Unit Commitment

5.1 INTRODUCTION
human activity follows cycles, most systems supplying services to a
BecaUSe

largepopulation will experience cycles. This includes transportation systems,

communicationsystems, as well as electric power systems. In the case of an

electricpower system, the total load on the system will generally be higher
duringthe daytime and early evening when industrial loads are high, lights are
on,and so forth, and lower during the late evening and early morning when

mostof the population is asleep. In addition, the use of electric power has
a weeklycycle, the load being lower over weekend days than weekdays. But why

isthisa problem in the operation of an electric power system?Why not just

simplycommit enough units to cover the maximum system load and leave them

Note that to "commit" a generatingunit is to "turn it on;" that is,

running?

to bringthe unit up to speed, synchronizeit to the system, and connect it so

it candeliver power to the network. The problem with "commit enough units
andleave them on line" is one of economics. As will be shown in Example 5A,
it is quite expensive to run too many generating units. A great deal of money

canbe saved by turning units off (decommittingthem) when they are not
needed.

EXAMPLE 5A

Supposeone had the three units given here:

Unitl:

Min = 150 MW

Max = 600 MW

HI = 510.0+ 7.2P1+
Unit 2:

Min

MBtu/h

100 MW

Max - 400
H2 310.0 + 7.85P2+ 0.00194203MBtu/h
Unit 3:

Min = 50 MW
Max = 000 MW
780+ 7.97P3+ 0.00482P; MBtu/h

132

UNIT COMMITMENT

INTRODUCTION
1200

with fuel costs:

Fuel costl = 1.1 R/MBtu

Fuel cost2 = 1.0 R/MBtu

133

Total

load

- 12
. R/MBtu
Fuel cost3

500

unit or combination Of units should

If we are to supply a load of 550 M W, what

be used to supply this load most economically? To solve this problem, simply
try all combinations of the three units. Some combinations will be infeasibleif
the sum of all maximum MW for the units committed is less than the load
if the sum of all minimum MW for the units committed is greater than the
load. For each feasible combination, the units will be dispatched using the
techniques of Chapter 3. The results are presented in Table 5.1.
Note that the least expensive way to supply the generation is not with all
three units running, or even any combination involving two units. Rather, the
optimum commitment is to only run unit 1, the most economic unit. By only
running the most economic unit, the load can be supplied by that unit Operating
closer to its best efficiency.If another unit is committed, both unit I and the
other unit will be loaded further from their best efficiency points such that the
net cost is greater than unit 1 alone.
Suppose the load follows a simple "peak-valley" pattern as shown in Figure
5.la. If the operation of the system is to be optimized, units must be shut down
as the load goes down and then recommitted as it goes back up. We would

4 AM

4 PM

Time of day

FIG. 5.1a Simple "peak-valley"

load pattern.
1200

Unit 3

MW

Unit
3

Total
load

Unit 2
Unit 2

Unit I

like to know which units to drop and when. As we will show later, this problem

is far from trivial when real generating units are considered. One approach to
this solution is demonstrated in Example 5B, where a simple priority list scheme
is developed.

4 AM
Time of day

TABLE 5.1 Unit Combinationsand Dispatch for 550-MW Load of

Example 5A

4 PM

FIG. 5.1b Unit commitment schedule using

shut-downrule.

EXAMPLE
5B

Suppose
we wish to know which units to drop as a functionof systemload.

Off

Off

Off

Off On

Off
Off
On
On
On
On

200

50

Off
On
Off
On

400

100

600
600

150
150

800

Off

'1000'

On

1200

200
o
250
255
300 267 233

On
Off
Off
On
On

Off

0
550
500
295

Lettheunits and fuel costs be the

same as in Example 5A, with the load varying
from
a peak of 1200 M W to a valley
of 500 MW. To obtain a "shut-downrule,"
Simply
use a brute-force technique wherein all combinations of units will be

Infeasible
Infeasible
Infeasible
400

150

o
50

o
50

0
5389
4911

3760

1658

3418

o
o

o
586

5389
5497
5471
5617

3030 '2440
2787

2244

0
586

tned(as in Example 5A) for each

load value taken in steps of 50 MWfrom
1200
to 500. The results of applying this brute-force technique are givenin
Table
5.2.Our shut-down rule is quite simple.

