fashion.

U. I.-Eur. u occurs generally in the grade of a EU-root, as
9.
I.-Eur. I in the grade of an El-root, e. g. dhumo-, smoke ', Lat.fumus
'

(Gk. 0vft6s}, from the root dheu-,

mus (Gk.

Lat.

may represent

stand for earlier Lat.

de

and fraudo

to

move violently mus-,

',

'

a mouse',

/*us).

Class. Lat.

'

(ch. ii.

I.-Eur.

eu as well as

u.

It

may

also

a weakening of I.-Eur. au, e. g. defrudo from

14), &c. But in the older language, till c. 200

eu,

eu is always written ou, e. g. douco (I.-Eur. eu) for class, duco.

i
11.) U represents u lengthened
(Cf. the similar account of and ei,
'
by Compensation in dumus from dusmus, a bush.

B. c.,

'

u occurs generally in the weak grade of a EUweak grade of an El-root, e. g. yugo- Neut.,
a yoke with yug-, the weak grade of the root yeug-, to join
Latin examples are jugum, dux from duco (root deuc-}, indutus (Gk.
I.-Eur. u appears in the declension of
/fXCros) from the root cleu-.
10.

TJ.

I.-Eur.

root, as I.-Eur.

in the

'

'

'.

',

U-stems,

e. g.

ewiMsNom.

Prepositions upo (Lat.

viii.

Sg., artum Ace. Sg., artubus Dat. PI.

s-ub, ch. viii.

in the

37), viper (Lat. s-uper, ch.

38), &c.
11.

The Diphthongs.

The

I.-Eur. diphthongs appear in Latin

in the process of reduction to simple vowels. By Cicero's time ae

and even they had
(from I.-Eur. ai) and au are the only survivors,
long before in rustic or colloquial speech become single sounds, e, o,

174

History of Latin Sounds

'

e.g.

Cecilius', plostrum (ch.

ii.

2)

ei_

CH.
ei or

(whether I.-Eur.

the

reduction in the unaccented syllable of I.-Eur. ai, oi, ch. ii.

14)
in the beginning of the second century B.C. ; eu
had become
(whether I.-Eur. eu or the unaccented form of I.-Eur. au, ch. ii.
14), which appears on early inscriptions as ou, had become u at the
end of the third century B.C. I.-Eur. ou became a slightly different
sound, which came to be written o or u. I.-Eur. oi passed (through
oe) into u at the beginning of the second century B. c. though oe was
retained in some words of the official or legal style, like foedus,
a treaty (cf. poena, a Gk. loan-word), and poetical words like
,

amoenus, foedus, foul.

The long diphthongs, which were not common in I.-Eur., had

some of them doublet '-forms (ch. ii.
9) even in the I.-Eur.
<

period
appeared as ei or e (e. g. res, Lat. res), ou as ou or
6 (e.g. okto, Lat. octo). In Latin, when they were followed by
a Consonant, the long element must have been shortened by the
ei

e. g.

any long vowel was shortened before y, w, n, m, 1, r, &c.

followed by a consonant l when final, the second element might
be suppressed, just as in later times a short final vowel was
rule that

suppressed after a long syllable in words like

ii.

exempltir(e), wev(e) (ch.

12).

Examples are (1) ai. Lat. aedes, lit. where the fire is kept up ',
from the root aidh-, 'to burn' (Gk. oWw). The 1 Sg. Perf. Middle
ended in -ai, whence Latin (unaccented) -ei e. g. dedei, later -*, dedl
the Dat. Sg. of Cons, stems had the same ending, e. g.
10)
(ch. vi.
'

0. Lat.

IVNONEI,

(2) au.

class.

Junom

(ch.

iii.

8).

from the root aug-, 'to grow', 'be strong'

Lat. au-t, au-tem from I.-Eur. au (Gk. au) (ch. ix.
3;

Lat. augeo

(Gk. auo>)
the Prep, au- of au-fugio, ch. viii. 2).
Lat. ctico, older deico, from the root
(3) ei.
;

cf.

deic-,

to

(Gk. Seifcvvfu} fldo, older feido, from the root bheidh-,

'cause to trust' (Gk. ird6<a).

show, say
'

(4) eu.

ziehen)

Lat. duco, older douco,

uro,

from the root

older *ouso, from the root

to trust

deuc-, to lead

CMS-, to

burn (Gk.

',

(Germ,
for

eu'a>

*Cfcw).

Lat. unus, older oinos, oenus, from I.-Eur. oinos (Gk. 00/77,
(5) oi.
the ace) ; munus from moin- (Germ, ge-mein) utor from the 0-grade
of the root eit- (Gk. olros}
cunae from the 0-grade of root kei-, to
;

'

Thus

v&nlus

a cognate of

comes from

lenis.

ve-

(Gk. a(f )?;-///, to blow)

lentus is

175

Gradation of Vowels

12
'

?-/). The Nom. Plur. Masc. of the Second

(Gk. Koi-rr) beside
Declension ended in -oi, which, being unaccented, became in Latin
lie

populei, later

-ei } e. g.

-I, populi (ch. iii.

6).
Lat. bobus, bubus, Dat. PI. of the stem g w ow-,

(6) ou.
iii.

10)

rodus, rudus (also randies'),

unhewn

an ox

(ch.

stone, rough metal, &c,

from the 0-grade of the root reudh-, to be red whence also robus,
roblgo
nutrix, older notrix and noutrix, from the 0-grade of root
neud-. When ou arose in Latin from Syncope, it is treated like
I.-Eur. ou, e. g. nuntius, older nontius, from noventius nundinae, older
nondinae, from *novem-dinde.
'

',

Lat. aevum (Gk. cu(f )(&?) perhaps represents I.-Eur. aiw-.

(7) -ai.

was the ending of the Dat. Sg. of the First Declension

4).
(Gk. xwpq\ and became in 0. Lat. -a as well as -ai (ch. iii.
I.-Eur. au of the stem n.au-, 'a ship' (Horn. Gk. v^Cy),
(8) au.

I.-Eur. ai

appears in Latin before a consonant as au (the ordinary diphthong),

so perhaps the au of I.-Eur. klau-,
e. g. nau-fragus, nau-stibulum
;

a key

in claudo.

',

(9) ei.

(ch.

iii.

The doublet-form e (see above) appears

and Locatives of the Fifth Declension

18),

(ch. vii.

in Lat.

res, spes

like die (crastini)

13).

(10) eu.

I.-Eur. eu appeared in the

Nom.

Sg. dyeus, 'the sky',

which should have as Latin equivalent, -ous (class. -MS) from -Sus.
Latin dies however shows the vocalism of the I.-Eur. Ace. Sg. dySm
16).
(Gk. Zrjv-a, Lat. diem from diem, ch. ii.
(11) 6i.

I.-Eur.

6i,

the ending of the Dat. Sg. of the Second

Declension, appeared in 0. Lat. as o or oi (ch. iii. 6).

in Lat. 'Dual'
(12) ou. The doublet-form o (see above) appears
On bos (I.-Eur. g w ous) see ch.
-o of duo, ambo, octo (ch. iii.
1).
10.

iii.

Vowel- Gradation. A root like pet- of Gk. irereaeai, to fly,

appears in the form pt- in Gk. irreaOcu, the shorter form being
a syncopated form of the other due to loss of accent in the I.-Eur.
12.

Similarly the root ei-, 'to go' (Gk. eT-at, Lat. it, older
in the Perf. Part.
20), loses the e of the diphthong
ei-t,
Pass, i-to- (Gk. f-ir6s, Lat. -ttus), where the accent falls on the

period.

ch. vi.

suffix

and eu becomes

u,

through

loss of accent, in I.-Eur. bhiiga,

'

(Gk. 0^777, Lat. fuga) from bheugo, 'I flee (Gk. ^ettyw)
while en, em, er, el, similarly reduced, appear before a vowel as n,
Lat.
m, r, 1, e.g. Gk. yt-yv-o-ncu, Lat. gi-gn-o, beside Gk. yev-os,
'

'

flight

genus

e
e
but before a consonant, n, m,

in Greek appear as

a,

pa, \a,

e. g.

r,

</>aros

e
l, reduced sounds which
from </>ej/-, to kill, 5panuv

176

History of Latin Sounds

from

to glance, in

Sepic-,

Latin as

Sn,

em,

61,

or,

CH.
e.g. tentus

(Gk.

from ten-, to stretch ', cor for cord (ch. ii. 9) (Gk. KpaSirj,
These reduced forms pt, bhug, t e n, &c., are called the
KapSia).
'weak' grades of these E-roots pet-, bheug-, ten-. When the root
had a long vowel, the weak grade shows in Latin the vowel
in
Greek the short form of the vowel of the root, e. g. dd-tus (Gk. SO-TO?)
from the root do-, 'to give' (Lat. dd-num, Gk. 8w-pov\ slitus (Gk.
to throw seed
I-TOS) from the root se-,
(Lat. se-men, Gk. rj/j.a
for *<r?7/za), status (Gk. ora-Tos) from the root sta-, 'to stand, set
'

ra-Tos)

'

'

'

(Lat. sta-men, Gk. arrj-^cav^.

E-roots had beside a weak grade

up

'

also an 0-grade ', e. g. dSmofrom the root dem-, 'to build' (Gk. S e>u).
Latin examples of the 0-grade are domus procus, a suitor, from the
root prec-, to ask (Lat. precor)
toga, from the root teg-, to cover (Lat.
moneo, from the root men-, to remember (Lat. me-min-i from
tego)
*me-men-ei) torreo, from the root ters-, to be dry (Gk. repo-o/xat). They had
also a long grade', 1 sometimes with e, e.g. I.-Eur. reg-, 'a king'
(Lat. rex}, sometimes with 6, e.g. I.-Eur. bhor-, 'a thief '(Gk. 0w/>).
These Gradations of Vowels are seen not only in root-syllables,
but in Suffixes. For example, the appearance of -8 in the Voc.
Sing, of 0-stems (Lat. eque, Gk. iWe) and the alternation of -6s
Nom. Ace. Sg. with -es- in the other cases of Neuter fiS-sterns (Gk.
Lat. gen-us, gen-er-is, gen-er-i from
ffvos, 7eV-(<r)-os, yeV-(a)-r, &c.
'

<a house' (Gk.

'

So/*os)

'

*gen-os, *gen-es-es, *gen-es-ai, &c. ch.

tion of e

iii.

and 6 in demo and domos.

8) are parallel to the varia-

Similarly -en, -on (with -en,

8), -er, -or (with

-on) in the declension of N-stems (see ch. iii.
are parallel to the variation
-6r, -or) in the declension of R-stems

of e with e

and

Y,

W.

13.

o in rego and reg-s, bhero and bhor(s).

I.-Eur. y is Latin j, which had the sound of our y

In the middle
(I.-Eur. yugom, Gk. vy6v').
consonant this became the vowel i, 2 e. g. medius
3
In Jupiter, Jovem Ace. (0. Lat.
(I.-Eur. medhyos, Gk. /xe<r(o-)os).
Diovem), the j has come from I.-Eur. dy-, but after other initial conii.

(ch.

of a

3), e. g.

word

jugum

after a

sonants the y was dropped, e.g. suo for *syuo (Engl. 'sew')
1

This grade

is

heri

thought to have arisen from the suppression of

e. g. reg-s Nom. Sg. from an older

an older bhor-6-s.
2
nunciam for nunc jam.
3
In Gk. -py- became TTT, so that Latin Verbs in -pio, e.
correspond to Gk. Verbs in -TTTW, e. g. TVTTTCU, x a ^ irr(a

a following short vowel,

reg-6-s,

Nom.

Sg. from
Cf. etiam for et jam,

bhor(s)

'

g. sapio,

13-16

Y,

W, M, N,

L, R, P,

BH

fi,

177

for *hyesi (Gk. x0). Between vowels y was dropped in Latin , e. g. tres
from I.-Eur. treyes ; formo for forma(y}o like Gk. -n^a(t/)cu (ch. vi. 2).
I.-Eur.
is Latin v, which had the sound of our w (ch. ii.
3),

from root weid-, to see, know (Gk. (ftoiSa, Engl. wit).

Initial dv- became b, e. g. bellum (older duellum), bonus (older duonus),
bis (older duis
Initial swe- became so-, e. g. soror from
ef. duo}.
Before u, v was dropped in the
I.-Eur. swesor (Gk. eopes PI.).
e. g. dimis (older deivus} became *deius, then
endings -vus, -vum
1
Gnaevus became Gnaeus
(with loss of y between vowels) deus
bovum became bourn. (On the spelling of the Republican period -vos,
'

e. g. vidi

'

-vom, see ch.

ii.

M, N.

14.

14.)

I.-Eur.

mater (I.-Eur. mater-)

m, n remain unchanged in Latin,

e. g. in

in

-m (Gk. -i>) of the

dominmn, terrarum, dominorum

medius (I.-Eur. medhyo-)

Ace. Sing, and Gen. Plur., e. g. terram,

n in nomts (I.-Eur. ne wo-) navis (I.-Eur. nau-).

e
e
Lat. em, en often represent not I.-Eur. m, n but I.-Eur. m, n
Eof
tentus
the
in
weak
roots,
TO-TOS),
e.g.
(Gk.
12)
grade
(
(Gk. a)
e
I.-Eur. t n-to-, with the weak grade of the root ten-, 'to stretch' ;

-em of the Ace. Sg. of Consonant stems, e.g. patrem (Gk. itartpa).
e
of the Norn. Ace. Sg. Neut. is I.-Eur. -m n, e. g. semen

Thus -men
(Gk. faa).

I.-Eur. 1, r remain unchanged in Latin,

15. L, B.
from the root leiq u - (Gk. XeiVw)
rego from the root
riiber from I.-Eur. riidhro- (Gk. t-pvOpos}.
o-p(^ca~)
;

e. g.

linquo

reg- (Gk.

e
e
are representatives of I.-Eur. l, r in the 'weak
61, or
grade' ( 12) of E-roots, e. g. pulsus, older *poltos (Gk. iraAros), from
the root pel- cor, older cord- (Gk. KpaSirj, napSia} fors from I.-Eur.
bh e r-ti- (0. Engl. gebyrd, fate ') from the root bher- (Lat. fero)
cornus, cornel (Gk. /cpdros).

Lat.

'

16. P, B,

BH.

I.-Eur. p

is

Lat. p,

e. g.

pecu (I.-Eur. peku-,

e
Germ. Vieh, cattle ') septem (I.-Eur. sgpt m, Gk. tTrra). Pbecomes
m before n or m, e. g. somnus for *sop-nos (cf. sop-or). I.-Eur. b is
'

by Assimilation I.-Eur. pibo). Before

scamnum for *scab-num (cf. scabettum}.
bh, when initial, became Lat. /, when medial b, e. g. fero

Lat.

b, e. g.

n or

bibo (for *pibo,

Lat. 6

I.-Eur.

became m,

(I.-Eur. bhero,

Gk.

(fipcLTcup,

of

and
1

b is

Gk.

(pepw,

e. g.

Engl. bear)

frattr (cf. I.-Eur. bhrator-,

The Cases

di, dis

probably come from

(p. 16 M.).
1676

good example
Engl. brother) nebula (Gk. vtQ&rf).
the word for a beaver, fiber (I.-Eur. bhebhru-).

diri, divis,

as sis

from

si vis

178

History of Latin Sounds

17. T,
'

ten-,

DH.

D,

to stretch

I.-Eur.

Before

'.

is Lat.
e.g. ten-tus from the root
was dropped when initial, e. g. latus,
but became c when medial;
offero, tuli
9) became -do- in Latin, e. g. cubidum
t

t,

-tlo- (ch. xi.

I.-Eur. d is Lat. d, e. g. decem (I.-Eur. dek m,

for d in lingua, earlier dingua, &c., see ch. ii.

or cubiculum.

it

carried, for *8atus, P. P. P.

thus the suffix

CH.

Gk.

(On
8.)
Final -d was dropped after a long vowel to ward the end of the third
1
cent. B.C., though it is found in Plautus in med, tfd
(class, me, fe),
as well as haud (ch. ii.
9
ch. iii.
Final -nt became Lat. -ns,
4).
I

Sera).

quotiens (ch. iv.

e. g.

I.-Eur.

4).

dh became/

in Latin,

which

in

but in the middle of a word between

proximity to r became b
vowels d is found; e. g. fumus, I.-Eur. dhumo- (Gk. 6vfi6s} rilber
;

(stem m&ro-), I.-Eur. rudhro- (Gk.

(Gk.

dh

tus,

fldo, I.-Eur.

A good example of / and d

both from the root dhe- of Gk. ri-Orj-fu (ch.

nflOca for *<petOo}\

con-do,

or

e-pvOpos}

before

from

pallor

conflssus (ch.

18.

produced a sibilant, Lat.

egressus, for *cgred-tus,

ii.

with

9)

We

K, G, GH.

-ss-

from

ss, e. g.

from

is fa-c-io

beside

T, d
Lat. passus, for *pat-

egredior

vi.

23).

older

confisus,

-dht-.

must distinguish

bheidho

in I.-Eur. (1)

The

Pala-

gh, e. g. k ntom, hundred (Lat. centum, Gk. t-rcarov}, for

some I.-Eur. languages have a Sibilant. (2) The Gutturals
'

'

tals, k, g,

which

Proper, k,

gh,

g,

ra\os, basket),
(3) Labiovelars,

TJ craves),

u
o-,

e. g. kert-,

to plait

'

(Lat. crates, cartildgo, Gk. Kapall I.-Eur. languages.

which remain Gutturals in

w
w
u
u
q g gh e. g. q etwor-, four (Lat.
the Relative (Lat. qui, quo, &c. Gk.
'

'

quattuor,

Gk.

which

Troy),

become Labials in some languages.

I.-Eur. Palatal k, g, gh are Latin c, g, h, e. g. centum, gnosco (Gk.
The I.-Eur. Gutturals Proper, k, g,
yt-yvajffKQ}}, hortus (Gk. x '??).
gh are likewise Latin c, g, h, e. g. crates, jugum (Gk. &yov\ Jiosiis
(Engl. guest).
w
g is Latin

v,

I.-Eur. Labiovelar q u is Latin qu, e. g. quattuor, qui

but after a consonant gu, and before a consonant g,

vl'vus (I.-Eur. g w lwo-), venio (Gk. jSatVcu, Engl. 'come')

unguo
from the root ong w - agnus (I.-Eur. ag w no-, Gk. dfj.vus for *d^i/os)
gh" is Lat./, when initial, but between vowels v, after a consonant
w
cf. Gk.
gu. and before a consonant g, e. g. formus (I.-Eur. gh ormo-

e.g.

