BUILDING SERVICES

HANDBOOK

BUILDING
SERVICES
HANDBOOK
Fifth edition

Fred Hall
and

Roger Greeno

AMSTERDAM BOSTON HEIDELBERG LONDON

NEW YORK OXFORD PARIS SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier

Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier Ltd.

Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP
30 Corporate Road, Burlington, MA 01803
First published 2001
Reprinted 2001, 2002
Second edition 2003
Reprinted 2004 (twice)
Third edition 2005
Reprinted 2006 (twice)
Fourth edition 2007
Reprinted 2008
Fifth edition 2009
Copyright 2009, Roger Greeno and Fred Hall. Published by Elsevier Limited.
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accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988
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CONTENTS
Preface to fth edition xiii
Preface to fourth edition xiv
Preface to third edition xv
Preface to second edition xvi
Preface to rst edition xvii
Part One Introduction
The industry

Construction team 3
Legislative and support documents 4
Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 5
Building Act

10

Water Industry Act 11

British Standards

13

European Standards 13
International Standards 13
Building Research Establishment 14
Design and installation standards 15

Part Two Cold Water and Supply Systems

17

Rain cycle sources of water supply 18

Acidity and alkalinity in water 19
Filtration of water 20
Sterilisation and softening 21
Storage and distribution of water 22
Valves and taps 23
Joints on water pipes 26
Pipe jointing materials 27
Water mains

28

Direct system of cold water supply 31

Indirect system of cold water supply 32
Hard and soft water 33
Water conditioning 35
Backflow protection 41
Secondary backflow protection 42
Cold water storage cisterns 44
Cold water storage calculations 45
Boosted cold water systems 46

Delayed action float valve 49

Pump laws

52

Pipe sizing by formula 54

Pipe sizes and resistances
Hydraulics and fluid flow

55
58

Part Three Hot Water Supply Systems

63

Direct system of hot water supply 65

Indirect system of hot water supply 66
Unvented hot water storage system 67
Expansion and temperature relief valves 70
Hot water storage cylinders 73
Primatic hot water storage cylinder 74
Medium and high rise building supply systems 77
Types of boiler 78
Secondary circulation 83
Duplication of plant 84
Electric and gas water heaters 85
Solar heating of water 92
Hot water storage capacity 95
Boiler rating
Pipe sizing

96

97

Circulation pump rating 100

Legionnaires' disease in hot water systems 101
SEDBUK

102

Galvanic or electrolytic action 105

Water treatment

106

Part Four Heating Systems

Heat emitters

109

110

Low temperature, hot water heating systems 113

Underfloor and panel heating 121
Expansion facilities in heating systems 124
Expansion vessels 125
Solar space heating 126
High temperature, pressurised hot water systems 128
Steam heating systems 130
District heating 135
Combined heat and power 138
Expansion of pipework 139
Thermostatic control of heating systems 141
Timed control of heating systems 142
Zoned controls

148

Energy management systems 152

Warm air heating system 155
Heating design

156

`U' values 156

Part Five Fuel Characteristics and Storage

171

Fuels factors affecting choice 172

Solid fuel properties and storage 173
Domestic solid fuel boilers 175
Solid fuel flues 177
Oil properties 179
Oil storage and supply 181
Oil-fired burners 185
Oil flues 190
Natural gas properties 192
Liquid petroleum gas properties and storage 193
Electric boiler 195
Electricity electrode boiler 196

Part Six Ventilation Systems

197

Ventilation requirements 198

Guide to ventilation rates 199
Domestic accommodation 200
Mechanical ventilation 207
Types of fan
Fan laws

212

213

Sound attenuation in ductwork 214

Air filters

215

Low velocity air flow in ducts 218

Air diffusion

219

Ventilation design 220

Resistances to air flow 228

Part Seven Air Conditioning 231

Air conditioning principles and applications 232
Central plant system 233
Air processing unit 234
Humidifiers

235

Variable air volume 236

Induction (air/water) system 237
Fan-coil (air/water) unit and induction diffuser 238
Dual duct system 239

Cooling systems

241

Refrigerant and system characteristics 242

Packed air conditioning systems 246
Psychrometrics processes and applications 248
Heat pumps

256

Heat recovery devices 260

Health considerations and building related illnesses 261

Part Eight Drainage Systems, Sewage Treatment and Refuse Disposal

263

Combined and separate systems 264

Partially separate system 265
Rodding point system 266
Sewer connection 267
Drainage ventilation 268
Drain laying

271

Means of access 272

Bedding of drains 277
Drains under or near buildings 279
Joints used on drain pipes 280
Anti-flood devices 281
Garage drainage 282
Drainage pumping 283
Subsoil drainage
Tests on drains
Soakaways

286
289

290

Cesspools and septic tanks 291

Drainage fields and mounds 296
Rainwater management 300
Drainage design 302
Refuse chute

313

Part Nine Sanitary Fitments and Appliances: Discharge and Waste Systems
Flushing cisterns, troughs and valves 320
Water closets
Bidets

Showers
Baths
Sinks

325

327
328

334
335

Wash basins and troughs 337

Thermostatic temperature control 339
Urinals

345

Hospital sanitary appliances 347

Sanitary conveniences 348

319

Facilities for the disabled 352

Traps and waste valve 355
Single stack system and variations 359
One- and two-pipe systems 363
Pumped waste system 365
Wash basins waste arrangements 366
Waste pipes from washing machines and dishwashers 367
Air test

368

Sanitation data 369

Offsets

371

Ground floor appliances high rise buildings 372

Fire stops and seals 373
Flow rates and discharge units 375
Sanitation design discharge stack sizing 376

Part Ten Gas Installation, Components and Controls

Natural gas combustion 380
Mains gas supply and installation 381
Gas service pipe intake 383
Meters

388

Gas controls and safety features 389

Gas ignition devices and burners 390
Purging and testing 396
Gas appliances

399

Balanced flue appliances 402

Open flue appliances 410
Flue blocks

411

Flue terminals 412

Flue lining

412

Shared flues

413

Fan assisted gas flues 416

Ventilation requirements 418
Flue gas analysis 421
Gas laws

422

Gas consumption 426

Gas pipe sizing

427

Part Eleven Electrical Supply and Installations

431

Three-phase generation and supply 432

Electricity distribution 433
Intake to a building 435
Earthing systems and bonding 436
Consumer unit

441

379

Power and lighting circuits 448

Overload protection 453
Electric wiring

456

Testing completed installation 458

Cable rating
Diversity

460

461

Industrial installations 462

Electric space heating 465
Space heating controls 469
Construction site electricity 470
Light sources, lamps and luminaires 472
Lighting controls 481
Extra-low-voltage lighting 483
Lighting design
Daylighting

485

487

Telecommunications installation 492

Part Twelve Mechanical Conveyors Lifts, Escalators and Travelators

Planning lift installations 494
Electric lifts

496

Roping systems
Controls

497

498

Lift doors

501

Machine room and equipment 502

Safety features

503

Installation details 504

Dimensions

505

Paternoster lifts 506

Oil-hydraulic lifts 508
Lifting arrangements and installation 508
Pumping unit

509

Estimating the number of lifts required 511

Firefighting lifts 512
Builders' and electricians' work 515
Escalators

517

Travelators
Stair lifts

519

520

Part Thirteen Fire Prevention and Control Services

Sprinklers

522

Drenchers

534

Hose reels

535

521

493

Hydrants

536

Foam installations 539

Gas extinguishers 540
Fire alarms

543

Smoke, fire and heat detectors 545

Electrical alarm circuits 549
Fire dampers in ductwork 552
Pressurisation of escape routes 553
Smoke extraction, ventilation and control 554
Portable fire extinguishers 557
Carbon monoxide detectors 560

Part Fourteen Security Installations

563

Intruder alarms 564

Micro-switch and magnetic reed 565
Radio sensor, pressure mat and taut wiring 566
Acoustic, vibration and inertia detectors 567
Ultrasonic and microwave detectors 568
Active infra-red detector 569
Passive infra-red detector 570
Lightning protection systems 572

Part Fifteen Accommodation for Building Services

575

Ducts for engineering services 576

Floor and skirting ducts 578
Medium and large vertical ducts 579
Medium and large horizontal ducts 580
Subways or walkways 581
Penetration of fire structure by pipes 582
Raised access floors 583
Suspended and false ceilings 584

Part Sixteen Alternative and Renewable Energy

Alternative energy 586
Wind power
Fuel cells

587

589

Water power

590

Geothermal power 591

Solar power

593

Photovoltaic systems 595

Biomass or biofuel 597

585

Part Seventeen Appendices

599

Appendix 1 Glossary of common abbreviations 600

Appendix 2 Abbreviations for pipework 602
Appendix 3 Abbreviations for pipework components 603
Appendix 4 Abbreviations used for drainage systems 604
Appendix 5 Abbreviations used for sanitation systems 605
Appendix 6 Graphical symbols for pipework 606
Appendix 7 Identification of pipework 607
Appendix 8 Graphical symbols for electrical installation work 609
Appendix 9 Metric units

610

Appendix 10 Water pressure and head Comparison of units 613

Appendix 11 Conversion of common imperial units to metric 614

Index

617

PREFACE TO FIFTH EDITION

The format of this new edition retains the easily accessible presentation of previous
editions. This comprises illustrations and support notes with numerical examples.
References for further reading are provided where appropriate.
The extensive range of materials, components, trade practices and professions
encompassed by the building services industry requires a library of texts and reference
data to contain the breadth and depth of study therein. For the specialist there are
many excellent detailed and specic texts. The objective of this Handbook is to access
these topics in one comprehensive learning package, thereby establishing a broad
appreciation of the subject and a basis for further research.
The content of former editions is retained with updates as required. Supplementary
pages occur throughout most Parts, particularly with regard to emerging regulations
and practices that affect fuel and water conservation and measures for environmental
control. A new introductory Part is provided as a general overview of the industry.
This also contains some aspects of legislative controls and quality standards that
inuence professional and industrial procedures.
I would like to dedicate this 5th edition to my former colleague and friend Fred Hall,
who sadly passed away in 2008. After spending many years in the building services
industry, Fred subsequently established a career in Further and Higher Education.
His diverse skills and broad knowledge enabled him to teach the crafts as well as
technician and professional examination students. He also found time to produce
numerous illustrative textbooks, not least the fore-runner to this book, Essential
Building Services and Equipment. He contributed much to the education of many,
especially to my career both as my tutor and later as professional associate.
Roger Greeno, 2009

