INTERNSHIP REPORT

KSRTC CENTRAL WORKS

PAPPANAMCODE

SUBMITTED BY:
BOBY THOMAS
MECHANICAL ENGG
CET

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Firstly, I thank almighty God for providing this
wonderful opportunity to attend and complete this training programme and
submission of the report.
I am also grateful to the Mechanical Engineer, CWS for
providing me with the best facilities and atmosphere for my training
programme. I wish to express my gratitude to the Depot Engineers (DE)
and Assistant Depot Engineers (ADE) for their valuable support. I wish to
express my gratitude to the respective Chargemen (CM) and other staff for
their valuable and countless lessons.
Last, but not the least I would like to acknowledge my
friends who were inevitable for the successive completion of my training. I
am greatly indebted to all those who helped me to make this training
successful.

INTRODUCTION

Kerala State Road Transport Corporation started in the late

60s, providing excellent service to the people both within the state and the
neighbouring states. Ordinary, limited stops, fast and superfast buses, super
deluxe which caters to the different sections of the society. Their service is
comparatively cheap and innovative.
The KSRTC workshop at pappanamcode- central workshop
is one of the main workshop which deal to complaints at a large scale.
Assembling of parts for the launch of new buses. Overhauling and
assembly sections which engage in the maintenance of machine parts.
The purpose of this training was to have the exposure in the
automobile section of mechanical engineering. Instead of knowing only
theoretical aspects of the subject, practical knowledge also should be
achieved. The different sections of heavy automotive can be studied and
understood from the training.

INDEX

 RETRIEVAL UNIT
GEAR BOX SYSTEM
ELECTRICAL
UNIT
ENGINE OVERHAULING
FIS

RETRIEVAL UNIT
(Day 1: 20st June, 2016)

CLUTCH

A clutch is a mechanical device that engages and disengages the

power transmission, especially from driving shaft to driven shaft. Clutches
are used whenever the transmission of power or motion must be
controlled either in amount or over time. The vast majority of clutches
ultimately rely on frictional forces for their operation. The purpose of
friction clutches is to connect a moving member to another that is moving
at a different speed or stationary, often to synchronize the speeds, and/or
to transmit power. Usually, as little slippage (difference in speeds) as
possible between the two members is desired.
PARTS
FRICTION PLATE OR CLUTCH PLATE
PRESSURE PLATE
SPRINGS
WITHDRAWAL PLATE
OPERATING LINKAGE
PRINCIPLE OF CLUTCH:
The clutch is based on the friction. When two friction surfaces are brought
into contact and pressed, then they are united due to friction force
between them. This is the basic principle of clutch. The friction between
these two surfaces depends on the area of surface, pressure applied upon
them and the friction material between them.

The driving member of a clutch is the flywheel mounted on the engine

crankshaft and the driven member is pressure plate mounted on the
transmission shaft. Some friction plates,
sometimes known as clutch plates are kept between these two members.
This whole assembly is known as the clutch.
FUNCTION OF CLUTCH:
An automobile clutch has following function:
1. It can be disengaged. This allows engine cranking and permits the
engine to run without delivering power to the transmission.
2. While disengaging it permits the driver to shift the transmission into
various gear according to operating condition.
3. While engaging, the clutch slips momentarily. this provides smooth
engagement and lessens the shock on gears, shaft and other parts of
automobile.
4. While engaging, the clutch transmits the
without slipping, in idea condition.

power

to

the

wheel

The main parts of a clutch are mainly divided into three groups.
1. Driving members 2.Driven members
3.Operating member
1. DRIVING MEMBERS:

The driving members consists of a flywheel which is mounted on

the engine crankshaft

The flywheel is bolted to a cover which carries pressure plate,

pressure springs and releasing levers.
As the flywheel is bolted to the cover assembly, thus, the entire
assembly of the flywheel and the cover rotate all the times.
The clutch housing and cover provided with openings so that the
heat produced during the function dissipates easily.
2. DRIVEN MEMBERS:
The driven members consist of a disc or plate called clutch plate.

 The clutch is free to slide on the splines of the clutch shaft.

It carries friction materials on both of its surfaces.
When the clutch plate is gripped between the flywheel and the
pressure plate, it rotates the clutch shaft through splines.
3. OPERATING MEMBERS:
The operating members consist of a foot pedal, linkage, release or
throw out bearings.

TATA

T/T

CLUTCH 3F

BS1 AND BS2

330 dia push type clutch
Spring 9nos
length 73mm; usable length 69mm
Spring pressure;
118kg
Pressure plate

38mm

New 38.4mm
37.4mm usable
Finger 3nos
38mm from top of cover to withdrawal plate
BSII 352 dia PULL TYPE CLUTCH
Spring 21 nos
Out spring 12 nos-RED 78.5mm; tolerance 4mm
Pressure
55kg
43mm
Inner spring 9 nos- GREEN 77.7mm; tolerance 4mm

 Pressure

65kg
43mm

Pressure plate dia 352mm

New 48mm
47mm usable
Finger height 27mm form top of the cover to the finger spring.

GEAR BOX SYSTEM

(Day 2: 21th June, 2016)

TRANSMISSION OF MOTION AND POWER

A transmission is a machine in a power transmission system, which
provides controlled application of the power. Often the term transmission
refers simply to the gearbox that uses gears and gear trains to
provide speed and torque conversions from a rotating power source to
another device.
GEARBOX WORKING PRINCIPLE COUNTERSHAFT MECHANISM
A layshaft is an intermediate shaft within
a gearbox that carries gears, but does not transfer the primary drive of
the gearbox either in or out of the gearbox. Layshafts are best known
through their use in car gearboxes, where they were a ubiquitous part of
the rear-wheel drive layout. With the shift to front-wheel drive, the use of
layshafts is now rarer. The driving shaft carries the input power into the
gearbox. The driven shaft is the output shaft from the gearbox. In car
gearboxes with layshafts, these two shafts emerge from opposite ends of
the gearbox, which is convenient for RWD cars but may be a disadvantage
for other layouts.

For gearboxes in general, gear clusters mounted on a layshaft may either

turn freely on a fixed shaft, or may be part of a shaft that then rotates in
bearings. There may be multiple separate clusters on a shared shaft and
these are allowed to turn freely relative to each other.

