APPLIED COMBINATORIAL
MATHEMATICS
The Authors
Editor
GEORGE POLYA
EDWIN F. BECKENBACH
DERRICK H. LEHMER
Professor of Mathematics
University of California
Los Angeles
MONTGOMERY PHISTER, Jr.
JOHN RIORDAN
ELLIOTT W. MONTROLL
N. G. DE BRUIJN
FRANK HARARY
RICHARD BELLMAN
ROBERT KALABA
EDWIN L. PETERSON
LEO BREIMAN
ALBERT W. TUCKER
EDWIN F. BECKENBACH
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MARSHALL HALL, Jr.
JACOB WOLFOWITZ
CHARLES B. TOMPKINS
KENNETH N. TRUEBLOOD
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GEORGE GAMOW
HERMANN WEYL
JOHN WILEY AND SONS, INC., NEW YORK LONDON SYDNEY
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
PART 1A' COMPUTATION AND EVALUATION
chapter 1
THE MACHINE TOOLS OF COMBINATORICS
DERRICK H. LEHMER
5
5
1.1
Introduction
1.2
Representation and Processing of Digital Information
1.3
Application of Representations
11
1.4
Signatures and Their Orderly Generation
17
1.5
Orderly Listing of Permutations
19
1.6
Orderly Listing of Combinations
24
1.7
Orderly Listing of Compositions
24
1.8
Orderly Listing of Partitions
25
1.9
The Back-Track Procedure
26
1.10
Ranking of Combinations
27
chapter 2
2.1
TECHNIQUES FOR SIMPLIFYING LOGICAL
NETWORKS
MONTGOMERY PHISTER, JR.
Introduction
Simplifying a Given Sequential Circuit
32
32
37
2.2
Simplest AND-OR Gates
2.3
Multiple-Output Function Simplifications
40
2.4
Elimination of Memory Elements
42
2.5
Alternative Methods of Assigning Flip-Flop States
49
C/ioosing Decision and Memory Elements
2.6
Memory Elements Other Than Delay Flip-Flops
37
53
53
xv
Contents
xvi
2.7
Decision Elements Other Than AND and OR Gates
57
2.8
Conclusion
61
PART IB
chapter 3
COUNTING AND ENUMERATION
GENERATING FUNCTIONS
JOHN RIORDAN
67
3.1
Introduction
67
3.2
Generating Functions for Combinations
69
3.3
Generating Functions for Permutations
71
3.4
Elementary Relations: Ordinary Generating Function
72
3.5
Elementary Relations: Exponential Generating Function
79
3.6
Generating Functions in Probability and Statistics
84
3.7
Polya's Enumeration Theorem
90
chapter 4
LATTICE STATISTICS
ELLIOTT W. MONTROLL
96
4.1
Introduction
4.2
Random Walks on Lattices and the Polya Problem
96
4.3
More General Random Walks on Lattices
103
4.4
The PfafRan and the Dimer Problem
105
4.5
Cyclic Matrices
113
4.6
Evaluation of Dimer Pfaffian
116
4.7
The Ising Problem
121
4.8
Some Remarks on Periodic Boundary Conditions
132
4.9
Lattice Statistics of Slightly Defective Lattices
134
chapter 5
POLYA'S THEORY OF COUNTING
N. G. DE BRUIJN
144
97
5.1
Introduction
5.2
Cycle Index of a Permutation Group
144
145
5.3
The Main Lemma
150
5.4
Functions and Patterns
151
5.5
Weight of a Function; Weight of a Pattern
153
5.6
Store and Inventory
154
5.7
Inventory of a Function
155
5.8
The Pattern Inventory; Polya's Theorem
157
5.9
Generalization of Polya's Theorem
161
5.10
Patterns of One-to-One Mappings
164
5.11
Labeling and Delabeling
168
Contents
xvii
5.12
The Total Number of Patterns