PREFACE TO FOURTH
EDITION
This new and updated edition continues the successful combination of consolidated
text, generous use of illustrations and simplied design calculations and graphics.
Since the previous edition, the impact of new energy conservation measures has
materialised in revised installation procedures and practice standards. It has been a
time to absorb these requirements and consider the changed role that building services
engineering now has on the design and construction of our buildings. In less than
three decades, the mechanical and electrical (M&E) engineer's title and job function
as specier of pipes, ducts and cables has changed to that of architectural design
team consultant and construction site management co-ordinator. Input to these areas
is critical to the success of a building and it includes a vast range of facilities and
provisions, not least those contained herein. What would Louis Kahn (see Preface to
First edition) make of it all now?
This book is presented in a comprehensive format to emphasise the importance of the
numerous specialist professions and trades. It combines with the companion volume
Building Construction Handbook to introduce the principles of the modern serviced
building, with regard to the impact the subject has on contemporary design. This book
is not intended as prescriptive, neither is it extensive. It is by denition a handbook,
and as such is intended to provide the reader with an understanding of a wide range of
topics. Where appropriate, sources for further reading and research are provided.
Roger Greeno, 2007

PREFACE TO THIRD
EDITION
Since publication of the second edition, revised Building Regulations have introduced
new measures to improve energy conservation and to reduce environmental
contamination, global warming and climatic change. This new edition considers the
means for satisfying current objectives to reduce the amount of CO2 emissions that
pollute the atmosphere from fuel-burning appliances. Domestic plumbing, hot water
and heating installations are specically targeted. These systems produce about one
quarter of the UK's carbon emissions and also draw signicantly on nite fossil fuel
resources. This enlarged edition incorporates practical measures for efcient use of
fuel-burning plant and effective use of system controls.
Where necessary, existing topics are updated and developed to represent new
technologies and procedures. Guidance on regulation changes provides for awareness
for the needs of the disabled in the layout, design and use of sanitary facilities,
transport within buildings and accessibility of controls.
The established page format of simple illustrations, dened text and design calculations
where appropriate are retained as a comprehensive presentation of subject matter.
Legislative references and practice standards are provided for further reading.
Roger Greeno, Guildford, 2005

PREFACE TO SECOND
EDITION
The success of the rst edition as a reader for building and services further and higher
education courses, and as a general practice reference, has permitted further research
and updating of material in this new publication.
This new edition retains the existing pages as established reference, updates as
necessary and develops additional material in response to evolving technology with
regard to the introduction of new British Standards, European Standards, Building
Regulations, Water Regulations and good practice guidance. Where appropriate,
references are provided to these documents for further specic reading.
Roger Greeno, Guildford, 2003

PREFACE TO FIRST
EDITION
The capital and installation costs of building services in modern buildings can take
up 50% of the total construction budget. For highly serviced buildings such as
sports centres, this gure can easily exceed 75%. Services can also take up 15% of
a building's volume. Therefore building services cannot be ignored. Architects have
learnt to accept and accommodate the increased need for pipes, ducts and cabling
encroaching on to their designs. Some with reluctance, not least Louis Kahn when
writing in World Architecture in 1964: `I do not like ducts, I do not like pipes. I hate
them so thoroughly, I feel that they have to be given their place. If I just hated them
and took no care, I think they would invade the building and completely destroy it.'
Not all architects have chosen to compete with the ducting and mechanical plant. Some
have followed the examples of Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers by integrating it with
the construction and making it a feature of the building, viz. the Pompidou Centre in
Paris and the Lloyds Building in London.
Building services are the dynamics in a static structure, providing movement,
communications, facilities and comfort. As they are unavoidable, it is imperative that
architects, surveyors, builders, structural engineers, planners, estate managers and all
those concerned with the construction of buildings have a knowledge and appreciation
of the subject.
This book incorporates a wide range of building services. It provides a convenient
reference for all construction industry personnel. It is an essential reference for the
craftsman, technician, construction site manager, facilities manager and building
designer. For students of building crafts, national certicates and diplomas,
undergraduates and professional examinations, this book will substantiate study notes
and be an important supplement to lectures.
The services included in this book are cold and hot water supplies, heating, ventilation,
air conditioning, drainage, sanitation, refuse and sewage disposal, gas, electricity, oil
installation, re services, transportation, accommodation for services, energy recovery
and alternative energy. The emphasis throughout is economic use of text with a high
proportion of illustrations to show the principles of installation in a comprehensive
manner. Where appropriate, subjects are supplemented with references for further
reading into legislative and national standards. Most topics have design applications
with charts and formulae to calculate plant and equipment ratings or sizes.

This book has been developed from the second edition of Essential Building Services
and Equipment by Frederick E. Hall. Fred endorsed this with thanks to his `. . . late
wife for her patience and understanding during the preparation of the rst edition.'
I would like to add my sincere thanks to my former colleague, Fred, for allowing
me to use his material as the basis for this new presentation. It is intended as a
complementary volume to the Building Construction Handbook by Roy Chudley and
Roger Greeno, also published by Butterworth-Heinemann.
Roger Greeno, Guildford, 2000

INTRODUCTION

Statutes

Statutory Instruments

Supplementary Design and Installation Guides

THE INDUSTRY
BUILDING SERVICES IN CONSTRUCTION
LEGISLATIVE AND SUPPORT DOCUMENTS
HEALTH AND SAFETY AT WORK ETC. ACT
BUILDING ACT
WATER INDUSTRY ACT
BRITISH STANDARDS
EUROPEAN STANDARDS
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
BUILDING RESEARCH ESTABLISHMENT
LOSS PREVENTION CERTIFICATION BOARD
DESIGN AND INSTALLATION STANDARDS

The Industry
The building services industry is based on engineering principles that
are applied to the construction of buildings and the built environment.
In

many

respects,

building

services

are

responsible

for

the

artificial

environment in which we live and work, and associated with that the
environmental condition of our planet.

Its origins as a science and technology are well documented, not least
the use of Archimedes `spiral for movement of water' and the concept
of under floor heating in Roman palaces. More recently, it has evolved
in response to the demands of population growth and the expectation
of comfortable shelter, convenience and a healthy home and workplace
environment.

As

an

industry

it

is

vast

in

terms

of

the

diversity

of

professions and trades that it encompasses.

Availability

of

during

the

mid

design

responded

many

fossil
to

instances

fuels
latter

with

became
part

readily

of

mechanical

consumed

the

fuel

and

abundantly

the

20th

century,

and

electrical

excessively.

available

and

systems

Large

building
that

single

in

glazed

areas caused over-heating, glare and solar discomfort in the summer,

combined

with

Thermostatic

cold

draughts

control

was

and

often

high

heat

rudimentary

losses
and

in

the

winter.

compensated

by

opening and closing windows accordingly. The industry has responded,

and

buildings

are

now

designed

to

be

sustainable,

energy

conscious

and environmentally friendly. Inevitably this has changed the image of

the industry professionals from those that run pipes or cables from
one place to another, to that of high profile consultants on building
design with responsibilities for environmental issues, fuel conservation
and energy performance.

Progress has been affected through government legislation formulated

from

consultation

research

with

organisations.

manufacturers'

the

industry

Advances

research

and

have

professional

also

development

been
in

made

response

bodies
by
to

and

product
market

competition.

The

industry

Design

is

undertaken
site
main

under

is

generally

undertaken
by
the

by

specialist
overall

contractor.

Some

divided

between

specialist

contractors.

administration
design

and

design

and

installation.

consultancies

and

installation

The
of

latter

sub-contracted

construction

installation

practices

simplifies contractual and communication relationships.

on

management
exist,

which

Building Services in the Construction Process

Finance,
e.g. banks

Estate agent

Solicitor

Quantity
surveyor

Client

Land
surveyor
Local
authority:
Planning
Public health
Bldg. control
Highways
Fire
Civil engineer

Structural
engineer

Bldg. services
consultants

Environment
consultant

Architect

*
*

Nominated
sub-contractors

Nominated
suppliers

Public
utilities:
Gas
Electricity
Water
Tele-coms.

HSE

NHBC
inspector

Main contractor

Builders
merchants

Plant and
equipment hire

Manufacturers

Manufacturers

Direct labour
and staff

Specialist
sub-contractors

Bldg. services
sub-contractors

Specialist
supplier

Specialist
supplier

*
*

Inter-relationship between the various parties to a typical housing development

* Building services

Legislative and Support Documents

Statute an Act of Parliament that establishes a standard of law.
Primary legislation.

Statutory Instrument a regulation made under a statute to provide

guidance

that

satisfies

particular

standard

of

law.

Secondary

legislation.

The

number

of

statutes

and

associated

secondary

legislation

that

influence the building services industry is extensive. Some of the most

significant include:

The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act.

The Building Act.

The Water Industry Act.

The Consumer Protection Act.

The Housing Act.

The Clean Air Act.

The Environment Act.

There is also a category of legislation known as byelaws. These are

authorised by a state charter that allows a municipal or corporate
administration to effect a standard of law through its own regulation
(e.g. The Inner London Byelaws).

Practice guidance documents often quoted in support of legislation.

