Engineering

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Engineering (disambiguation).

The steam engine, a major driver in the Industrial Revolution, underscores the importance of
engineering in modern history. This beam engine is on display in the Technical University of Madrid.

Engineering is the application of mathematics, empirical

evidence and scientific, economic, social, and practical knowledge in order to invent,
innovate, design, build, maintain, research, and
improvestructures, machines, tools, systems, components, materials, processes and organi
zations.
The discipline of engineering is extremely broad, and encompasses a range of more
specialized fields of engineering, each with a more specific emphasis on particular areas of
applied science, technologyand types of application.
The term Engineering is derived from the Latin ingenium, meaning "cleverness"
and ingeniare, meaning "to contrive, devise".
Contents
[hide]

1Definition

2History
o

2.1Ancient era

2.2Renaissance era

2.3Modern era

3Main branches of engineering

4Practice

5Methodology

5.1Problem solving

5.2Computer use

6Social context

7Relationships with other disciplines

o

7.1Science

7.2Medicine and biology

7.3Art

7.4Business Engineering and Engineering Management

7.5Other fields

8See also

9References

10Further reading

11External links

Definition[edit]
The American Engineers' Council for Professional Development (ECPD, the predecessor
of ABET)[1] has defined "engineering" as:
The creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines,
apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or
to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their
behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function,
economics of operation or safety to life and property.[2][3]

History[edit]
Main article: History of engineering

Relief map of the Citadel of Lille, designed in 1668 by Vauban, the foremost military engineer of his
age.

Engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions
such as the wedge, lever, wheel, and pulley. Each of these inventions is essentially
consistent with the modern definition of engineering.
The term engineering is derived from the word engineer, which itself dates back to 1390,
when an engine'er (literally, one who operates an engine) originally referred to "a
constructor of military engines."[4] In this context, now obsolete, an "engine" referred to a
military machine, i.e., a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult).
Notable examples of the obsolete usage which have survived to the present day are
military engineering corps, e.g., the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
The word "engine" itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from
the Latin ingenium (c. 1250), meaning "innate quality, especially mental power, hence a
clever invention."[5]
Later, as the design of civilian structures such as bridges and buildings matured as a
technical discipline, the term civil engineering[3] entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish
between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those
involved in the older discipline of military engineering.

Ancient era[edit]

The Ancient Romans builtaqueducts to bring a steady supply of clean fresh water to cities and towns
in the empire.

The Pharos of Alexandria, the pyramids in Egypt, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon,
the Acropolis and the Parthenon in Greece, the Roman aqueducts, Via Appia and
the Colosseum, Teotihuacn and the cities and pyramids of
the Mayan, Inca and Aztec Empires, the Great Wall of China, the Brihadeeswarar
Temple of Thanjavur and Indian Temples, among many others, stand as a testament to the
ingenuity and skill of the ancient civil and military engineers.
The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep.[3] As one of the officials of
the Pharaoh, Djosr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid
of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egyptaround 26302611 BC.[6]
Ancient Greece developed machines in both civilian and military domains. The Antikythera
mechanism, the first known mechanical computer,[7][8] and the
mechanical inventions of Archimedes are examples of early mechanical engineering. Some
of Archimedes' inventions as well as the Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated
knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two key principles in machine theory
that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial Revolution, and are still widely used
today in diverse fields such as robotics and automotive engineering.[9]
Chinese, Greek and Roman armies employed complex military machines and inventions
such as artillery which was developed by the Greeks around the 4th century B.C.,
[10]
the trireme, the ballista and the catapult. In the Middle Ages, the trebuchet was
developed.

Renaissance era[edit]

William Gilbert is considered to be the first electrical engineer with his 1600 publication
of De Magnete. He coined the term "electricity".[11]
The first steam engine was built in 1698 by Thomas Savery.[12] The development of this
device gave rise to the Industrial Revolution in the coming decades, allowing for the
beginnings of mass production.
With the rise of engineering as a profession in the 18th century, the term became more
narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends.
Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering the fields then known as themechanic
arts became incorporated into engineering.

Modern era[edit]

The International Space Stationrepresents a modern engineering challenge from many disciplines.