Also std on Inscriptions, but apparently not in Plautus.

Oradior comes from the weak form ghr'dh- of the root ghredh-.
The first of the two aspirates lost, by a phonetic law, its aspiration,
o(h)redh-. Hence the Latin word begins with g, not /<.
1

17-20

(s)neigh

T, D,

DH, K,

G,

OH,

179

<&c.

nivem Ace. Sg. (Gk. v/0a) and ninguit, both from the root
to snow ', 'be wet ', whence Engl. l snow '.
-,

'

g before n, e. g. ilignus from ilex. Initial gn became

n at the beginning of the second century B. c., e. g. (g~)nosco (cf.

Lat.

became

cognosce), (g)natus (cf. co-gnatus").

19. S.
I.-Eur. s remains in Latin, e.g. septem (I.-Eur. septe m,
Gk. 7TTd), but between vowels took the soft or voiced sound (as in

our Verb 'use', while our Noun 'use' has the hard or unvoiced
1
sound) and passed in the fourth cent. B. c. into r, e. g. -arum from
earlier -usom in the Gen. PI. of the First Declension (ch. iii.
4),
Before
generis from *geneses (Gk. ytvt(a~}oi), arboris from *arbos5s.
a consonant like d, I, m, n, the s was dropped, e. g. nnrus from

with lengthening of the preceding vowel,

Before r in the middle of
a word s became 6, e. g. sobrinus for *sivesrinus from I.-Eur. swesor-,
a sister'.
After r and I it was assimilated, e. g. porrum from *porsum (Gk. Trpaaov), collum for colso- (Germ. Hals).
In early Latin we find a group stl- at the beginning of a few
words corresponding to class. I e. g. stlis (also slis) was the old
form of Us, retained in the legal phrase decemviri stlitibus judicandis
stlocus and slocus, of locus
in Cicero's time (Cic. Or. 46. 156)
stliitits, of Idtusj broad (
1).
I.-Eur. snuso- (Gk. vvos),
e. g.

nidus from nisdo- (Engl. nest).

'

20.

Consonant- Groups.

The

difficulty

of

pro-

nouncing certain consonant -groups often led to a consonant being dropped or else assimilated to its neighbour.
have just had one instance, stl- and si- becoming 1-.

We

Similarly gn- became n- at the beginning of the second

Examples of the
century B.C., e. g. natus, older gnatus.
loss of a

consonant in a group
f

be(t)st',
(1)
1

are
cas(t)le-', 'go(d)spel')

our

5.

i.

'

Satur(n)day

',

l(c)s, r(c)t, r(c)s, r(t)c,

l(c)t,

See ch.

(cf

s(c)t,

c(t)s, r(t)s

Livy speaking of Sp. Furius Fusus, the consul

some of the early historians spelt the name

Furios 'Fuaios' scripsere quidam). The only instances in classical Latin of intervocalic s are (1) words where ss
of 464 B.C., says that

Fwsto-

(iii.

4.

originally stood,

e. g.

/onmw/.s, (2) loan-words,

x 2

e. g.

gaesitm (Gaulish).

180

History of Latin Sound*

or r(d)s, e.g.

nlt-it*

for *ulctu9}

O. Lat. forctis and

for *tmilcsi, fortis,

forctiis, tort us for *torctus, torsi for

from

corculnm for *cort-culum

*torcsi,

for

muhi

CH.

cor(d),

pastum

nox for *nocts, ars for *#??, am' for

*pasctuw,

r(g)n, r(g)m, r(d)n, r(b)nx, e.g. #nz

for *urgna
for
tormentum
from
*torgmentum
'i(rcens),
torqiteo,
orno for *ordno (cf. ordino), sarmentum for *sarbmenfnm
(2)

(cf.

from

sar/,0.

(t)so, (O)BO, (p)sp, (p)st, (p)so, (s)ps, (n)gn, (r)st,

(3)

e.g.

(r)sC;
(cf.

<*m

for *etsca

from

er/o,

di-dic-i), asporto for *apsporto

ostendo for *op*tendo

from

ofe

and

^'#co

for *dicsco

from afo and

fe#r/0

;;w/o,

(but obstinatut),

Oscut, older Opseus (Obscu$} } ipse probably for *is-pse,

ignis ioT *engnis (I.-Eur.

i\gui-),fa$tiffiui/i for *farstig'mw

(Engl. bristle), Tvscus from *Turscns.

(c)sn'or (g)sn, (c)sl or (g)sl, (c)sm or (g)sm, e.g.

(4)

for *lusna

*tec8lum, ala for

from *lucsna, telnm for *te*htm from

**/ from *acda, sultemen for *wi-

tesmen from *snbtecsmen. 1

The

loss

of a consonant in a group

due to Assimilation.

Thus the

often really

is

loss of * in hordeuni for

*Jiors-deum (Germ. Gerste) cannot be separated from the

assimilation of s to r in the group
*

*horseo.

rs,

e.

g. korreo for

Examples of Assimilation are furnished by the

Preposition in Compounds, e.g. pc, oc-caeco, sitc-curro,

This Assimilation of the
pf, of-ficio, bg, wffffero, &c., &c.
Preposition was the rule in Early Latin; e.g. Plautus
1

The Forum

a derivative

inscription

offers

IOVXMENTO-

for

jnmntin't,

Loss of Consonant in Group

20

puns on assuiu,
POOH. 279

'

am

here

'

and

'

(wxitw,

181
roasted

'

in

Assum apud

Milphio, heus ubi tu es?

sis uolo

eccum.

te

At ego elixus

but the introduction of grammatical studies brought in

the fashion of writing the Preposition in

its independent
Other examples of Assimilation of

form, ad-sum, &c.

Consonants are
In,

collis

Id, percello for *per-celdo

collum

Is,

(Germ.

(cf.

clddes)

When

Hals).

was

assimilated to a following voiced consonant the con-

sonant was at

first

*quaslus (cf quasillus

.

written double, e.g. qitallus from

2
but afterwards single, the vowel
),
'

being lengthened by

and

olla

(older aulla)

Compensation
for *auxla

(older vellum) for *vexlnm (cf

anliellus} for

*an-enslus (ch.

While Assimilation

ii.

So aida

quafa*.

',

(cf

vemllum)

auxilla]

velum

ankelita (older

15).
3

affects

neighbouring consonants,
Dissimilation affects consonants in neighbouring (or at
least not far

removed)

syllables.

The

repetition of I in

a word was avoided by the substitution of r for one /.

Thel.-Eur. suffix -tlo- (ch. xi. 9), Lat. -do-, became -croaf ter a stem with

I,

e.

g.

fulcrum from fulcio, sepulcrum

Ulna had originally a vowel between

the snare
tennitur, for tenditur,

Terence's

'

and n

is

laid

'

(cf.

Gk.

(for a bird), is

a country-form taken from hunters' language. The nd of the

Gerund was nn in various dialects of Italy e. g. Latin operandum
is in Oscan opsannom.
3 The Diminutive
'quasillus was a recent formation, made after the
Phonetic Law, by which s became between vowels r in Latin ( 19),
;

had ceased to act.

5
Of Assimilation

of vowels in neighbouring syllables

examples

are momordi, poposci, &c., in 0. Lat. memordi, peposci (see p. 37).

History of Latin Sounds

182
from

sepelio,

CH.

lavdcntm from lavo} simulacrum from simulo

and the Latin Grammarians prescribed the use of the

suffix -ris when the stem contained an l of -Us when
s

it

contained an

of the

Romans

r, e.

to

g. molaris, auguralu.

have

r in

The reluctance

two successive

syllables is

seen in forms like praestlgiae ioipraestrigiae, legerdemain,

Increbui for

mcrebmi.

Sempiternus seems similarly to

represent *8emperternu8t and the by-form

tegus to be

due

When two neighto a declension tergus, te(r)goris } &c.

bouring syllables had s followed by a consonant, the
The
second s was dropt, e. g. spopondi for spospondi.
her
mistress'
who
looked
after
clothes,
wardrobe-woman,
was

called vestispica (from vestis

and

spicio),

but this word

was pronounced (and often spelled) vestipica. Of the

entire suppression of one of two similar or identical
neighbouring syllables examples are:
Irix, idolatria for ido(lo)-lalria,
(ssi)stis.

(See p. 30.)

nutrioc for nu(tri)-

accestis (Virg.)

for acce-

CHAPTEE

XI

FORMATION OF WORDS
NOUN- AND ADJECTIVE-STEMS.

I.

Stem-suffixes. For the forming of words we find sounds

combined into roots', and these developed into 'stems'. Thus the
sounds t, e, and g are combined into the root teg-, to cover' (Lat.
1.

'

tog-a Avith

0-grade of root, ch. x. 12),

which is further developed into the stems toga- (Lat. Nom. Sg. toga,
earlier toga, Gen. PI. toga-rum, &c.), tegmen- (Lat. Nom. Sg. tegmen,

teg-o,

teg-men, tectns for

Gen. Sg.

tegtninis,

*teg-tt(s,

earlier *teg-men-es, &c. ) by the addition to the root

It is these stem-suffixes, used in
-a-, -men-.

of the stem-suffixes

the making of

Nouns and

Adjectives,

which

will be treated in

2-19.
2.

suffix,

(1) -6-, -A-.

since

it

-6-,

which should rather be called the

alternates with -e-

fi-0-

I.-Eur. Voc. Sg. of Masc.

(e. g.

O-stems ended in -e, e. g. ekwe, *O horse', Lat. eque*), was associated

with the Masc. and Neut. Gender. -A-, which should rather be
called the A-suffix, since it alternates with a (e.g. I.-Eur. Voc. Sg.
mare ') was associated
of Fern. A-stems ended in -a, e.g. ekwa,
with the Fern. Gender. Hence the O- and A -suffixes were used in
Adjectives, e. g. I.-Eur. newo- Masc. and Neut., newa- Fern. (Lat.
c

novos, novom, nova).

The

common

A-suffix is very

in Abstract

Nouns
'

Actionis), e. g. I.-Eur. bhuga the action of fleeing (Gk.

c/wyiy), Lat. fuga, from the weak grade (ch. x.
12) of the root bheug-,
The 0-suffix is used in a great
to flee (Gk. <pevya
cf. Lat. /w#to)
'

(Nomina
'

variety of ways. An example of its use in Nomina Agentis is Lat.

procus, a suitor, from the 0-grade (ch. x.
12) of the root prek-, to
ask (cf. Lat. precor}. Other examples of the suffix are parcus,
'

'

sparing, from parco, I spare ; dolus, a stratagem, from the 0-grade of

a root del-,
to deceive
jugum, a yoke, from the weak grade of
the root yeug-, to join '.
'

'

<

These I.-Eur. suffixes were

3. (2) -IO-, -IA- (-YO-, -YA-).
used to form (a) Verbal Adjectives, especially Gerundives, the
Neuter and Fern, being often employed as Verbal Nouns, e. g. socius

184

Formation of Words

CH. xi

from the O-grade of the root seq u - to accompany (Lat. seguor*)

which had originally the sense of eximendus (e. g. Ter. Hec.
66: utin eximium neminem habeam? 'am I to make no exception ?') studium from studeo exuviae from exuo pluvia from pluo.
(6) Adjectives derived from Nouns, especially Compound Adjectives, the Neuter and Fern, being often used as Abstract Nouns,
e. g. patrius from pater
somnium, a dream, from somnus, sleep fdlsijurius fromfalsus and jus jur(i)gium from jus and ago
litigium from
Us and ago judiciwn from jus and dico aedificium from aedes and
vindemia from vinum and demo,
/act'o
(c) Adjectives which have
'

'

c.ciinius,

a sense of comparison or distinction, indicating a special locality,

direction, &c., e.g. I.-Eur. medhyo- (Gk. /'(<r)<ros), Lat. medius ;
I.-Eur. alyo- (Gk. d'AAos), Lat. aims. Gk. 8i<5s has this suffix, while
Lat. dexter (Gk. 8e(iTfpos) has the TERO-suffix, which has the
force ( 8).
Also some Ordinal Numbers, e. g. Lat. tertius.

notable use of this suffix in Latin

is

same

in the formation of Proper

Names. While in all, or most, of the other I.-Eur. languages Compounds were used for Proper Names, the son taking a Compound
slightly varied from the father's (e. g. Gk. A.IVO-KPO.TTJS, son of Aivoic\rjs, Germ. Walt-bert, son of Wald-ram), the Latins used simple
steins with this I0-suffix, e. g. Litmus, Stutius, which correspond to
some contracted or pet-names in the other I.-Eur. nations, e. g. Gk.
Zcvias, for the more ceremonious Zv~nriros, AeDtfJS beside Aeu-trrrros.
The ending -eus (from -e-yo-s) arose from the addition of this
I0-suffix to O-stems, e. g. aureus, made of gold, from anritm (stem
aitro-, awe-, gold), and came to acquire the sense of material, made
of ',' composed of '. It was in time assigned to any stem; e.g.
in viteus. made
in Jlammeus, made of fire, it is added to an A-stem
of a vine, to an I-stem
in corneits, made of horn, to a U-stem. The
ending -tvriuni, which arose from the addition of the 10-suffix to
TER-stems (see below), indicated the place or instrument of an
'

the place of hearing ', deversorium for *deverte. g. auditorium,

an instrument
lorium (ch. x.
17), 'a lodging-place ', scalp-torium,
for scratching ', and corresponds to Gk. -rrjpiov of (3ov\fv-Tripiov, epyaai

action,

'

both indicating place, Kava-rijpiov, instrument for burning

'means of judging'. Similarly we have -monium, -won/a
'

rrjpiov,

',

Kpi-Trjpiov,

from MEN-stems

e. g. ali-monia and ali-monium (cf.

from Jlamen, an ending extended to tristiA common ending of Abstract Nouns is
-itia (often -Hies, ch. iii.
13), e. g. laeiitia from laetus (stem laeto-~),
-ilium, e. g. servitium from servns (stem servo-"), Jlayitium, lanitiion.

(see below),

ali-men-tum), flamonium
monia, sancti-monia, &c.

Noun- and

4, 5

From N-stems we
vPlaut. Aul. 576
4.

(3)

185

Adj.-Stenis, &c.

have, e.g. colonia, in O. Lat. 'a dwelling place'

ut conmutet coloniam).

-UO-, -UA- (-W6-, -WA-).

in Adjectives denoting colour,

e- g.

This

suffix is

much used

yellow from I.-Eur.

on the change of s to r

helvus (Engl.

ghel-wo-), furvus (older *fus-uos cf. fus-cus

see ch. x.
Greek Verbal Adjectives in -reos for
19), flaws, ravus.
;

with Gerundive force, e.g. Siowreos, requiring to be pursued,

capable of being pursued, are in Latin represented by formations
-Ttf^os,

in -uusj

e. g.

aruus (Plaut.

caeduus, excipuus, praecipuus, conspicuus, pascuus, and

True. 149
non aruos hie sed pascuos ager est ;
:

whence arwwn), while another

class of Verbal Adjectives, derived

from Verbal Noun Tl-stems (see below) and denoting state or condition, end in -twus, e. g.furtivus from the Verbal Noun-stem J'urti-,
of

which the Ace.

Sg. survives in the Adverb furtim (ch. vii.

3),
Examples of Adjectives with the UO-suffix

nativus, captivus, votivus.

derived from Nouns are

annuus from annus Minerva (O. Lat.

from I.-Eur. menos Neut. (stem menes-),
strenuus (cf. Gk. ffrprjv os, health)
(Gk. ntvos}
:

Menerua") for *Menes-ua

'

'

intelligence

patruus

from pater.
(4) -N6-, -NA-.

5.
This I.-Eur. suffix was chiefly used in the
formation of Verbal Adjectives, usually with the force of a Perfect
Participle Passive, e. g. Lat. plenus, lit. 'filled', donum, lit. 'a thing
given '. In Greek we find some Adjectives of Time in -fros, derived

from a Locative Case ending in i, e. g. x c<Atc/x ~*^) (api-vos, eairfpi-vos,

and correspondingly in Latin hibernus, vernus, vesperna, the evening
meal. Adjectives in -mus in Latin, like fdginus, juntinus show an
I.-Eur. suffix -ino-, denoting material or origin, e.g. Gk. <prjy-ivos,
The suffix
of beech-wood, Pvfikivos, made of papyrus, &e.
-ivos in Greek, denoting species, occurs frequently with the names

made

and
of animals, e. g. SeXQatt-ivrj from 8e'A(/>a, Kopa/c-ivos from Kopa
similarly in Latin we have bovmus, equtnus, suinus (Engl. swine),
fibrlnus, &c., the feminine often being employed with ellipse of caro,
;

flesh, e. g. vitiilina, veal, suina, pork. Latin -mus is often due to the
addition of the NO-suffix to 10-stems, e. g. Latinus from Latium
(though, when the suffix -Ino-, and not -no-, is added, we have
-ienus, e. g. alienus,
e. g.

marinus from

from

alius, laniena

inare, piscina

from

from lanius\ or
piscis.

The

to I-stems,
-tinus of

suffix

more strictly the second part

a suffix, representing a word for 'time'
derived from the root ten-, to stretch ', just as -gnus of privignus
The
represents a word derived from the root gen-, to produce '.
diu-tinus, cras-tinus, pris-tinus, &c., is

of a

Compound than

'

'

186

Formation of Words

CH. xi

-gnus of ilignus, sattgnus, larignxs, on the other hand,

shows the

the g being the development before n (ch. x. 18) of the

of the stems ilic-, salic-, laric-, and was by their analogy

suffix -no-,

final c

extended to other tree-adjectives like abiegnus from obits (stem

abiet-*).
Similarly -anus, the ending of Adjectives formed with the
NO-suffix from A-stems (e. g. silvanus from silva, arcanus from area,
decimanus from clecima, sc. pars, the tenth part, tithe, e. g. ager
decimanus, land paying tithes, an Adjective which somehow
acquired the sense of 'large', 'huge', e.g. decimanus acipenser,
a huge sturgeon ') is extended to Adjectives from other stems, e.g.
urbanus from urbs (stem urbi-). By the addition of this NO-suffix
'

Nomina Agentis in -or we get -urnus, e. g. taciturnus, while

stems give -enus (ch. x.
venenum,
19), e. g. aSnus from aes
to

fiSlit.

love-potion ', from Venus (stem venes-) egenus (cf. eges-tas]

have -Tma from a U-stem in lacuna.
common use of the NO'

'

philtre',

we

suffix in

from

form Distributive Numerals, e. g. quaterni, bini,

The termination -ma is found in sarcina
5).
pagina from pango (cf. compdges}.

