A

PROJECT REPORT
ON
FM BUGGER

ABSTRACT
FM Transmitter is a device which generates frequency modulated signal. It is one
element of a radio system which, with the aid of an antenna, propagates an
electromagnetic signal. Standard FM broadcasts are based in the 88 108 MHz range.
These types of networks have applications in dynamic spectrum access, co-existence
of different wireless networks, interference management, etc.
The main objective of this project is to transmit the information from one person to
another person in remote location. Normally bugger is used for finding out the status
of the person like where is he is going, what he is talking etc.
This circuit is mostly used in spy agencies. This is small circuit with which we can
listen to another people conversation from long distance using the normal FM radio
set.

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND

Frequency modulation (FM) is a technique for wireless transmission of information

where the frequency of a high frequency carrier is changed in proportion to message
signal which contains the information according to. FM was invented and developed
by Edwin Armstrong in the 1920s and 30s. Frequency modulation was demonstrated
to the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for the first time in 1940, and the
first commercial FM radio station began broadcasting in 1945. FM is not a new
concept.
However, the concept of FM is essential to a wide gamut of radio frequency wireless
devices and is therefore worth studying. This seminar will explain the design
decisions that should be made in the process of design and construction of an FM
transmitter. The design has also been simulated. For a long time radio was the largest
mass media but in recent years it has lost a number of listeners. In contrast, total
media consumption has increased.
Young people are abandoning traditional media and want to decide on where, when
and how they receive media content, for example via Internet and mobile telephones.
Listeners are most interested in easily being able to select radio stations, to have better
sound quality and audibility and to increase accessibility for people with visual and
auditory impairments. Listeners also want a wider range of radio channels over the
whole country. Consumers needs must be met hence the need for advancements in
the field of radio broadcast.
New technology creates the necessary conditions for improvements. This seminar also
evaluates the different technologies on the basis of questions like:

How well does the technology satisfy consumers needs?

What functionality does the technology offer?
How efficiently does the technology utilize the available spectrum?
What financial conditions are available for the technology?
Standardization policy for the technology.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this project are:

To review present-day FM transmitters and their limitations.
To provide an overview of the Radio communication issues
To accusatively compare these technologies
SCOPE
This project covers the design of FM transmitters for quality audio transmission and
explains some of the modern trends in FM signal generation, highlighting their
prospects. It also covers the advantages these technologies offer over traditional radio
broadcasting and brings to light various distinguishing features possessed by these
technologies.
SIGNIFICANCE
The role that radio plays in the society is an important issue to consider in discussions
about which technology can best distribute radio in the future. The fact that radio has
an important role in society can be clearly seen in the number of listeners. Despite the
rise in the total consumption of media, radio has lost a number of listeners according
to a survey report. The medium of radio has many positive characteristics for
listeners. It is:
Free from subscription charges
Simple to use
Possible to listen to everywhere, including sparsely populated areas and while
in motion in cars and trains
Possible to listen to while doing something else
Important as a channel of information, especially in crises and catastrophes.
An important medium for traffic information, shipping and mountain rescue.
Radio needs to be developed to satisfy the needs of future consumers, hence the need
for this study.

CHAPTER-2
BLOCK DIAGRAM
AND
BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Block Diagram of an Fm Transmitter

BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION

The diagram above is the basic building block of every FM transmitter. It consists of
an AF (Audio Frequency) Amplifier that amplifies the audio voltage from the
microphone and feeds this signal into an RF oscillator for modulation. The oscillator
produces the carrier frequency in the 88-108 MHZ FM band. The low power of the
FM modulated carrier is feeds into. A low pass filter is also present lo limit the RF
signal to a range of choice while the antenna radiates it.
The design of an FM transmitter must consider multiple technical factors such as
frequency of operation, the stability and purity of the resulting signal, the efficiency
of power use, and the power level required to meet the system design objectives.
Some pre-design considerations include.

CHAPTER-3
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
AND
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM EXPLANATION

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Power supply circuit

FM Transmitter Circuit

COMPONENTS LIST

R1-----------------------------10K
R2-----------------------------15K
R3, R4------------------------4.7K
R5------------------------------47E
C1, C5-------------------------10000PF
C2-------------------------------10PF
C3--------------------------------1000PF
C4--------------------------------2.2UF
Q1 -------------------------------BEL548
L1 -----------------------------------0.1uH
VARIABLE CAPACITOR ----22pf