The inventions of Thomas Newcomen and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to
modern mechanical engineering. The development of specialized machines and machine
tools during the industrial revolution led to the rapid growth of mechanical engineering both
in its birthplace Britain and abroad.[3]

Structural engineers investigating NASA's Mars-bound spacecraft, the Phoenix Mars Lander

John Smeaton was the first self-proclaimed civil engineer, and is often regarded as the
"father" of civil engineering. He was an English civil engineer responsible for the design
of bridges, canals, harbours and lighthouses. He was also a capable mechanical
engineer and an eminent physicist. Smeaton designed the third Eddystone
Lighthouse (175559) where he pioneered the use of 'hydraulic lime' (a form
of mortar which will set under water) and developed a technique involving dovetailed blocks
of granite in the building of the lighthouse. His lighthouse remained in use until 1877 and
was dismantled and partially rebuilt at Plymouth Hoe where it is known as Smeaton's
Tower. He is important in the history, rediscovery of, and development of modern cement,
because he identified the compositional requirements needed to obtain "hydraulicity" in
lime; work which led ultimately to the invention of Portland cement.
The United States census of 1850 listed the occupation of "engineer" for the first time with
a count of 2,000.[13] There were fewer than 50 engineering graduates in the U.S. before
1865. In 1870 there were a dozen U.S. mechanical engineering graduates, with that
number increasing to 43 per year in 1875. In 1890 there were 6,000 engineers in civil,
mining, mechanical and electrical.[14]

There was no chair of applied mechanism and applied mechanics established at

Cambridge until 1875, and no chair of engineering at Oxford until 1907. Germany
established technical universities earlier.[15]
The early stages of electrical engineering included the experiments of Alessandro Volta in
the 1800s, the experiments of Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention
of the electric motor in 1872. The theoretical work of James Maxwell (see: Maxwell's
equations) and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of electronics.
The later inventions of the vacuum tube and the transistor further accelerated the
development of electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers
currently outnumber their colleagues of any other engineering specialty.[3] Chemical
engineering developed in the late nineteenth century.[3] Industrial scale manufacturing
demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale
production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the
development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants. [3] The role
of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes. [3]

The Falkirk Wheel in Scotland

Aeronautical engineering deals with aircraft design process design while aerospace
engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach of the discipline by
includingspacecraft design. Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around
the start of the 20th century although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been
dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. Early knowledge of aeronautical
engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other
branches of engineering.[16]
The first PhD in engineering (technically, applied science and engineering) awarded in the
United States went to Josiah Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; it was also the
second PhD awarded in science in the U.S.[17]
Only a decade after the successful flights by the Wright brothers, there was extensive
development of aeronautical engineering through development of military aircraft that were
used in World War I . Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science
continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments.
In 1990, with the rise of computer technology, the first search engine was built by computer
engineer Alan Emtage.

Main branches of engineering[edit]

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Main article: List of engineering branches

For a topical guide to this subject, see Outline of engineering#Branches of engineering.

The design of a modern auditorium involves many branches of engineering,

including acoustics, architecture and civil engineering.

Hoover Dam

Engineering is a broad discipline which is often broken down into several sub-disciplines.
These disciplines concern themselves with differing areas of engineering work. Although
initially an engineer will usually be trained in a specific discipline, throughout an engineer's
career the engineer may become multi-disciplined, having worked in several of the outlined
areas. Engineering is often characterized as having four main branches: [18][19][20]

Chemical engineering The application of physics, chemistry, biology, and

engineering principles in order to carry out chemical processes on a commercial scale,
such as petroleum refining, microfabrication,fermentation, and biomolecule production.

Civil engineering The design and construction of public and private works, such
as infrastructure (airports, roads, railways, water supply and treatment etc.), bridges,
dams, and buildings.

Electrical engineering The design, study and manufacture of various electrical

and electronic systems, such as electrical
circuits, generators, motors, electromagnetic/electromechanical devices, electronic
devices,electronic circuits, optical fibers, optoelectronic
devices, computer systems, telecommunications, instrumentation, controls,
and electronics.

Mechanical engineering The design and manufacture of physical or mechanical

systems, such as power and energy systems, aerospace/aircraft products, weapon
systems, transportation products, engines,compressors, powertrains, kinematic chains,
vacuum technology, vibration isolation equipment, manufacturing, and mechatronics.