Latin

1rini, terni

is to

(ch. iv.

sarcio,

This suffix
(5) -MEN6-, -MEWA- (-MN6-, -MNA-).
was used in the Middle or Passive Participles of Thematic Tenses
of the I.-Eur. Verb (e.g. Gk. ^epo-^ti/os)
and although these
6.

Participles were lost in Latin, traces of this formation remain in the

2 PI. Pres. Ind. e. g. legimini for legimini estis (ch. vi.
17) ; perhaps
also the 2 PI. Pres. Imper. e. g. legimini
alumnus, 6 rpe^o/jifvos
;

femina from the root dhe-,

'

'

2
Vertumnus, the god of the
calumn-ia from 0. Lat. calvor, to

to suckle

changing seasons, from verto

deceive.
Stems with this suffix often stand side by side with

MEN-stems,

e. g.

columna beside columen, lerminus beside termen and

termo.

The ending -mnus

in Latin often arises from the addition of the

NO-suffix to a stem ending in a Labial (ch. x.

16), e. g. somnus
for *sop-nus (cf. sopor), damnum (cf. Gk. Sairavr]'), scamnum (cf.
scabellum}, &c.

Of this suffix, used to form Adjectives,

7. (6) -M6-, -MA-.
Nouns, especially Masculine Nouns but sometimes Fern., and
1
Angina, is either a similar formation from ango or a Latin transliteration of d'yxv vr] ( as wiachina of ^xavrj^.
Doctors are wrong in
'

talking of angina pectoris '.

2
The flower vertumnns is our heliotrope,
itself to the sun.

which is always turning

'

6-8

-MENO-, -MO-, -RO-

in

Superlatives (ch.
Oeppos, Engl.

iv.

2),

Latin examples are

warm) from the

the root dheu-

root

gh

er-

187

formus,

fumus (Gk.

warm

(Gk.

Qvpos)

from

animus (Gk. ai/e//os) fama (Gk. ^A"?) palma (Gk.

The suffix
minimus, summus for *supmus (ch. x.
16).
-temo- (ch. iv.
2) had a local rather than a superlative meaning,
;

-rraXa^rf]

maritimus, flnitimus ; but intimus, ultimus, citimus have acquired

a superlative force
similarly optimus, if from ob. (But cf. p. 76.)

e. g.

make

to
'

-KA-.

This suffix in its various forms was used

Adjectives and Concrete Nouns, e. g. I.-Eur. rudhro-,
from the weak grade of the root reudh- (Gk. !-pi50/joy), Lat.

8. (7) -B,6-,

red

ruber

',

', from the root ag-, 'to drive' (Gk.

In Latin the Nom. Sg. ending -ros became after
(ch. iii.
6), as is seen in these two examples,

I.-Eur. agro-, 'a field

aypos), Lat. ager.

a short vowel

-er

but not after a long vowel,

e. g.

plerus (ch. vii.

3), gndrus,

mdturus

penurid). The suffixes -ERO-, -TER6- became Comparative

Suffixes in Greek (ch. iv.
2), though their original sense was
(cf.

rather that of likeness, of equal than of greater degree (cf. Horn.

Gk. 0r)\vTtpos, feminine, not 'more feminine'). Latin Adverbs in

have the TERO-suffix (ch. vii. 2), e. g. breviter (Gk. Ppaxvrtpos')

have magis-ter, minis-ter, ci-ter, ex-ter ; while with a prefixed -as(cf. Gk. -aS- of TreAetds, -dSos, a wild dove) we have -aster, a suffix
implying imitation, e.g. oleaster, a wild olive, like the true olive',
and often used in a contemptuous sense for a poor imitation ',
e. g. peditaster, with Dim. peditastelhis in Plaut. Mil. 54
-iter

so

'

'

at pe"ditastelli quia erant, siui uiuerent,

'

they were tag-rag and bob-tail infantry so I spared their lives.'

local sense of the TERO-suffix (Gk. optffrcpos, living in the
;

The

hills, dyporepos, living in the

country) appears in

-ter

of paluster,

and -ester of campester, Silvester. The same suffix is used in

Possessive Pronouns in Latin, e. g. vester, as in Gk., e.g. u/ieTf/jos,
and in various pronominal and locative Adjectives, with the sense

telluster,

of 'like

'

',

in the direction of,

hither), exter

e. g.

alter, uter,

to
(cf. dexter, 8ei-Tfp6s, sinister},

-tro- correspond, e. g.

i-terum, citer (Engl.

which Adverbs with

citro, citra, extra.

-TERO- must be distinguished from the suffix -TRO-,

which was used to form Neuter Nouns indicating an instrument,
an instrument for ploughing ', a plough, and
&c., e. g. ardtrum,
from the Latin suffix -cro-, which may represent the stem cero-,
making, from the root cer-, to make (cf. Lat. creare), e. g. liidi-cer, or
This

suffix

'

m.xi

Formation of Words

188

stands by Assimilation for -do- when an I precedes, e.g. inco

for *involuclum.
This -do- (I.-Eur. -TLO-,
9) is a suffix closely
associated with -tro-, forming Neuter Nouns which indicate a tool
or instrument.
Another suffix, -DHRO- (Lat. -bro-\ is used in the

same way, though

in Latin

it

-bra, e.g. terebra, a gimlet, borer,

from

But Lat.

cerno, to sift.

affects also

from

-bro-, -bra

tero,

the Feminine gender,

cnbrum, a sieve,

to bore

represents an original

-sro-,

19) in tenebrae (from *temus, darkness, whence temere

Lat. -orus of honorus, decorus, canorus. odorus,
(ch. vii.
4)), cerebrum,
&c., stands for -osus (ch. x.
19), arising from the addition of the
-sra- (ch. x.

O-suffix to S-stems

we have

-erus in e. g. sererus, procerus.

forms was used

and often came to
denote an instrument, while as a secondary suffix it was specially
used to form Diminutives. Thus Engl. shovel, literally an instrument with which one shoves meant originally 'the shover '; Engl.
9. (8)

for

-LO-, -LA-.

This

suffix in its various

Nomina Agentis (Nouns and

Adjectives),

'

'

throstle is a Diminutive.
Latin examples are legulus, a picker,
from lego pendulus, hanging, from pendo, pendeo vinculum, a bond,
an instrument for binding ', from vincio cistula, a little chest, from
cista.
The Diminutive suffix is added a second time in cistella,
a jewel-box, &c. A common Diminutive suffix is -coZo-, a combination of the two Diminutive suffixes -KO- ( 11) and -LO-, e. g. auricula, a little ear, cor-cuhim, a little heart, which when added to
e. g.
Adjectives, esp. Comparatives, gives the sense of somewhat
From Diminutive -culum must be
meliusculus, somewhat better.
1
distinguished the -culum, -dum from I.-Eur. -TLO-, used to form
Neuter Nouns denoting the instrument with which an action is
:

'

'

',

performed or the place of its performance, e. g. vShiclum (vehiculum},

that by which one is carried ', po-clum (pocuhnri), that out of which
one drinks', cubi-dum (cubiculuwi), the place where one lies down \
(

'

(in Latin -buluin} had much the same function,

a place for standing '. The presence of an I in the
first part of the word causes a dissimilation of -dum to -crum, -Uum
to -brum, in ambuld-crum, a place for walking', &c. Nouns in -ela,

The

suffix

e. g.

std-bulum,

-DHLO'

'

like querela, sequela, are thought to be derived from Neuter ES-stems,

so that qiierela would stand for *quervsla, sequela for *sequesla (ch. x.
19).

10. (9) -T6-, -TA-.

This suffix was used to form (1) Verbal
which in Latin became Perfect Participles Passive, e.g.

Adjectives,
1

This

is

the form with the Parasitic Vowel (ch.

ii.

12).

189

in -LO-, -TO-, -KO-, -I-

9-12

from the root gen- (see ch. vi.

17).
(2) Ordinal Numbers,
Abstract Nouns in -TA- are found
quin(c}tus (ch. iv.
5).
beside Perf. Participles Pass, in -to-, e. g. Gk. yevtrr], birth, Lat.

yeni-tus
e. g.

The TO-suffix is often added

deprensa (for *deprend-ta, ch. x.
17).
to the MEN-suffix (
15) in neuter nouns, e. g. Lat. cognomen-turn
beside cognomen, such forms being apparently the Neuter of Partiformed not from verbs but from nouns (cf. Engl. crested ',
horned ')
e. g. cognomentum points to a *cognomentus beside cognominatus, like sceles-tus beside scelera-tus. The forms with -mentwn
are, as a rule, those used by prose writers, the forms with -men
being relegated to poetry. With -mentum, Plur. -menta has been
compared the Greek Plur. -/xara, e.g. ffrpdu^aTa (Lat. stramentti),
'

ciples,
'

Similar are arbus-tum, salic-tum,

(cf. Lat. assnmenta').
while arboretum is a quasi-participle from arboresco, like acetwn,
vinegar, from acesco so nuc-etum, ilic-etum, &c. The -cetum of iliceturn,
&c., and the -ctum of salictum, &c., were extended by false analogy,

Kaaav/j-ara

e. g. bil-cetum, vire-ctum.

I.-Eur. -ko-, the -y of Engl. 'stony',

11. (10) -KO-, -KA-.
angry ', &c., is used mainly in the formation of Adjectives from (1)
Adverbs, e.g. antl-cus, of place, anti-quits, of time, postl-cus. (2)
Nouns, e.g. belli-cns, civi-cus. The suffix had often a Diminutive
sense, which in Latin was usually expressed by the compound
Other forms
suffix -KO-LO- ( 9), e. g. seni-culus (but also sene-ca}.
1

are

e. g.

-icus,

histrion-icus,

-ttcus,

e. g.

rus-ticus,

-Icus,

e. g.

am-ici<s,

and with addition of the YO-suffix ( 3)

(Derivatives from Nouns and Adjectives), e.g. patricius,

-dcus, e.g. mer-acits',

(Derivatives from

Perf.

Participles

Pass.),

e.g.

deditlcius

-icius
-ticius

(also

12 (11). Sufllxes ending in I. (Nouns and Adjectives of

I-stems were closely associated with Adand a good many 0-stem Adjectives in Latin have become
jectives

third Declension.)
;

I-stems, e.g. inermis (O. Lat. inermus},

sterilis

(sterilusLncr.

ii.

845).

suUimis (sublimus Lucr. i. 340 sublimaque caeli). U-stem Adjectives

have also become I-stems (ch. iv.
1), e.g. brevis (Gk. 0/xixvj), ten's
-Us are by-forms with Passive
(Gk. eAaxvs). Verbal Adjectives in
sense of Active Verbal Adjectives in -lus, e. g. bibilis, easily drunk ',
beside bibidus, easily drinking '. So Verbal Adjs. in -Mis, connected
with the DHLO-suffix, e.g. ama-bilis, no-bilis, sometimes derived
'

'

from the P. P.
of Verbal

-TI- was the suffix

P. stem, e.g. sensibilis, Jlexibilis.
as -TO- of the Perfect Part. Pass. (10), e.g.Gk.

Nouns

irians beside iriaros.

These Noxins were of the Fern, gender and

Formation of Word*

190

CH. xi

had, like the P. P. P., the weak grade (ch. x.

12) of the root.
e
Latin examples are
wens for
to
n-ti-, from the root men-,

think

'
;

m r-ti-,
e

suffix
ratio,

fors for

'

bh e r-ti-, from the

'

'

root bher-, to bear

mors for
In Latin, as in Celtic, we find this

from the root mer-.

enlarged by an EN-suffix ( 15), e. g. mentio, Ace. mentionem

Ace. raiionem', datio, Ace. dationem; and this compound suffix
;

supplanted almost entirely the older Tl-suffix. The suffix -TATI(or -tat-), used to form Fern. Abstract Nouns, derived from Adjectives and Nouns, and the similar suffix -TUTI- (or -tut-) exhibit
this Tl-suffix added to the TA- and TU-suffixes, e. g. Lat. j-urentus
We find a form of the suffix -tut- augmented
(cf. juventa), juventus.
by an N-suffix, -tt'tdo, Gen. -t Minis, e. g. servitndo beside servitrts. The
I-suffix was used in forming Feminines in I.-Eur. and appears
augmented with c in Lat. genetrix, cornlx, &c.
13. (12) Suffixes ending in TJ-.
(Nouns of fourth Decl.)
U-stem Adjectives passed in Latin, as we have seen ( 12), into
I-stems, e.g. gravis (Gk. /Sapus). The suffix -TU- (like the suffix
-TI-,
12) was used to form Verbal Nouns, e. g. spectatus, and its
Ace. Sg. became the First Supine (ch. vi. 16), e.g. spectatumire, its
Loc. Sg., the Second Supine (ibid.), e. g. spectatu pulcer.
(On the

passage of Fern. O-stems into the U-declension, see ch. iii.

6.)
14. (13) -YE-, -E-.
(Nouns of fifth Decl.) These have been
13.
already discussed in ch. iii.
15. (14) Suffixes in -N. (Nouns of third Decl.) An Adjective
which is used as a Noun takes this suffix, 1 e. g. Rufo, the Red ',
'

and so we find
2Tpa@ow beside arpa^os}
many Latin nicknames in -o, Gen. -6ms, e. g. ATaso, Capita, with
terms of contempt like bibo, aleo. The more respectful formation
beside rufus, red

(cf.

was in -onus* e. g. patronus.

The MEN-suffix was used to form Neuter Verbal Nouns, e. g. tegmen, a covering, from tego, to cover. On the connexion of cognomen
and cognomentum, &c., see 10 and on Verbal Nouns in -TI-EN-,
;

12.
Gen., see
16. (15) Suffixes in -B.

e. g. captio, -onis

This

is

Adjective,

the origin of the

where the Adj.

is

(Nouns of third

German

'

'

weak

Decl.)

declension of the

preceded by the Def. Article,

Nom. Ace. PI.

AOTW) became Ln-tuna.

I.-Eur.

e. g.

des

rothen, Gen. Sg., die rothen

2
Hence Gk. A^TO; (Dor.
used by Terence and Luciliua, was,

impromptu coinage

of Scipio Major.

if

we may

Nebulo 'a wastrel

',

believe tradition, an

in -U-, -YE-, -E-, -N, -R, -NT-, -S

13-18
Neuters in
cases

(cf.

ship,

e. g.

-r (- r)

seem

have substituted n

to

191

for r in the oblique

Lat. femur, Gen. feminis, ch. iii.

1), which has led to
such curious declensions in Latin as it-4n-er-is, jec-in-or-is and joc-iner-is.
-TER- is the suffix used for forming (1) words of relation-

and

pa-ter, ma-ter, (2)

Nomina

Agentis, e.g. da-tor (Gk. So-rrip

of the suffix (ch. x.

which in Latin show the 0-grade

durojp*),

12).

17. (16) Suffixes in Dentals, Gutturals, &c.

(Nouns of third

When a Verb-root ending in a vowel formed the second

Decl.)
part of a compound the T-suffix was used, e. g. Lat. com-es (stem
from the root ei-, to go ', antt-stes from sta-, to stand >, sacerfrom do-, to give
The NT-suffix (-ent-, -ont-) was used to
form the Pres. Tart. Act., e. g. ferent- (Gk. <pfpovT-), sont- (Gk. &v
'

'

corn-it-}

'

dos

'.

ch. vi.

17).

The WENT-suffix,

like our '-ful ', was added to Noun stems to

form Adjectives, with the sense possessed of, abounding in ', and
occasionally resembling ', e. g. Gk. xapitis for *xa.pi-f(VT-s, possessed
of grace, graceful. In Latin it is augmented by theTO-suffix ( 10),
'

'

'

e.g. dolosus
*nivo-venssus,

(Gk. SoActas) for *dolo-venssus, nwosus (Gk. j^detj) for

with ss for tt (ch. x.
Older spellings of this
17).

suffix are -onsus, 1 -dssus (ch. x.

19

n.).

of Guttural Suffixes in Latin are Adjectives in -dx,

expressing tendency or character, e. g. bibax, dicax, rapdx, pervicdx

Examples

11).
(On Fern, -trlx see 12.)
18. (17) Suffixes in -S.
(Nouns and Adjectives of third
S-suffix (varying with -6s-, &c., ch. x.
Decl.) The
12) was used
to form Neuter Abstract Nouns with E-grade of root (ch. x.
12)
(cf. -acus,

and accent on the

root,

e. g.

I.-Eur. genos

oblique Cases (Gk. jfvos, yevt^os

Nom.

Sg.,

genes- in

Lat. genus, older *genos, generis,

These Neuter-stems became Adjectives

*genesSs, ch. iii.
8).
by transferring the accent to the suffix and substituting -es for -os
in Nom. Sg. Masc., -es in Nom. Sg. Neut., e.g. Gk. fvyfvrjs Masc.,

from

-vfs

-os in

in Latin,

we find occasionally Masc. or Fern. Nouns

a formation which came into great favour

Beside them

Neut.

with

Nom.

e. g.

Sg.,

tenor

Masc. (from

*tends,

(Gk. TCVOS, a string) from the root ten-,

'

p.

59) beside tenus Neut.

to stretch

'.

Which

o.ws, in

But Adjective

refutes the strange theory that -osus is merely the Verb

the sense, not of ' hating but of smelling , so that vin-osus
'

mean wine-reeking
*

',

'

'

Formation of Words

192

CH. xi

S-stems are alien 1 to Latin, the usual way of making an Adj. from
a Neuter S-stem being to add the TO-suffix ( 10), e.g. sceles-tus,
case of these Neuters was used as an Infinitive
funes-tus, jus-tys.

in various I.-Eur. languages, e. g. Lat. gignere (Loc. Sg.), amarl (Dat.

The YES-suffix was used to form ComparaSg.) (see ch. vi.
15).
tives, Lat. -ior Nora., -ioris Gen., e.g. melior, melioris
*melios-es) (ch. iv.

(from

melios,

2).

19. (18) Suffixless

Forms.