CIRCUIT EXPLANATION

Here is the circuit diagram of 9 V regulators using popular 7809 IC. The 7809 is a
9 Volt voltage regulator IC with features such as internal current limit, safe area
protection, thermal protection etc. An 18 v battery and 7809 regulates it to produce a
steady 9V DC output.
The supply voltage across the parallel inductor and variable capacitor, it should
vibrate at the resonant frequency indefinitely. Referring to the schematic above, C1
and C5 act as decoupling capacitors and typically 0.01 uF are used.
C4 attempts to maintain a constant voltage across the entire circuit despite voltage
fluctuations as the battery dies.
A capacitor can be thought of as a frequency dependent resistor (called reactance).
Speech consists of different frequencies and the capacitor C5 impedes them. The net
effect is that C5 modulates the current going into the transistor. Using a large value

for C5 reinforces bass (low frequencies) while smaller values boost treble (high
frequencies).
The C2 capacitor across the BEL548 transistor serves to keep R5 the tank circuit
vibrating. In reality however, the frequency decays due to heating losses. C2 is used to
prevent decay and the BEL548 spec sheet suggests a capacitance between 4 to 10 pF.
The C2 capacitor across the BEL548 transistor serves to keep the tank circuit
vibrating. In theory, as long as there is a supply voltage across the parallel inductor
and variable capacitor, it should vibrate at the resonant frequency indefinitely. In
reality however, the frequency decays due to heating losses. C2 is used to prevent
decay and the BEL548 spec sheet suggests a capacitance between 4 to 10 pF.
The BEL548 transistor has rated maximums thus demanding a voltage divider made
with R2 and R4 and emitter current limiting with R3. The BEL548s maximum rated
power is Pmax = 0.5 W. This power ultimately affects the distance you can transmit.
Overpowering the transistor will heat and destroy it. To avoid this, one can calculate
that the FM transmitter outputs approximately 124 mW and is well below the rated
maximum.

CHAPTER-4
COMPONENTS DESCRIPTION

Inductance of an Air Core Coil

Self-made inductor has a value determined by its radius r, length x and number of
wire turns n.

Calculation of inductor value

Frequency
The specific frequency, f generated is now determined by the capacitance C and
inductance L measured in Farads and Henry respectively.

Calculation of Frequency Value.

Resonant Frequency of a Parallel LC Circuit

The variable capacitor and self-made inductor constitute a parallel LC circuit also
called a tank circuit which vibrates at a resonant frequency to be picked up by an FM
radio.
The underlying physics is that a capacitor stores energy in the electric field between
its plates, depending on the voltage across it, and an inductor stores energy in its
magnetic field, depending on the current through it. The oscillation frequency is
determined by the capacitance and inductance values.

VOLTAGE REGULATOR:

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a

constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or
active electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate
one or more AC or DC voltages. There are two types of regulator are they.

Positive Voltage Series (78xx) and

Negative Voltage Series (79xx)

78xx:78 indicate the positive series and xxindicates the voltage rating. Suppose
7809 produces the maximum 9V.09indicates the regulator output is 9V.

79xx:79 indicate the negative series and xxindicates the voltage rating. Suppose
7909 produces the maximum -9V.09indicates the regulator output is -9V.

These regulators consists the three pins there are

Pin1: It is used for input pin.

Pin2: This is ground pin for regulator
Pin3: It is used for output pin. Through this pin we get the output.

Figure: Regulator
RESISTORS

Resistors can be of two types: fixed value resistors or variable resistors. The formula
for resistance is given by: R = l / A where is resistivity, l is length and A is area of

crossection. Different value resistors can be manufactured by changing the length and
area of crossection or

the material itself which changes the resistivity. Materials

generally used for fabrication of resistors are nichrome (80 % Ni and 20 % Cr),
constatntan (55% cu and 45 % Ni ) and Manmganin (85 % Cu and 10 % Mn and < 5
% Ni). Metals are not used as they have a very high temperature coefficient of
resistance.
Three main methods of fabrication are (i) a slab or a rod of suitable resistivity, (ii)
Material using thinner crossection and longer length. The length is doubled and then
wound in such a way that inductance effects are cancelled out. (iii) Thin films of
material on insulating substrate. Each resistor has a current carrying capacity. Current
more than the prescribed wattage may damage the resistor.

Colour Code for Resistors

Band colour & its value

Band colour & its tolerance

Black = 0

Gold = + - 5%

Brown = 1

Silver = + - 10 %

Red = 2

No colour means 20 %

Orange = 3
Yellow = 4
Green = 5
Blue = 6
Violet = 7
Grey = 8
White = 9

The first two bands near an end indicate first 2 digits, digit corresponding
to 3rd band is the power of 10 to be multiplied and fourth band indicates
tolerance as mentioned in the table. Refer fig 1, where brown = 1, black =
0, red = 2 and silver = 10 % tolerance. Hence its value is

10 x 10

= 1 k .

Most commonly used resistors in lab are fixed value resistors which exist
for standard values according to E12. Other ranges are E24 and E48
Ranges.

Table 1 is for the values of resistors of E12 range. Topmost row defines the
basic value units of resistors in ohms. Every following row is 10 fold of the
upper row.

Table 1: Table for E12 range values of resistors.

1.0

10

1.2

12

100

1.

1.

2.

2.