Beyond these four, a number of other branches are recognized. Historically, naval
engineering and mining engineering were major branches. Other engineering fields
sometimes included as major branches[citation needed]are manufacturing engineering, acoustical
engineering, corrosion engineering, Instrumentation and
control, aerospace, automotive, computer, electronic, petroleum, systems, audio, software,
architectural, agricultural,biosystems, biomedical,[21] geological, textile, industrial, materials,
[22]
and nuclear[23] engineering. These and other branches of engineering are represented in
the 36 Licensed Member institutions of the UK Engineering Council.
New specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches for
example Earth Systems Engineering and Management involves a wide range of subject
areas including anthropology, engineering studies, environmental
science, ethics and philosophy. A new or emerging area of application will commonly be
defined temporarily as a permutation or subset of existing disciplines; there is often gray
area as to when a given sub-field warrants classification as a new "branch." One key
indicator of such emergence is when major universities start establishing departments and
programs in the new field.
For each of these fields there exists considerable overlap, especially in the areas of the
application of fundamental sciences to their disciplines such as physics, chemistry, and
mathematics. As a result there are many different types of engineering degrees available.
In the past, engineering could be divided into four major branches: Mechanical, Chemical,
Civil and Electrical, with sub branches of each discipline. Today however, the number of
engineering degrees available have increased dramatically.

Practice[edit]
One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and those licensed to do so may
have more formal designations such as Professional Engineer, Chartered
Engineer, Incorporated Engineer, Ingenieur, European Engineer, or Designated
Engineering Representative. In the UK many trades are called "Engineer" including gas,
telephone, photocopy, maintenance, plumber-heating, drainage, sanitary, auto mechanic,
TV, Refrigerator, electrician, washing machine, TV antenna installer (satellite) and many
others.

Methodology[edit]

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Design of a turbine requires collaboration of engineers from many fields, as the system involves
mechanical, electro-magnetic and chemical processes. The blades, rotor and stator as well as
the steam cycle all need to be carefully designed and optimized.

Engineers apply mathematics and sciences such as physics to find suitable solutions to
problems or to make improvements to the status quo. More than ever, engineers are now
required to have knowledge of relevant sciences for their design projects. As a result, they
keep on learning new material throughout their career.
If multiple options exist, engineers weigh different design choices on their merits and
choose the solution that best matches the requirements. The crucial and unique task of the
engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to
produce a successful result. It is usually not enough to build a technically successful
product; it must also meet further requirements.
Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or technical limitations,
flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for
cost, safety, marketability, productivity, andserviceability. By understanding the constraints,
engineers derive specifications for the limits within which a viable object or system may be
produced and operated.
A general methodology and epistemology of engineering can be inferred from the historical
case studies and comments provided by Walter Vincenti.[24] Though Vincenti's case studies
are from the domain of aeronautical engineering, his conclusions can be transferred into
many other branches of engineering, too.
According to Billy Vaughn Koen, the "engineering method is the use of heuristics to cause
the best change in a poorly understood situation within the available resources." Koen
argues that the definition of what makes one an engineer should not be based on what he
produces, but rather how he goes about it.[25]

Problem solving[edit]

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A drawing for a booster engine for steam locomotives. Engineering is applied to design, with
emphasis on function and the utilization of mathematics and science.

Engineers use their knowledge of science, mathematics, logic, economics, and appropriate
experience or tacit knowledge to find suitable solutions to a problem. Creating an
appropriatemathematical model of a problem allows them to analyze it (sometimes
definitively), and to test potential solutions.
Usually multiple reasonable solutions exist, so engineers must evaluate the different design
choices on their merits and choose the solution that best meets their requirements. Genrich
Altshuller, after gathering statistics on a large number of patents, suggested
that compromises are at the heart of "low-level" engineering designs, while at a higher level
the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem.
Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their
specifications prior to full-scale production. They use, among other things: prototypes, scale
models, simulations, destructive tests, nondestructive tests, and stress tests. Testing
ensures that products will perform as expected.

Engineers take on the responsibility of producing designs that will perform as well as
expected and will not cause unintended harm to the public at large. Engineers typically
include a factor of safety in their designs to reduce the risk of unexpected failure. However,
the greater the safety factor, the less efficient the design may be.
The study of failed products is known as forensic engineering, and can help the product
designer in evaluating his or her design in the light of real conditions. The discipline is of
greatest value after disasters, such as bridge collapses, when careful analysis is needed to
establish the cause or causes of the failure.

Computer use[edit]

A computer simulation of high velocity air flow around a Space Shuttle orbiter during re-entry.
Solutions to the flow require modelling of the combined effects of fluid flow and the heat equations.