PARTS:
Change gears
Main shaft
Layshaft or countershaft
Needle roller bearings and roller bearings
Synchro cones
Sleeves or collars
Sliding sleeves

WORKING: In the typical manual

gearbox for a RWD car, the driving
shaft (input) is in-line with the driven
shaft (output), but not permanently
connected to it using
needle bearings. A reduction gear on
the driving shaft drives the layshaft. In
car transmissions, the term countershaft is also used. A number of gears
on the layshaft may then be connected, one at a time, to the driven shaft.
Selecting each of these gears in turn gives the various ratios of the

gearbox. All of these gear ratios are reduction gears, the engine speed
being higher than the input speed to the final drive of the rear axle.
Early gearboxes used sliding gears to engage
and disengage the drive. These were difficult to operate and also wore on
the main working surfaces of the gears. An early improvement was to use
separate dog clutches instead to engage gears, leaving the gears
themselves in 'constant mesh'. A later, and more gradual development,
was the introduction of synchromesh and sliding sleeve. This is an allmetal friction clutch in addition to the positive dog clutch, which gradually
engages the gears and matches their speed before the dog clutch
engages.
The top gear of the gearbox is achieved without
these gears, but by coupling the driven shaft directly to the driving shaft
through another dog clutch. This gives a 'direct drive' top gear, which has
advantages for both efficiency and quietness at cruising speed. A typical
gearbox had 2% losses in each gear set, so 4% for intermediate ranges
through their two gears, but approaching 0% for the direct-drive top gear.
As the direct top gear is not transmitting torque through the gears, it is
also quieter.
The layshaft is normally mounted low-down in
the gearbox casing below the other shafts. The gear lever enters through
the top of the casing and so it is more convenient for the sliding
components of the dog clutches to be mounted on the driven shaft, rather
than the layshaft. The layshaft gear cluster is thus often a simple onepiece component, typically cast iron gears running in bearings on a fixed
steel shaft. The bearings may be plain phosphor bronze bushes, or for
high-load applications needle rollers. Where large numbers of gear ratios,
six or more, are to be provided then these will require a third or more gear
clusters on the layshaft.
To maintain the proportions of the overall
gearbox as more compact, rather than becoming long and thin, these
gearboxes may use twin layshafts. This requires an additional driven gear
for each lay shaft, but the mechanism is otherwise very similar. The use of
multiple layshafts also developed into the multiple clutch gearbox, used
for some buses, where each ratio has its own layshaft and separate plate
or hydraulic clutches, rather than dog clutches, are used to select
between them.

ELECTRICAL SECTION
(Day 3: 22nd June, 2016)

The Electrical Section in KSRTC mainly deals with the checking and
repairing of mainly two components:
1. Starters and
2. Alternators
The Electrical Section also takes care of the electrical circuits and wirings
of a bus.
STARTER
Starter is a motor which is used to start the engine. Starter motor has a
small gear which will get fully meshed with the flywheel and rotate at high
speeds which helps to start the CI engines. When the flywheel starts to

rotate, crankshaft connected to flywheel starts to rotate which in turn

leads to the reciprocating motion of the piston in the cylinders. Suction
and compression will be created in some cylinders. At the same time
diesel will be sprayed into the cylinders as per arranged timing. This will
create the power inside the cylinder and then the engine starts to work by
fuel only. The gear from the starter motor will return back from the
flywheel using a return spring. The starting of the engine is a fast and
complex process. An engine with a capacity of more than 3 L requires a
large starting motor, specifically for a compression-ignition (CI) engine. CI
engines must be cranked at a speed of at least 100 rpm to initiate
combustion. Due to very high compression ratio in CI engines, the
maximum torque required is greater than a petrol engine. The high
pressure in the cylinder accelerates the piston rapidly during its
downward movement. This causes considerable variation of both the
rotational speed and the resisting torque loading on the starting motor.
To achieve high starting power, heavy vehicles normally use a
24V system. For a given electrical power requirement, the doubling of the
voltage compared with a 12V systems, reduces the current by half.
Without the extra 12 volts, the current load on the battery and starter
circuit becomes exceptionally high.
Two types of motor and
drive system in use in
KSRTC buses are:
1. Axial (sliding
armature) type and
2. Coaxial (sliding gear)
type.
AXIAL (SLIDING
ARMATURE) TYPE

The main features of this type of starter motor are its size and robust
construction. For the engagement of the pinion to the flywheel ring gear,
the complete armature assembly slides axially through the motor casing.
The armature is held by a spring so that it is offset to the field poles.
When the field is energized, the armature is pulled to the left and the
pinion is slid into engagement with the flywheel or ring gear.
This starter motor mainly consists of two field windings. The main
winding as usual is of thick section and low resistance winding, and is
connected in series to the armature. The auxiliary winding is wound with
thinner wire so that it has relatively high resistance, and is also connected
in series with the armature but in parallel with the main field winding.
A two-stage solenoid switch, mounted on the starter operates the
starter, and is energized by the drivers switch. When the switch is
operated, the first pair of contacts closes but the second pair is held open
by a pawl that engages in a slot in the trip lever. Once the pinion is near
fully engaged with the ring gear, the pawl allows the second pair of
contacts to close. The closing of first pair of contacts energizes the
auxiliary windings and armature. The armature rotates slowly and moves
axially so that it is central to the field poles. Simultaneously, the pinion is
slowly slid into the mesh with the ring gear. When the pinion is on the
verse of its full engagement, the release disc on the armature strikes the
pawl so that the trip lever closes the second pair of contacts. Now current
passes through the main windings, causing the motor to develop its full
torque.

COAXIAL (SLIDING GEAR) TYPE

Similar to the axial starter motor, the coaxial starter motor moves the
pinion into engagement under reduced power and when it is fully meshed
only when full power is applied. The main difference lies in the method of
sliding the pinion into mesh with the ring gear. Instead of the whole
armature assembly moving axially, in this type a solenoid mounted
coaxially with the shaft in a housing moves only the pinion for
engagement.
When the switch is operated, the two stage solenoid gets energized,
which moves the pinion into mesh and also closes the first set of contacts,
the second set is kept open by trip lever. During this period, a resistor
limits the current to the main field, so the armature rotates slowly. Just
before reaching the fully meshed position between the pinion and ring
gear, a lever trips the second set of contacts. This action by-passes the
resistor, and supplies full current to the main field so that the motor
produces its maximum torque.