171
5.13
The Kranz Group
176
5.14
Epilogue
180
chapter 6
COMBINATORIAL PROBLEMS IN GRAPHICAL
ENUMERATION
FRANK HARARY
185
6.1
Introduction
6.2
Graphical Preliminaries
185
6.3
Some Unsolved Problems
189
6.4
Problems Involving Directed Graphs
189
6.5
Problems Involving Partitions
190
6.6
Topological Problems
191
6.7
Problems Involving Connectivity
193
6.8
Problems Involving Groups
195
6.9
Electrical Problems
197
6.10
Physical Problems
199
6.11
Graph-Counting Methods
202
6.12
Tree-Counting Methods
205
6.13
Comparison of Solved and Unsolved Problems
208
6.14
Some Applications of Enumeration Problems to Other Fields
212
PART 2
chapter 7
185
CONTROL AND EXTREMIZATION
DYNAMIC PROGRAMMING AND MARKOVIAN
DECISION PROCESSES, WITH PARTICULAR
APPLICATION TO BASEBALL AND CHESS
RICHARD BELLMAN
221
7.1
Introduction
7.2
Baseball as a Multistage Decision Process; State Variables
221
221
7.3
Decisions
222
7.4
Criterion Function
223
7.5
Policies, Optimum Policies/ and Combinatorics
224
7.6
Principle of Optimality
226
7.7
Functional Equations
226
7.8
Existence and Uniqueness
227
7.9
Analytic Aspects
227
7.10
Direct Computational Approach
229
7.11
Stratification
229
7.12
Approximation in Policy Space
230
Contents
xviii
7.13
Utilization of Experience and Intuition
231
7.14
Two-Team Version of Baseball
232
7.15
Probability of Tying or Winning
232
7.16
Inventory and Replacement Processes and Asymptotic Behavior
232
7.17
Chess as a Multistage Decision Process
233
7.18
Computational Aspects
234
chapter 8
GRAPH THEORY AND AUTOMATIC CONTROL
ROBERT KALABA
237
8.1
Introduction
237
8.2
Time-Optimal Control and the Nature of Feedback
238
8.3
Formulation
239
8.4
Uniqueness
240
8.5
Successive Approximations
241
242
8.6
Observations on the Approximation Scheme
8.7
Other Approaches
242
8.8
Arbitrary Terminal States
243
8.9
Preferred Suboptimal Trajectories
243
8.10
A Stochastic Time-Optimal Control Process
244
8.11
Minimax Control Processes
246
8.12
Use of Functional Equations
246
8.13
A Special Case
246
8.14
Minimal Spanning Trees
247
8.15
Comments and Interconnections
248
8.16
Multiple Stresses
249
8.17
Discussion
250
chapter 9
OPTIMUM MULT1VARIABLE CONTROL
EDWIN L. PETERSON
253
9.1
Problem Structure
253
9.2
Alternative Approaches
257
9.3
Polynomial Approximation
264
9.4
Linearization and Successive Approximation
272
9.5
Physical Implementation
279
chapter 10
STOPPING-RULE PROBLEMS
LEO BREIMAN
284
10.1
How to Recognize a Stopping-Rule Problem
10.2
Examples
284
285
10.3
Formulation
287
10.4
What Is a Stopping Rule?
290
Contents
xix
10.5
What Is a Solution?
291
10.6
Stop When You Are Ahead; the Stability Problem
292
10.7
The Functional Equation
294
10.8
Elimination of Forced Continuation
296
10.9
Entrance-Fee Problems and Reduction to Them
298
10.10
The Linear-Programming Solution
302
Binary Decision Renewal Problems
10.11
Introduction and Examples
305
305
10.12
Formulation
306
10.13
What Is a Solution?