As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and software play an
increasingly important role. As well as the typical business application software there are a
number of computer aided applications (computer-aided technologies) specifically for
engineering. Computers can be used to generate models of fundamental physical
processes, which can be solved using numerical methods.
One of the most widely used design tools in the profession is computer-aided design (CAD)
software like CATIA, Autodesk Inventor, DSS SolidWorks or Pro Engineer which enables
engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs. CAD
together with digital mockup (DMU) and CAE software such as finite element method
analysis or analytic element method allows engineers to create models of designs that can
be analyzed without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes.
These allow products and components to be checked for flaws; assess fit and assembly;
study ergonomics; and to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as
stresses, temperatures, electromagnetic emissions, electrical currents and voltages, digital
logic levels, fluid flows, and kinematics. Access and distribution of all this information is
generally organized with the use of product data management software.[26]
There are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as computer-aided
manufacturing (CAM) software to generate CNC machining instructions; manufacturing
process management software for production engineering; EDA for printed circuit
board (PCB) and circuit schematics for electronic engineers; MRO applications for
maintenance management; and AEC software for civil engineering.
In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has
collectively come to be known as product lifecycle management (PLM).[27]

Social context[edit]

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Robotic Kismet can produce a range of facial expressions.

The engineering profession engages in a wide range of activities, from large collaboration
at the societal level, and also smaller individual projects. Almost all engineering projects are
obligated to some sort of financing agency: a company, a set of investors, or a government.
The few types of engineering that are minimally constrained by such issues are pro
bono engineering and open-design engineering.
By its very nature engineering has interconnections with society, culture and human
behavior. Every product or construction used by modern society is influenced by
engineering. The results of engineering activity influence changes to the environment,
society and economies, and its application brings with it a responsibility and public safety.
Many engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide
members and inform the public at large.
Engineering projects can be subject to controversy. Examples from different engineering
disciplines include the development of nuclear weapons, the Three Gorges Dam, the
design and use of sport utility vehicles and the extraction of oil. In response, some western
engineering companies have enacted serious corporate and social responsibility policies.
Engineering is a key driver of innovation and human development.[28] Sub-Saharan Africa in
particular has a very small engineering capacity which results in many African nations being
unable to develop crucial infrastructure without outside aid.[citation needed] The attainment of many
of the Millennium Development Goals requires the achievement of sufficient engineering
capacity to develop infrastructure and sustainable technological development. [29]

Radar, GPS, lidar, ... are all combined to provide proper navigation and obstacle avoidance (vehicle
developed for 2007DARPA Urban Challenge)

All overseas development and relief NGOs make considerable use of engineers to apply
solutions in disaster and development scenarios. A number of charitable organizations aim
to use engineering directly for the good of mankind:

Engineers Without Borders

Engineers Against Poverty

Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief

Engineers for a Sustainable World

Engineering for Change

Engineering Ministries International[30]

Engineering companies in many established economies are facing significant challenges

with regard to the number of professional engineers being trained, compared with the
number retiring. This problem is very prominent in the UK where engineering has a poor
image and low status.[31] There are many negative economic and political issues that this
can cause, as well as ethical issues[32] It is widely agreed that the engineering profession
faces an "image crisis",[33] rather than it being fundamentally an unattractive career. Much
work is needed to avoid huge problems in the UK and other western economies.

Relationships with other disciplines[edit]

Science[edit]
Scientists study the world as it is; engineers create the world that has never been.
Theodore von Krmn[34][35][36]

Engineers, Scientists and Technicians works on target positioner inside National Ignition
Facility (NIF) target chamber.

There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice; in engineering,
one applies science. Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of materials and
phenomena. Both use mathematics and classification criteria to analyze and communicate
observations.[citation needed]
Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental
apparatus or building prototypes. Conversely, in the process of developing technology
engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena, thus becoming, for the
moment, scientists or more precisely "engineering scientists".[citation needed]
In the book What Engineers Know and How They Know It,[37] Walter Vincenti asserts that
engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research. First, it often

deals with areas in which the basic physics or chemistry are well understood, but the
problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner.

Christopher Cassidy of NASA works on the Capillary Flow Experiment aboard the International
Space Station.