ALTERNATOR
An alternator is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy
to electrical energy. In principle, any AC electrical generator can be called

an alternator, but usually the term refers to small rotating machines

driven by automotive and other internal combustion engines
A conductor moving relative to a magnetic field develops an
electromotive force (EMF) in it. This emf reverses its polarity when it
moves under magnetic poles of opposite polarity. Typically, a rotating
magnet, called the rotor turns within a stationary set of conductors wound
in coils on an iron core, called the stator. The field cuts across the
conductors, generating an induced EMF as the mechanical input causes
the rotor to turn.
The rotating magnetic field induces an AC voltage in the stator windings.
Since the currents in the stator windings vary in step with the position of
the rotor, an alternator is a synchronous
generator. The rotor's magnetic field may be
produced by permanent magnets, or by a field
coil electromagnet. Automotive alternators use
a rotor winding which allows control of the
alternator's generated voltage by varying the
current in the rotor field winding. Brushless AC
generators are usually larger than those used
in automotive applications.
An automatic voltage control device controls
the field current to keep output voltage
constant. If the output voltage from the stationary armature coils drops
due to an increase in demand, more current is fed into the rotating field
coils through the voltage regulator (VR). This increases the magnetic field
around the field coils which induces a greater voltage in the armature
coils. Thus, the output voltage is brought back up to its original value.
Alternators are used in modern automobiles to charge the battery and to
power the electrical system when its engine is running. Until the 1960s,
automobiles used DC dynamo generators with commutators. With the
availability of affordable silicon diode rectifiers, alternators were used
instead. This was encouraged by the increasing electrical power required
for cars in this period, with increasing loads from larger headlamps,
electric wipers, heated rear windows and other accessories.
Bearing: helps in the free rotation of the armature.
Stator: The stator windings now consist of a dense central band
where the iron core and copper windings are tightly packed, and end
bands where the windings are more exposed for better heat transfer.
The closer core spacing from the rotor improves magnetic efficiency.

The smaller, enclosed fans produce less noise, particularly at higher

machine speeds.
Rotor: it is the rotating part of an alternator. It is magnetised by
passing current through it from the battery.
Housing: it is the casing in which the whole alternator assembly is
kept from outside contacts. All the connecting screws are joined to
this housing.
Hardware: consists of the required equipment in that specific
alternator model.
Rectifier: alternator usually produces alternating current due to
varying magnetic field. But this AC cannot be used to recharge the
battery of the automobile. So, it needs to be converted to direct
current or DC. It can be converted by using rectifier. Rectifier
converts AC to DC. Usually, bridge rectifiers are used in alternators.
Voltage regulator: current should be given to the stator and rotor to
energize the fields. Sometimes, the voltage may vary up to 30V. This
voltage regulator helps to regulate the voltage to the desired value
i.e. 24V.
Slip ring: it is used to get the produced AC from the alternator.

The rotor of the alternator is rotated by the help of connecting it to the

engine fan by means of a connecting belt.
Some specifications of alternators repaired at KSRTC central works are

TATA TC
45A 24V
TATA BS
55A 24V
TATA TC BS
75A 25V
LEYLAND KINO 45A 24V
LETLAND BS
55A 24V
LEYLAND BS3
55A 24V
LEYLAND BSC 100A 25V

UNIT
(Day 4: 23rd June, 2016)

The works carried out at this section include

Differential unit

 Brakes
Steering box
Front axle
The power output from the gearbox is provided to the
differential unit and hence the wheels are carried out using propeller
shafts.It is the part of the chassis that delivers the power of engine from
the gearbox to the differential and then to the wheels. The length and
number of parts of propeller shaft varies as the length of chassis
increases. It delivers power to the differential.
DIFFERENTIAL UNIT

A differential is a gear train with three shafts that has the property that
the angular velocity of one shaft is the average of the angular velocities of
the others, or a fixed multiple of that average. The differential allows the
outer drive wheel to rotate faster than the inner drive wheel during a turn.
This is necessary when the vehicle turns, making the wheel that is
traveling around the outside of the turning curve roll farther and faster
than the other. The average of the rotational speed of the two driving
wheels equals the input rotational speed of the drive shaft. An increase in
the speed of one wheel is balanced by a decrease in the speed of the
other.
A dial gauge is used to check backlash of crown pinion arrangement. Play
rate for TATA is 8-12 and for Leyland is 12-20, where 1 is 1/1000 inch
or 0.0254mm. this is done to provide oil clearance to eliminate the
overheating due to metal metal contact. Shim is a small disc-like material
made of steel of very small thickness to adjust the clearance between the

teeth or play. If the clearance is high than required, then some shim is
placed so as to eliminate the extra play.

PARTS
CROWN PARTS
o gauges (2)
o side bearing (2)
o sun gear (2)
o star gear (4)
o tuinion (spider)
o thrush washer (2 big, 2 small)
PINION PARTS
o taper bearings (2)
o distance piece
o pinion body
o spacer
o flange
o pinion nut
o split pin
o shim
tata shim(100-140mm)
leyland
fixed number (fn) 2.657

 pinion number (pn) 7.250

body number (bn) 10.380
equation =>360 < fn + pn bn <380

WORKING
THE VEHICLE MOVES STRAIGHT
In this case, the spider gear rotates along with the ring gear but does not
rotate on its own axis. So the spider gear will push and make both the
side gears turn, and both will turn at the same speed. In short, when the
vehicle moves straight, the spider-side gear assembly will move as a
single solid unit.
THE VEHICLE TAKES A RIGHT TURN
Now consider the case when the vehicle is taking a right turn. The spider
gear plays a pivotal role in this case. Along with the rotation of the ring
gear it rotates on its own axis. So, the spider gear is has a combined
rotation.
When properly meshed, the side gear has to have the same peripheral
velocity as the spider gear. Technically speaking, both gears should have
the same pitch line velocity. When the spider gear is spinning as well as
rotating, peripheral velocity on the left side of spider gear is the sum of
the spinning and rotational velocities. But on the right side, it is the
difference of the two, since the spin velocity is in the opposite direction on
this side. This means the left side gear will have higher speed compared
to the right side gear. This is the way the differential manages to turn left
and right wheels at different speeds.
THE VEHICLE TAKES A LEFT TURN
While taking a left turn, the right wheel should rotate at a higher speed.
By comparing with the previous case, it is clear that, if the spider gear
spins in the opposite direction, the right side gear will have a higher
speed.
USE OF MORE SPIDER GEARS
In order to carry a greater load, one more spider gear is usually added.
Note that the spider gears should spin in opposite directions to have the

proper gear motion. A four-spider-gear arrangement is also used for

vehicles with heavy loads. In such cases, the spider gears are connected
to ends of a cross bar, and the spider gears are free to spin independently.
OTHER FUNCTIONS OF THE DIFFERENTIAL
Apart from allowing the wheels to rotate at different rpm differential has 2
more functions. First is speed reduction at the pinion-ring gear assembly.
This is achieved by using a ring gear which is having almost 4 to 5 times
number of teeth as that of the pinion gear. Such huge gear ratio will bring
down the speed of the ring gear in the same ratio. Since the power flow at
the pinion and ring gear are the same, such a speed reduction will result
in a high torque multiplication. The other function of the differential is to
turn the power flow direction by 90 degree.
BRAKE