Nouns formed

directly

from the

without any suffix except those of the cases, are especially

frequent as the second element of a Compound, and take in this
root,

seer of
position the function of a Nomen Agentis, e. g. att-spex,
birds ', from the root spec-, to see ; parti-ceps, ' taking a share '. They
are also found independently, e.g. Lat. dux, a leader. The Lat.
'

Third Conj. Inf. Pass.,

Verbal Noun (ch. vi.

e. g. agi,

20. Composition.
intact

words

seems

to be the Dat. of a suffixless

15).

Compounds

are seldom resolvable into two

like Gk. Atoff-xovpot, Lat. juris-jurandi,* patres-familia-

rum, paen(e)-insula. The same is true of Reduplicates, which

arose out of the habit of repeating a word for the sake of emphasis
'

(cf.

a great, great deed

element
element

for one
') or mimicry (cf. Lat. mur-mur}
reduced almost beyond recognition, either the second
(in broken or curtailed Reduplication), e. g. Lat. bal-b~us,
;

is

gur-g-es, or

'

more usually the

first,

e. g.

ci-cind-ela,

So in Compounds the full stem without the case

used in the

first

part of the

Compound,

a glowworm.

suffixes is generally

e. g. juri-cUcus

(contrasted

with juris-jurandi'), patri-clda (contrasted \vith patres-familiarum\

In Latin, owing to the weakening of unaccented vowels (ch. ii.
14), every vowel in the final syllable of such a stem was liable to
change under the early accentuation of the first syllable of each
word (ch. ii. 12), the usual reduction of a short vowel being to
/ is thus the Latin 'Composition-Vowel' par ex14).
(ch. ii.
r

cellence, usually representing I.-Eur. o,

which

is

found not only

1
It is not a true
Degener is not to be compared with Gk. (vytvris.
Latin Compound, but a 'retrograde' formation, a coinage of the
Augustan poets from the Verb degenerare.
2
Sometimes only the second part of such Compounds is declined.
Thus holusatri is the Genitive of holus-atrum. Cf. ipsa ipsum, &c., for
,

which we
3

find in 0. Lat. also eapse, ewnpse (p. 87)

alterutrius (p. 97).

Lat. gur-gul-io, the throat, qiier-quer-us, shivering, give equal

to both elements.

prominence

19-21

Compound Noun-stems,

193

&c.

with O-stems, e. g. Gk. itnroSapos (cf. Lat. belti-ger), but also often
with A-stems, e. g. Gk. NiKo-^axos beside viitr)-<p6po$ (cf. Lat. aK-ger\
N-stems, e. g. Gk. atc/jio-OfTov (cf. Lat. homl-fida), and appended to
many Consonant-stems, e. g. Gk. SpaKovr-6-na\\os (Lat. ped-l-sequus}.
Composition does not play so great a part in Latin as in Greek
Liv. xxvi.

ii.

4 quos

'

like Kvpravxyv in Latin, as in Pacuvius' description of dolphins

Nerei repandirostrum, incuruiceruicum pecus;

and Virgil uses a periphrasis like (Averna) sonantia silvis (A. iii.
where an earlier poet might have employed a compound like
silvisonus. 1 The compound Proper Names of other I.-Eur. languages
442),

are, as we have seen (3), replaced in Latin (and the other Italic
languages) by Adjective 10-stems, such as Lucius.
A caution may find place here against mistaking for true Latin
'
Compounds later retrograde formations, e. g. degener (p. 192 w.)
coined by Virgil from degenerare, as festinus from festinare rebettis,
'

a coinage
II.

from

rebellare

properus (p. 54)

from

properare.

VBBB-STEMS.

21.

Tense-stems.

The formation

of the Present-stem of the

2-5 of ch. vi. We have seen that the

Verb has been discussed in
Derivative Verbs of the First, Second, and Fourth Conjugations,
that is to say, derivatives from A-stems, 6-(fi-)stems, and I-stems,
e. g. fugo from fuga (stem fugd-} represents
exhibit a Y-suffix
*fugd-yo as Gk. rifj.S> from the A-stem rifiij represents *np.5.-y<a and
;

represents *rtitS/yo[JUV similarly clareo stands for *ctare-yo,

Similar Derivatives from U-stems belong to the
Third Conjugation, e. g. statuo for *statu-yo, which includes a large
number of varied Present-forms, especially (1) Reduplicated, e. g.
TifAu/jifv

finio for *fini-yo.

gi-gn-o from the root gen-. (2) With N-suffix or N-infix, e. g. ster-n-o
from the root ster-, K-n-qu-o from the root leiqu - (Gk. Aenra;). (3) With
SK6-suffix, e. g. (g^no-sco from the root gno- while a large number
;

the

Cf. silvifragus,
'

used by Lucretius, who however complains that

prevented him from reproducing the

patrii sermonis egestas

Greek compound
1676

'

androgynes vulgus, ut pleraque, faciliore

ad duplicanda verba Graeco sermone, appellat). The early dfamatists and other imitators of Greek poetry incurred the censure
of Quintilian for their attempts to reproduce Greek compounds
(cf.

6/^oioiJ.fpfia,

'

i.

832.

I
I
I

194

Formation of Words

CH. xi

show the ordinary form

of the root with no addition but the

thematic vowel, e. g. leg-o from the root leg-. The formation of the
Perfect-stem has been treated in
10 of the same chapter, with
enumeration of the chief Latin types, (1) The Reduplicated Perfect,

me-min-i (Gk. ni-nov-a) from the root men-, the Reduplication

being often dropped, sometimes at a recent stage, e.g. class. Lat.
tuli for 0. Lat. te-tul-i, sometimes as far back as the I.-Eur.
period,
e. g.

The Long-vowel Perfects like egi from ago,

from pango (root pag-} may be included in this
class'.
(2) The S-Perfect, corresponding to the Greek First Aorist,
e. g. dixi (O. Lat. deix-ei) like Gk.
e-8-a, from the root deic-. (3)
the V -Perfect, peculiar to Latin, e. g. al-u-i from the root al-,
fugd-v-i,fim-v-i, statui (0. Lat. statu-v-i\ re-ple-v-i from the root pie-,
clar-u-i for- *clare-v-i, mon-u-i for *mone-v-i
15 fin.), and
(ch. ii.
md-i (Gk. (fioToa).

e. g.

p$gi (beside pe-pig-f)

1
fdvi, &c., if their dv stands for dvv, *cav-v-i, *fav-v-i.
difference between Present and Perfect of the same Latin Verb,

perhaps ccm,

The
e. g.

which

slno, slvi,

fact that a separate

so often puzzles the beginner, is

stem was used for either Tense,

due

to the

being the
exception and not the rule that a Present-stem formation should
be retained throughout the conjugation of the verb, e.g. Perf. junxi
it

(but Gk. f-tv-a} with the N-infix of the Present ju-n-g-o

Examples of the relation of the Perfectin Latin are

Present,

I.

bibo, bibi

Reduplicated Perfect,
sisto, stiti

Present, ta-n-go,

te-tig-i

pu-n-go, pu-pug-i

di-dic-i.

With Reduplicated
(&) With N-

sldo (for *si-s(e)d-o\ sidi.

Horn. Gk. Teraywv')

(for
it is

*pel-n-o),

pe-pul-i.

tu-n-do, tu-tud-i

The n

of tondeo

a Causative from the root tend- (Gk.

With SKO-Present, disco

(d} With Y-Present, par-i-o,

(c)

Gk.

to the Present-stem

pello

belongs to the root, for

rei/Scu).

(cf.

(a)

(cf.

(for *dic-sco, ch. x.

pe-per-i.

Tuli,

20),

which has
*tol-n-o) and

drifted apart from its original N-Present tollo (for

associated itself with fero, while tollo has adopted as its Perfect the

compound su(b}s-tuli, was in 0. Lat. a Reduplicated Perfect, te-tul-i.

The Reduplication Syllable has likewise dropped off in sddi (0. Lat.
with their N-Presents sa'-w-do, fi-n-do (from the I.-Eur.
root bheid-, Engl. bite), and some verbs the loss of whose Reduplication has left them in a form resembling the Present-stem, e. g.
sci-cid-f) , fidi

Hence not, e. g. *cdram like/Mg^aram, *cassem like fugassem.

Pulsus should be *pultus (I.-Eur. p e l-to-), and probably was in

O. Lat., for pulto is Plautus'

form of the Frequentative.

195

Tense-Stems

21

while others retain distinctive features,

where the N-Present has the weak-grade of
the root reup- (Engl. be-reave) similarly Jud-i from fu-n-do (root
gheud-, Germ, giessen), vic-i from vi-n-co (root weik-), liqu-i (cf. Gk.
u
\f-\onr-a) from li-n-quo (root leiq -, Gk. Aetiro) fug-i (Gk. vf-<f>fvy-a)
beside fug-i-o, a Y-Present with the weak grade of the root bheugverti

verto,

e. g.

cudo, cudi,

from

rnp-i

rii-m-po,

(Gk. (pevyoj~) similarly sedi beside sedeo (cf. Gk. eo/it for *ff8-yo-fMt,
a Y- Present), legi l beside lego, a Root-Present. The absence of
;

Reduplication in md-i s _O. Lat. veidei (from woid-ai, ch. x. 8), dates
from I.-Eur. times (Gk. o?5a for fotS-a), and must have been equally
old in Verbs beginning with a vowel, like edi from Mo, emi l from
cannot settle the exact age of forms with e in Perfect and

We

emo.

a in Present
cap-i-o, cep-i,

(cf. ago, egi\ likefac-i-Offec-i

0. Lat. dpio

These have Y-Presents, while

N- Presents.
II. S-Perfect.

(a)

Gk.

(Gk. w-/)f-a)

teg-o, tex-i

Gk.

(cf.

of the root.

e-Sct^-a)

-leg-o, -lex-i

(Gk.

-ffTf-a}

fvtra

With

(6)

a disyllable).

have

dlco (0. Lat. deic-o), dixi

(Gk. l-Ac^-a)

reg-o, rex-i

duco (0. Lat. douco from

*euso, Gk. evca for *evhoi),

(O. Lat. *ouro from

for *tva-a-oi) the Perfect has the

In uro

*deuc-o), duxi.
us-si

e-OrjK-a), jdc-i-o, jec-i,

fra-n-go, freg-i, pa-n-go, peg-i

With Root-Present,

(0. Lat. deix~ei,

;

(Gk.

(coepio), *epi (co-epi, class, coepi,

weak-grade
(cf. Gk.

N-Present, (1) N-infix, jungo, junxi

!-et>-a); pingo,pinxi; plango,planxi; stringo,strinxi; exstinguo,exstinxi;

They all retain this n in the Perfect, though not always

flngo, finxi.

in the P. P. P.,

f ictus

e. g. jilnctus,

exstmctus, planctus, but pictus, strictus,

(2) N-suffix, temno, tempsi for tem-s-i.

saep-i-o, saep-si

haereo (for *haeseo~), haesi (for *haes-s-i}

*aKfTT-yo-(Mi, p.

On

106

n.~),

the forms/wZsi for

mulsi for *mulc-si

The

With Y-Present,

(c)

haurio (for *aus-i-o}, hausi (for *aus-s-i, ch.

a-spex-i (Gk.

*fulc-si

from

(Gk.

a-spic-i-o

t-ffK&fi-d-fjiTjv')

from fulcio,fulsi for

ii.

ffKeirTOftai

9)

for

maneo, man-s-i.

from fulgeo,
from mulgeo, and

*fulg-si

mulceo. mulsi for *mulg-si

of neg-lego (ch. ix.

17), 'I do not care for', dz-%o
1 care for exceedingly ', has been refeiTed to a different
Gk. d-\(yca, I care for), which took an S-Perfect, -lexi.

-Zegro
1

(*dis-lego~),

Verb

(cf.

Hence

neg-lexi, di-lexi,

but

e-legi,

de-legi,

col-legi.

Intellexi

however

offers a difficulty. The difference in the Perfect of the compounds

of emo, 'I take ', has been referred to a discrimination between emo

I buy ', and emo witt its original sense,

its acquired sense,
take '. Hence coemi, 1 bought up ', beside compsi, dempsi,prompsi,

with
'

'

sumpsi (S-Perfects).

o 2

Formation of Words

196
with similar

CH. xi

loss of

Guttural in the Consonant-group, alsi, mersi,

20. The Assimilation (ch.
x.
20) of a Dental to the s of the Perfect produced ss, e. g. conciiss-i from concutio, jussi from jubeo with b for
original dh (ch. x.

farsi, sparsij tersi, torsi, tursi, see ch. x.

which

17),

Law

vowel or diphthong was by the Phonetic

ii.
9) reduced to single s, e. g. dausi

after a long

of classical Latin (ch.

(older

claussi'),

vasi (older vassi), suasi (older suassi\ laesi (older laessi).

The same happened in the

from the root

ges (Pres. gero

and

case of roots ending in s, e. g. gSs-si

with r for intervocalic s, ch. x. 19),

shows us that
and T/>6(o-)eu).
The apparent discrepancy between vivo and vlxl is due to the fact
that the root ends in gn (ch. x. 18), which in Latin became except
before and after a consonant. Hence vivo for g w eigw o (cf. Engl.
ussi (see above), hausi

haeffi

Pres-s-i

(see above).

prSmo must have had a by-form *preso

Gk.

(cf.

rpf/j.co

r;

'

'
quick', in the sense of living '), but vixi for *vig-si} victus Noun for
Similarly veho (vexi, vectus) has an intervocalic gh in its

*vig-tus.

normal Latin form h

Jluxi

(ch. x.

Cf. fruor, fructus

18).

sum

Jluo,

struo, struxi.

This is the Perfect appropriate to Vowel- Verbs,

from the root pie-, fugd-v-i from the Derivative of the
But we find it also with roots ending in I, e. g. alo, alui ;

III. U-Perfect.
e. g. re-ple-v-i

stem/Mfifa-.
colo,

molo, molui

colui ;

(see ch. vii.

yt-yvcj-ffKQ}')

2, 23).

(g}no-vi

sci-sco, scl-vi

(&)

sal-i-o

(Gk. aAXo^at for

and

gem-ui, gen-ui, rap-ui, ap-er-ui,

We

have () a SKO-Present in

pasco, pti-vi

an N- Present

de-sino retains

Compound

con-sului

con-sulo,

Cf.

*ffa\~yo-nat), salui.

cre-sco,

in si-n-o (root

the true Perfect

cre-vi ;

(Gk.

quie-vi

quie-sco,

of

which one

with

loss of in-

set-), si-m,

desivi or,

op-er-ui

(g}no-sco

tervocalic v (p. 16 n.}, desn } but another, pono for *po-s(i)no (ch. vii.
2), came in the classical period to assume a new Perfect posui
1

li-n-o (root lei-), H-vi;

through the influence of the P. P. P. posfais
(from root spcr-), spre-vi (from a by-root spre-) ster-n-o (from
;

sper-n-o

root

ster-~),

strdvi

cated Present in

the root

*petio,

sero (for *si-sd

The

Perfects

(ch. vi.

4), to a

se-.

have seen

(from a by-root

was regarded

cf.

Gk.

cer-n-o t cre-vi

fy/u for

(c)

by-form of the Present,

Quaesivi

as pos-itus

from

a Redupli-

*ffi-ffrj-fii) ) se-vi

arcessivi, lacessivi, petivi, &c.,

like pinsio beside pinso.

Po-si-tus

strd-)

from

point, as

we

*arcessio, *lacessio,

*quaessio, a similar by-

with Verb-stem pos-

and

so

a Perfect pos-ui was coined on the type of al-ui, al-itus, mon-ui, monitus, &c. But the older writers have invariably pos'ivi, e. g, Catullus
xxxiv. 7

quam mater prope Deliam

Deposivit olivam.

Verb-Stems

22

form of 0. Lat. quaes(s]o (e. g. Enn. inari quaesentibu' uitam) has

become associated with a related Present quaero from *quaiso (with
single s).
Quaeso, prithee, is not the same form as quaero (ch. x.
19).

In Vulgar Latin the ending -ui greatly extended its domain.

became cognovuit (Ital. conobbe), cecidit was replaced by
cadv.it (Ital. cadde), and so on.
With it goes a type of P. P. P.
Cognovit

in

-utus, e. g.

cadutus,

fallen (Ital. caduto), venutus, come (Ital.

-si also encroached, respondit pass-

The Perfect ending

venuto).

ing to responsit

(Ital. rispose), prendit to prensit (Ital. prese), cucurrit

to cursit (Ital. corse), &c.

The other Tense-stems

the Mood-stems in

are discussed in ch.

vi.

8, 9, 11, 12,

and

13 of the same chapter.

22. Verb-stems. Of suffixes used in forming Verb-stems, as

opposed to Tense-stems, may be mentioned (1) -dh-, e. g. Gk. Kvi\-Q-<a
beside KVO.OJ. (2) -d-, e. g. Gk. 4'A.-8o-^at from the root wel- (Lat. roZo),
which may be nothing but the Verb-stems dhe- to put ', and dol

Thus

Lat. credo (with d for I.-Eur. dh, ch. x.

17) meant
originally 'I set heart to ', the first part of the word being connected
with cor, the heart. (3) -t-, e.g. Gk. irt/t-T-ca (Lat. pec-t-o) beside
'

to give

which seems connected with the

7rt'-cy,

e. g.

'.

Gk.

same

Styca beside

dt<f>oa,

Tpt-(a~)-ca

Tpe-^-cw,

(4) -s-,

which seems the

as the ES-suffix of Nouns,

e. g. Gk. Tf'Ao?, stem reAetr- (Gk.

Latin examples are gau-d-eo (Gk. yrjOopai
for *gavt-d-eo (cf. gams its'), sallo for *sal-do (Engl. to salt),
:

Te\t(a~)<u, T-Te'A.e<r-TCu).

and

P. P. P. suffix -to-.

beside

yrj6(oj}

plec-to

(Gk.

TT\fK-T-(a

beside

7rA.e'-<w),

in-cesso for *in-ced-so (cf. cedo).

facesso,

lacesso,

sometimes

mso, older veisso, for weid-so,

(5) -ss- of capexso, incipisso (Plaut.),

called

'

lulciisives

'

or

'

Desideratives

'

connected with the Tense-formation

Other Latin endings are
12.
(amasso, &c.) discussed in ch. vi.
(6) -lo and -illo of Diminutive Verbs, e. g. conscribillo Catull. (7) -co of
albko,fMico, &c., another Diminutive suffix ( 9). (8) -ro of lamb-ero,
con-sid-ero, is like -ro of the Derivative temperare from tempus. (9) -igo
of capio,

invl><\>,

j'atio, lacio, is

ofnavigo, &c., is nothing but the

Verb

1
ago, as -fico of aedifico, &c., is

the Verb/ac/o, both having the form of Derivatives from

Compound

1
A Compound Verb, composed of a Noun and a Simple Verb,
takes in Latin the form of a First Conj. Derivative, e. g. audifico
from aedificus, in Greek the form of a Second Conj. Derivative, e. g.