These too are extensive, some of which include:

British Standards (BS).

European Standards (BS EN).

International Standards (BS EN ISO).

Building Research Establishment:

Digests
Good Building Guides
Good Repair Guides
Information Papers.

Loss Prevention Certification Board (Loss Prevention Standards).

CIBSE Guides.

' ment Certificates.

British Board of Agre

The Institution of Electrical Engineer's Regulations (BS 7671).

Health and Safety at Work etc. Act

This
in

statute

the

work

is

fundamental

workplace
activity.

and

to

(HSE)

The

inspectorate

other

from

workplaces

application

others

Administration

Executive
HSE

in

any

is

national,

to

is

that

through

regional

empowered

review

to
the

and

to

procedures

all

could

persons

be

Health

locally

access
and

engaged

affected

the

Safety

based

offices.

building

safety

by

and

sites

records.

and

Where

appropriate, improvement and prohibition notices can be issued and if

necessary, prosecutions.

The

Health

and

supplementary

Safety

at

Statutory

Work

etc.

Instruments.

Act

incorporates

Some

of

the

numerous

more

relevant

include:

Construction (Design and Management) Regulations.

Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations.

Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations.

Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations.

Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations (COSHH).

Control of Asbestos at Work Regulations (CAWS).

Manual Handling Operations Regulations.

Work at Height Regulations.

Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals) Regulations.

Control of Major Accident Hazards Regulations (COMAH).

Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations (LOLER).

Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations.

Electricity at Work Regulations.

Gas Safety (Management) Regulations.

Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations.

Other

related

statutes

with

particular

also

effected

Offices,
other

Shops

regard

through
and

commitments

provide

acceptable

to

the

regulation
health
long

Railway

and

these

levels

of

environmental

safety

established

Premises

under

of

Act.

statutes,

lighting,

in

the

Factories
In

Act

addition

employers

temperature

are

and

standards

workplace
and
to

is
the

many

obliged

to

atmospheric

conditions.

Health and Safety at Work etc. Act Secondary Legislation (1)

Construction (Design and Management) Regulations.

These

create

an

integrated

and

planned

approach

to

health

and

safety, with responsibility apportioned to every person involved in the

project
must

workplace.

appoint

them

with

The

project

project

client

coordinator

information

on

health

has

overall

(usually

and

the

safety

responsibility
architect),

matters

and

provide

and

advise

them of perceived hazards and commitments to care of third parties.

The

project

(the

builder)

coordinator
has

must

prepared

ensure

that

the

construction

principal

phase

plan.

contractor
This

must

contain specific reference to identification and assessment of all risks,

i.e. health and safety, and information conveying the plan's content
to all specialist building services sub-contractors and others engaged
in the work. See also, Part 1 of The Building Construction Handbook
(R. Chudley and R. Greeno 2008 Elsevier).

Construction (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations.

These establish objectives for the well being of all persons involved
in

construction

site

related

project.

The

main

requirements

apply

to groundwork, ventilation of workplaces, accessibility of workplaces

(ladders),

safety

at

the

workplace

(scaffold),

welfare

(first-aid,

etc.),

accommodation (shelter, rest room, sanitary facilities) and protective

clothing. See also, Part 2 of The Building Construction Handbook.

Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations.

These

cover

the

wide

range

of

health,

safety

and

welfare

issues

mentioned above, but have particular application to most workplaces

other

than

construction

work

on

building

sites.

This

can

include

schools, hospitals, offices, factories, hotels, places of entertainment,

etc. Responsibility is placed on employers to satisfy certain minimum
standards for their employees and also for others on their premises,
possibly those attending for purposes of plant maintenance, repair or
alterations.

Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations.

These

regulations

provide

guidance

on

the

general

duties

and

obligations that employers have to their employees and third parties.

They also contain guidance on the responsibilities that employees have
to themselves and their colleagues.

Health and Safety at Work etc. Act Secondary Legislation (2)

Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations (COSHH).

These

require

product

manufacturers

to

declare

on

their

product

packaging, any possible health risk that could be associated with the
contents (e.g. plastic pipe solvent jointing adhesive is labelled "Irritant"
and "Do Not Breath Vapour" amongst other guidance). Manufacturers
of,

and

employers

using

products

having

potential

health

risk

to

personnel, are required to determine what safety measures and other

controls are needed. Where toxins, irritants, solvents, dusts, etc. are
apparent, users are required to wear appropriate personal protective
clothing. Where applications create fumes or other air contaminants,
employers

are

required

to

monitor

exposure,

retain

records

and

to

document procedures.

Control of Asbestos at Work Regulations (CAWS).

Since

the

1970s,

it

has

become

apparent

that

some

people

with

respiratory health problems have related this to previous employment

that

exposed

boilers.
slurry

Until
of

them
this

to

asbestos

time,

asbestos

insulation

insulation

fibres

mixed

was

with

on

industrial

commonly

water.

The

pipes

produced
slurry

was

and

from

applied

by hand to a wire reinforced surface. Many people who worked with

asbestos,

notably

disorders

(asbestosis)

and

pipe-fitters

manufacturers.

and

leading

There

is

laggers,

to

now

claims
a

have

since

against

legacy

of

suffered

former

asbestos

lung

employers

in

industrial

plant rooms, process plant and hospital services. In these workplace

situations an employer is obliged to undertake a risk assessment by
survey

and

analysis.

The

related

Asbestos

Licensing

Regulations

provides strict guidelines on how to handle asbestos. Where identified

it should only be dealt with by specialists.

Manual Handling Operations Regulations.

These

require

correct

employers

procedures

incurring

injury,

to

for

to

provide

handling

recognise

operatives

and
their

with

carrying
limitations

training

equipment
and

to

in

the

without
identify

appropriate use of mechanical handling facilities. This includes planning

for efficient use of storage and loading areas to avoid unnecessary
double

handling,

and

informing

suppliers

of

suitable

quantities

and

package sizes relative to available resources.

Health and Safety at Work etc. Act Secondary Legislation (3)

Work at Height Regulations.

These regulations place emphasis on employers to ensure that suitable

and sufficient safe access facilities are provided. For building services
applications this will include work below ground, work at ground level
and above. Support to trench excavations, barriers to prevent falls,
scaffolding
suitable

and

ladders

means

experienced

for

and

for

safe

use

above

access

qualified

and

persons.

ground

egress,

and

must

Equipment

in

be

all

situations

constructed

inspections

and

by

safety

reports must be undertaken within 7 days of use, following adverse

weather and after alterations. Reports are mandatory and must be
retained on file. See also, Part 2 (scaffold) and Part 4 (trench support)
of The Building Construction Handbook.

The Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals) Regulations.

These require employers to provide health and safety signs. In order

to draw attention to potential hazards they are commonly seen at
the

entrances

to

building

sites

and

are

colour

coded

according

to

significance:
Prohibition red and circular, showing what must not be done.
Mandatory blue and circular, showing what must be done.
Warning yellow and triangular, showing a risk, hazard or danger.
Safe green square or oblong, showing escape routes, first aid, etc.

Control of Major Accidents Hazards Regulations (COMAH).

COMAH regulations apply specifically to the practical use of dangerous

substances

or

equipment.

Every

operative

must

take

all

necessary

measures to prevent accidents with equipment in their charge and to

limit their consequences. An example is an awareness of precautionary
procedures with the fire and explosive potential of welding equipment,
particularly portable units.

Lifting Operations and Lifting Equipment Regulations (LOLER).

These

regulations

conveying
building

people

sites.

The

relate
(hoists)

to

increased

and

regulations

use

materials
are

of

mechanical

(hoists

principally

and

about

plant

cranes)
the

for

about

safe

and

correct use of this equipment with regard to assessment of risks by

trained operatives.

Health and Safety at Work etc. Act Secondary Legislation (4)

Personal Protective Equipment at Work Regulations.

Employers

are

required

to

provide

suitable

personal

protective

equipment (PPE) to employees who may be exposed to any identifiable

risk to their health and safety. Self-employed sub-contract personnel
are required to provide themselves with PPE. Examples of protective
clothing include earmuffs, safety helmets, safety footwear, eye shields,
gloves and overalls.

Electricity at Work Regulations.

These regulations ensure that the electrical installation and equipment

in

places

detached
must
cut

be

off.

of
and
made

employment
insulated
for

is

to

isolation

Responsibility

for

of

satisfactory

prevent
of

this

individual
is

not

standard,

accidental

damage.

circuits

solely

and

with

the

suitably
Provision

overall

power

employer,

as

employees and the self-employed also have responsibility for safe use
of electricity in their work situation. All places of work apply and the
regulations are effected under four main areas:
Installation systems.
Connected equipment.
Conductors.
Competence of people using or near to electrical equipment.

Gas Safety (Management) Regulations and the Gas Safety

(Installation and Use) Regulations.

The `management' regulations apply to the conveyance of natural gas

to its point of use in domestic and other premises. Four main areas are
covered:
Conveyance management through the network of pipes to end users.
Procedures to be adopted during an emergency.
Procedures for dealing with incidents such as a gas escape.
Composition of the gas conveyed.
Both

regulations

include

duties

of

care

by

providers,

installers

and landlords to their customers. Emphasis is on safe installation and

maintenance of gas appliances with work only undertaken by qualified
persons. For this purpose the HSE recognises engineers on the `Gas
Safe Register'.
The `installation and use' regulations specifically require landlords and
property managing agents to have installations and appliances in their
care checked at least once annually. Gas safety certificates are to be
kept for at least two years and tenants issued with a safety check
record within 28 days of check completion.