A brake is a mechanical device that inhibits motion by absorbing energy

from a moving system. It is used for slowing or stopping a moving vehicle,
wheel, axle, or to prevent its motion, most often accomplished by means
of friction. Most brakes commonly use friction between two surfaces
pressed together to convert the kinetic energy of the moving object
into heat. Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but
may also take other forms such as the surface of a moving fluid. An air
brake or, more formally, a compressed air brake system, is a type of
friction brake for vehicles in which compressed air pressing on a piston is

used to apply the pressure to the brake pad needed to stop the vehicle.
Air brakes are used in large heavy vehicles, particularly those having
multiple trailers which must be linked into the brake system, such
as trucks, buses, trailers, etc.The brake section in KSRTC mainly deals
with the overhauling of DDUs made by Westinghouse Air Brake Company
(WABCO). It stands for Drying and Distribution Unit.

The disassembled DDU is shown in the above figure. Drying and

Distribution Unit combines the function of the Air dryer with unloader
valve, purge tank (fitted with air dryer) and the Quadruple System
Protection Valve (QSPV).

The layout of placing DDU and related braking components in the chassis
of an automobile is as shown.
DDU consists of aluminium body on which the purge tank, integral
unloader valve, integral QSPV and the tyre inflator are mounted. The
exhaust is fitted with a silencer, internally, air path consists of a
coalescent filter, which removes the oil and other contaminants from the
compressed air and desiccant bed, which removes moisture from the air.
During charging, the compressor pumps air into the service reservoirs.
The water molecules in the air get adsorbed on microscopic pores on the
surface of the desiccant beads. A portion of the dried air is stored in the
purge volume contained in the sheet metal purge tank. During unloading
cycle, the Unloader exhausts the compressor delivery air to the
atmosphere.

Non return valve present in the DDU body and QSPV body does not
allow any back flow from service reservoirs. Because of pressure
difference between the air pressure stored in the purge volume and below
desiccant bed, the pressurized dry air from the purge volume expands
and flows back through a small orifice in the purge valve over the
desiccant bed. This expansion and flow of dried air in the reverse direction
collects the moisture adsorbed by the desiccant during the charging
cycle, regenerating the desiccant. The moisture collected by the
desiccant, condensed water, oil and other contaminants are also
exhausted to atmosphere in each unloading cycle.

STEERING BOX
Steering is the collection of components, linkages, etc. which allow an
automobile to follow the desired course. The primary purpose of the
steering system is to allow the driver to guide the vehicle

The important parts of a steering box are:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Piston,
Sector shaft with gear,
Worm shaft with gear,
Ball bearings,
Oil pump.

A steering box designed using a worm wheel is considerably smaller than

one made from plain spur gear, and has its drive axes at 90 degree to
each other. Like other gear arrangements, a worm drive can reduce
rotational speed or transmit higher torque. One of the important human
interface systems in the automobile is the steering gear. The steering
gear is a device for converting the rotary motion of the steering wheel

into straight line motion of the linkage. The steering gears are enclosed in
a box, called the steering gear box. The steering wheel is connected
directly to the steering linkage it would require a great effort to move the
front wheels. Therefore to assist the driver, a reduction system is used.
The rotary vane pump contains a set of retractable vanes that spin inside
an oval chamber. The power that runs the pump comes from the engine
using a belt and pulley. The spinning vanes draw the hydraulic fluid from a
reservoir and use it to apply force to push the piston in the double-acting
cylinder in the appropriate direction. The speed of the engine determines
the amount of pressure that is available to apply to the hydraulic fluid in
the system and so, to ensure adequate flow while idling, more fluid pumps
through the system at high engine speeds. To relieve this added pressure
on the power steering cylinder, the system uses a pressure release valve.
The steering wheel uses a torsion bar to control the flow of hydraulic fluid
through the power steering pump. This is a long, thin piece of metal
attached to the steering column in such a way that it twists as the
steering wheel turns, controlling the pressure through the pump using the
transferred. Power steering fluid is an integral component of a vehicles
power steering pump operation. Power steering fluid is housed in the
power steering pump reservoir, and it performs a variety of functions such
as lubricate power steering pump, lubricate power steering gear unit,
provide hydraulic pressure, reduce power steering system temperature
etc.

FRONT AXLE

Front axle is a horizontal assembly kept under the chassis to connect the
two front tyres of a vehicle.
The main parts of front axle assembly are:

 I-beam: it is the foundation of the front axle. It is a specially

designed shaft for giving the support to all its parts.
Sub-axle: It is the small extension on which the drum and
connecting plate is fixed. The wheel is fixed on the drum for
rotation.
Connecting plate: It is a specially designed plate for fixing the
drum and other parts to the front axle. It has many accurately
threaded holes in which tightening of bolts are done.
King pin: It is the pin that is put between the I-beam and flanges
of connecting plates. It is so called because it is the largest pin
used. The king pin is inserted in slightly inclined manner. It is to
increase collision resistance and to prevent it from breaking. The
inclination is limited to 3.5
Brake chamber: It is circular chamber for holding compressed air
for braking purposes. Each wheel has one each.
Slack adjuster: It is an extension connected to the s cam roller for
the proper working of the same. Air pressure from the brake
chamber is applied to the slack adjuster so that the s cam roller
rotates.
S-cam: It is a cam designed in the shape of S for the purpose of
applying brakes. As the s cam rotates, the brake shoe is allowed
to touch the drum and brake is applied.
S-cam roller: It is a rolling device used for the rotation of s-cam.
Steering arm: It is a metal arm fixed to one of the front tyres.
Usually, it is present on the wheel just below the driving seat. The
shaft from the steering box is connected to this arm for the
purpose of turning the vehicle to desired direction.
Track rod end: It is a long rod that is used to connect the two
wheels for the purpose of turning. When one wheel gets steered
by the driver, the other wheel also has to follow the same degree
of rotation. For this, a rod is connected between the two wheels
for this purpose.
Brake shoes: It carries the brake lining, which is riveted or glued
to the shoe. When the brake is applied, the shoe moves and
presses the lining against the inside of the drum.
The friction between lining and drum provides the braking effort.
Energy is dissipated as heat.
Other than this important parts, thrust bearings, thrust washers,
hub(inner bearing), cotter bolt, hub nut, shoe holding roller, shoe return
spring, shoe holding spring and bushes are used.