Whenload is above 1000 MW, run all three units;between1000MW

and600M W, run units 1

unit 1.
and 2; below 600 MW, run only

INTRODUCTION

134

TABLE 2

for Example 5B
"Shut-down Rule" Derivation
Optimum Combination

Unit I

Load

Unit 2

Unit 3

On
On
On
On
On
On

On
On

On

1200
1150
1100
1050
1000
950

On

On
On
On
On

On
On
On
On
On
On

850
800
750

700
650

On

On

550

On

On

On
On
On
On
On
Off
Off
Off

135

losses being supplied. Spinning

load and
reserve must be
more units does not cause too
carried so that
one or
far a

UNIT COMMITMENT

On
On
Off
Off
Off
Off
Off
Off
Off
Off
Off
Off
Off

Figure 5.1bshows the unit commitment schedule derived from this shut-down
rule as applied to the load curve of Figure 5.1a.
So far, we have only obeyed one simple constraint: Enough units will be
committedto supply the load. If this were all that was Involved in the unit
commitmentproblemthat is, just meeting the loadwe could stop here and
state that the problem was "solved." Unfortunately, other constraints and other
phenomena must be taken into account in order to claim an optimum solution.
These constraints will be discussed in the next section, followed by a description

of some of the presently used methods of solution.

of
drop
Quite simply, if one unit is lost, there in system frequency
c hapter 9). to make up for the
must
loss in a specified be ample reserve
Otherunits must be allocated
timeperiod.
to obey certain
reserve
rules, usually set by
s Pinning

of forecasted peak demand, or that reserve

must be capable
venpercentageloss of the most heavily

baded unit in a given

up the
period of time.
ofmaking
reserve
requirements
as
a function of the
probabilityof not
Otherscalculategeneration to meet the load

sufficient
having must the reserve be sufficient to make
up for a generation-unit
Notonly
reserves must be- allocated among fast-respondingunits
the
but
and
failure,
units. This allows the automatic generation control system
slow-responding
Chapter9) to restore frequency and interchange quicklyin the event of a
(see

generating-unitoutage.
Beyondspinning reserve, the unit commitment problem may involve various
or "off-line" reserves. These include quick-start
classesof "scheduled reserves"

dieselor gas-turbine units as well as most hydro-units and pumped-storage

that can be brought on-line, synchronized,and brought up to full
hydro-units
quickly. As such, these units can be "counted" in the overallreserve
capacity
as long as their time to come up to full capacity is taken into
assessment,
account.

Reserves,finally, must be spread around the power system to avoid

transmissionsystem limitations (often called "bottling" of reserves)and to
allowvarious parts of the system to run as "islands," should they become
disconnected.
electrically

EXAMPLE 5C

region
Supposea power system consisted of two isolated regions:a western
committed

51.1

Constraints in Unit Commitment

Many constraints can be placed on the unit commitment problem. The list

presented here is by no means exhaustive. Each individual power system, power

pool, reliability council, and so forth, may impose different rules on the
schedulingof units, dependingon the generation makeup,
load-curve characteristics, and such.

51.2

Spinning Reserve

Spinningreserveis the term used to

availablefrom all units synchronizeddescribe the total amount of generatiOn

(i.e.,spinning) on the system, minus the

andan eastern region. Five units, as shown in Figure 5.2,have been tie lines
transmission
to supply 3090 M W. The two regions are separated by
directionThis is
either
in
MW
550
thatcan together transfer a maximum of
of spinning

alsoshoun in Figure 5.2. What can we say about the allocation

reservein this system?
Table 5.3. With the
The data for the system UinFigure 5.2 are given in be covered by the
this system can
exceptionof unit 4, the loss of any
a problem, however.
spinningreserve on the remaining units. Unit 4 presents
maximum of 600 MW,
be run to its
If unit 4 were to
be lost and unit 5 were to
the load in that region.
theeastern region would still need 590 MW to cover
western
tie linesfrom the
tie
The590MW would have to be transmitted over the
reserves.However, the
region,which can easily supply 590 MW from its the loss of unit 4 cannot

capacityof only 550 MW limits the transfer. Therefore,

136

INTRODUCTION

UNIT COMMITMENT

137
constraints: if a plant consists of two
turned on at the same time since or more units, they
cannot
attend both units while starting there are not
enoughcrew
membersto
up