The Building Act

The Building Act of 1984 consolidates previous byelaws and enables
the Secretary of State (Dept. for Communities and Local Government)
to make regulations for the design and construction of buildings. This
includes the provision of building services facilities and equipment.
Building Regulations Statutory Instruments made under the Building
Act

to

The

main

minimum

include

approval

aspect

of

performance

the

of

building

Building

standards

inspectors

and

Regulations

applicable

to

is
the

inspection

fees.

establishment
construction

of
and

environmental performance of buildings. These standards are supported

by practical guidance Approved Documents that are regarded as an
acceptable means for compliance.
Approved Documents England and Wales (other regions vary)
Part

Title
Basements for dwellings

Structure

B*

Fire safety: Vol. 1 Dwellinghouses

Site preparation and resistance to contaminants and

Vol. 2 Buildings other than dwellinghouses

moisture
D

Toxic substances

Resistance to the passage of sound

F*

Ventilation

G*

Sanitation, hot water safety and water efficiency

H*

Drainage and waste disposal

J*

Combustion appliances and fuel storage systems

Protection from falling, collision and impact

L*

Conservation of fuel and power

L1A: New dwellings
L1B: Existing dwellings
L2A: New buildings other than dwellings
L2B: Existing buildings other than dwellings

Access to and use of buildings

Glazing

P*

Electrical safety

A.D. to Regulation 7* of the Building Act Materials and workmanship.

*

Indicates those particularly relevant to the building services industry.

10

The Water Industry Act

Until 1999 this statute enabled the various water supply authorities in
the UK to create their own byelaws. Since then these diverse byelaws
have

been

consolidated

and

replaced

by

the

following

Statutory

Instruments:

Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations [England and Wales]

Water Byelaws [Scotland]

These apply to all mains water supply systems from where the service
pipe enters the property boundary to include fittings and appliances
connected thereafter. The principal objective of these regulations and
byelaws is to prevent water wastage, misuse, excessive consumption
and

contamination.

Building

owners,

occupiers

and

installers

have

responsibility to ensure that the installation satisfies the regulations.

Architects and developers must also satisfy the regulations in advance
of
is

future

owners.

engaged

Where

signed

containing

undertaker

for

description
new

an

approved

certificate
of

will

the

installations.

be

work

contractor
issued
must

Approval

(see

on

WRAS

below)

completion.

Notice

be

given

must

also

to
be

the

water

sought

for

any significant changes, alterations or additions. Some examples include

installation of a swimming pool or pond exceeding 10,000 litres and
automatic garden watering systems.

The

Department

for

Regional

Development

in

Northern

Ireland

also

have water regulations and these are being reviewed for parity with
the standards applied elsewhere in the UK.

Water Regulations Advisory Scheme (WRAS) an advisory body based

in

Newport,

legislation
Water

South

through

Regulations

Wales.

Its

purpose

communications
Guide.

Other

and

is

to

support

publications,

activities

include

water

supply

particularly

consultation

the
with

local and national governments, professional and trade organisations

and

product

manufacturers.

Also,

development

of

test

criteria

for

materials and fittings, publication of a directory of approved products,

approval and listing of installers in a directory and representing the
industry on development of national and international standards.

11

Further Relevant Statutes

Consumer

Protection

Act

should

ensure

that

products

and

components are of a quality standard without defect. In the context

of building services it applies to fittings and appliances such as gas
and

electric

cookers

as

well

as

central

components

such

as

boilers

and refrigeration units. A consumer provided with defective or unsafe

goods

can

pursue

legal

claims

for

damage

to

property

and

other

losses caused by the item. Suppliers, manufacturers and importers are

all liable.

Housing Act this contains a number of measures relating to landlords

maintaining their properties in a safe and healthy manner to safeguard
the

interests

of

tenants

and

visitors.

housing

fitness

standard

in

the form of a hazard and risk assessment plan must be provided in

accordance with the Housing Health and Safety Rating System.
The

Act

also

marketing

provides

details

Construction

for

when

Handbook).

Home

selling
The

Information
a

Packs

property

significant

part

(see
of

as

part

Part

1,

the

`pack'

of

the

Building
for

the

building services industry is a requirement for an Energy Performance

Certificate. This rates a property on a scale ranging from A at the
upper end down to G. Its purpose is to encourage householders to
update

and

installation

refurbish
of

high

central

efficiency

heating

systems,

condensing

particularly

boilers

and

with

thermostatic

controls. The overall objective is to reduce fuel bills and the carbon
emission impact on the environment. Associated Statutory Instrument
is the Home Information Pack Regulations.

Clean Air Act passed in response to the atmospheric pollution/smog

of the early 1950s. The causes were to a large extent, discharge from
industrial

furnaces

and

boiler

plant,

coal

burning

electricity

power

generators and on the smaller scale but more predominant domestic

flues. Local authorities are empowered to prohibit dark smoke, grit,
dust and fumes from these sources of pollution by encouraging use
of smokeless fuels to reduce sulphur levels and construction of tall
chimneys.

Environment

Act

environment.

Factors

industry

include

air

sets

out

and

criteria

quality

with

strategy
relevant

regard

to

for
to
flue

pollution control and water resource management.

12

protection

the

building

gases,

of

the

services

drainage

and

British, European and International Standards

The

British

independent
products
with

its

and

Regulations

Its

businesses.

BS's

be

body

kite-mark

affecting

procedures.
may

know

and

extensive,

Institution

impartial

practices.

well

industries

but

Standards
and

are

in

as

other

established

provide

principles

are

appearing

on

building

materials,

quoted
and

In

was

to

much

services

information
to

satisfy

Statutory

in

1901

quality

items

components,

effect
deemed

as

an

standard

for

the

same

the

range

design

and

solutions

provisions

Instruments.

today,

appropriate

all

BS's

is

installation

for
in

to

of

guidance,

the

Reference

Building

documents

are prefixed BS followed by an allocated number, e.g. BS 1566-1: Copper

indirect cylinders for domestic purposes.

Other documents published by the BSI:

Codes of practice these are guides for good site practice,

e.g. Code of practice PAS 39: Management of public swimming
pools. Water treatment systems, water treatment plant and
heating and ventilation systems. PAS indicates Publicly Available
Specification.

Drafts for development these are BS's or Codes of practice in the

process of completion, where some data is still to be formulated.
Prefixed DD or DC (Draft for Completion).

Published documents papers not conveniently placed in any of the

preceding categories. Prefixed PD.

European standards are gradually replacing standards to one country,

as

products

These

become

standards

Normalisation

harmonised

are

(CEN)

across

administered

which

by

incorporates

the
the

the

European
'
Comite

BSI.

Community.

' en
Europe

Compliant

BS's

de
are

prefixed BS EN, e.g. BS EN 274-1: Waste fittings for sanitary appliances.

Requirements.

The International Organisation for Standardisation (known as ISO) is

a

worldwide

federation

incorporating

about

100

national

standards

bodies to promote international exchange of goods and services by

establishing

uniformly

acceptable

quality

standard.

ISO

documents

are compatible with BS's when they are prefixed BS ISO or BS EN ISO,
e.g. BS EN ISO 8434-1: Metallic tube connections for fluid power and
general use.

13

Building Research Establishment (BRE)

The Building Research Station was created in 1921 as a civil service
department
Over

the

including

to

develop

years
the

it

Fire

initiatives

for

incorporated

Research

improving

several

Station.

housing

other

During

the

standards.

research
1970s

it

bodies
changed

its name and in 1997 became a private organisation owned by the

charity

BRE

universities,
some

Trust.

The

building

government

trust

owners,

funding

in

has

representatives

managers
addition

and

to

users.

income

from
The

from

industry,
BRE

has

commercial

programmes, consultancy, a bookshop, research contracts and testing

and

product

certification.

The

and

security

services

below)

(see

latter

including

and

Building

LPCB

fire

products

Regulations

support

documents.

BRE publications are extensive, some of the better known include:

Digests up-to-date topics relating to all aspects of construction

design and technology. Presented with illustrations and photographs
in easy-to-read format, e.g. DG 339: Condensing boilers.

Good Building Guides highly illustrated practice guidance providing

technical advice and solutions, e.g. GG 40: Protecting pipes from
freezing.

Good Repair Guides illustrated applications to remedial procedures

for rectifying common defects, e.g. GR9: Repairing and replacing
rainwater goods.

Information Papers summary findings of recent BRE research into

practical advice and solutions, e.g. IP12/05: Small scale building
integrated wind power systems.

Loss

Prevention

originated

in

Certification

the

late

1800s

Board
when

(LPCB)

building

fire

this

organisation

insurers

formed

sub-division known as the Fire Offices Committee. This later became

known as the Loss Prevention Council (LPC) until changing its name
to the LPCB in the 1980s. Long before the Building Regulations came
into

being,

the

LPC

produced

technical

standards

and

specifications

for fire prevention and control. These standards are now updated and
published as Loss Prevention Standards by BRE Certification Ltd.
See also, page 526.

14

Further Design and Installation Standards (1)

CIBSE

The

incorporate
This

Chartered

an

includes

Institution

extensive
a

range

structured

of

of

Building

professional

membership

Services

Engineers

practice

interests.

symbolised

by

individual

qualifications and experience, publication of hands-on practical guides,

scientific research papers and technical applications relating to design
theory.

The

international

Institution

is

research

and

also

representative

standardisation

on

bodies.

many

national

CIBSE

and

publications

are often provided as support to the Building Regulations and other

national standards. They are produced in the following categories:

Guides

Technical Manuals

Application Manuals

Knowledge Series

Commissioning Codes

BBA

The

British

Board

of

' ment
Agre

is

representative

member

of EOTA*. The Board's purpose is to provide a facility for accrediting

manufacturers new products, services and innovative use of materials
that are not otherwise covered by a British or European Standard,
or

other

conforming

' ment
Agre

documentation.

Certificates

may

also be provided as a supplement to show national or international

conformity.