ENGINE OVERHAULING
(Day 5: 25th June, 2016)

An overhauled engine is an engine which has

been removed, disassembled (torn down), cleaned, inspected, repaired as
necessary and tested using factory service manual approved procedures.
The procedure generally involves honing, new piston rings, bearings,
gaskets, oil seals. When done by a competent engine builder the engine
will perform as new. The engine may be overhauled to 'new limits' or
'service limits', or a combination of the two using used parts, new original
equipment manufacturer (OEM) parts, or new aftermarket parts. The
engine's previous operating history is maintained and it is returned with
zero hours since major overhaul.
Many times aftermarket part manufacturers are the OEM part suppliers to
major engine manufacturers
The engine overhauling section at KSRTC deals with the repair of 4
stroke, 6 cylinder, in- line diesel engines manufactured by TATA and
Leyland
ENGINE PARTS
A 6-cylinder Internal Combustion (IC) diesel engine is complex mechanical
device which converts heat energy developed inside the engine cylinders
to mechanical energy. This energy is then used for the motion of the
automobile. A numerous parts are used for the proper and fail-proof
construction of an engine. Each part should be precisely designed and
made for the proper and smooth working of an engine. Each and every
part is not mentioned here. Only the important parts are shown and
defined below:

A 4-cylinder engine is shown in the figure. Some of the main parts are
shown in it.

1)

Camshaft:

Camshaft is a type of rotating device or apparatus used in piston engines

for propelling or operating poppet valves. Camshaft comprises of series of
cams that regulates the opening and closing of valves in the piston
engines. The camshaft works with the help of a belt, chain and gears

2)

Crankshaft:

Crankshaft is a device, which converts the up and down movement of the

piston into rotatory motion. This shaft is presented at the bottom of an
engine and its main function is to rotate the pistons in a circular motion.
Crankshaft is further connected to flywheel, clutch, main shaft of the
transmission, torque converter and belt pulley.
To convert Reciprocating motion of the Piston into Rotary motion, the
Crankshaft and Connecting Rod combination is used. The Crankshaft
which is made by Steel Forging or Casting is held on the Axis around
which it rotates, by the Main Bearings, which is fit round the main Journals
provided.
There are always at least two such bearings, one at the rare end and
other at front end. The increase in number of main bearings for a given
size of the Crankshaft means less possibility of Vibration and Distortion.
But it will also increase the difficulty of correct alignment in addition to
increased production cost. The Main Bearings are mounted on the
Crankcase of the Engine. The Balance weight or Counter weight keep the
system in perfect balance. The Crank Webs are extended and enlarged on
the side of Journal opposite the Crank Throw so as to from balance
weights. The Crankshaft may be made from Carbon Steel, Nickel Chrome
or other Alloy Steel.

3)

Connecting Rod:

Connecting rods are made of metals, which are used, for joining a rotating
wheel to a reciprocating shaft. More precisely, connecting rods also
referred to as con rod are used for conjoining the piston to the crankshaft.
The load on the piston due to combustion of fuel in the combustion
chamber is transmitted to crankshaft through the connecting rod. One
end of connecting rod known as small end and is connected to the piston
through gudgeon pin while the other end known as big end and is
connected to crankshaft through crank pin.
Connecting rods are usually made up of drop forged I section. In large size
internal combustion engine, the connecting rods of rectangular section
have been employed. In such cases, the larger dimensions are kept in the
plane of rotation.

In petrol engine, the connecting rod's big end is generally split to enable
its clamping around the crankshaft. Suitable diameter holes are provided
to accommodate connecting rod bolts for clamping. The big end of
connecting rod is clamped with crankshaft with the help of connecting rod
bolt, nut and split pin or cotter pin.
Generally, plain carbon steel is used as material to manufacture
connecting rod but where low weight is most important factor, aluminium
alloys are most suitable. Nickel alloy steel are also used for heavy duty
engine's connecting rod.
Connecting rods can be made of steel, aluminium, titanium, iron and
other types of metals.

4)

Crank Case:

A crankcase is a metallic cover that holds together the crankshaft and its
attachments. It is the largest cavity within an engine that protects the
crankshaft, connecting rods and other components from foreign objects.
Automotive crankcases are filled with air and oil, while Magnesium, Cast
Iron, Aluminium and alloys are some common materials used to make
crankcases.
5)

Cylinder Heads:

Cylinder heads refers to a detachable plate, which is used for covering the
closed end of a cylinder assembled in an automotive engine. It comprises
of combustion chamber valve train and spark plugs. Different types of
automobiles have different engine configurations such as Straight engine
has only one cylinder head while a engine has two cylinder heads.

6)

Engine Belts:

Engine belts are the bands made of flexible material used for connecting
or joining two rotating shafts or pulleys together. These belts work in
coordination with wheels and axles for transferring energy. When the
wheels or shafts are positioned at extremely different angles, then the
engine belts have the ability to change the direction of a force. Engine
pulley is a type of machine or a wheel having either a broad rim or
groomed rim attached to a rope or chain for lifting heavy objects.

7) Engine Oil System:

Oil is one of the necessities of an automobile engine. Oil is distributed
under strong pressure to all other moving parts of an engine with the help
of an oil pump. This oil pump is placed at the bottom of an engine in the
oil pan and is joined by a gear to either the crankshaft or the camshaft.
Near the oil pump, there is an oil pressure sensor, which sends
information about the status of oil to a warning light or meter gauge.
The different parts of engine oil systems include:
a)

Engine Oil

b)

Engine Oil Cooler

c)

Engine Oil Filter

d)

Engine Oil Gaskets

e)

Engine Oil Pan

f)

Engine Oil Pipe

8)

Engine Valve:

Automobile engine valves are devices that regulate the flow of air and
fuel mixture into the cylinder and assist in expelling exhaust gases after
fuel combustion. They are indispensable to the system of coordinated
opening and closing of valves, known as valve train. Engine valves are
made from varied materials such as Structural Ceramics, Steels,
Superalloys and Titanium alloys. Valve materials are selected based on
the temperatures and pressures the valves are to endure.
The primary components of engine valve are:
a)

Inlet Valve

b)

Exhaust Valve

c)

Combination Valve

d)

Check Valve

e)

EGR Valve

f)

Thermostat Valve

g)

Overhead Valve

h)

Valve Guide

i)

Schrader Valve

j)

Vacuum Delay Parts

Inlet Valve & Exhaust ValveFunction-Inlet valve allow the fresh charge of air-fuel mixture to enter the
cylinder bore. Exhaust valve permits the burnt gases to escape from the
cylinder bore at proper timing.