Formation of Words

198
Verbal Nouns

Verbs in

remigo

from

First

remex,

Gk.

ottfoSo/tc'w

from

show the Derivative Verb type

Conjugation. On Iteratives or Frequentatives

-lo t -illo, -co, -ro

and follow the

in

(cf.

CH. xi

similarly

derivatives from Perf. Part. Pass, stems, see ch. vi.

2,
on Desideratives in -tiirio (-sitn'o), derivatives from Verbal

-to (-so),

and
Nouns in

-tor,

see ch. vi.

derivatives from Verbal

5,

on verbs in

Nouns

in

-ilra,

-urio, -urrio, e. g. ligurrio,

see ch. vi.

5.

APPENDIX A
SPECIMENS OF EAELY LATIN
>

1. The Forum-inscription
broken column)

(Sixth cent.

B. c.)

(written

on

[sjakros esed
kalatorera

Quoi
iter

regei

quoihauelod

(?

sacer erit

Qui

d)iouestod
quos

regi

iumenta capiat

calatorem

(? Gabict)

iusto

? ?

iter (?)

qitos

iouxmenta kapia d

omit a number of doubtful fragmentary words. Even the

true order of some lines is uncertain. Any attempt at a cohei-ent
(I

translation

is

out of the question.)

The Dvenos-inscription

(Sixth to fourth cent. B.C.)

(written on a sacrificial vessel)
louesat deiuos qoi med mitat, nei ted endo cosmis uirco sied
2.

asted, noisi

manom

en

Ope

lurat decs qui

Tuteriae pacrem

me malum

ne

Duenos med feced (?feked)

Duenoi ne med malo stated.

Toitesiai pakari uois.

eiriom.

me
T

mittat, ne

te

indo comis Virgo

Benus 2 me

vis.

slato.

Whoso

sit

adstet (?), nisi

Opem

mamim enim 3 (? unum), Beno

me swears by the gods, may

fecit in

offers

Proserpine not be kind to thee nor stand by thee, unless thou

wouldst have the Help of Tuteria appeased. Benus made me for
good indeed. For Benus (the good?) may not evil arise (lit.

'stand
1

')

from me.'

A Kl-stem Adj.

Ind.)

from the root of pax.

Al. pacare (2 Sg. Pres.

vobis.

Of. bene beside bonus.

With the same use of enim as Virgil's tibi enim,

The O. Lat. Adj. mcinus good
(A. viii. 84).
'

Juno

with im-manis

lit.

'

not good

lation given above is

',

Manes

by no means

<

'

the good deities

certain.

tibi,

is
'.

maxima

connected

The

trans-

200

Specimens of Early Latin

The Scipio Epitaphs (from end of

3.

cent. B.C.) (in Saturnian Metre)

(a)

Hone

APP.

third to middle of second

oino ploirume cosentiont R[omai]

Duonoro optumo
Luciom Scipione

fuise uiro,
;

filios

Barbati

Consol, censor, aidilis hie fuet a[pud uos]

Hec cepit Corsica Aleriaque urbe

Dedet Tempestatebus aide mereto[d].

Hunc unum plurimi consentiunt Eomae bonorum optimum

fuisse virum,

Lucium Scipionem : filius Barbati consul, censor, aedilis hie fuit apud vos.
Hie cepit Corsicam Aleriamque urbem ; dedit Tempestatibus aedem merito.
(6) Cornelius Lucius Scipio Barbatus,

Gnaiuod patre prognatus fortis uir sapiensque,

Quoius forma uirtutei parisuma fuit,
Consol, censor, aidilis quei fuit apud uos,
Taurasia, Ci sauna Samnio cepit,
Subigit omne Loucanam opsidesque abdoucit.
Cornelius Lucius Scipio Barbatus, Gnaeo patre prognatus fortis vir sapiensque, cuius forma virtuti parissima fuit, consul, censor, aedilis qui fuit
vos,

Taurasiam, Cisaunam,

Samnium

subigit

cepit,

apud

omnem Lucanam

obsidesque abducit.
(c)

Quei apice, insigne Dialis flaminis,

Mors

gesistei,

perfecit tua ut essent omriia breuia,

Honos, fama uirtusque, gloria atque ingeniurn

Quibus sei in longa licuiset tibe utier uita,
Facile facteis superases gloriam maiorum.
Quare lubens te in gremium, Scipio, recipit

Terra, Publi, prognatum Publio, Cornell.

Qui apicem, insigne Dialis Jlaminis, gessisti, Mors perfecit tua ut essent

omnia

brevia, honos,

longa licuisset
libens

te

in

fama

virt'iisque,

tibi uti vita, facile factis

gremium,

Scipio,

gloria atque

ingenium ; quibus

superasses gloriam majorum.

recipit

terra,

Publi,

si in

Quare

prognatum Publio,

Cornell.

(d)

Magna

sapientia multasque uirtutes

quom parua posidet hoc saxsum.

Quoiei Vita defecit non Honos honore,
Is hie situs, quei nunquam uictus est uirtutei.

Aetate

Annos gnatus XX is l[oc]eis mandatus.

Ne quairatis honore quei minus sit mandatus.
Magnam
saxum.

sapientiam tnidt asqv.c

virtnf.es aetatc

Cui Vita defecit non Honos honorem,

is

cum parva

possidet hoc

hie situs, qui

nunquam

APP.

victus

cat

201

Specimens of Early Latin

Annas nalus viginti is (? us) locis mandatus. Ne

minus (i. e. won) sit mandatus.
(On Cn- Scipio Hispanus, praetor 139 B. c.) (Elegiacs)
Virtutes generis mieis moribus accumulaui,

virtutc.

quaeratis honorem qui (quif)

(e)

Progenie mi genui, facta patris petiei,

Maiorum optenui laudem, ut sibei me esse creatum

Laetentur

stirpem nobilitauit honor.

The Decree

of Aemilius Paulus (189 B.C.)

L. Aimilius L. f. inpeirator decreiuit utei quei Hastensium
4.

seruei in turri Lascutana habitarent leiberei essent, agrum oppidumque, quod ea tempestate posedisent, item possidere habereque
iousit

A.D.

dum

xii.

poplus senatusque
K. Febr.

Romanus

uellet.

Act. in castreis

L. Aemilius L. /. imperator decrevit uti qui Hastensium servi in turri

liberi essent, agrum oppidumque, quod ea tempestate

Lascutana habitarent

possedissent, item possidere habereque jussit

vellet.

dumpopulus senatusque Romanus

Act. in castris a(nf)e d(iem) xii. k(alendas) Febr.

5.

The Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus

Q. Marcius L.

f.,

S.

Postumius L.

f.

(186 B.C.).

senatum consoluerunt
M. Claudi M. f., L. Valeri

cos.

N. Octob. apud aedem Duelonai. Sc. arf.

De Bacanalibus quei foideratei esent ita
f., Q. Minuci C. f.
exdeicendum censuere. Neiquis eorum Bacanal habuise uelet.
P.

Seiques esent, quei sibei deicerent necesus ese Bacanal habere, eeis
utei ad pr. urbanum Eomam uenirent deque eeis rebus, ubei eorum
;

uerba audita esent, utei senatus noster decerneret, dum ne minus

senatoribus C adesent quom ea res cosoleretur. Bacas uir nequis
adiese uelet ceiuis Romanus neue nominus Latini neue socium quisquam, nisei pr. urbanum adiesent isque de senatuos sententiad,

dum

ne minus senatoribus C adesent quom ea res cosoleretur,

Censuere. Sacerdos nequis uir eset. Magister neque
uir neque mulier quisquam eset. Neue pecuniam quisquam eorum
comoinem habuise uelet, neue magistratum, neue pro magistratud
neque uirum neque mulierem quiquam fecise uelet. Neue post
hac inter sed coiiiourase neue comuouise, neue conspondise, neue
iousiset.

conpromesise uelet, neue quisquam fidem inter sed dedise uelet.

Sacra in oquoltod ne quisquam fecise uelet, neue in poplicod, neue
in preiuatod, neue exstrad urbem sacra quisquam fecise uelet, nisei
dum ne minus
pr. urbanum adieset, isque de senatuos sententiad,
senatoribus C adesent quom ea res cosoleretur, iousiset. Censuere.
Homines pious V oinuorsei, uirei atque mulieres sacra ne quisquam
fecise uelet,

neue inter

ibei uirei pious duobus, mulieribus pious

202

APP. A

Specimens of Early Latin

tribus, arfuise uelent, nisei de pr. urbani senatuosque sententiad,

utei suprad scriptum est. Haice utei in couentionid exdeicatis ne

minus trinum noundinum

senatuosque sententiam utei scientes

Eorum sententia ita fuit sei ques

ead fecisent quam suprad scriptum est,
esetis.

esent, quei

aruorsum

rem caputalem
tabolam ahenam ineeis

faciendam censuere.

Atque utei hoce in

aiquom censuit uteique earn figier ioubeatis,
ubei facilumed gnoscier potisit atque utei ea Bacanalia, sei qua
ceideretis

ita senatus

sunt, exstrad quam sei quid ibei sacri est, ita utei suprad scriptum
quibus uobeis tabelai datai erunt faciatis utei
est, in diebus

dismota

sient.

Marcius L. f(iiius\ S. Postumiiis L. f. cons, senatum consuluer/nii

Octob(ribus) apud aedem Bellonae.
Sc(ribendo} adf(uerunf)

Q.

N(onis~)

M. Claudius M.f.,

L. Valerius P./., Q.

qui foederati essent

Itabtiisse

vellet.

habere, ei uti

Minucius

Siqui

qui

essent,

ad pr. urbanum

sibi

Romam

C adessent cum

ca res consuleretur.

ea res

Bacchas

dum

consuleretur,

dam

vir nequis adiisse vellet civis

urbanum

ne minus senatoribus C adessent

Sacerdos ncqvis vir

Censuere.

iussisset.

eorum

ne minus senatoribus

Latini, neve sociorum quisquam, nisi pr.

adiissent, isque de senatus sentenlia,

cum

De Bacchanalibus

venirent, deque eis rebus, ubi

verba audita essent, uti senatus nosier decerneret,

Romanus, neve nominis

C. f.

Nequis eorum Bacchanal

dicerent necesse esse Bacchanal

edicendum censuere.

ita

esset.

Magister neque v ir neque mulier quisquam esset: neve pecuniam quisquam

eorum communem habuisse vellet, neve magistratum, neve pro magistraiu

neque virum neque mulierem quisquam fecisse

Neve posthac

vellet.

inter se

coniurasse neve convovisse, neve conspondisse, neve compromisisse vellet, neve

Sacra in occulto ne quisquam
<2/i,tNt/iiam fidem inter se dedisse vellet.
fecisse

vellet,

neve

in publico,

neve in privato,

neve extra

urbem sacra

quisquam fecisse vellet, nisi pr. urbanum adiisset, isque de senatus

dum ne minus senatoribus C adessent cum ea res consuleretur,

Homines plus

Censuere.

V universi,

viri atque

sententia,
iussisset.

mulieres sacra ne quisquam

fecisse vellet, neve interibi viri plus duobus, mulieribus plus tribus, adfuisse

de pr. urbani senatusque sententia,

vellent, nisi

Haec

uti

in

contione

uti

sententiam,

edicatis

scientes

uti

supra scriptum

ne minus trinum nundinum,

essetis.

Eorum

sententia ita fuit

est.

senatusque
siqui essent

(Adv.) fecissent, quam supra scriptum est, eis rem

capitalem faciendam censuere.
Atque uti hoc in tabulam ahenam

qui

advorsum ea

incideretis

ita

senatus

facillime nosci possit ;

siquid ibi sacri

est, ita

aequum

censuit

iitique

earn figi

iubealis,

atque uti ea Bacchanalia, siqua sunt, extra

uti scriptum est, in diebus

datae erunt, faciatis uti dimota sint.

X, quibus

ubi

quam

vobis tabellae

APP.
0.

Specimens of Early Latin

The Spoleto

Inscription

(c.

180

203

B.C.).

Honce loucom nequis uiolatod neque exuehito neque exferto quod

louci siet neque cedito nesei quo die res deina anua net. Eod die
quod reidinai causa fiat sine dolo cedre licetod. Seiquis uiolasit,
loue bouid piaclum datod. Seiquis scies uiolasit dolo malo, louei
bouid piaclum datod et a. CCC moltai suntod eius piacli moltaique
;

dicatore exactio estod.

Hunc lucum

nequis violate neque evehito neque efferto quod luci sit neque
annua fiet. Eo die quod ret divinae causa

caedito nisi quo die res divina

fiat nine dolo caedere liceto.

Si quis

riolassil, Jovi bove

sciens violassit dolo malo, Jovi bove

piaclum dato

ejus piaculi muUaeqiie dicatori cxadio

esto.

ei

piaclum dato. Siquis

CCC multae sunto ;

a.

APPENDIX B
LIST OF SPELLINGS
(Cf. ch.

adicio,

abicio,

abjicio,

ii.

than

better

&c.,

10,

&c.

(Noun), not adolescens.

not aequiparo.
aerumna, not erumna.
aestimo
aestumo is the older

adulescens
aequipero,

not

abfui, &c.

the

of

Darius,

Alexandria,

than

allium.

amoenus, not amenns.

than anchor a.

arcius,

form.

arctare are

earlier spellings.
atictor, auctoritas,

ritas (ch.

ii.

not

not

10).

cestus.

10).

not caeteri.
claudo, not dudo (post- class.).
dipeus
dupeus is the older
:

spelling.

not

contio,

than

beni-

and

10).

colidie,

not

quotidie.

not culeus.
damnum, not dampnum.
better than delero (ch.

dicioj

better than
:

dignosco

ii.

not buccina.
not coecus.
caelebs, not coelebs.
caelum, not coelum.
cacmentum, not cementmn.

the

is

older

dissupo is the older spell-

bucina,

dissipo

ing (ch. ii.

dislinguo, not

elegans,

15).
distinyo.

better than eligans.

emptus, &c., not emtits, &c.

caenum, not coenum.

caercmonia,

ditio.

spelling.

caecus,

cer-.

ii.

culleus,

dinosco

and brachium.

and

conjux.

10).

ftcium, &c.

cacrimonia

than

concio (ch.

convicium, not conmtium.

deliro,

bell n a.

beneficium, &c., better

bracchium

not

Camena, not Oamoena.

cena, not coena, though this misspelling was of early date (ch.

cottidie

autor, aato-

Atitumnus, not Auctumnus.

belua,

caestus,

conjunx, better

accerso is a colloquial
:

cesaries.

better than cespes.

better than conwedo, &c.

not annulus.
artare

artns,

not

caespes,

conedo, conitor, coniveo, comibium,

ancora, better

caesaries,

20.)

comminus, not cominus (ch. ii. 10).

condicio, better than conditio.

Empire.
dlium, better

arcesso

ch. x.

ceteri,

Alexandrea, Dareus, &c., is the

spelling of the Republic

autilus,

ii.

spelling.
afui, &c.,

14

epistula,

not

better than

epistola.

cms, better than her as.

existimo (see aestimo}.

APP. B
exsanguis,

exscindo, &c.,
exanguis, excindo,

than

205

List of Spellings
better

malevohis,

than

facinorosus, better than/acmerosws.

&c.,

probably better

maltiolus, &c.

manufestus
older spelling (ch. ii.

manifestus

the

is

faenum, and/ewwra, not/oemtw.

faenus, and/enws.

mercennarius, not mercenarius.

fecundus, notfoecundus.

milia,

femina, not/oerama.

multa

than genitivus.
better than genitrix.

genetivus, better

gleba

and

ii.

better

than

haruspex, probably better

neglego,

than

aruspex.

helluOj

better than edera.

better than heluo.

not Meres, nor

heres,

eres.

hiems, better than hiemps.

holus and ohis.

not

inclilus,

illico.

and

inclutus (older)

indytus (ch.
incoho

and

indutiae,
infitiae,
intellego,

i.

not

6).

inchoo.

not -doe.

not

-ciae.

and lacruma (older) not

nor lachryma, nor
:

lacryma (ch. i.
6).
libet : lubet is the older spelling.
littera, better than litera.
better than

tnaereo, maestus,

better than

negligo.

negotmm, not negocium,

nenia, not naenia.

nequiquam and nequicquam.

novicius, not novitius.
nummus, better than numus.
nuntio, not nuncio (ch. ii.
10).
oboedio, not obedio.

than obscaenus

not obscoenus.
onustuSj better than honustus.
otium, not ocium.
paelex and pelex, not pellex.
Paeligni, not Peligni.
paene, not pene nor poene.
paenitet, not penitet, nor poenitet.
paulum paullum is the older
spelling.

intelligo.

lachrima,

litus,

than

better than

jucundus, better than jocundus.

Juppiter, better than Jupiter,
lacrimaj

obscenus, better

hordeum, not -mm.

ilicOj

better

16).

10).

harundo, probably better than

arundo.

hederctj

the old spelling.

navus, better than gna vus (older).

ne ' verily ', not nae (ch. ix.

haedus, not hedus.

probably

is

and nandus.

nactus

glaeba.

arena (ch.

mulcta

murena, probably
muraena.

Hadria, not Adria.

harena,

(ante-class.)

monumentum and monimentum.

frenum, not/raenww.
futtilis, better than futilis.
genetrix,

millia
9).

mixtus, not mistus.

not foetus,

fetus,

not
ii.

(ch.

15).

littus.

not moereo,moeslus.

probably better than

percontor,

percunctor.

perennis,
pernicies,
pilleus,

Pollio

not peremnis.
not pernities

(p. 69).

better than pileus.

and

Polio.

pomerium, better than pomoerium.

pontufex is the older
pontifex
:

spelling.

