School of Engineering & ICT
Faculty of Science, Engineering & Technology
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KNE213
Thermal and
Fluids
Engineering
Semester 2: 2015
Lecture Notes 5:
Dimensional Analysis
School of Engineering & ICT
Faculty of Science, Engineering & Technology
KNE213 Thermal and Fluids Engineering
Unit topics & schedule (fluids):
1. Basic Principles of Fluid Mechanics
2. Fluid Statics
3. Fluid Dynamics (Bernoulli | Reynolds Transport Theorem |
Linear Momentum)
4. Measurement of Flow Rate in Pipes | Introduction to Open
Channel Flow
5. Dimensional Analysis
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Learning objectives:
Develop an understanding of dimensions, units, equation
checking
Understand benefits of dimensional analysis
Be able to use the method of repeating variables to identify
non dimensional parameters
Understand concept of dimensional similarity and how to
apply it to experimental modelling
Recommended reading:
engel, Y.A., Cimbala, J.M. (2006) Fluid Mechanics
Fundamentals and Applications, McGraw-Hill Chapter 7
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Dimensions and Units
Dimension measure of physical quantity
Unit way to assign a number to the dimension
There are 7 primary dimensions:
All non-primary dimensions can be formed by some combination of the 7 primary dimensions (e.g. Pressure).
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Dimensional homogeneity
Every additive term in an equation must have the same dimensions.
(You cant add apples and oranges)
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Example 1: Bernoulli
Verify additive terms in Bernoulli equation have the same dimensions: P + 12 V 2 + gz = C
What are the dimensions of the constant C? If the dimensions of any of the terms in an equation are
different, it indicates that an error was made somewhere in the analysis. Units must also be homogeneous
(e.g. if we use N in one term and kN in another, this term will be off by a factor of 1000 compared to the
other term).
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Faculty of Science, Engineering & Technology
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Nondimensionalisation of equations
Each term of equation has same dimensions
If each term is divided by another term with the same dimensions, the
equation is dimensionless, or nondimensional
If non dimensional terms are of order unity equation is normalised
Nondimensional parameters often appear in this process: e.g. Reynolds number (Re), Froude number (Fr)
To nondimensionalise an equation scaling parameters need to be chosen, which are based on the primary
dimensions contained in the original equation.
In fluid problems these are usually: length L, velocity V, and pressure
difference P0 - P along with others specific to the problem (e.g. density,
viscosity, gravity).
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Nondimensionalisation of equations
Some definitions:
Dimensional variables dimensional quantities that change or vary in a problem.
Nondimensional variables quantities that change or vary in a problem but are dimensionless (e.g.
angles).
Dimensional constants dimensional, but remain constant (e.g. gravity).
Nondimensionalising an equation
Consider the equation of motion describing the elevation of an object falling under
gravity (in a vacuum). The initial location of the object is z0 and its initial velocity is
w 0.
1
d 2z
= g solved by integrating twice to get: z = zo + w0t gt 2
2
dt 2
We want to nondimensionalise this equation.
First step: select scaling parameters based on dimensions in original equation:
{z}=L; {t}={t}; {z0} = {L}; {w0}={L/t}; {g} = {L/t2}
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Nondimensionalisation of equations
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Nondimensionalisation of equations
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Dimensional analysis and similarity
Primary purposes of dimensional analysis:
Generates non-dimensional parameters for experiment design and
data analysis
Usually uses a model instead of full-scale prototype to save time /
cost / materials
Useful tool for engineers, particularly if the problem is not solved by
simple equations and experimentation is required
Predict trends in relationships between parameters
Useful in all disciplines, not just fluid dynamics
Geometric similarity: model same shape as prototype, scaled by constant
factor.
Kinematic similarity: velocity at any point proportional and in same direction.
Dynamic similarity: forces scale by a constant factor to forces in prototype.
For complete similarity between a model and a prototype, must have geometric, kinematic & dynamic
similarity.!
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Dimensional analysis
How to find non-dimensional values? What is the
relationship between a function in terms of
dimensional parameters and a related function
expressed in terms of non-dimensional
parameters?
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Dimensional analysis
Consider a stationary sphere stays in a fluid flow, what experiments must be conducted to determine the
drag force on the sphere?
Symbolic equation:
F = f ( D, V , , )
To find V effect, run n tests at different velocity. n tests
To find D effect, run n tests for each V. n2 tests
For different
Ff
n tests for each D, V. n4 tests
First problem: if n = 10, and hr for each test, it needs 2.5
years to finish all tests
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Dimensional analysis
Second problem: how to plot these data from n4 tests?
F vs. D with V, ,
all being parameters?
This method is not realistic
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Dimensional analysis
Want to reduce to two parameters only:
F
VD
=
f
(
)
V 2 D 2
Assume:
Gives:
1 =
F
V 2 D 2
and
2 =
VD
1 = f (2 )
We only need n tests for different values, thus the relationship between can be determined
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Dimensional analysis
Buckingham Pi theorem: provides a method to
determine a set of non-dimensional values from
a list of parameters
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Dimensional analysis
Upper case Greek Pi () indicates nondimensional parameter (e.g. Froude number Fr)
One is called the dependent called 1 which is a function of several other s
1 = f ( 2 , 3 ,..., k ) where k is the total number of independent s
For complete similarity:
if 2,m = 2,p ; and and k,m = k,p
Then the dependent of the model: 1,m = 1,p
These are the key functional relationships
of the Buckingham Pi theorem
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Example 2: Similarity between model and prototype cars
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Solution
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Solution
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Dimensional analysis Buckingham Pi theorem
Popularised by Buckingham (1867-1940), first published by Raibouchinsky (1882-1962) in 1911
Procedure for obtaining nondimensional parameters (6 steps):
1. List the parameters (dimensional variables, non-dimensional variables and dimensional constants)
and count them. Let n be the total number of parameters in the problem, including the dependent
variable. Make sure that any listed independent parameter is independent of the others (e.g. not
area A and radius r since area can be expressed in terms of r).