9)

Engine Block:

An engine block is a metal casting that serves as a basic structure on

which other engine parts are installed. A typical block contains bores for
pistons, pumps or other devices to be attached to it. Even engines are
sometimes classified as small-block or big-block based on the distance
between cylinder bores of engine blocks. Engine blocks are made from
different materials including Aluminium alloys, grey cast iron, ferrous
alloys, white iron, grey iron, ductile iron, malleable iron, etc.

10)

Engine Pulley:

An engine pulley is a wheel with a groove around its circumference, upon

which engine belts run and transmit mechanical power, torque and speed
across different shafts of an engine. An engine houses pulley units of
different sizes for cam shaft drive, accessory drive and timing belts.
Moulded plastics, iron and steel are normally used to make engine
pulleys.

11)

Engine Brackets:

An engine bracket is a metallic part used to join an engine mount to the

power unit or the body of a vehicle. These auto parts are installed
between a vehicle's body and power unit to dampen the vibrations
generated by the engine, thus preventing a vehicle's body from shaking
due to the vibrations. Engine brackets are made from Ductile Iron Cast,
Aluminium, Polypropylene, Fiberglass and alloys.

12)

Engine Mounting Bolts:

Automotive mounting bolts secure different automobile components viz.

air bags, brake fittings, etc. on to a supporting structure. Likewise, engine
mounting bolts help secure an automobile's engine in place. Based on
usage, a number of materials such as alloys, silicon bronze, bronze,
ceramic, carbon, aluminium, nylon, phosphor bronze, nickel silver, plastic,
titanium, zirconium and stainless steel are utilized to produce these bolts.

13)

Piston:

Piston is a cylindrical plug which is used for moving up and down the
cylinder according to the position of the crankshaft in its rotation. Piston
has multiple uses and functions. In the case of four-stroke engine the
piston is pulled or pushed with the help of crankshaft while in the case of
compression stroke, piston is pushed with the powerful explosion of
mixture of air and fuel.
Piston comprises of several components namely:
a)

Piston Pins

b)

Piston Floor Mat

c)

Piston Rings

d)

Piston Valve

14)

Piston rings:

Piston rings provide a sliding seal between the outer edge of the piston
and the inner edge of the cylinder. The rings serve two purposes:

They prevent the fuel/air mixture and exhaust in the combustion

chamber from leaking into the sump during compression and combustion.

They keep oil in the sump from leaking into the combustion area,
where it would be burned and lost.

15)

Push Rods:

Push rods are thin metallic tubes with rounded ends that move through
the holes within a cylinder block and head, to actuate the rocker arms.
Pushrods are found in valve-in-head type engines and are essential for the
motion of engine valves. Some commonly used materials for
manufacturing pushrods are Titanium, Aluminium, Chrome Moly and
Tempered Chrome Moly.

16)

Valve train:

Valve train consists of various components and parts, which enables

valves to operate and function smoothly. Valve train comprises of three
main components: camshafts, several components which are used for
turning the camshafts rotating movement into reciprocating movement,
and lastly valves and its various parts.
The primary components of valve train are:
a)

Tappet

b)

Rocker Arms

c)

Valve Timing System

17)

Governor

It controls the speed of engine at a different load by regulating fuel supply

in diesel engine. In petrol engine, supplying the mixture of air-petrol and
controlling the speed at various load condition.

18)

Carburettor

It converts petrol in fine spray and mixes with air in proper ratio as per
requirement of the engine.

19)

Fuel Pump

This device supplies the petrol to the carburettor sucking from the fuel
tank.

20)

Spark Plug

This device is used in petrol engine only and ignite the charge of fuel for
combustion.

21)

Fuel Injector

This device is used in diesel engine only and delivers fuel in fine spray
under pressure.

22)

Gudgeon Pin

Connects the piston with small end of connecting rod.

This pin connects the piston with small end of the connecting rod, and
also known as piston pin. It is made up of case hardened steel and
accurately ground to the required diameters. Gudgeon pins are made
hollow to reduce its weight, resulting low inertia effect of reciprocating
parts.
This pin is also known as "Fully Floating" as this is free to turn or oscillate
both in the piston bosses as well as the small end of the connecting rod.
There are very less chances of seizure in this case but the end movement
of the pin must be restricted to score the cylinder walls. This can be
achieved by using any one of the following three methods,
A) One spring circlip at each end is fitted into the groove in the piston
bosses.

B) On spring circlip is provided in the middle.

C) Bronze or Aluminium pads are fitted at both ends of the pin, which
prevents the cylinder walls from being damaged.
The gudgeon pin may also be semi-floating type, in which either the pin is
free to turn or oscillate in the small end bearing but secured in the piston
bosses or it may secured in the small end bearing and allowed a free
oscillating movement in the piston bosses. This method provides more
bearing area at the bosses and hence no need for providing bushes there
in is preferred.

23)

Crank Pin

Hand over the power and motion to the crank shaft which come from
piston through connecting rod.

24)

Sump

The sump surrounds the crankshaft. It contains some amount of oil, which
collects in the
bottom of the sump (the oil pan).

25)

Distributor

It operates the ignition coil making it spark at exactly the right moment. It
also distributes the spark to the right cylinder and at the right time. If the
timing is off by a fraction then the engine won't run properly.

26)

Atomiser

It is a specially designed nozzle to spray diesel to the cylinder.

27)

Turbocharger

Turbocharging is common in modern car and truck diesel engines to

produce higher power outputs, lower emissions levels, and improved

efficiency from a similar capacity of engine. Turbo-diesels in automobiles

offer a higher refinement level than their naturally aspirated counterparts.