BBA

assessment,
European

Certificates

ensuring

Technical

are

compliance

Approvals

proof
with

(ETA*)

of

rigorous

Building

enabling

testing

Regulations

products

to

and
and

achieve

CE* marking. Testing procedures are monitored by UKAS*, e.g. Cert.

No. 06/H122: Structured Wall Pipe and Fitting.
*See pages 600 and 601.

IEE The Institution of Electrical Engineers publish Wiring Regulations

as a guide to cost effective and safe installation practice. The British
Standards Institution has adopted these regulations into the national
standard BS 7671: Requirements for electrical installations. IEE Wiring
Regulations. The most recent editions are to a large extent harmonised
with

the

requirements

of

the

IEC

(International

Electrotechnical

Commission) and CENELEC (European Committee for Electrotechnical

Standardisation).

15

Further Design and Installation Standards (2)

CIPHE The Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineering
is the representative body for practitioners of plumbing and related
employment.

Its

membership

is

structured

to

the

various

factions

within the industry, with a registration scheme for qualified plumbers

and

plumbing

companies.

The

Institute

has

many

publications

that

contribute to design and installation practice, these include:

Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide

Technical Papers

Dataflow Sheets

System Design and Installation Guides

CAPITA

GROUP

competent*

gas

Administers

installation

mandatory

and

appliance

`gas

safe

register'

maintenance

of

technicians.

Members are required to have suitable qualifications such as a NVQ

in

Gas

Services.

Thereafter,

competence

assessment

is

through

the

Nationally Accredited Certification Scheme (ACS) with renewal every

5

years.

members.

technical

They

also

library
provide

of

information

gas

safety

is

`Fact

available
Sheets'

for

their

primarily

to

promote consumer awareness of gas and carbon monoxide leakage and

as guidance documents for landlords with regard to customer safety
certificates and Building Regulations compliance certificates. Formerly,
The Council for Registered Gas Installers (CORGI).

OFTEC

The

Oil

technicians

suitably

installation

and

Firing

Technical

qualified

maintenance.

as

Association

competent*

Their

for

publications

has
oil

register

fired

include

of

equipment

Easy

Guides,

Information Sheets and a range of Standards.

HETAS The Heating Equipment Testing and Approval Scheme provide

a

quality

standard

accreditation

service

for

domestic

solid

fuel

appliances. Appliances are assessed to British or European Standards

for `safety and fitness for purpose' and where approved, branded with
a three-tick logo and listed in the organisations register. There is also
a register of competent* installers.

*Note:

The

term

`competent'

is

used

in

the

Building

Regulations

as

recognition of Gas Safe, OFTEC and HETAS registered personnel for

installation of heat producing appliances.

16

COLD WATER AND

SUPPLY SYSTEMS

RAIN CYCLE SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY

ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY IN WATER
FILTRATION OF WATER
STERILISATION AND SOFTENING
WATER CONDITIONING AND TREATMENT
STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER
VALVES AND TAPS
JOINTS ON WATER PIPES
PIPE JOINTING MATERIALS
WATER MAINS
DIRECT SYSTEM OF COLD WATER SUPPLY
INDIRECT SYSTEM OF COLD WATER SUPPLY
BACKFLOW PROTECTION
SECONDARY BACKFLOW PROTECTION
COLD WATER STORAGE CISTERNS
COLD WATER STORAGE CALCULATIONS
BOOSTED COLD WATER SYSTEMS
DELAYED ACTION FLOAT VALVE
PIPE SIZING BY FORMULA
PIPE SIZES AND RESISTANCES
HYDRAULICS AND FLUID FLOW

17

Rain Cycle Sources of Water Supply

Surface sources Lakes, streams, rivers, reservoirs, run off from roofs
and paved areas.
Underground

sources

Shallow

wells,

deep

wells,

artesian

wells,

artesian springs, land springs.

Condensation

Clouds

Rain snow or hail

Run off

Sea
Evaporation

Pervious strata
Impervious strata
Rain cycle

River or stream

Shallow well

Lake

Land spring
Deep well

Impervious strata

Pervious strata

Surface and normal underground supplies

Collecting area

Pervious strata
Impervious strata

Plane of saturation
Fault
Artesian spring

Artesian well
Water bearing strata

Artesian wells and springs

18

Acidity and Alkalinity in Water

Acid a substance containing hydrogen which can be replaced by other
elements. Litmus paper in the presence of acidic water turns red.
Alkali

hydrogen

substance

ions

(H).

which

Litmus

will

paper

neutralise
in

the

acid

by

presence

of

accepting
alkaline

its

water

turns blue.
More

accurate

definitions

can

be

obtained

by

using

hydrochemical

electric metres. These measure the amount of hydrogen ions (H) in a

relative proportion of water. This measure of acidity or alkalinity in
solution is referred to numerically from 014 as the pH value.

pH  7 indicates acidity

pH  7 indicates alkalinity

pH  7 chemically pure

The

quality

of

processed

water

is

unlikely

to

be

pure

due

to

contamination at source.
Rainwater contaminated by suspended impurities as it falls through
the

air.

nitrous

These
oxides

impurities
originating

are

principally

from

carbon

domestic

flue

dioxide,
gases

sulphur

and

and

industrial

manufacturing processes. The mixture of these impurities and rainfall

produce `acid rain', an occurrence frequently blamed for the destruction
of plant life.
Surface
inorganic

and

substrata

materials

water

such

as

sources
calcium,

contaminated

magnesium

and

by

dissolved

sodium.

These

are responsible for water hardness as described on pages 21 and 33.

Organic matter from decaying vegetation, animals and untreated waste
water can also contaminate ground water supplies. These are normally
associated with ammonia compounds in the water or bacteria. Certain
types of bacteria present in water can be responsible for outbreaks of
typhoid, cholera and dysentery. Chlorination, as described on page 21 is
applied to filtered water to destroy any remaining bacterial microbes
before general distribution through service reservoirs and mains.
The following table shows the quantity of pollutant microbes present
during the stages of water processing, as described on pages 2022:
Source/process
River
Impounding reservoir
Primary filter
Secondary filter

Typical pollutant microbe count per litre

41000
1500
500
50

Chlorination

Service reservoir

Distribution main

19

Filtration of Water
Pressure

filter

rate

of

filtration

to

12 m3

per

m2

per

hour.

To

backwash, valve A is closed and valves B and C opened. Compressed

air clears the sand of dirt. Diameter  24 m.
Dirty water inlet pipe

Compressed
air pipe
Fine sand
Back
wash
pipe

C
Nozzles

A
B
Clean water outlet
Drain
Gully

Slow sand filter bed rate of filtration 02 to 115 m3 per m2 per hour.
Filter

beds

can

occupy

large

areas

and

the

top

layer

of

sand

will

require removal and cleaning at periodic intervals.

Dirty water

Fine sand
Gravel
Inlet valve

Floor tiles

Clean water
Clay puddle

Small domestic filter the unglazed porcelain cylinder will arrest very
fine particles of dirt and even micro-organisms. The cylinder can be
removed and sterilised in boiling water for 10 minutes.
Inlet valve

Outlet
Support
for cylinder
Unglazed
porcelain
cylinder
Drain cock
Outlet

20

Sterilisation and Softening

Sterilisation
be

sterilised.

by

chlorine

Chlorine

is

injection
generally

water

used

for

used
this

for

drinking

purpose

to

must

destroy

organic matter. Minute quantities (01 to 03 p.p.m.) are normally added

after the filtration process.

Control panel

Diluting water inlet

Diluting water
absorption tower

Injector
Chlorine cylinder
Water main
Softening of hard water by base exchange process sodium zeolites
exchange their sodium base for calcium (chalk) or magnesium bases in
the water. Sodium zeolite plus calcium carbonate or sulphate becomes
calcium zeolite plus sodium carbonate or sulphate. To regenerate, salt
is

added;

calcium

zeolite

plus

sodium

chloride

(salt)

becomes

sodium

zeolite plus calcium chloride which is flushed away.

Soft water outlet pipe

Non-return valve

Salt cap

Back wash
outlet
3
Hard water
inlet pipe

Sodium
zeolites

2
4
5

Drain pipe

Meter
Strainer
To backwash, valves 1, 4, 5 and 6 are closed
and valves 2 and 3 opened

21

Storage and Distribution of Water

Gravitational distribution the water from upland gathering grounds
is impounded in a reservoir. From this point the water is filtered and
chlorinated before serving an inhabited area at lower level. There are
no pumping costs.
Slow sand filter
Service reservoir

Impounding reservoir

Chlorinating house

Pumped
a

distribution

settlement

tank,

water

extracted

subsequently

from

filtered

river

and

is

pumped

chlorinated.

into

Pump

maintenance and running costs make this process more expensive than
gravity systems.
Service reservoir sited underground on top of a hill
or storage tank on top of a tower
Pump house

Tower

River

Slow sand filter

Water main
Settlement tank
Pumping and chlorinating house
Ring main distribution water mains supplying a town or village may
be in the form of a grid. This is preferable to radial distribution as
sections

can

be

isolated

with

minimal

disruption

to

the

remaining

system and there is no more opportunity for water to maintain a flow.

Trunk mains
Isolating valves

Supplies
to buildings

22

Street mains

Valves Used for Water 1

The globe-type stop valve is used to control the flow of water at
high pressure. To close the flow of water the crutch head handle is
rotated
thus

slowly

in

preventing

clockwise

sudden

direction

impact

and

the

gradually

reducing

possibility

of

the

flow,

vibration

and

water hammer.
The gate or sluice valve is used to control the flow of water on low
pressure installations. The wheel head is rotated clockwise to control
the flow of water, but this valve will offer far less resistance to flow
than a globe valve. With use the metallic gate will wear and on high
pressure installations would vibrate.
The drain valve has several applications and is found at the lowest
point in pipe systems, boilers and storage vessels.
For temperatures up to 100C valves are usually made from brass. For
higher temperatures gun metal is used. Brass contains 50% zinc and
50% copper. Gun metal contains 85% copper, 5% zinc and 10% tin.