206

List of Spellings

praesepe, better

than

not solers.
not solici to.
spatittm, not -cium.
stilus, not stylus.
suboles, not soboles.

proesaepe.

sollers,

prtlum, not praelum.

sollic/fo,

pretium, not precium.

proeUum, not praelium.

proscaenium, probably better than
proscenium,

superseded pulcer (ch.

pulcher,

sucus, better

(ch.

quattuor, better

than

quotiens

the

spelling.
raeda, better than reda
Raetia, not Ehaetia.

not

reccidij

recipero

older

susplcio,

rh-.

temno,

recupero

tempto,

the

older

the

older

is

is

relliquiae

is

the older

spelling.
repuli, retuli (ch. vi.

not

not

reperi,

saepes, saepio,

better than

better than

sario,

not

sep-.

seta,

tinguo.

totiens is

the older spelling.

transmit-to, &c.,

and

tramitto,

&c.

better than thus (ch. i.

6).
umerus, better than humerus.

satura

(cf. p.

(older)

not

10).

not

Virgilius

(late),

not Virginius (late).

the older spell-

vortex is

ing.
vicesimus,

commoner than

vige-

simus.

10).

better than sexcenti.

not secius.
solatium, not solatium.
not sollennis, nor

ii.

11 n.),

Verginius,
t?erfcx

scaena, better than scena (p. 14).

sepulcrum, better than sepulchrum

(ch.

unguo and ungo.

valetudo, not valitudo.
Vergilius,

sarrio.

satyra.

ii.

and

tingo

humidus

-go.

saeta,

(ch.

thensaurus is the older

umor, umidus, better than humor,

10).

saecuhim, not seculum.

and

teter.

not tempno.
not tento.

tus,

repperi. reppuli, rettuli,

satira

toties

spelling.

restingiio,

succenseo.

suspitio.

Thrax and Thraex.

rettigio

reliquiae;

sulfur

spelling.

spelling.
religio

than

better than

thesaurus

recidi.

not

6).

not

taeter,

not

ii.

sweats.

sulpur,

suscenseo, better

quatuor.

is

than

and

sulphur

i.

6).

quoties;

APP. B

victima

sescenti,

victuma

spelling (ch.

setius,

vilicus,
sol-

(ch.

ii.

is

the

older

15).

not milieus (ante-class.)

ii.

9).

(For details about these spellings the student should consult

Georges, Lexikon der Laieinischen Wortformen, Leipzig, 1889; Brambach,
Hulfsbuchlein fur Lateinische Rechtschreibung, third ed., Leipzig, 1884
or the larger work by the same author. Die Neugestaltung der Lateinischen Orthographic, Leipzig, 1868.
The spelling of Quintilian's
time should be our model.)
;

APPENDIX C
LIST OF 'HIDDEN' QUANTITIES
(See p. 12 on ns, n/.)
georgicus (Gk.

abiegnus.
dctus (P. P. P.

& Noun).

hesternus.

lawless (but illex, alluring).

introrsum (for introvorsum}.

illex,

afflictus.

aliorsum (for aliovorsurn)

ardeo (Cf. aridus).

junxij junctus.
jilrgo (older jurigo, from jits

bustum.

and other Inceptives

'

calesco,

'

of

Idrdum (older

2 Conj. Verbs.
catella

(Dim. of

and ago).

Justus (from jus}.

Idridutn).

larva (older liirua, trisyll.).

latrina (older lavatrina}.

catena).

chirurgus (Gk. x^pov/ryos).

I bark.

clnctus.

latro,

cldssis.

tictus.

compsi, cdmptus.

lex.

conjunx.

ttctor.

contio

(probably).
corolla (Dim. of corona).

lilctor.

crastinus

lustrum, expiation.

luctus (cf. luged}.

(from cms).

cresco.

lux.

crispus.

matte (older mdvelle\

cunctus.

Mdnlms (from Manius).

dempsi, demptus.

Marcus, Mdrcellus, &c.

dlgnus (probably).

Mars (cf. Mavors}.

mdssa (Gk. /Jid^a).

dlxij dictus.

duxi (probably), ductus.

mercennarius (for *merced-narius).

csca.

mille.

Etruscus

(cf. Etrtiria}.

exlstimo (from ex
excisus from ex

and aestimo,
and caesus).

as

ndscor.

exstlnctus.

(from /as).
(from *novelle, ch.

nefdstus
nolle

Justus (cf./mae).

nondum

Jictus.

vi.

(cf. won).

nongenti (from *novengentf).

nonne, nonniitti (cf. won).

flxus.
ftictus.

flosculus

mllims (older mlluos, trisyll.).

musculus (Dim. of mus}.

(Dim. of Jlos}.

frango, frdctus.

nullus (see ullus}.

frustra (from fraus).

nundinae (older noundinae).

nuntius (from noventius).

functus.
furtirn, fiirtivus, filrtum

(from /wr)

nutria.

23).

208

List of

osculum, uscillum
osthcm (cf. os).

(Dim. of

'

Hidden

os).

Paelignus.
paluster

(from palus}.

pasco, pdstus, pastor.

'

Quantities

scriptum.
segnis.

semestris

(from mensis').
(from semisque).
sestertius (from semis").
sesqui-

ptstor.

Sestius.

plebs.

slgnum (probably).
slstrum (Gk. aeTarpov}.

plectrum (Gk. TrXrJKTpov).

APP. c

Pollio.

solstitium (cf.

prendo (older prehendo).

siagnum.

sol').

princeps (cf. pnwws).

prisons, pristinus.

suesco.

privignus.

sumpsi, silmptus.

prompsi, promptus.

sursum.

prorsus (older prowrsus).

tactus.

publicus, Publius

texi, tectus.

(from pubes}.
pilrgo (older pilrigo, from purus

and

ago),

tristis.

(Dim. of unus).

ullus

quartus.

ultra, ultimus.

qulnque, qumtus, qumdecim, &e.

Usque.

quorsus (older quovorsus}.

rastrum (from rado).
regnum.

usurpo (older *usuripo).

rex.

vasculum (Dim. of ras).

rexi, rectus.

vdstus.

rbscidus

vendo

unguOj unctus.

(from ros).
rostrum (from j-orfo).

itssi,

ustus.

vallum.

(cf.

venum

vernus (from

rilcto.

vidus, victor.

rursus (from re-wrsus}.

villa.

rusticus

vmdemia (from

(from ms).

sanctus.

Vipsanius.

sceptrum (Gk.

vlscus.

sclsco.

ifixi.

do).

ver").

mnum and

demo).

(For the evidence of these quantities, the student may consult

Marx, Hulfsbuchlein fur die Aussprache Lateinischer Vokale in positionslangen Silben, second ed., Berlin, 1889, a book to be used with great
caution ; Grftber, Vulgarlateinische Substrata Romanischer Wbrter,
a series of articles in the Archiv fur Lattinische Lexikographie, vols.
i-iv ; also Christiansen, De Apicibusetl longis mscriptionum Latinarum,
The weakening of a vowel in Composition is a proof
Kiel, 1889.
that the vowel was short, for long vowels were not affected by
loss of accent (p. 35).
Thus inermis attests arma, infringo attests
On the Latin Grammarians' evidence, see Heraeus in
frcingo, &c.
Arch. Lat. Lexikogr. xiv.)

INDEX
A, pronunciation, 10

alienus, 96.
alioqui (-n), 164.

phonetic

changes, 169 sq.

-a, shortening of, 40.

aliorsum, 136.
aliquis, 95.
-alia (see Suffix -LI-).
alius, 96.

Prep., 146.
abego for abigo, 35.
Ablative (see Declension).
Ablaut (see Gradation).
absque, 146.
ac (see atque).
accedo for acddo, 38.
a, ab, abs,

Alphabet, 1 sqq.
alter, 77, 96
-ius, Gen., 89
;

altrinsecus, 33.
a^MJMnws, 122.

Accentuation, 25 sqq.
Accfteruns, Plant., 19.

Accius, doubling of vowel, 8

9ff>

am-, Prep., 147.

ambages, 70 ., 170.
aw&s-, Prep., 147.
ambo, 42.
qmoenus, 14.
amphorum (Gen. PL), 52.
an, Conj., 161.
an-, Prep., 147.
Anaptyxis (see Parasitic Vowel)

8.

Accusative

(see Declension).

Achivi, 38.

Active, endings (see Verb).

actutum, 143.

Acute Accent,

25.

ad, Prep., 147.

Adjective, 73 sqq.
Adverbs, 135 sqq.
adversus (-m), Prep., 136.
ae,

pronunc.

of,

angina, 186

anMo,

H.

38, 147.

animal, 60.

13. 14.

anqttiro, 147.
ante, antes, 147.

aegrotus, 122 n., 172.

aenus, 60.

anticus, antiquus 189.

148.

aequipero, 38.
-aes in Gen. Sg., 52.

antistes,

aes, 60.

aperio, 146.

aetas, 33.

Apex, over long vow.,

Prep., 147.
affatim, 136.

apiscor, aptus, 132.

Aorist (see Tense- Stems).

a/.

Apocope,

Appius

170.

Agma,

agricola, 46.

Agrigentum, 38.
(see Diphthongs).

Gen., Dat. Sg., 49 sq.

132 am, pronunc. of, 13.

-ai of

aio,
a?a, 180.

alacer, 37.

Alcumena, 30.
aftas, Adv., 139.

7.

32.

(see Claudius).

2>H-, 148.

7.

aynus, 178.

AI

ancilla, 29.
i

aedes, 47, 174.

agfer,

n.

alteruter, 97.

ar for ad. Prep., arfari, arfuerunf,

arvena, 21.
arboretum, arbustum, 189.
ardeo, ardus, 33.
artaena, 33.

Article, Def., 27.

ar^MS, a limb, 66.
arvnm, 185.
-as, e. g. nostras, 3 1
-os,

Gen. Sg

49.

210

Index

asp- for absp-, e.g. asporto, 180.

Aspirates, Gk. in Lat. orthogr.,

6, 18 sq.
pronunc. of, 18.
Assimilation, of Prep, in Comp.
180.
Vb.,
;

-asso, -assim,

Vb.-forms

in,

115,

118.
ast, 158.
-aster,

Suffix

e.g. peditaster (see

-TERO-).

pronunc.

-bundus, e.
buxus, 6.

99.
atque (oc), 23, 32, 156.
atgui (-n), 159, 165.

14

errabundus, 126.

C, the letter, 3; pronunc., 15, 20.

for centum, 2 w. ; for Gams, 7.

122

n.

Caecilius, Cec-, 14.

caelebs, 59.

Athematic Conjug.,

of,

g.

C.

cadaver,

at, Conj., 158.

AU, pronunc.

(see Suffix -DHRO-).

of, 24.
bucetum, 189.
-bulum (see Suffix -DHLO-).
6s,

caelicolum,

Gen.

PI., 52.

cakar, 60.

phonetic

changes, 174.
au-, Prep., 147.

auceps, 30.
audacter (-iter), 138,

caldarius, 33.
caWtts for -Zid-, 30, 31, 34.
calefacio, calf-, 30, 40.
calumnia, calvor, 186.
cafe,

audeo, 33.
ave (see have),
attgeo, 174.
aula (oBo), 181.
cms- (os-) in osculum, &c., 172.
awf, 157.
autem, 159.
awtor for -c-, 24.

autumo, 30.

Auxiliary Verbs, accent

of, 27.

lime,

7.

Campans for

-wrs, 31.
campester, 187.
cawes, Nom. Sg., 70 w.
canorus, 188.
capesso, 197.
ca^zo, cept, 195.
cardus for -dwws, 34.
caro, flesh, 60.

Cases (see Declension).

Catullus on Arrius, 19.

auxitta, 181.
avunculus, aunc-, 18 w.

causa, -ssa, 22.

B, pronunc., 18: phon. changes.

Causative Vbs., 103.

caveo, cam, 194; cautum,

cafws, 123.

177.
ballaena, 18.

-ce,

balneum, balm-, 34.

Cecilius for Caec-, 14.

barca, 34.
bellum, 0. Lat. dtiellum, 177.
bene; 175 ; -e, 39.

cMo, 119.
ce^o, 102.

BH,

phon. changes

of

of,

177.

&c., 141.
-i, Perf., 194.
-Mlis (see Suffix -DHLO-).
bis, 77.
fccnMS, O. Lat. duonus, 177.
65.
fcos,
-bra (See Suffix -DHRO-).
-bi

bibo,

ibi,

111

16.

catws, 173.

bracchium, 19.

Particle, 91.

cena, -oe-, 25.

-cendt, Perf., 194.
centum, 78.

cerebrum, 188.
crew, 196.

cerrzo,

cerux (Sg., Plur.), 47.

cetentm,
165.

Conj

159

ceteroqui (-n),

-ceftm (see Suffix -TO-).

ceu, 161.

Breves Breviantes, 39 sqq.

-c/t-

brevis, 74.

Change of Unaccented Vowel

Broken Reduplication,
Bruges for Phryg-,

8.

192.

(Gk. x),

(see

Chi

-cfA-,

Plaut., 18.

Weakening).

(see Aspirates).

Index
-ci-

and

20.

-ti-,

cor,

tircum, -a, Prep., 148sq.

148.
Circumflex Accent, 25.
cis (citra], 148.
CMS, 123 ; -to, Adv., 39.
-cl- for --, 178.
cZades, 124.

circiter,

cornus, cornel, 177.

corona, spelling of, 19.
cos,

claudo, 175.

quant, of vowel,

Close By 11.,

181.

collum,

181

Scipio Epit., 128.

98.

cottidie,

couentionid, 62.
crastinus, 185.
crates, 169.
credo, 197.

n.

App. C.
-clum (-culum) (see Suffix -LO-).
On. for Gnaeus, 7.
-co of albico, &c., 126, 197.
coena (see cena).
coepio, 132 ; -ptus sum, 109.
cogo, 172.
cottis,

123.

cosentiont,

15

60.

coram, 149.
corbus for corvus, 18.
comix, 190.

clam (clanculum), clandestinus, 149.

Claudius (App.), reforms alph.,
5 (Emp.), reforms alph., 8.
Clodius,

211

cresco, -evi, 196.

-cubi, 93.

-d, 195.
cuicuimodi, 89.
ay MS, Poss., 82.
-culi, Pert, 194.
c?<do,

cwZmew, 34 w.
-cz<Zo-, Dim. (see Suffix -LO-).
cwm Prep, (see com)
Conj. (see
quum} the spelling, 25.
;

gender

of, 46.

colonia, 185.
coluber, 37.

columen, 34

cunae, 174.
-cundus, 126.
-cunque, 157.

w.

cofwmts, 21.

cupressns, 6.

colus, 53.

cwr, 161.

com- (cum}, Prep., 149.

c^trro,

comes, 59, 149.

commmtts, -m-, 25, 138.

como, -mpsi, 195 n.

Comparison, of Adj., 75 sqq.
Compensation, length by, 181.

compitum, 38.

Compounds (Noun and

cucurri, cec-, 114.

D, phon. changes of, 178;

after long vow., 23.

dacruma, O. Lat. for lacruma, 21.

-dam of quidam, &c., 95.

192; (Verb) 198; Separable,

186.
danunt, 129.

38.

Dative

conecto, conitor,

Adj.),

conubium, spelling

of, 22.

dammtm,

(see Declension).
dautia, 21.
de, Prep., 149.

Conjugations (see Verb).

Conjunctions, 155 sqq.

deabus, 52.

conscribillo, 197.

debilito,

Consonant, pronunc.

of,

15 sqq.

lost in group, 179.

contio, 62.
contra, 141, 149.
controversia, 141, 149.

contubernium, 38.
contumelia factum
copia, 172.
copula, 172.

ilur,

final,

-d, Abl., 51.

rfeoeo,

19.

30.

decem, 78.
decimanus, 186.

Declension (Noun, Adj.),

120 n.

42

(Pron.), 79 sqq.
decorus, 188.
Defective Nouns, 45.
degener, 192 w., 193.

sqq.

Degrees of Compar.
parison).

(see

Com-

Index
deinceps, 138.

deinde

(dein~),

written, 8
141.

-dem of idem,'&c., 87.

demo,

-psi,

195.

Dropping

duellum, 177.
Dvenos Inscr.,
ditis, O. Lat. for
dnim, 116.
dum, 162.
dummodo, 164.
d limits, 173.

DH).

dentio, 107.

denuo, 39.

Deponents, 108 sqq.

Derivative Verbs, 107.
Desideratives, 107.
desitus sum, with Pass.
Inf., 109.
deus, 177
Voc., 55.

duomis, 177

dexter, 75.

-fZtts, e.

DH,

phon. changes
Gen., 45.

dlco,

dies,

of,

App. A.

cluonoro(m\ 57 n.

g. pallidus, 104.

178.

E, phon. changes

Imper., 32 -xi, 195.

pronunc., 11; gend.

sq.

for

46;

-?,

loss of, 32.

e,

dimico, 38.

eadem, Adv., 141.

dimidius, 38, 77.

Diminutives, 188.
dingua, 0. Lat. for lingua, 21.
Diovem, 65.

ecce, eccere,

-e

of Adv., 137.
Prep., 150.

ex,

E-gradeofBoot (see Gradation).

Diphthongs, pronunc., 13
phon. changes of, 173.

168.

86

eccillam, eccistam,

eccum, 91

n.,

w.

168.

ecquis, 95.

sq.

Ecthlipsis, 179 sqq.

ecus for egwits, 24.

Prep., 149.

133

decl.,

edo,

disco, didici, 194.

195

Prff,

ediw.

116.

Dissimilation, 181 sq. of I

dissipo, spelling of, 37.
;

r,

21.

eflfo,

79.

El, phon. changes

Distributives (see Numerals).

of,

175; for

t, 7.

(see Suffix -LO-).

diutinus, 185.

-eZa

dives, dis,

Compar., 76.
Division of Syll., 21.

eZe#o, 37.

divus (cf. deus), 177.

dixo, 116.
-do of condo, 133.
do, I give. decl. of,

-fZfs

elementum, 37.
(see Suffix -I-).

Elision, of

-in,

16

.9,

40

ellum, 168.

133;

datus.

176.

'

m,

'

n.

donee, -ictim, -ique, 162.

en, Interj., 168.

donimi, 176.

Double Cons., pronunc.

-em- for I.-Eur.

177.

em, Interj., 167.

92.
em, euni
eminus, 138.
emo, emi, empsi, 195 n.
e
-en- for I.-Eur. n, 177.

domnus for dominus, 34.

dowms, decl. of, 46, 53.
donare, 102

170

of,

ae, 14.

decl., 69.
Diespiter, decl. of, 65.
dilexi, Perf., 195 n.

dis-,

177.

bis,

duo, 77.

dicis,

(see Loss).
of, 42.

ducentum, O. Lat., 78 n.
duco, Imper., 32 ; -xi, 195.

(see Derivative).
T,

drachmum (Gen.