The exhaust gases from the cylinders are fed to one portion of the turbo
which helps to rotate an impeller at high speeds. Then these gases are
pushed outside through silencers. The rotating impeller is connected to
another. The second impeller creates a suction which in turn pulls fresh air
from outside and supplies it to the cylinder. Thus the turbocharger helps
to increase the power and efficiency of the engine. The impeller rotates at
high speeds, roughly 20 times that of the crank speed.
28)

Air compressor

It is also a piston cylinder arrangement. The piston is connected to the

camshaft. It compresses air in a small compressed chamber, which is then
supplied to different portions of the engine for different functions.
29)

Bearings

There are a number of bearings used inside the engine block. Bearings
are placed where smooth movement of parts are mandatory. Bearings
with the required oil clearances help in the smooth working of the engine.
For the smooth working of the crankshaft, a total of 6 bearings are used. 5
shell bearings and a thrust bearing. The thrust bearing is used to inhibit
the sideways movement of the crankshaft.
30)

Oil pump

The oil pump in an internal combustion engine circulates engine oil under
pressure to the rotating bearings, the sliding pistons and the camshaft of
the engine. This lubricates the bearings, allows the use of highercapacity fluid bearings and also assists in cooling the engine. It has a
strainer at the bottom to filter the oil before circulating it in the engine
block. An ordinary 6-cylinder diesel has an oil sump of nearly 15L.

31)

Feed pump

It is to pump water to the engine sides for the purpose of cooling. It is

also operated with the help of camshaft.

32)

Gasket

A gasket is a mechanical seal which fills the space between two or more
mating surfaces, generally to prevent leakage from or into the joined
objects while under compression. Gaskets allow "less-than-perfect"
mating surfaces on machine parts where they can fill irregularities.

33)

Flywheel

A heavy revolving wheel in a machine which is used to increase the

machine's momentum and thereby provide greater stability or a reserve
of available power. It is usually connected to the other side of the
crankshaft.

OIL CLEARANCE
The oil clearance is the gap between the inside diameter of an installed
bearing and the outside diameter of the crankshaft or camshaft journal.
The clearance is measured 90 degrees to the bearing parting line, which
is the thickest part of the bearing (bearing thickness tapers slightly
toward the parting line).
Reducing the oil clearance between the rod and main bearings and the
crankshaft has a number of advantages. A smaller gap spreads the load
over a wider area of the bearing surface and distributes pressure more

uniformly across the bearing. Thats good, provided the bearing is strong
enough to handle it. A smaller gap also decreases the volume of oil that
has to flow into the bearing to maintain the oil film between the bearing
and shaft.
Thats also good; provided the oil is thin enough (low viscosity) to flow
well into the bearing. This also reduces the amount of oil pressure the
engine needs, so some extra horsepower is gained by reducing the load
on the oil pump.
One of the disadvantages of closer bearing clearances is that it can
increase both bearing and oil temperatures. Thats no problem as long as
the bearings and oil can handle the heat, but if they cant it increases the
risk of lubrication breakdown and bearing failure. Thats why high quality
synthetic motor oil is absolutely essential if you are building an engine
with tighter than normal clearances.
For the mating of piston with crankshaft, an oil clearance of 2-5 is
provided using gauges. 1 is one thousandth of an inch or 0.0254mm. In
case the clearance is large, the grooves are filed to obtain proper
dimensions.

FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

(6th day : 20rd June, 2016)

The FIS section of the KSRTC deals with the repair and reassembly of fuel
pumps namely rotary pump and inline pump along with correction of
atomiser and calibration of the pumps. The schematic diagram of the fuel
injection system is shown

FUEL PUMP

Mechanical fuel pumps are diaphragm pumps, which are a type of positive
displacement pump. Diaphragm pumps contain a pump chamber whose
volume is increased or decreased by the flexing of a flexible diaphragm,
similar to the action of a piston pump. A check valve is located at both the
inlet and outlet ports of the pump chamber to force the fuel to flow in one
direction only. Specific designs vary, but in the most common
configuration, these pumps are typically bolted onto the engine block or
head, and the engine's camshaft has an extra eccentric lobe that operates
a lever on the pump, either directly or by a pushrod. In doing so, the
volume inside the pump chamber increased, causing pressure to
decrease. This allows fuel to be pushed into the pump from the tank
(caused by atmospheric pressure acting on the fuel in the tank. The
pressure at which the fuel is expelled from the pump is thus limited (and
therefore regulated) by the force applied by the diaphragm spring. The
pump creates negative pressure to draw the fuel through the lines.
However, the low pressure between the pump and the fuel tank, in
combination with heat from the engine and/or hot weather, can cause the
fuel to vaporize in the supply line. This results in fuel starvation as the fuel
pump, designed to pump liquid, not vapor, is unable to suck more fuel to
the engine.

FUEL INJECTION PUMPS

The injections pumps used at KSRTC are inline injection pumps and rotary
pumps. Earlier diesel pumps used an in-line layout with a series of camoperated injection cylinders in a line, rather like a miniature inline engine.
The pistons have a constant stroke volume, and injection volume (i.e.,
throttling) is controlled by rotating the cylinders against a cut-off port that
aligns with a helical slot in the cylinder. When all the cylinders are rotated
at once, they simultaneously vary their injection volume to produce more
or less power from the engine. Inline pumps still find favour on large
multi-cylinder engines such as those on trucks, construction plant, static
engines and agricultural vehicles.
For use on cars and light trucks, the rotary pump or distributor pump was
developed. It uses a single injection cylinder driven from an axial cam
plate, which injects into the individual fuel lines via a rotary distribution
valve All injection pumps incorporate a governor to cut fuel supply if the
crank speed endangers the engine - the heavy moving parts of diesel
engines do not tolerate over speeding well, and catastrophic damage can
occur if they are over-revved. Poorly maintained and worn engines can
consume their lubrication oil through worn out crankcase ventilation
systems and 'run away', causing increasing engine speed until the engine
destroys itself. This is because most diesel engines only regulate their
speed by fuel supply control and don't have a throttle valve to control air
intake.