Crutch head
Spindle
Packing gland

Square for key

Washer

Washer

Plug
Stop valve (globe type)

Hosepipe
connection

Drain valve

Wheel
Spindle
Packing gland

Space for gate

Flow (either
direction)

Gate

Gate or sluice valve

23

Valves Used for Water 2

Float valves are automatic flow control devices fitted to cisterns to
maintain an appropriate volume of water. Various types are in use.
The diaphragm type is the least noisy as there is less friction between
moving parts. The Portsmouth and Croydon-type valves have a piston
moving horizontally or vertically respectively, although the latter is
obsolete and only likely to be found in very old installations. Water
outlets
to

must

prevent

be

back

well

above

siphonage

the
of

highest

cistern

water

water

level

into

the

(see

page

main

41)

supply.

Nozzle diameters reduce as the pressure increases. High, medium and

low pressure valves must be capable of closing against pressures of
1380, 690 and 275 kPa respectively.

Silencing pipe

Nozzle

Rubber
diaphragm

Adjustable fixing
for ball float
Diaphragm float valve BS 12122 and 3

Rubber washer

Side of
cistern

Cap
Nozzle
Piston

Water port

Side of
cistern

A
Section AA

Croydon float valve

Ref. BS 1212: Float operated valves.

24

Portsmouth/piston float valve BS 12121

Taps Used for Water

The pillar tap is used to supply water to basins, baths, bidets and
sinks. Combined hot and cold pillar taps are available with fixed or
swivel outlet. The outlet of these taps must be bi-flow, i.e. separate
waterways

for

hot

and

cold

water

to

prevent

crossflow

of

water

within the pipework.

The bib tap is for wall fixing, normally about 150 mm above a sanitary
appliance. The `Supatap' bib tap permits a change of washer without
shutting

off

the

water

supply.

It

is

also

available

in

pillar

format.

Quarter-turn taps are easy to operate by hand or elbow, therefore

are suitable for use by the disabled and medical practitioners.

25

Joints on Water Pipes

Copper

pipes

may

be

jointed

by

bronze

welding.

Non-manipulative

compression joints are used on pipework above ground and manipulative

compression joints are used on underground pipework. The latter are
specifically designed to prevent pipes pulling out of the joint. Push-fit
joints are made from polybutylene. These provide simplicity of use and
savings in time. Capillary joints have an integral ring of soft solder.
After cleaning the pipe and fitting with wire wool and fluxing, heat
application enables the solder to flow and form a joint. Solder alloy
for drinking water supplies must be lead free, i.e. copper and tin.
The Talbot joint is a push-fit joint for polythene pipes. A brass ferrule
or support sleeve in the end of the pipe retains the pipe shape.
Threaded joints on steel pipes are sealed by non-toxic jointing paste
and hemp or polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) tape. A taper thread on the
pipe will help to ensure a water-tight joint. Union joints permit slight
deflection without leakage.
Lead pipes are no longer acceptable due to the risk of poisoning.

Copper pipe

Compression ring

Friction ring

Compression ring

O Ring

Copper
pipe

Grab ring

Copper pipe

Non-manipulative
compression joint on
copper pipes

Manipulative
compression joint on
copper pipes
Acorn push-fit
joint on copper pipes
Socket type

Polythene pipe
Soft solder
Copper pipe

Support sleeve
Grip ring
O ring

Union type

When the fitting is heated

solder flows

The Talbot push-fit

joint on polythene pipes

26

Screwed joints
on mild steel pipes

Soft soldered
capillary joint on
copper pipes

Pipe Jointing Materials

Linseed oil `white' jointing paste a blend of linseed oil and clay which surface
hardens to form a strong, dense joint. Used mainly on threaded steel pipework
with fibrous hemp reinforcement between the threads. Microbial action can
break down the linseed component and the hemp can degrade, therefore not
recommended for use on drinking water supplies. Synthetic reinforcement fibres
are more durable. Unreinforced paste is suitable for gas and steam pipe lines.
Graphite is sometimes added to the paste for use on steam, as this eases
joint breakage when undertaking maintenance and alterations. A manganese
additive for use on steam pipes provides greater strength.
Silicone oil jointing paste otherwise known as acetosilane. Combined with
synthetic reinforcement fibres, this compound may be used on drinking water
supplies. It is also suitable for jointing hot water and gas pipes. Non-setting,
non-cracking

and

flexible,

therefore

easily

broken

for

maintenance

and

alterations.
BS 6956-5: Jointing materials and compounds.
Resin-based compounds these are specified for chemical and oil pipe joints
where the liquid conveyed may contain solvents which could weaken oil-based
sealants. Resin and fillers are mixed with a catalyst and after application to
pipe threads, tightened joints will require time to set. PTFE tape wound
into threads prior to joint tightening. Chemical and temperature resistant
with an element of flexibility. Suitable for water and gas pipe joints. Also
available as a liquid, but relatively expensive.
BS 7786: Specification for unsintered PTFE tapes for general use.
BS EN 751-3: Sealing materials for metallic threaded joints for general use.
Solders and fluxes the established method for economically jointing copper
pipe and fittings. Solder types:

29% tin  71% lead. Traditionally used for all joints but now prohibited on
drinking water supplies because of the lead content. Melting point  210C.

63% tin  37% lead. Bit solder for electronic applications. Melting
point  185C.

99% tin  1% copper. Lead-free for drinking water supplies. Melting

point  235C.

BS

6920:

Suitability

of

non-metallic

products

in

contact

with

water.

BS EN 29453: Soft solder alloys. Chemical compositions and forms.

Fluxes are classified as passive or self-cleaning. They are available in liquid
or

paste

format

and

function

by

preventing

cleaned

surfaces

tarnishing

under heat. Passive fluxes do not contain any free acid and will require heat
application to effect cleaning. These are generally known as water soluble
organic
flux's
for

fluxes

and

are

non-corrosive

use

with

Self-cleansing

lead-free
fluxes

the

preferred

properties.
solders

contain

and
an

choice

by

Water-soluble
are

acid,

easily
usually

gas

companies

fluxes
cleaned

are
from

hydrochloric.

due

also

finished
This

to

the

preferred
joints.

type

of

flux begins to clean tarnished copper as soon as applied. Heat application

accelerates the process. Any flux residue must be cleaned from the pipe surface
to prevent corrosion. Deposits internally are removed by flushing the system.

27

Water mains
Water

mains

have

been

manufactured

from

variety

of

materials.

The material selected must be compatible with the water constituents,

otherwise

corrosion

and

decomposition

of

the

pipes

may

occur.

Contemporary materials which suit most waters are ductile cast iron
and

uPVC.

The

water

undertaking

or

authority

must

be

consulted

prior to laying mains to determine suitable materials, laying techniques

and pipe diameter. Firefighting and hydrant requirements will prioritise
the criteria with a minimum pressure of 30 m head (300 kPa) from a
75 mm diameter pipe supplied from both ends, or 100 mm diameter from
one

end

only.

Bedding

of

mains

is

usually

surround

of

shingle

to

accommodate any movement. uPVC pipes are pigmented blue for easy
identification in future excavations and cast iron has a blue plastic
tape attached for the same reason.

Refs.

BS

EN

545:

Ductile

iron

pipes,

fittings,

accessories

joints for water pipelines.

BS EN 14522: Plastics piping systems for water supply.

28

and

their

Connection to Water Main

The

water

authority

requires

at

least

days'

written

notice

for

connection to their supply main. The main is drilled and tapped live
with special equipment, which leaves a plug valve ready for connection
to the communication pipe. A goose neck or sweeping bend is formed
at the connection to relieve stresses on the pipe and valve. At or
close to the property boundary, a stop valve is located with an access
compartment and cover at ground level. A meter may also be located
at

this

point.

The

communication

and

supply

pipe

should

be

snaked

to allow for settlement in the ground. During warm weather, plastic

pipes in particular should be snaked to accommodate contraction after
backfilling.

Revolving head

Drain cock
Water main
under pressure
Plug valve

Tapping of water main

Goose neck

Plug valve

Water main

Property boundary
Owned and
maintained by
Water Authority

Communication pipe

View of water main connection

Installed and
maintained by
building owner

750 mm min

Supply pipe
Detail of supply to building

29

Water Meters
Water

meters

authority.

are

Most

installed

require

at

meters

the
on

discretion
all

new

of
build

the
and

local

water

conversion

properties, plus existing buildings which have been substantially altered.

In time, in common with other utilities, all buildings will have metered
water supply. Meters are either installed in the communication pipe, or
by direct annular connection to the stopvalve. If underground location
is impractical, the water authority may agree internal attachment to
the rising main.

30

Direct System of Cold Water Supply

For

efficient

operation,

high

pressure

water

supply

is

essential

particularly at periods of peak demand. Pipework is minimal and the

storage cistern supplying the hot water cylinder need only have 115
litres capacity. The cistern may be located within the airing cupboard
or be combined with the hot water cylinder. Drinking water is available
at every draw-off point and maintenance valves should be fitted to
isolate each section of pipework. With every outlet supplied from the
main, the possibility of back siphonage must be considered.
Back siphonage can occur when there is a high demand on the main.
Negative

pressure

can

then

draw

water

back

into

the

main

from

submerged inlet, e.g. a rubber tube attached to a tap or a shower

fitting without a check valve facility left lying in dirty bath water.

Notes:
(1) Servicing valves to
be provided on supply pipes to
storage and flushing cisterns.
(2) Copper tube pipe sizes
shown.