Dual, traces

dews, 123.

Dentals (see D,

PI.), 52.

Demonstratives, 84 sqq.
demnm, 138.

Denominative

end of word, 22

at

Vow., 8.
Doublets, 23.
drachuma, 30

delenio, 38.
defo'ro, 25, 38.

of,

22;

Enclitics, 26 sqq.

n.

Index
ettdo, indu, 150.
-endus, -undus (see

familia, 37
-as, Gen., 49.
/amwZ for famulus, 53 n.
;

Gerund).

enim, 159.

-fariam, 140.

Ennius, double cons.,

Carm. Arv., 81.

fatum, 124

7.

-entium

(see

Suftix

-NT-)-

Compar.,
enunquam, 168.
-entior,

70

/etes,

cnos,

-ens, -entia,

213

123.

-enus (see Suffix -NO-).

co } Adv., 141.
eo, Vb., 99 ; itum, 175.
-er- for r- vowel, 30.
-er for -ros, 54 ; for -ris, 74.
eram, 112.
ergra, er#o, 150.
ero, 112.
-es, Nouns in, 53, 69, 70.

n.

femina, 170, 186.

Feminine

(see

femur, decl.
-/endo, Vb.,

-dt,

/en'o, percussi, 132.

/erwe, 140.

133; Imper., 118;

/ero,

/erwo

(-t/o),

(see Suffix -TERO-).

et, Conj., 157.
Eta (Gk.), Lat. ae, 14 n.
etiam, 157.
etsi, 164.
-efttm, e.g. arboretum, 189.
ETT, phon. changes, 189.
eus, -eum (see Suffix -IO-).
-ex of remex, &c., 38, 198.

figura, 107.

194.

110, 132; fieri, 110.

170.
y?aws, 185.
fluo, -xi, 196.
/odtco, 197.
fodio,fodi, 195.
y?o,

/tagrro,

/oras,

/om, 140-1.

forceps, 29.

proiiunc.,

forem, 117.
formosus (-ss-), 22.
formus, 29.
/ors, 177 /orfe, 45.
;

fortasse,

142

n.

/orfw, 0. Lat. /brcftw, 1^4.

Forum Inscr. App. A.
,

Fourth

facillimus, 75
facilumed, S. C. Bacch., 140.

139

133 ;/oa, 116

195.
facultas, 30.
faculter, 138.

/acwndws, 126.
fames, 71.

ftdi,

-nxt, 195.
finitimus, 75.

BH, DH, GH).

/ama, 169.

facesso, 197.
fades, 68.

/ocfo,

-bui, 18.

from I.-Eur. bh, dh, gh

facilis, facul,

38 ftliabus, 51.
Final, Cons., 40 n.; Vow.,39sqq.

filius,

exemo, 37.
eximius, 122.
eaters, 38.
explenunt, 129.
exsequias ire, 121.
exfra, 141, 150.

(see

104

Fifth Decl., 68 sqq.

-ester

letter, 3 sq.

;/ac,

32

114,

festinus, 193.
ys&er, 177.
yides, 70.

ftd*,

132.

-esimus, -ensumas, 78.

Vb. -forms in, 196.
26.
(e~)st, (e)s, Procope of,

19

Perf., 194.

fere,ferme, 140.
/eri'ae, 38.

-esso,

F, the

Gender).

of, 44.

/m',

Decl., 65 sqq.

frango, 37, 170

frater, 177.

fregi, 195.

Frequentative s, 101.
frigdaria, 33.
frugi,frugalior, 76.
fruor, fructus sum, 196.
/warn, 117.
fuga, 183.
fuyio,fugi, 195.

214

Index

/Ml, 111.

haereo,

fulgeo, (-0o), 104.

hand, 166

fumus, 178.
Fundanius, Gk. mispron.

haurio,
of, 19.

funditus, 136.

sq.

in Adj., 73 sq.

genetrix, 38.

Genitive (see Declension).

#eno for gigno, 106.
w.

genus, 171.

Gerund, 124 sqq.

written for

gigno, 106, 111

of, 178.

Gradation of Vowels,

175.

ibi,

exclamations,

167

Lat., 8.

141.

phon.

18 dropped bet.
from I.-Eur. gh
;

-KO-).

148.
idem, 87.
idolatria, 30, 115, 182.
-idus, e. g. pallidus, 104.

idcirco,

-ie(n)s of

Numerical Adv.,

igiiur, 160.

180.

ignosco,

Gutturals, letters, 3 sqq.

changes, 178.

-icofillic, &c., 141.

-icius, -*cus (see Suffix

^ms,

guberno, 3 n., 6.
gurgulio, 192 n.

of,

7 n.

n.

vowels, 19
(see GH).

form, 7

changes, 171; Lat. * for atonic

vow., 35 ; for e bef. ng. 37.
I-stems, mixed with Cons._ stems, 58 (see Suffix -I-)I- Subjunctive (Opt.), 116
sq.

Mispronunc. of Lat., 19, 22 n.

Orthography, influence on

H, pronunc.

C.

hoc, Adv., 85-6, 141.

hoccine, 23, 35.
homo (hem-'), 60.
honorus, 188.
hordeum, 180.
hortor, 110.
hortus, 178.
hospes, 29.

doubled in aiio,
symbols of long,
7; pronunc., 10 sq.
phon.

for

Hidden Quantity, App.

&c.,

Greek, Aspirates (see Asp.)

Loan-words, parasitic vow.,
30
for nuances of feeling,
;

Adv., 89, 141.

I, tall

gradus, 179.
granum, 169.
gratis (-Us), 140.
grams, 190.

75

hie,

humerus (see MW-).

geno, 106.

spelling of, 22.

Gnaeus, 7.
gnaruris, 122 n.
gnatus (nat-\ 179.
-gnus (see Suffix -NO-).
glosa,

178

Heteroclite, Nouns, 44 Verbs,

132; Comparison, 75.
hie, Pron., decl. of, 84 ; pronunc.,
23 hoc, pronunc., 23.

hosticapas, 37, 48.

hue, Adv., 141.

ngr, 8.

GH, phon. changes

gradior,

-surus, 124.

hilaris, 75.

7.

gaudeo, 197.

-flfflr-,

for n, 8.

59

-si,

Hercules, decl. of, 53.

176.

G, letter, 5; pronunc., 15, 19sq.;

phon. changes, 178; written

grens,

-surus, 124.

heri,

Fut. Perf., 115

Fut. Imperat., 118.

Gender, 45

195

hem, 168.

furvus, 185.
Fusil for Furii, 179 n.

Gams,

hau, 23.

have, 40.
helvus, 185.

fundo,fudi, 195.
funera necfunera, 167.

Future, 112

195

-si,

166

n.

197.
-z'gro of navigo, &c.
-t
of abnt, &c., 128.
fce, 142.
,

ilico,

137.

ilignus, 186.

-Ww,

-tZis

(see Suffix -I-).

77.

215

Index
Adv., 141.

iliac,

infra, -tro, 151.

86.

ille,

intrare, 100.

illex

and

illic,

illim,

of

12.

illex,

intrinsecus, 138.

Adv., 141.

mftts, Adv., Prep., 151.

-mws (see Suffix -NO-).
Comparison).

Dim. Vbs.,

197.
illuc, Adv., 141.
-im of sensim, &c., 135
&c., 141.
'
im, eum >, 92.
imago, 110.
imitor, 110.
immo, 159.
-illo

Imperative, 118
Imperfect, 111.

-ior (see
;

of

*7fa'w,

Irregular Verbs, 132 sqq.

Pron., 87.
-issimus (see Comparison).
-tsso, Vb., 197.
is#c, istic, istuc, Adv., 141.
tsfe, 85.
-It, 3 Sg. Perf., 128.
item, 159.
-tfer, Adv., 138, 139.
Iteratives, 101.
-itia (-itium] (see Suffix -IO-).
ium, Gen. PL, 62.
-ix of comix, &c. , 1 90.
is,

sq.

impero, 38.

Impersonal Pass., 108

sq.

implico, 102.

imprimis, 143.
improbo, 166 w.
impune, 139.
imus, infimus, 75.

m, Prep., 150
in-,

Neg-, 166

bef. s-,/-, 12.

;
;

with Verb, 166

w.

-ino (see Suffix -NO-).

incassum, 143.
Inceptives, 104.
incesso, 197.
incestus, 38.
incipisso, 197.
inclutus (-lit-'), 124; spelling of, 6.
incolomis, the spelling, 37.
incurvicervicum pecus, Pacuv., 193.
indaudio, 150.
wcfe, 141.

Indefinite Pronouns, 92 sqq.

nt*w ^o^/c oftttvy.
indugredior, induperator, 29.

Infinitive, 119 sqq.

t*/Zf, 132.
infiteor,

166

infitias ire,

n.

121.

in/ra, 150; infimus, imus, 75.

inZ&c, 38 (see
inquam, 132.

87 ; isse, 66.
iracundus, 126.

ipse,

J, the

jecur, decl. of,

pronunc., 16

44

n.

jejunus, jaj-, 11 n.
jubeo, jussi, 196.
juglans, 54.

jugum, 173.
jumentum, 180

n.

jungo,junxi, 106, 195.

juniperus, 54.
Juppiter, 38, 64.
jurigo, 0. Lat., 30.

yusfws, 33, 192.

juvenis, Compar., 76.
juxta, 151.

the letter,
changes of, 178

K,

illex).

K. for

insegMo, -co, 132.

instar, 45.

letter,

sqq. ; I.-Eur. Y, phon. changes

of, 176.
jacio, jeci, 195.
jam, 96.
Januarius, Jen-, 11 n.

7;
3,
sq.

phon-

.Kaeso, 7.

Instrumental, 42.

pronunc., 21, 30; phon.

changes, 177 for d, 21 ; for

integer, 37.

r,

intelligo, -lexi,

infer,

195 n.

151.

Interjections, 167 sq.

Interrogative Particles, 161.

L,

21

for

tl-,

178.

for quinquaginta, 2 n.

Labials, phon. changes of, 177.

Labiovelar Gutturals, 178.
labi-um, IQn., 30.

216

Index

lad(e\ 60.

lac,

magiater, 172.
Maia, -ii-, 7 n.

lacesso, 197.

lacrima, 21

spelling, 6, 19.

major, 76.
waZe, 39.
wato, Vb., 134.
malus, malum, 46, 53.

lambero, 197.

lammina, lamna, 30.

laniena, 185.
larignus, 186.

>wrte, 62.
inaneo, -nsi, 195.

Latona, 190 n.
latus, Adj., 123, 169 ; Part., 169.
laurus, 53.
Zautta, 21.
-Zwo in Compds., 39.
lava, 173
lego, 111 ; legi and -Zexz, 195.
;

Lengthening, by Compensation,
181 ; bef. nf, ns, 12.
-lens (-lentils} (see Suffix
lentus, 174 w.

maximus, 76.
mecastor, 84 w.

-NT-).

Letters (see Alphabet).

meditor, 110.
weditts, 177.

Zefriw (-*-), 25.

-Z-

syncopated after

medius fidius, 168.

cons., 30.

mehercle, 84 n., 168.

melior, 76.

libertabiis, 52.
Z,ice<, 164.
ligurrio, 107.
lingua, 21.
Zino, Zirt, 196.
linquo, liqui, 195.
-ZZ- for Id, In, Is, 181

memini, 113.
wemor, 122 w.

pronunc.,

Declension)

(see

Adv. use

of,

42

Plur., 47;
stlocus, 179.
Long Vowel, orth. of,

14

loreola,

sq.

-co

locus,

O.

Lat.

7.

n.

Loss, of Cons, in Group, 179

of final syll. in -m, 166
sqq.
;

sq.
Zzect

of final

-e,

-wen (see Suffix -MEN-).

-mente, Adv., 136.
;
-mentum (see Suffix -TO-).

wens, 59 w.

21.

Locative

manifestus (-nuf-\ 37.

Marcipor, 117.
maritimus, 75.
Masculine (see Gender).
massa, 6.
wio<e-, 169.
mavolo, 134.

32.

(cZaro), 62.

Lucretius, use of Compds., 193.

luna, 180.

-we of egomet, &c., 84.

Metathesis, 21.
wefas, F. (0. Lat.), 66.
mews, 82 ; mi, Voc., 84.
wu'Zes, scansion of final syll., 22.
militiae, 50.
mille, 78 ; milia, spelling of, 22.
(^a), 30.
Minerva, 185.
minister, 172.
m/s, Gen., 79.

mma

-6,
modo, 164
(Praen.), 164
;

39

tarn

M, pronunc.

17

phon. changes,

vow. shortened

final

mille,

167.

3 n.

N. for Marcus,

bef.,

dropped,

syll.

nihil(um') )

M for

27.

moneo, 103.

-monium, -monia (see Suffix -IO-).

177.

-m,

modo

n.

modus in Word-groups,

7.

M'. for Manius, 7.

macto, 38.
maestus, 110.
m0is (mage), 134.

40

e. g.

Months, Gender of,

monumentum (-mm-),
Moods, 116 sqq.

45.
37.

mordeo, momordi (mem-, 0. Lat.),

114-15.
morigerus, 54.
morior, mortuus, 34.
midceo, -Isi, 180, 195.
mulgeo, -Isi, 195.

Index
noenum

>nurinu-r t 192.

(-u), 166.
wo/o, 134.

mas, 173.

Mutation of Vowels

(seo

Grada-

Nominative
Adv. use

tion).

N, pronunc., 17
177
naii i,

phou. changes,

for nn, 22.

namque, 160.

179.

-nde of

-untie, &c., 141.

-we, Interrog., 161.
-ne, Affirm., 16(5.
we-, Neg. 166.
we (wae), Affirm., 166.
we, Neg., 166.
nebula, 111.

of, 25,

vow. long before,

70 w.

wm,

31.

12.

161.

Number,

47.

Numerals, 77

sq.

numerus, 54.

nitmmum, Gen.

-xi,

195

PI., 56.

nunc, 161.
nuncupo, 38.
nundinae, 175.
-nun*, 3 PI., e.g. danunt, 129.

n.

negotium, 167.
nemo, 19.
nempe, 160.

nuntius, 24.

Adv., 138.
nurus, 53.
nu/rte, 175, 182.
witpcr,

neptis, 73.

nequam,

accent

sqq.

Numasioi (Praen. fibula), 37.

w.

167

Noun, 42

nullus, 96.

wee (see neque).

nedum, 165.
e/as, 166.
Negatives, 166.
neglego, 37,

nostrds, &c.,

w((&es,

'non,' 167.

wee,

woster, 83.

-ns-,

190

wow, 196.

wosco,

novem, 78.
novicius, 189.
novus, 171.
nox, Adv., 135.

navis, 65.

nebulo,

wos, 81.
;

(gn-~),

Declension)

nonus, 78.

Names, Proper, 184 in -o, 190.

Nasal, pronunc. (see M, N) ;
Gutt. (see r/ for w) Vb.-steni,
111; 3 PL, e.g. danunt, 129.
natus

(see

of, 137.

wow, 166.
wowwe, 161.

Comparison,

76

we-

qualia, 76.

negwe (wee), 23, 32.

nequeo, 166

nequinont, 129.
nequiquam, 95, 166.
166.
nescio,
;

Neuter

(see Gender)
44.
neuter, 97.
neutiquam, 166.

in-r, decl.

of,

new

(new), 164

wew,

-w/-,

pronunc.

lengthening of vow.

163.

97, 172.
nw, Dat., Abl., 81.
w^7^^7 (nfl), 19,

nisi, 163.
-tutor, 110.

stems (see Suffix -0-)

with U-stems, 53.
-o, shortening of, 40.
ob (o6s), Prep., 151.
ob vos sacra, 146.

of, 13.

m,

O, pronunc., 9; phon. changes,

172; for e with to, Z, 171
o for a, 14
for on, 175.

obiter,

142.

objurgo, 30.
bef., 12.

oblimscor, -Use-, 115.

obstetrix, 38.

obtineo,

spelling

o&m'aw, 142.
occttZo, 102.

nix, 59.

occupo, 38.
oa'or, 76.

woceo, 103.

octo, octanis,

78.

of,

151.

blend

218

Index

odorus, 188.

OE, pronunc.,

15

spelling, 173.

(See OI.)

peditastellus, 187.

offensa, 124.
officina,

pelagus,

34.

OI, phon. changes

of,

Oinumama, 37.
from el, 21

oleo,

from

174 sq.

e
l,

-per, e. g. paulisper, 142.

per, Prep., 38, 151.

177.

21.

percello, -culsus, 124.

percussi, Perf. of/en'o, 132.

olim, 92.
olla,

(aula\ 14, 181.

perdo, 152.
perennis, 38.

die, 92.

-onus, beside
opera, 47.

-o,

190.

Perfect, 112; formation

sqq.

146

53

pe^o, pepuli, 194.

penes, Prep., penetro, Vb., penitus,
Adv., 136 w., 151.

ainus, 77, 174.

-ol-

Particle, 156.
197.

operio,
n., 151.
opificina, 34.
Optative, 116 sqq.
optimus, 34, 37.

perfidus, 152.

optto, 46.
or, e. g. caZor (see

pernicies

-os, e. g.
os,

0. Lat:
172.

193

132.

pergro, perrexi,

Periphrastic Tenses, 129.

perjurus, 152.

Suffix -S-).

Orthography, 23

of,

permities, 69.

Personal Pronouns, 79 sqq.

Person-endings, 126 sqq.

sq.,
calos, 59.

mouth,

-osm (see .Suffix -WENT-).

OU, phon. changes of, 175

and

perperam, 139.

App. B.

for

eu, 174.

P, phon. changes of, 177.

Pacuvius, use of Compds., 193.

perstroma, 33.
pertisus, 39.
pessum, 121.
pefo, -tm, 196.

Phi (see Aspirates).

pilumnoi poploi (Carm. Sal.), 56.
pinguis, 74.

107, 196.

paenula, 7.
palam, Prep., 151.

pmso,

Palatalization of Cons. bef. y, 20.

plango, -nxi, 195.

plaustrum, plostrum, 14 w.

palumbes, 70 n.
pango, pepigi, and peyi, 195.
papaver, 122 n.
Papirius Crassus, his use of
for z, 5.

-io,

pirws, 54.

pZeoes, 70.
ptecto,
r,

197.

ptenws, 170, 185.

-p?eo, -pZevt, 194.