2. List the primary dimensions for each of the n parameters.
3. Guess the reduction, j. Use j = number of primary dimensions in the problem. Expected number of
s is k where k = n j according to the Buckingham Pi Theorem.
4. Choose j repeating parameters used to construct each . Try to choose parameters wisely (Table
7-3, p.284 from text).
5. Generate the k s by grouping the j repeating parameters with one of the remaining parameters,
forcing them to be dimensionless.
6. Check that the s are dimensionless and write the final functional relationship:
1 = f ( 2 , 3 ,..., k ) .
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Dimensional analysis Buckingham Pi theorem
Given
F = f ( D, V , , )
for a smooth sphere.
Find an appropriate set of dimensionless groups: steps 1 6
Step 1: list all the dimensional parameters involved
F , V , D, ,
n=5
dimensional parameters
Step 2: Select a set of fundamental (primary) dimensions j
M , L, t
j=3
primary dimensions
Mass
M , L, t
time
Length
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Dimensional analysis Buckingham Pi theorem
Step 3: List the dimensions of all parameters in terms of primary dimensions and let j be the number of
primary dimensions
F , V , D, ,
ML
t2
L
t
M
L3
M
Lt
M , L, t
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Dimensional analysis Buckingham Pi theorem
Step 4: Select a set of dimensional parameters that includes all the primary dimensions
, V , D
repeating parameters
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Dimensional analysis Buckingham Pi theorem
Step 5: Set up dimensional equations, combining the parameters selected in the step 4 with each of other
parameters in turn, to form dimensionless groups.
Dimensionless groups:
1 = aV b D c F
Dimensional equation:
!M $ !L$
c ! ML $
a+1 3a+b+c+1 b2
t
= M 0 L0 t 0
# 3 & # & (L) # 2 & = M L
"L % "t %
" t %
, V , D
repeating parameters
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Dimensional analysis Buckingham Pi theorem
Step 5: cont...
M:
a +1 = 0
L : 3a + b + c +1 = 0
t:
b2 = 0
a = 1 "
$
F
c = 2 # 1 =
V 2 D 2
$
b = 2%
, V , D
repeating parameters
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Dimensional analysis Buckingham Pi theorem
Step 5: cont...
Dimensionless groups:
2 = dV e D f
Dimensional equation:
!M $ !L$
f !M $
d+1 3d+e+ f 1 e1
t = M 0 L0 t 0
# 3 & # & (L) # & = M L
"L % "t %
" Lt %
, V , D
repeating parameters
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Dimensional analysis Buckingham Pi theorem
Step 5: cont...
M:
d +1 = 0
L : 3d + e + f 1 = 0
t:
e 1 = 0
d = 1 "
$
f = 1 # 2 =
VD
e = 1$%
, V , D
repeating parameters
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Dimensional analysis Buckingham Pi theorem
Step 6: Check to see each group obtained is dimensionless
1 =
F
V 2 D 2
1
! ML $! M $ ! L $
# 2 &# 3 & # &
" t %" L % " t %
(L)
= M (11) L[1(3)22]t [2(2)] = 1
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Dimensional analysis Buckingham Pi theorem
Step 6: cont...
2 =
VD
1
! M $! M $ ! L $
# &# 3 & # &
" Lt %" L % " t %
(L)
= M 11L1(3)11t 1(1) = 1
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Dimensional analysis Buckingham Pi theorem
Final functional relationship:
1 = f (2 )
Substitute the dimensionless group into the above equation:
=
f
V 2 D 2
VD
The form of the function f must be determined experimentally.
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Example 3: Lift on a wing
Some aeronautical engineers want to check a design of a new wing (chord length Lc prototype = 1.12m
and area A = 10.7 m2) and measure lift generated at a prototype speed of V = 52 m/s. They build a 1/10
model and test in a pressurised wind tunnel capable of 5 atm. At what speed and pressure should they
run the wind tunnel for dynamic similarity? Take temperature T = 25 C.
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Solution
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b = 2
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Solution
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Example 4: Friction in a pipe
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Solution
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Solution
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Dimensional analysis model testing and incomplete similarity
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Dimensional analysis model testing and incomplete similarity
Submarine model
being tested in a wind
tunnel using a different
fluid to help achieve
similarity
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Dimensional analysis model testing and incomplete similarity
Langley full scale wind
tunnel is large enough
to test full scale
vehicles
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Dimensional analysis flows with free surfaces
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Dimensional analysis flows with free surfaces
Model Lock and River Example
Scale model 1/100 scale. Prototype is a river,
lock and dam with water kinematic viscosity
1.002 x 10-6 m2/s. Determine a suitable liquid
for use in the model.
) Lm & 2
$ = 1.002 10 6 m 2 / s )' 1 &$
$
L
( 100 %
p
(
%
9
2
m = 1.00 10 m / s
m = p ''
Hot water =1/3 viscosity of cold water.
Mercury has low viscosity of 10-7 m2/s.
no liquid suitable
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Example 5: Karman vortex
A periodic Karman vortex is formed when a uniform stream flows over a circular cylinder.
Use the method of repeating variables to generate a dimensionless relationship for
Karman vortex shedding frequency fk as a function of stream speed V, fluid density ,
fluid viscosity and cylinder diameter D.
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Solution
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Example 5: Shallow waves
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Solution
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Dr. Chris White
Room 314
[email protected]36