Absence of cistern and pipes

in roof space reduces risk
of frost damage
Cold water
feed cistern
22 mm overflow pipe
22 mm
cold feed pipe

Bath Basin WC

Hot water cylinder

15 mm
rising main

WC

Ground level

Basin

Sink
Combined stop and
drain valve

750 mm min.

Mastic seal

Pipe duct 76 mm bore

Ref.: The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999.

31

Indirect System of Cold Water Supply

The indirect system of cold water supply has only one drinking water
outlet,

at

the

sink.

The

cold

water

storage

cistern

has

minimum

capacity of 230 litres, for location in the roof space. In addition to

its normal supply function, it provides an adequate emergency storage
in the event of water main failure. The system requires more pipework
than

the

direct

system

and

is

therefore

more

expensive

to

install,

but uniform pressure occurs at all cistern-supplied outlets. The water

authorities prefer this system as it imposes less demand on the main.
Also, with fewer fittings attached to the main, there is less chance
of back siphonage. Other advantages of lower pressure include less
noise and wear on fittings, and the opportunity to install a balanced
pressure shower from the cistern.

Notes:
(1) Servicing valves to
be provided on supply pipes to
storage and flushing cisterns.
(2) Copper tube pipe sizes
shown.

Cold water
storage cistern

22 mm overflow pipe
22 mm
cold feed pipe

22 mm
distributing pipe

Bath

Basin

WC

Hot water cylinder

15 mm
rising main

15 mm

WC

Ground level

Drain valve

Basin

Sink
Combined stop and
drain valve

750 mm min.

Mastic seal
Ref.: The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations 1999.

32

Pipe duct 76 mm bore

Hard and Soft Water Characteristics 1

See also page 21.
Hardness in water occurs when calcium or magnesium salts are present. This
is most common where water extraction is from boreholes into chalky strata
or chalky aquifers.
Measurement

Parts per million (ppm), i.e. milligrams per litre (mg/l) e.g.

Location

Typical ppm

Bristol

300

Cardiff

100

Hartlepool

460

London

285

Manchester

60

Newcastle

160

Scotland

50

For a general guide to England and Wales, see map on page 35.

Clarke's scale a numerical classification, sometimes referred to as

degrees Clarke.

Classification
Type of water

Clarkes

Approx. ppm (see next page)

Soft

35

50

Moderately soft

3570

50100

Slightly hard

70105

100150

Moderately hard

105140

150200

Hard

140210

200300

Very hard

210

300

1 degree Clarke is about 1 part per 70 000.

When hard water is heated, the dissolved salts change to solids and deposit
on
is
of

the
an

linings

obvious

hot

of

pipework,

example,

water

and

but

central

boilers

far

and

more

heating

other

significant
plant.

If

ancillaries.
is

its

enough

Kettle

efficiency
scale

is

scale

reduction
deposited,

pipework systems can become completely blocked or `furred up'. This can
have explosive consequences, as safety valves will also be affected. Chalk
build
just

up
a

normally

few

limitations
is

takes

months
of

continually

direct

years,

depending
hot

introduced.

but
on

water
Direct

in

the

very

hard

frequency

systems
systems

water
of

(see

page

are

only

areas,

plant
65)

use.

where

applicable

it

may

Hence

be
the

fresh

water

where

water

hardness is less than 150 ppm and water temperatures do not exceed 65C.
The water temperature in modern hot water and heating systems exceeds
80C, therefore direct systems are effectively obsolete in favour of indirect
installations, (see page 66). Indirect systems have the same water circulating
throughout

the

primary

and

heating

pipework

and

it

is

only

drained

off

during maintenance and repair.

33

Hard and Soft Water Characteristics 2

Temporary hardness due to the presence of calcium bicarbonate in
water. Heating the water to temperatures above 65C releases the
insoluble carbonates and these deposit on the surface of the heating
vessel, typical of the scaling found in kettles.

Permanent

hardness

due

to

calcium

and

magnesium

sulphates

in

water. The water quality is not affected by heating.

Expressions of water hardness on the previous page a comparison

is

made

between

degrees

Clarke

and

approximate

parts

per

million

(ppm). Ppm in this context is in milligrams per litre (mg/l) as a calcium

carbonate equivalent, often referred to by the initials CCE or as an
expression of total hardness. Hardness of water may also be expressed
in mg/l as calcium. A comparison is shown below:

Type of water

Hardness as

Hardness as calcium

calcium*

carbonate equivalent*

Soft

20

50

Moderately soft

2040

50100

Slightly hard

4060

100150

Moderately hard

6080

150200

Hard

80120

200300

Very hard

120

300

Mg/l  1 part per million.

An

arithmetical

relationship

exists

between

hardness in degrees Clarke, calcium and CCE:

CCE  04  mg/l as calcium
CCE  007  degrees Clarke
Degrees Clarke  5714  mg/l as calcium
Eg. Water with a CCE of 250 ppm.
Mg/l as calcium  250  0.4  100
Degrees Clarke  250  0.07  17.5

34

expressions

of

water

Domestic Water Softener

Characteristics of hard water are:

difficult to create a lather with normal soap

scum and tide marks in baths and basins

chalk staining or streaking on washed glassware.

In

hard

water

areas,

these

problems

can

be

overcome

with

the

installation of a water softener. These devices are relatively compact

and

will

fit

conveniently

within

the

housing

under

domestic

sink.

This location is ideal, as the housing will normally accommodate the

rising water main and stop valve. It also provides simple access for
replacement of salt granules or blocks. The unit contains a resin bed
of sodium chloride or common salt. The salt exchanges calcium and
magnesium ions for non-scale-forming sodium ions. Regeneration can be
by electric timer, but most domestic softeners have an integral water
volume metering device.

35

Domestic Water Conditioners

Hard water is difficult to lather and the combination of stearates in
soap with calcium in water will produce a residual scum on sanitary
fitments. Where mains fed water heaters are to be installed, the supply
should be tested. If it has a hardness factor greater than 200 ppm or
200 mg/l CCE, the water is unsuitable for use with directly fed water
heaters. This includes electric showers and combination boilers. In the
UK this affects approximately 65% of households.

Inspecting

the

inside

of

kettle

will

provide

an

indication

as

to

whether water hardness is an issue. For more reliable assessment a

number

of

simple

tests

can

be

applied.

As

guide,

these

include

dip pad test with colour indicator and a colour change tablet test.
Accurate definition in ppm can be achieved by using a hand held TDS
(total dissolved solids) meter or by sample analysis in a laboratory.

As

indicated

to

remove

on

the

water

alternative

is

preceding

hardness

water

page,

and

conditioner

water

associated
and

these

softener
limescale
are

can

be

used

deposits.

available

in

An

three

different types:

Electronic

Magnetic

Electrolytic

Compared

to

water

softener,

conditioners

have

the

following

characteristics:
1.

Scale forming particles are suspended in water instead of

precipitating onto surfaces.

2. Limescale is not eliminated but controlled.

3. Generally of relatively low purchase and installation cost when
compared with a water softener.
4. No maintenance, but of limited life.
5. Water quality unaffected as chemicals are not added.

Refs:
Building Regulations, Approved Documents L1A and L1B: Conservation
of fuel and power.
Domestic Heating Compliance Guide.
BS 7593: Code of practice for treatment of water in domestic hot
water central heating systems.

36

Domestic Water Conditioner Electronic

This type of conditioner is attached to the incoming rising main to
provide whole house treatment. It requires no alterations to existing
plumbing and no special provision with new installations. The operating
and
a

energy

standard

voltage

requirement
three-pin

(12

volt

DC)

is

from

power

the

socket.

transformer

electrical
Connected

with

coil

mains
to
of

supply

this

is

wire

or

through
reduced
antenna

attached to or around the pipe.

Installation

Mains voltage
socket with
3 amp fused plug

Rising main

100 mm
wire coil

Drain valve

230 volt AC to
12 volt DC magnetic
pulse transformer

Stop valve

The coil of wire emits a range of electro-magnetic signals through

the pipe wall and into the water supply. These audio or radio signals
have a sonic frequency modulation between 05 and 5 kHz. The effect
is to energise any suspended or diluted material, preventing it from
forming as scale on pipe or appliance surfaces. The water remains
chemically unchanged, retaining its minerals and taste. Unlike water
softener installations, there is no need for a separate drinking water
outlet.

37

Domestic Water Conditioner Magnetic

A magnetic type of water conditioner is most effective when applied
directly

as

appliances

dedicated
such

as

water

an

treatment

electric

to

shower,

individual

water

combination

heating

boiler

or

an

independent water heater. This type of conditioner is unsuitable for

whole house installations where water is stored.

The

unit

has

very

strong

magnetic

core

of

ceramic

construction.

Water supplying a hot water appliance passes around the core and
receives a small electrical induction charge. This is sometimes referred
to

as

the

magnetohydronamic

process.

As

the

water

is

heated

the

charged salts or crystals remain suspended in solution, allowing them

to

be

flushed

through,

thereby

preventing

their

formation

as

scale

deposits on pipe and heating chamber walls.

Typical installation

Outlet

Electric or gas water

heating appliance
Hot water
outlet

Servicing
valve

Water supply pipe

Metal
sleeve

Unit installed vertically

Inlet

38

Magnetic
core

Domestic Water Conditioner Electrolytic

An electrolytic water conditioner provides whole house treatment. It
is installed on the rising main just after the stop valve and before the
first draw off. An earth bonding cable should be provided to bypass
the unit to ensure earth continuity. No other electrical connection is
required.

Within
and

the

zinc

unit

(anode)

is

[see

galvanic
page

cell

105].

consisting

Water

of

passing

copper

through

(cathode)

acts

as

an

electrolyte and gains a small charge. Like the magnetic conditioner,

calcium

deposits

remain

in

suspension.

Also,

zinc

ions

are

produced

which attract calcium and magnesium particles to produce suspended

crystals of the more plumbing friendly aragonite. Life expectancy of
these units is about 10 years.