Examples are the use of numerical approximations to the NavierStokes equations to

describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of Miner's rule to calculate fatigue
damage. Second, engineering research employs many semi-empirical methods that are
foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the method of parameter variation.
[citation needed]

As stated by Fung et al. in the revision to the classic engineering text Foundations of Solid
Mechanics:
Engineering is quite different from science. Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers
try to make things that do not exist in nature. Engineers stress innovation and invention. To
embody an invention the engineer must put his idea in concrete terms, and design
something that people can use. That something can be a complex system, device, a
gadget, a material, a method, a computing program, an innovative experiment, a new
solution to a problem, or an improvement on what already exists. Since a design has to be
realistic and functional, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristics data
defined. In the past engineers working on new designs found that they did not have all the
required information to make design decisions. Most often, they were limited by insufficient
scientific knowledge. Thus they studied mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and
mechanics. Often they had to add to the sciences relevant to their profession. Thus
engineering sciences were born.[38]
Although engineering solutions make use of scientific principles, engineers must also take
into account safety, efficiency, economy, reliability and constructability or ease of fabrication
as well as the environment, ethical and legal considerations such as patent infringement or
liability in the case of failure of the solution.[citation needed]

Medicine and biology[edit]

Leonardo da Vinci, seen here in a self-portrait, has been described as the epitome of the
artist/engineer.[39] He is also known for his studies on human anatomy and physiology.

The study of the human body, albeit from different directions and for different purposes, is
an important common link between medicine and some engineering
disciplines. Medicine aims to sustain, repair, enhance and even replace functions of
the human body, if necessary, through the use of technology.

Genetically engineered mice expressing green fluorescent protein, which glows green under blue
light. The central mouse is wild-type.

Modern medicine can replace several of the body's functions through the use of artificial
organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices
such as, for example, brain implants and pacemakers.[40][41] The fields of bionics and medical
bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants pertaining to natural systems.
Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine
worth studying, and are dedicated to emulating many of its functions by
replacing biology with technology. This has led to fields such as artificial intelligence, neural
networks, fuzzy logic, and robotics. There are also substantial interdisciplinary interactions
between engineering and medicine.[42][43]
Both fields provide solutions to real world problems. This often requires moving forward
before phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense and
therefore experimentation and empirical knowledge is an integral part of both.

Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body. The human body, as a biological
machine, has many functions that can be modeled using engineering methods. [44]
The heart for example functions much like a pump,[45] the skeleton is like a linked structure
with levers,[46] the brain produces electrical signals etc.[47] These similarities as well as the
increasing importance and application of engineering principles in medicine, led to the
development of the field of biomedical engineering that uses concepts developed in both
disciplines.
Newly emerging branches of science, such as systems biology, are adapting analytical
tools traditionally used for engineering, such as systems modeling and computational
analysis, to the description of biological systems.[44]

Art[edit]
There are connections between engineering and art; [48] they are direct in some fields, for
example, architecture, landscape architecture and industrial design (even to the extent that
these disciplines may sometimes be included in a university's Faculty of Engineering); and
indirect in others.[48][49][50][51]
The Art Institute of Chicago, for instance, held an exhibition about the art of NASA's
aerospace design.[52] Robert Maillart's bridge design is perceived by some to have been
deliberately artistic.[53] At the University of South Florida, an engineering professor, through
a grant with the National Science Foundation, has developed a course that connects art
and engineering.[49][54]
Among famous historical figures, Leonardo da Vinci is a well-known Renaissance artist and
engineer, and a prime example of the nexus between art and engineering. [39][55]

Business Engineering and Engineering Management[edit]

Business Engineering deals with the relationship between professional engineering, IT
systems, business administration and change management. Engineering management is a
specialized field of management concerned with the engineering sector. The demand for
management-focused engineers (or from the opposite perspective, managers with an
understanding of engineering), has resulted in the development of specialized engineering
management degrees that develop the knowledge and skills needed for these roles. During
an engineering management course, students will develop industrial engineering skills,
knowledge and expertise, alongside knowledge of business administration, management
techniques, and strategic thinking. Engineers specializing in change management must
have in depth knowledge of the application of industrial and organizational
psychology principles and methods. Professional engineers often train as certified
management consultants in the very specialized field of management consulting applied to
the engineering sector. This work often deals with large scale complex business
transformation or Business process management initiatives in aerospace and defence,
automotive, oil and gas, machinery, pharmaceutical, food and beverage, electrical &
electronics, power distribution & generation, utilities and transportation systems. This
combination of technical engineering practice, management consulting practice, industry
sector knowledge, and change management expertise enables professional engineers who
are also qualified as management consultants to lead major business transformation
initiatives. These initiatives are typically sponsored by C-level executives.

Other fields[edit]
In political science, the term engineering has been borrowed for the study of the subjects
of social engineering and political engineering, which deal with forming political and social
structures using engineering methodology coupled with political science principles.Financial
engineering has similarly borrowed the term.