Units
4 and 5

550 raw
maximum

Units
1. 2, and 3

ddltion,

Western region

system.
FIG. 5.2 Two-region

TABLE

Region
Western

Eastern

1000

800

800

the best approach

sothat,if possible,

Spinning

charw

380
380

1200

1040
310

1350

290

4400

3090

3090

1310

160

for the two can be

compared

(cooling or banking) can

be chosen.

where

Cc= cold-start cost (MBtu)

100
1740

must

Start-up cost when cooling = Cc(l

Inter.

Reserve

420
420

Total

justmaintain
Regional
Load

and pressure
of the thermal
unit

andIS start-up cost can vary from a maximum "cold-start"

The
value to a much
unit was only turned off
recently and is still
value if the
There
are
two
temperature.
approaches to treating relatively close
tooperating penod. The first allows
a
the
unit's boiler to cool thermal unit
duringIts down operating temperature
down
and then
In time for a
up to
scheduledturn on. The
heatback
requires that sufficient energy
banking)
be input to the boiler
second(called
to
operating temperature. The costs

Eastern region

Figure 5.2
Data for the System in
Regional
GeneraUnit
Unit
tion
Capacity Output
(M W)
Unit

because the temperature

1900

F = fuel cost

160 in

Cf = fixed cost (includes crew expense, maintenance expenses)(in R)

1190

= thermal time constant for the unit

160 out

t = time (h) the unit was cooled

3090

Start-up cost when banking = Ct x t x F + Cf

where

The only solution

be covered even though the entire system has ample reserves.

region.
to this problemis to commitmore units to operate in the eastern

Ct = cost (MBtu/h) of maintaimng unit at operatingtemperature

Up to a certain number

5.1.j Thermal Unit Constraints

Thermal units usuallyrequire a crew to operate them, especially when turned

on and turned off. A thermal unit can undergo only gradual temperature
changes,and this translatesinto a time period of some hours required to bring
the unit on-line.As a result of such restrictions in the operation of a thermal
plant, various constraints anse, such as:

Minimumup time:once the unit is running, it should not be turned Off

immediately.

Minimumdowntime: once the unit is decommitted, there is a minimum

time beforeit can be recommitted.

the cost
of hours, the cost of banking will be less than

ofcooling,as is illustrated in Figure 5.3.

frequently,due to
Finally,the capacity limits of thermal units may change
the plant; this
maintenanceor unscheduled outages of various equipment in

mustalso be taken into account in unit commitment.

5.1.4 Other Constraints

5.1.4.1 Hydro-Constraints

of
from the scheduling
(or
Unitcommitment cannot be completely separated
scheduling
hydrothermal
problem.
hydro-units.In this text,' we will assume that the
unit commitment

the
will always
COOrdination")problem can be separated from
in this fashion
treatment
We,Ofcourse, cannot assert flatly that our

resultin an optimal solution.

138

UNIT COMMITMENT
Start-up
cost

Cooling
Banking

FIG. 5.3 ' Time-dependentstart-up costs.

5.1.4.2 Must Run

Some units are given a must-run status during certain times of the year
reason of voltage support on the transmission network or for such purpo
as supply of steam for uses outside the steam plant itself.
5.1.4.3 Fuel Constraints
We will treat the "fuel scheduling" problem briefly in Chapter 6. A system
which some units have limited fuel, or else have constraints that requireth
to burn a specifiedamount of fuel in a given time, presents a most challeng
unit commitment problem.

5.2 UNIT COMMITMENT SOLUTION METHODS

The commitment problem Can be very difficult. As a theoretical exercise, let
postulate the following situation.

We must establish a loading pattern for M periods.

We have N units to commit and dispatch.
The M load levels and operating limits on the
N units are suchthat

one unit can supplythe individualloads and

units can also supply the loads.

that any combinati0

Next, assumewe are going to establish

the commitment by
)rute
total number of combinations
hour
we need to try each