307
10.14
Reduction to a Stopping-Rule Problem by Cycle Analysis
308
10.15
A Direct Approach
312
10.16
The Linear-Programming Solution
314
10.17
A Duality Relation
317
chapter II
COMBINATORIAL ALGEBRA OF MATRIX GAMES
AND LINEAR PROGRAMS
ALBERT W. TUCKER
320
11.1
Introduction
11.2
Game Example
320
320
11.3
Key Equation and Basic Solutions
322
11.4
Schematic Representation
324
11.5
Equivalence by Pivot Steps; Simplex Method
327
11.6
Linear Programming Examples
331
11.7
Key Equation and Basic Solutions for Linear Programs
333
11.8
Canonical Forms
336
11.9
Inverse Basis Procedure
340
11.10
General Formulations
343
chapter 12
NETWORK FLOW PROBLEMS
EDWIN F. BECKENBACH
348
12.1
Introduction
348
12.2
Networks
348
12.3
Cuts
350
12.4
Flows
351
12.5
Flows and Cuts
352
12.6
Bounds on Capacities of Cuts and on Values of Flows
355
12.7
The Max-FlowMin-Cut Theorem
357
12.8
The Ford-Fulkerson Algorithm
358
12.9
Example
359
12.10
Extensions and Applications
361
12.11
Graph Theory and Combinatorial Problems
362
Contents
XX
PART 3
chapter 13
CONSTRUCTION AND EXISTENCE
BLOCK DESIGNS
MARSHALL HALL, JR.
369
13.1
Introduction
369
13.2
Block Designs and Latin Squares; Examples and Definitions
370
13.3
Applications of Block Designs
373
13.4
General Theory of Block Designs
377
13.5
Construction of Block Designs and Orthogonal Latin Squares
387
chapter 14
INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION THEORY
JACOB WOLFOWITZ
406
14.1
Introduction
406
14.2
Channels
406
14.3
Codes
407
14.4
Entropy; Generated Sequences
408
14.5
The Discrete Memoryless Channel
410
14.6
Compound Channels
412
14.7
Other Channels
414
chapter 15
SPERNER'S LEMMA AND SOME EXTENSIONS
CHARLES B. TOMPKINS
416
15.1
Introduction
15.2
Sperner's Lemma
416
418
15.3
Brouwer's Fixed-Point Theorem
424
15.4
Subdivisions of a Simplex
427
15.5
Review of PositionSecond Introduction
430
15.6
Oriented Simplexes, Their Boundaries/ and Oriented Simplicial
Mappings
434
15.7
Homologyfc-Chains, Cycles/ Bounding Cycles
437
15.8
The Fundamental Index Theorem
441
15.9
Some Applications
445
15.10
Toward Greater Rigor
453
chapter 16
16.1
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
KENNETH N. TRUEBLOOD
Introduction
Nature of the Crystalline Sfate
16.2
Lattices
456
456
457
457
Contents
xxi
16.3
Point Symmetry
461
16.4
Space Symmetry
465
16.5
Antisymmetry
467
Crystal Structure Analysis by X-Ray Diffraction
468
16.6
Diffraction
468
16.7
Fourier Transforms of Atoms and Groups of Atoms
474
16.8
The Phase Problem
478
Approaches to Solving the Phase Problem
482
16.9
The Patterson Function
482
16.10
Heavy-Atom Methods
485
16.11
Isomorphous Replacement
488
16.12
Direct Methods
491
16.13
Refinement
Some Aspects of Atomic Arrangements
495
500
16.14
Topology and Shapes of Molecules and Assemblies of Molecules
500
16.15
Packing of Spheres, Molecules, and Polyhedra
504
16.16
Disordered Structures and Order-Disorder Phenomena
507
chapter 17
COMBINATORIAL PRINCIPLES IN GENETICS
GEORGE GAMOW
515
17.1
Introduction
515
17.2
Amino-Acid Sequences in Proteins
515
17.3
Double-Stranded Sequences in DNA
519
17.4
Combinatorial Principles
522
17.5
The Overlapping-Code Hypothesis
522
17.6
Statistical Investigations
523
17.7
Geometric Implications
525
17.8
Statistical Assignments
526
17.9
Monte Carlo Methods
528
17.10
Experimental Results
532
chapter 18
APPENDICES
HERMANN WEYL
536
18.1
Ars Combinatoria
536
18.2
Quantum Physics and Causality
551
18.3
Chemical Valence and the Hierarchy of Structures
563
18.4
Physics and Biology
572
ANSWERS TO MULTIPLE-CHOICE REVIEW PROBLEMS
583
AUTHOR INDEX
585
SUBJECT INDEX
591