INLINE FUEL PUMP

It consists of the following basic units:

Cam shaft

Lift pump

In-line injector pump with four

Pumping elements,

Injectors

Plunger and bearing

Control sleeve with spring

Non return delivery valve

Roller tappet

Central bearing

Peg screw
Inline injection pump is a type of reciprocating pump. The cam shaft
carries 6 cams for the pump used at KSRTC. The first one is the eccentric
cam to actuate the lift pump. The remaining 5 are intended to drive
plungers of the pump. The cams are installed in such a way that pumping
elements deliver fuel in the firing order and at the correct instant in the
engine's cycle of operation. The lift pump supplies fluid to the intake of
injector pump elements. Each element of the pump consists of a camdriven plunger, delivery valve, and the governor assembly. The purpose of
the governor is to control the volume of the fuel delivered by the plunger
to a cylinder. It is attained by rotating the plunger with the helical groove
with respect to the spill orifice. All the system units will be described in
more details in the following sections. Control sleeve regulates the
amount of fuel being supplied to the injector.
ROTARY FUEL PUMP

A rotary vane pump is a positive-displacement pump that consists of

vanes mounted to a rotor that rotates inside of a cavity. In some cases
these vanes can have variable length and/or be tensioned to maintain
contact with the walls as thepump rotates.
The important parts in a rotary distribution pump are:
1. Eccentric disc: A disc with some thickness inside where the rotor
of the pump is kept.
2. Rotor: The rotor has 4 slots for installing blades in them. In the
centre the rotor has a hole for the driving shaft. It acts as a vane
pump when driving shaft drives the rotor.
3. Supporting plate: It is a circular plate to support the rotor and
blades.
4. Driving shaft: It is specially designed shaft that goes through the
centre of the pump. It is driven by belt from camshaft. It is placed
perpendicular and connected with the rotor of the pump.
5. Governor: It is a gear system driven by the driving shaft which
governs the amount of diesel to be pumped.
6. Roller assembly: A specially designed circular plate for free
rotation of cam plate.
7. Cam plate: An accurately designed plate with a curvy design for
the perfect timing for opening and closing of element.
8. Element: Instead of having 6 elements in in-line injection pump,
the rotary pump has only one element. It has hole in it which
allows the flow of diesel to different cylinders. The top portion of
element has 6 specially designed small holes. They are differently
oriented. As the cam plate moves, some holes get closed and
others get opened. This helps in pumping the fuel to different

cylinders at different times. The cam plate is so adjusted that the

right firing order is acquired.
9. Hydraulic head: The top portion of element is connected to this
head. It has 6 holes in them which are connected to the delivery
valves of each cylinder.
10. Fulcrum lever: It is the part that varies the amount of diesel to
be pumped by raising and lowering the element head.
11. TD piston: Time Delay piston is small cylinder kept connected
with the roller assembly to govern the movement of cam plate.
TD piston is actuated by the pressure of diesel.
The plunger (right middle in the figure) in the VE pump both
rotates along its axis and performs a reciprocating translation in and out.
It is the translation that performs the high pressure pumping, while the
rotation is responsible for metering and sending the fuel to the correct
cylinder.
The cam disk is rigidly attached to the plunger. The drive
shaft rotates the cam disk. The cam disk rides on four rollers (only one
shown in this picture), and has four lobes. Thus for each revolution the
plunger will pump four times. Note that with this arrangement the plunger
stroke is constant. The metering (regulation of how much fuel is delivered)
is done not by changing the mechanical stroke, but by spilling some of the
fuel through spill ports, and thus changing the effective stroke. This is
done by uncovering a spill port under the control sleeve at a particular
angle of rotation. The other purpose of the rotation is to deliver the fuel to
the correct cylinder. This is done by having four delivery valves (only one
shown in the figure), one for every 90 degrees of rotation. During a full
revolution the plunger makes four strokes, one at 0, 90, 180 and 270
degrees. During each stroke the delivery port in the middle of the plunger
is connected to a particular delivery valve.
ATOMISER OR FUEL INJECTOR

The fuel that is pumped under high pressure from the fuel pumps has to
be sprayed into the combustion chambers. For this, a specially designed
device is used, known as the atomiser. The primary factor used in
determining the amount of fuel required by the engine is the amount (by
weight) of air that is being taken in by the engine for use in combustion.
Modern systems use a mass airflow sensor to send this information to
the engine control unit. Fuel injection also depends on the firing order if
the engine.
The atomiser body has an inlet for the diesel to be sprayed and an outlet
for the excess diesel to go out of the atomiser body. Each atomiser has a
specific pressure range of operation. It has nozzle at the tip of the
atomiser that helps to spray the diesel at high speeds. The nozzle kept in
position by a return spring. As the compression of the spring increases,
the pressure increases. A spacer is placed to get the desired pressure.
Thin circular discs, known as shim of different thickness can be placed to
get the desired pressure. The spill of the atomiser stops at the pressure
bolt. There is an atomiser cap at the end of the atomiser. The number of
holes on an atomiser varies with the design. The BS-II (Bharat Stage 2)
model engine has 5 holes. The EURO model has 6 holes, whereas the BSIII model has 7 holes for fuel injection.
3 tests are done on atomiser to test their proper working. They are:
(i)

Spray test: to check if all the holes of the atomiser is

open. Diesel is sprayed through the atomiser for this.

(ii)

(iii)

Pressure test: the pressure at the time of spraying is

measured and checked with the required value. Placing or
removal of required shim solves the problem.
Leak test: it is to check the leakage of diesel in atomiser.

FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM AND CALIBRATION

At the beginning, fuel injection units were purely mechanical assemblages but gradually
they have evolved into electrically operated, electronically controlled devices. Irrespective

of the principle of operation though, they need to be constructed of extremely high

precision components that must be assembled with the greatest care and calibrated
perfectly so that the system can perform optimally. The basic requirement that a petrol F.I.
system should fulfil can be stated quite simply: it should deliver the right quantity of fuel in
relation to the quantity of air aspirated by the engine to ensure complete combustion at all
times. However, this does not imply that the fuel to air ratio should remain constant under
all conditions. In practice, the quantity of mixture delivered to the engine varies greatly,
and the fuel to air ratio can also vary somewhat, but within strict limits. The air
temperature, engine temperature, engine speed, engine load and throttle pedal position
are some of the factors that determine the quantity of fuel that must be metered by the
fuel injection system. The engine control unit constantly monitors the inputs from sensors
that detect changes in these parameters and computes accurately the quantity of fuel that
must be supplied at any given instant. As the demand keeps changing rapidly according to
operating conditions, the computerized engine control unit has to work on the fly,
exercising continuous control over the fuel injection system and the ignition timing too.

CONCLUSION
The 6-day training programme at KSRTC Central works, Pappanangcode
had been proved to be very useful in my career as an engineer. It has
provided with an insight into an automotive industry and has provided me
with an opportunity to study the possibilities and challenges faced by
engineers and technicians. The practical approach to the theoretical
knowledge I have gained will pave my way to introspect myself to be a
better engineer.