Parasitic Vowel, 30.

plemmque,

paricidas (O. Lat.), 36, 48.

pars, 60 ; partem (Adv.), 140.
Participles, 121 sqq.
Particles, Conjunctive, 156.
parum, parumper, 142.
pasco,pavi, 196.
passim, 139.

pZico, 37.

Passive, 108 sqq.

passum (mille), 67.

pater, 170; p.familias, 49.
patronus, 190.
paulisper, 142.
pauper, 38, 54.

plerus, Adj., 139.

Plinius, 38.

Pluperfect, 115.
Plural, only (see Number).
plus, plurirmis, 76.
jpo-,

Prep., 146.

poema, decl.

of, 53.

poena, 14.
poZ, 168.
IKrfto, 146.

polubrum, 146.
pomen'itw, 152.
pone, Prep., 152.

Index
pono, 146 ; posni, (posivi), 196.
-por forpwer, 117.
porrigo, porgo,

32

219

prope, 152.

Proper Names,

porrexi, 132.

Italic, 184.

Propertias, 37.

porrum, 179.

properus, 54, 193.

portorium, 33.

propino, 101.

Possessive Pron., 82 sq.

propter, 153.

possum, 134.
post, postid, &c., 152.
postridie, 33.

prorsus (-m), 137-8.

Prosepnai, 50.
prosum, Vb., 152.
protinus (-tenus\ 154.

Post-tonic Syncope (see Syncope)

Vowel-change
Weakening).

(see

potts,

tet

tremonti.

Carm.

Compd.,

Praenestine,

tarn

modo, 164

pulto (-so), 194 n.

imngo, pupugi, 194.

n.

praes, 36.

praesens, 152.
praesertim, 139.
praestigiae, 182.
praesto, 134.
praeter, 152.

prehendo, prS-, 41
premo, -ssi, 196.

Q, phon. changes

of,

178.

qua, Adv., 141.

quaero, -sivi, 197.
quaeso, 197.
?waKs, 98.
qualus, 169, 181.

prendo, 19.

Prepositions, 144 sqq. ; written

with Noun, 27
assim. in
Com p. Vb., 180 accent, 27.
;

Present, 110.

Pretonic Syncope (see Syncope)

Vowel-change (see Weaken;

77.

princeps, 29, 35, 37.

priscus, 77.

Carm.

puertia, 34.
puZcer, spelling of, 7, 19, 25.
-putt of iwpMZz', &c., 194 ; pulsus,

praebeo, 19.
pmeda, 19.

prividois,

viciniae,

sum, 134, 137.

prae, 152 ; prat

Sal., 128.

primust

proxumae

-pse, -pfe, Particles, 87.

^mer, -re, Voc. 42 ; -por in

137.

potts (pofe)

proximus, 152
50.

pottor, Adj., 76.

Sal., 57.

pro, prod-, Prep., 152.

pro, Interj., 168.

probus, 152.

Procope,
procul, 152.

procus, 176.
profestus, 38.

proinde, proin, 141.

promo, prompsi, 195 n.
Pronominal, Adv., 141 ; Adj.,
96 sqq. ; Particles, 84, 91, 156.
Pronouns, 79 sqq.
Pronunciation, 9 sqq.

161

g-wrtm,

-libetf

-quam, 164.
quando, 162.
Quantity, 12

list

of

-vis,

164

Hidden

',

App. C.
quantus, 98.
quare, 161.
quartus, 77.
otm, 161.
quasillus,

181 M.

quater, 77quattuor, 77.

gw, 156.
querela, 188.
querquerus, 192 w.

Pron., 92 sqq. Adv., 159.

163 -nam, 160.
quicumque, 95, 157 w.
gfitt,

gwz'a,

quidam,

-libet, -vis,

quidem, 159;

2wm, 164
quinque,

szg-,

95.
&c., 41.

sq.

78

quindecim,

-n(c)<tts, -ngenti, &c., 78.

96, 160.

29

Index
93

quis,

-quam,

sqq.

-piam,

-nani,

-quis, 95.

quisque, 95, 157 n.

quo, Adv., 141 ; Conj

164

-ciVca,

r miens, 59.
nidus, 175.

quominus, 164.
quondam, 141.
quoniam, 163.

Buga

(-), 62.

ritrt

-zVtte

(see Carvilius).

rumpo, rupi, 195.

quoque, 157.

gwo, 98

175.

rubicundus, 126.
-Sda, 106.

quod, Conj., 163.

quit in

m?s,

rotandus, 126.
-rr-for rs, 179 sq.
ruber, 178.

rttrsus (-w), 138.

(see co-).

guofws, 98.

Bustic Latin, o for au,e for

quum, 162.
B, pronunc., 16, 21, 30 phon.
for s, 179 for
changes, 177
d, 21 ;-for7 21.
-r, long vow. shortened bef., 40.
;

sacellum, 30.
sacerdos, 30.

mfeo, 190.
nma'o, 107.

saepes, 70 n.
salignus, 186.

re-, red-,

Prep., 153.
193.
reccidi, Perf., 29.

soZ/o, salui,

rebellis,

saZtew, 142.

sq.

Adv., 141.

recta,

Beduction

(see

Weakening,

194 Noun, 192.

Beflexive Pron., 82.

196.

176.

Perf.,

sca&o, 170.

scamnum, 163,

n.

sanguinolentus, 38.
sanguis, -guen, 44 n.
sarcini, 186.
54.
,

Shortening).

Beduplicated, Pres., 193;

77.

scaturio, 107.

rego, rexi, 195.

scrtfce<,

Belative Pron., 92 sqq.

scindo, scidi, 19J.

remex, 38.

Scipio Afr.,

repandiroslro-,

Pacuv., 193.

repperi, reppuli, Perf., 29.

69

retro,

142.
ue-

for

SCR.

in word-group, 27.

ARR,

21.

Pron., 82.
Prep., 153.
secundum, Prep., 153t
se,

se (sed),

Betrograde Formation,

193.

Perf., 29, 114.

reverti, Perf. of -tor, 109.
rex, 176.

secundus, 77.

Bho, Lat. transcr. of, 6 sq.

-rl-, syncop. after cons., 30.
-ris and -es in Adj. M., R, 31.

sed, Conj., 159.

sedeo, sedi, 114, 195.
sedulo, 136.
sedutraque, 97.
se0e, -^c^'s, Gen., 37.

rettuli,

of, 45.

e.g. fambero, 198.

robigo, 175.
robus, 175.
-ro,

173

(s-)> 179.
scobis, 170.

153.

Bivers, Gender

uo-,

peril sus, 39.

scZi's

repulsa, 124.
requies, 70.
res,

14 w.

dropped, 40

-s

rabies, 69.

Becomposition, 35

e,

S, voiced written s, then r, 5 ;

pronunc., 17 phon. changes,
179 ; s for ss, 22.

Noun, 140; Adj.,

Adv., Prep., 153.

seats,

semel, 77.
sew*-, 77.

138;

Index
semper, -iternus, 142, 182.
senatus, decl. of, 67.
Seneca, 37.
senex, decl. of, 44.
Sentence-Accent, 26.
seorsum, 137.
sepelio, 37.

soror, 177.

of, 19,

Specimens of Early

spes, 69.

spopondi, 182.
-ss- for tt, 178
-(s)so,

reduced to
Vb.-forms in, 197.
;

-m,

Stem, 43

n.,

183

-suffix

(see

Suffix).

196

sterno, stravi,

Shortening of Vow., 39

sternuo, 105.
sfe^'w for statim,

sqq.

163.
sic, 163.
si,

-stinguo, -nxi,

s-

n.

mark

Sicilicus,

of

double cons.

O. Lat.,

sido, sidi, 194.

stratus, 169.

10

w.

195.

stlis, stlocus,

194

steti,

siem, 116.
similis, 139.

stramen, sfratus, 169.

simplex, -plus, 78.

si'wwZ, 139.
simulter, 138.

stringo, -nxi, 195.

sn, 163.
sme, 153.
Single Cons, for Doxible,

sir no, -xi,

stoft/s,

Stress-Accent, 28.

singuli, 78.

194, 196.

siquidem, 41.
sz's for si
vis, 16 n., 172.
sisto, 134.
sit'e, sew, 158.
-so, Vb.-forms in, 196.
so-, O. Lat. Demonstr.. 85.
sobrinus, 179.
socer, -rus, O. Lat., 54.
sodes, 33.

Strong Root-grade

solus, 97.

somnolentus, 38.
somnus, 177, 184.
sono, sonui, 101.
sows, 123.
sordes, 68.

(see

Grada-

tion).

196.

studium, 184.
7, 22.

suadeo, -si, 196.

suavis, 169.
SMO,

sits,

Prep. 153

s^to ros placo,

146.

Subjunctive, 116 sq.

Subordinate Words, 26

sq.

subtemen, 180.
swbter, 153.

Suffixes (Noun, Adj.), 183 sqq.

-0-, -A-, 183; -IO-, 183 sq. ;

-UO-, 185; -NO-, 185; -MENO-,
186 -MO-, 186 -TEMO-, 186;
-RO-, 187; -ERO-, -TERO-,
187 sq. -TRO-, 187 -DHRO-,
188 -LO-, 188
-TLO-, 188
DHLO-, 188;^ -TO-, 188;
-KO-, 189; -I-, 189; -TI-,
189 -TION-, 190
-TAT(I)-,
190 -TUT(I)-, 190 -fl-, 190 ;
-TU-, 190; -YE-, -E-, 69 sqq.
;

31.
swtn, 109.

-lid-.

soZeo, soZiftts

179.

stlattarius, 169.
sto, decl. of, 133
169.

8.

soldus for

22.

status, 170.

57.

severus, 54.
sex, 78.

smo, sm,

.<?,

statim, 139.

77

se, swe, 157.

91

sperno, sprcvi, 196.

25.

sesqui-, 77.

sica,

App.

Lat.,

106 spz'c-, 37.

Spellings, List of, App. B.
io,

sescenti, 78.

sestertius,

sort's, 58.

sparyo, spars/, 196.

species, 69.

196; satus, 176.

sero, sevi,

O. Lat.

sors,

septem, -decim, &c., 78.

sepulcrum, spelling
sequins, 153.
sequor, 108.

221

222

Index

-N-, 190 sq.

190

MEN-, 190

191

-TER-,
-NT-, 191;
;

-R191 ;

-T-,

tanquam, 162.
tantus, 98
-tidem, 141.
;

30

-WENT-, 191;
Gutt., 191 ; -S-, 191
-ES-,
191 ; -YES-, 192. (Verb), 197
-t-.
sq.
-dh-, 197 ; -d-, 197
197
197; -as-, 197; -to
-s-,

fe#Ms, 182.

and

telum, 180.

197

197;

>tZto,
;

-igo,

-co,

197;

-ro,

197.

Stems (Noun,

Suffixless
192.

Adj.),

sum, decl. of, 99

es, 2 Sg.,
scansion of, 23 fui, 132 es,
Imper., 119 sim, 0. Lat. siem,
116 eram, 112 ero, 112 ;forem,
117 ; essem, 117; (e)st, Procope,
;

26.

techina,

fe#o, texi,

195.

-/em of tfew, &c., 159.

temere, 140.
tenebrae, 188.
tenor, fenws, Noun, 199.

Tense-Stems, 110
tenus,

136.

Adv., 137.
77.

fer,

fcre&ra, 188.

terminus, termo, 186.

supellex, decl. of, 44.

tertius, 77.

super, 153.

fertws,

superbus, 152.
supercilium, 38.
sq.

Thematic Conjugation,
Theta (see Aspirates).
and -- confused, 20.

121.

Suppression of

Syll.,e.g. ido(lo}-

tibi (see ft).

-tints (see Suffix

latria, 30.
supra, 154.

-w,

swr^o, swrrexi, 132, 141.

-ftnus,

-KO-).

Adv., 139.

tingo, 37.

surrupui, 35, -rip-, -rp, 37.

sursum (-s), 138.
SMS,

Prep, (see

stf&).

Adj. (see Suffix -NO-)

Adv.

(see tenus}.
tis, Gen., 80.
-tnus (see Suffix -UO-).

Tmesis, 146.

sow, 65.

susplcio, 38.

toga, 183.

sustatt, 132.

lotto, sustuli,

SMWS, 82.

tolutim, 139.

Syllable, Division of, 21 ; Suppression of (see Suppression ;

Syncope).
sylva, the spelling, 25.

tondeo } totondi, 194.

Tone-Accent, 28.
topper, 142.
-torium (see Suffix -IO-).

Syncope, 28 sqq.

132.

tormentum, 180.
torqueo, torsi, 196.

T, phon. changes, 178.

tof,

tacitus, 110.

98.

tarn,

162

iofws,

tetigi,

164

n.

-ira,

98.
97.

Adv., 141.

trans, trd, Prep., 154.

tamen, 159.
tango,

98.

tfoftw,

tarn moclo,

103.

forreo,

tabes, 70.

talis,

99.

Supines, 120.

SMS-,

38.

fefaW, Perf., 194.

Superlative Degree, 75

ire,

0. Lat. for fe>w, 124.

tessera,

superne, 154.

svppetias

sqq., 193 sqq.

pronunc., 34.
Prep., 154; hactenus, &c.,

tenuis,

-ter,

summits, 75.
sumo, -psi, 195 n.
suo, 176.

?i.

Tecumessa, 30.
fed, 81.

194.

Trees, gender

of,

45.

Index

223

tremebundus, 37.

urna, 180.

tremo, 171

uro, ussi, 195.

-urrio (-iirio), Vbs. in, 107.

tremonti, 128.
tredecim, &c., 77.

ires, tri,

tribunal, 40.

Gen., e. g. nominus, 61
Neuts. in (see Suffix -ES-).

-MS,

triumphus, spelling of, 19.

-frww (see Suffix -TRO-).

usque, 154.
ut, 160.

--

for ct, 24.

decl. of, 81.
-tudo (see Suffix -TUT(I)).
tueor (tutor), 104.
fuM, 132.
turn, tune, 91.
ftMdo, ftrftttK, 194.

<,

-tfun'o

uter,

Pron., 97.

uterus, 46, 54.

utinam, 160.
174.
utrum, 161.
-MMS (see Suffix -UO-).
ttfor,

(see Desideratives).

124

-tu8 (-SMS), P. P. P.
tus, &c.,
tus, 7.

offundi-

letter, 4, 8,

18

16,

18

pronunc.,

phon. changes, 177

dropped bet. vowels, 16w., 18 n.

Pron., 84.

for quinque, 2 n.

vae, 168.

82.

V, the

V, the

136.

T^MSCMS, 180.
tute,

valde, 31, 34, 140.

18

pronunc.,
12 phon. changes, 173 u for
12
for unaccented vow.
o,
bef. labial, 35
from av, ov, 39.
-u of cornu, &c., scansion of, 67.
letter, 4,

Valeri (Voc., Gen.),

26.

(see Suffix -U-).

Variation of Vowels (see Gradation).

votes, 58.

Conj., 157.
for vo-, 173.
g-, Prefix, 166.
vehemens, 20.
ve^o, -xi, 196.
veZ, 157.
ve,

ubi, 141.

vS-

ubicumque, 157 n.

Adv., 141.
ucus (see Suffix -KO-).
-ugo, (see Suffix in Gutt.).
Ui, pronunc. 15.
-uis, Adj., 73.
-ul- for K, 30.
-SKs (see Suffix -LI-).
-uc,

Velar Guttural (see Guttural).

velim (see wlo).
velum, 181.
vendo and veneo, 110, 121.
zjewewttm, 59.
wweo, 121.

ullus, 96.

M^wa, 181 w.
uls, ultra, 154.

ventus,

Mi<MS, 180.

-urn (-OTMW),

of,

vapulo, 110.

U-stems

accent

174

w.

Fenws, 59.

Gen. PL,

56.

Unaccented Vowel, Weakening

of (see Weakening) Syncope
;

of (see Syncope).

18.

&c.)
sq.

Verb-stem
Tense-stem

suffixes,
suffixes,

197
193

sqq.

unus, 77.
transcr.

Causative,
sqq. ;
Iterative,
&c. (see Iterative, Causative,

tmde, 141.
undecim, 29, 78.
-MW^MS (see Gerund).
unquam, 96, 142.

Upsilon, Lat.
pronunc. of,

Verb, 99 sqq.
Conjugations,
99 sqq.
Voices, 108 sqq.
110
sqq.
Moods, 116
Tenses,
126
sqq.
Person-endings,
;

umerus, 54.

of,

Vergilius, spelling of, 11 n.

vero (-e), Adv., 140 ; Conj., 158.

versus (-m), Adv., 136.

224

Index

versus (-*), Prep., 154.

verto, -, Perf., 195.
Vertumnus, 186.

verum

10-stems, accent. 26.

Voices, 108 sqq.
volo, I wish, decl. of, 99

Conj., 159.

(-0),

veliw,

116.

'

83.
vest's, 58.

54.
voluntas, 123.
vos, decl. of, 82.

vester,

voltiirus,

vestispica, 182.

vetus,

74

Vowel, Grades

pronunc. of,
vicem, Adv., 139.
CT-,

(see Gradation)
Quantity (see Quant., Shortening, Lengthening) pronunc.

11.

vicesimus, vicies, &c., 78.

of,

wiciniae, Loc., 50.

9 sqq.

rnltnr (see volturus").

victima (-iima), 37.

142.

videlicet,

m?eo,

vuft,
of, 41.

114;

w'de??,

pronunc.

"Weakening of
Vowel, 34 sqq.

spelling of. 22.

OTWCO, vict, 195.
vindemia, 29.
vinolentus, spelling of, 38.
vilicus,

X, the

letter, 2.
-x (see Suffixes in Gutt.).

m-WS, 171.
decl. of, 45.

(Verb) (see

JC for decem, 2n.

volo).

viso, 197.
vitam vivitur, 101).
vivo, vixi, 196.
vivifs, 185.
vo-, O. Lat. for ve-, 173.
-?-o-

Unaccented

Winds, gender of, 45.

"Word- Groups, 26 sq.

vir, 54.
virectum, 189.

vis

phon. changes of, 176.

of Root (see Gra-

dation).

viginti, 78.

ns (Noun),

W,

"Weak Grade

Gk. (see Upsi;

I.-Eur. phon. changes
of, 176.

5T,

unaccented changed to

vu,

35.

/Vocative (see Declension)

the letter, 6

lon)

of

Z, the letter, 5, 6.
Zeta, Lat. transcr.

nunc.

of,

of, 18.

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LINDSAY, W. M.
Short Historical
Latin Grammar.

PA

2071