Rising main

Sink tap

Copper (cathode)

Water charged
with zinc ions

Zinc (anode)

Earth bypass
cable

Resistor
Electrolytic unit

Stop and drain valves

Incoming
water supply

39

Water Treatment Lime and Soda

The lime and soda process involves relatively large dosing tanks that
require regular maintenance and checking. Therefore it is unsuited to
individual domestic situations, but it does provide a cost viable means
for reducing the amount of calcium and magnesium in the water supply
to industrial and municipal installations.

Lime used as a reagent to remove temporary water hardness by

breaking up the soluble bicarbonates into insoluble carbonates:
Impurity

Reagent

Precipitate

Calcium bicarbonate  Hydrated lime 

Ca(HCO3)2

Ca(OH)2

Calcium carbonate

2CaCO3  2H2O

Soda or soda ash used as a reagent to remove permanent water

hardness by exchanging the carbonate from the sodium (soda ash) with
the sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of the calcium impurities.
Impurity
Calcium

Reagent


Soda ash

By-product


Sodium

sulphates,

sulphates,

chlorides

chlorides

and nitrates

and nitrates

CaSO4

NaCO3

Na2SO4

CaCl2

2NaCl

Ca(NO3)2

2NaNO3

Precipitate


Calcium
carbonate

CaCO3

In both processes the precipitate is removed by filtration.

40

Backow Protection
Domestic sanitary appliances all potable (drinkable) water supplies must be
protected against pollution by backflow or back siphonage from water that
could be contaminated. Protection is effected by leaving sufficient space or
air gap between the lowest point of the control device or tap discharge and
the appliance spill over level.

British Standard determination of air gap to domestic sanitary appliances:

Single feed pipe, i.e. one tap, air gap 20 mm or 2  internal diameter of
tap orifice (take greater value).
Multiple feed pipe, i.e. hot and cold taps, air gap 20 mm or 2  sum of
orifice diameters (take greater value).
For example, a bath with two taps of 20 mm internal diameter inlet orifice:
20 mm or 2  (20  20 mm) 

80 mm. Air gap 

Water cisterns or storage vessels

80 mm minimum.

pipework supplying potable water must

discharge into an unobstructed air gap between the regulating device water
inlet to the vessel and the overflow or warning pipe.

In this situation the air gap should be 20 mm or 2  internal diameter of the
regulating valve inlet orifice (take greater value).
For example, a 20 mm internal diameter orifice:
20 mm or 2  20 mm 

40 mm. Air gap 

40 mm minimum.

Refs: Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations.

BS

EN

1717:

installations

Protection

and

general

against

pollution

requirements

of

of

devices

potable
to

water

prevent

in

water

pollution

by

backflow.

41

Secondary Backow Protection

Secondary

backflow

or

back

siphonage

protection

is

an

alternative

or supplement to the provision of air gaps. It is achieved by using

mechanical devices such as double check valves or a vacuum breaker
in

the

pipeline.

Special

arrangements

of

pipework

with

branches

located above the spill level of appliances are also acceptable.

Ref:

BS

6282,

Devices

with

moving

parts

for

the

prevention

of

contamination of water by backflow.

Typical applications primary heating circuits, washing machines and
garden taps.

42

Backow Prevention Commercial Applications

Mains

water

supply

to

commercial

and

industrial

premises

must

be

protected against the possibility of contamination by backflow. Where

toxic

processes

preparation,

exist,

car

e.g.

dyeing,

washing,

chemical

irrigation

manufacture,

systems,

etc.,

it

insecticide

is

imperative

that the effects of a pressure reduction on drinking water supplies be

contained.
Contamination

of

domestic

water

supply

situations

is

prevented

by

installing double check valves to appliances or systems which could

be

risk.

require

In

the

greater

processes.

interests

security

Hitherto,

of

public

measures

device

on

health,
mains

containing

two

the

water

supplies
check

authorities

to

valves

industrial
with

an

intermediate pressure relief valve discharging visibly to a tundish has

been considered adequate. Current requirements include a modification
to verify or check through test points that the fitting is functioning
correctly.

This

modified

device

is

known

as

`Verifiable

backflow

preventer with reduced pressure zone'. It contains three pressure zones

separated

by

differential

obturators

(two

positively

loaded

check

valves). Each pressure zone has a test point to verify that the valve
is functioning correctly.

Refs. The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations.

BS EN 1717: Protection against pollution of potable water in water
installations and general requirements of devices to prevent pollution
by backflow.

43

Cold Water Storage Cisterns

Cisterns can be manufactured from galvanised mild steel (large nondomestic capacities), polypropylene or glass reinforced plastics. They
must be well insulated and supported on adequate bearers to spread
the

concentrated

load.

Plastic

cisterns

will

require

uniform

support

on boarding over bearers. A dustproof cover is essential to prevent

contamination.
For

large

buildings,

cisterns

are

accommodated

in

purpose-made

plant room at roof level or within the roof structure. This room must
be

well

insulated

and

ventilated,

and

be

provided

with

thermostatic

control of a heating facility.

Where

storage

duplicated
this

and

should

and

be

repairs

demand

exceeds

interconnected.
provided
each

at

In

much

cistern

4500
the

lower

must

litres,

interests

be

cisterns
of

load

capacities.
capable

For

of

must

be

distribution
maintenance

isolation

and

independent operation.

Insulation
Bolted Screened air inlet
slab 50 mm cover
thick

40 mm
(see
page 41)

Rising
main

50 mm

Vent pipe

Ref.

Filter
Warning pipe
to outside

BS

storage

7181:

Specification

cisterns

up

to

for

500

actual capacity for water supply

for domestic purposes.

Full-way
gate valve

Insulated doors

Bearer

Ceiling joist

Light

Insulation

Working space
Cistern

Section of cistern

800

800

1200

Steel
beams

Electric heater

Asphalt tanking
Suspended ceiling

Inlet

Details of cistern room

Overflow
and warning pipe

Refs.
for

BS

cisterns,
Drain valve
Gate valves
Duplicated cisterns

Distributing pipes

417-2:

galvanised

low

cistern

Specification
carbon

lids,

tanks

steel
and

cylinders.
BS 4213: Cisterns for domestic use.
Cold water storage and combined
feed and expansion (thermoplastic)
cisterns up to 500 l. Specification.

44

Cold Water Storage Calculations

Cold

water

storage

data

is

provided

to

allow

for

up

to

24

hour

interruption of mains water supply.

Building purpose

Storage/person/24 hrs

Boarding school

90 litres

Day school

30

Department store with canteen

45

(3)

Department store without canteen

40

(3)

Dwellings

90

(1)

Factory with canteen

45

Factory without canteen

40

Hostel

90

Hotel

135

Medical accommodation

115

Office with canteen

45

(2) (3)

Office without canteen

40

Public toilets

15

Restaurant

7 per meal

Notes: (1) 115 or 230 litres min. see pages 31 and 32

(2) Variable depending on classification.
(3) Allow for additional storage for public toilets and restaurants.
At

the

design

stage

the

occupancy

of

building

may

be

unknown.

Therefore the following can be used as a guide:

Building Purpose

Occupancy

Dept. store

1 person per 30 m2 net floor area

Factory

30 persons per WC

Office

1 person per 10 m2 net floor area

School

40 persons per classroom

Shop

1 person per 10 m2 net floor area

E.g. A 1000 m2 (net floor area) office occupied only during the day
therefore allow 10 hours' emergency supply.
1000/10  100 persons  40 litres  4000 litres (24 hrs)
 1667 litres (10 hrs)

45

Boosted Cold Water System 1

For

medium

pressure

to

and

high

supply

rise

water

buildings,
directly

there

to

the

is

often

upper

insufficient

floors.

mains

Boosting

by

pump from a break tank is therefore usually necessary and several

more of these tanks may be required as the building rises, depending
on the pump capacity. A break pressure cistern is also required on
the down service to limit the head or pressure on the lower fittings
to a maximum of 30 m (approx. 300 kPa). The drinking water header
pipe

or

storage

vessel

supplies

drinking

water

to

the

upper

floors.

As this empties and the water reaches a predetermined low level, the
pipeline switch engages the duty pump. A float switch in the break
tank protects the pumps from dry running if there is an interruption to
mains supply. The various pipe sections are fitted with isolating valves
to facilitate maintenance and repairs.
Auto-air valve

Float switch

Header pipe

Pipeline
switch
Cold water supplies
to WCs, basins, baths
and showers

Drinking water supply

from header pipe
Break-pressure cistern

Cold water supplies

to WCs, basins, baths
and showers

Drinking water supply

direct from main

Non-return valve

Vent
Float switch

Incoming service pipe

46

Break tank

Duplicated pumping set

Boosted Cold Water System 2

As an alternative to the drinking water header pipe, an auto-pneumatic
cylinder may be used. Compressed air in the cylinder forces water up
to the float valves and drinking water outlets on the upper floors.
As the cylinder empties a low pressure switch engages the duty pump.
When

the

pump

has

replenished

the

cylinder,

high

pressure

switch

disengages the pump. In time, some air is absorbed by the water. As

this occurs, a float switch detects the high water level in the cylinder
and activates an air compressor to regulate the correct volume of
air. Break pressure cisterns may be supplied either from the storage
cisterns

at

roof

level

or

from

the

rising

main.

pressure

reducing

valve is sometimes used instead of a break pressure cistern.

Delayed action float valve

Supply to WCs,
basins, baths and
showers

Drinking water from

cylinder

Supply to WCs,
basins, baths and
showers

Break pressure
cistern

Break pressure cistern

Drinking water
direct from main

Supply to WCs,
basins, baths and
showers

Pressure switches

Sight glass

Vent
Pneumatic cylinder

Duplicated pumping set

Air compressor

Overflow with filter

47