3.3

3.9

4.7

5.6

6.8

8.2

68

82

680

820

1k

1.2k

6.8k

8.2k

10k

82k

100k

820k

1M

1.2M

6.8M

8.2M

`
10M

12M

68M

82M

Variable resistors

Besides the fixed value resistors, there also exist variable resistors. The
resistance of variable resistors can vary in steps or continuously.
Potentiometer is also an example of continuously varying resistor

Special purpose resistors

Light dependent resistors (LDR) and thermistors are examples of special

purpose resistors. Thermistor is a resistor whose value depends on its
temperature. It is also called a heat sensor. LDR is a resistance whose
resistance depends upon the amount of light falling on it.

CAPACITORS

Capacitors are capable of storing charges. They are used for coupling ac
signals from one circuit to another and for frequency selection etc. A
capacitor consists of 2 metallic plates separated by a dielectric. The
capacitance is defined as : C = o r A / d, where A is the area of plates, d
is plates separation,

o is permittivity of free space and

r is relative

permittivity. An important parameter for capacitors is its voltage handling

capacity beyond which the capacitor dielectric breaks down.
The value of a capacitor depends upon the dielectric constant (K = o r.)
of the material. There are three main classes of capacitors:

(i)

Non electrolytic or normal capacitors and

(ii)

electrolytic capacitors and

(iii)

Variable capacitors.

Normal capacitors are mostly of parallel plate type and can have mica,
paper, ceramic or polymer as dielectric. In the paper capacitors two
rectangular metal foils are interleaved between thin sheets of waxed
paper and the whole system is rolled to form a compact structure. Each
metal foil is connected to an electrode. In mica capacitors alternate layers
of mica and metal are clamped tightly together. Refer fig 3.

In electrolytic capacitor mostly a then metal-oxide film is deposited by

means of electrolysis on axial electrode. Thats how it derives its name.
During electrolysis the electrode acts as anode whose cathode is a
concentric can. Since the dielectric layer is very thin hence these require
special precaution for their use: i.e. they have to connected in the right
polarity failing which the dielectric breaks down. Besides these fixed value
capacitors we also have variable capacitors whose value depends upon
the area of crossection. They have a fixed set of plates and a movable set
of plates which can be moved through a shaft. This movement changes

the area of overlap of the two sets of plates which changes its capacity.
Refer fig 3.

Colour and Number code of capacitors.

Different marking schemes are used for electrolytic and non-electrolytic

capacitors. Temperature coefficient is of minor importance in an
electrolytic filter capacitor, but it is very important in ceramic trimmers for
attenuator use. One never finds temperature coefficient on an electrolytic
label, but it is always present on ceramic trimmers.

Electrolytic Capacitors:

There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors: (i) Axial where the leads
are attached to each end (220F in picture) and (ii) Radial where both
leads are at the same end (10F in picture) Refer fig 4.

Non-polarised capacitors ( < 1F):

Small value capacitors have their values printed but without a multiplier. For example
0.1 means 0.1F = 100nF. Sometimes the unit is placed in between 2 digits indicating
a decimal point. For example: 4n7 means 4.7nF.

Capacitor Number Code:

A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult: the 1st
number is the 1st digit, the 2nd number is the 2nd digit, the 3rd number is the power
of ten to be multiplied., to give the capacitance in pF. Any letters just indicate
tolerance and voltage rating. For example: 102 means 10 X 10 2 pF = 1nF and
472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance).

Capacitor Colour Code:

Sometimes capacitors just show bands like resistors when printing is tough on them.
The colours should be read like the resistor code, the top three colour bands giving the
value in pF. The 4th band and 5th band are for tolerance and voltage rating
respectively. For example:
0.01F.

brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF =

Available Values of Capacitors:

Like resistors capacitors are also available for only particular values. Following are 2
series defined for capacitors The E3 series (3 values for each multiple of ten) 10, 22,
47, then it continues 1to100, 220, 470, 1000, 2200, 4700, 10000 etc.
The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten) 10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68, ... then it
continues 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680, 1000 etc.

INDUCTORS

Inductor is a component made by a coil of wire which is wound on a core. It is used to

vary the impedance of a circuit or for frequency tuning. The value of an inductor
depends upon the total number of turns (N), area of crossection of the core (A) and
length of the core (l).The formula is L = o r N2 A / l. Its unit is in Henry.
An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical
component which resists changes in electric current passing through it. It consists of a
conductor such as a wire, usually wound into a coil. Energy is stored in a magnetic
field in the coil as long as current flows. When the current flowing through an
inductor changes, the time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor,
according to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. According to Lenz's law the
direction of induced electromotive force (or "e.m.f.") is always such that it opposes
the change in current that created it. As a result, inductors always oppose a change in
current, in the same way that a flywheel opposes a change in rotational velocity. Care
should be taken not to confuse this with the resistance provided by a resistor.
An inductor is characterized by its inductance, the ratio of the voltage to the rate of
change of current, which has units of henries (H). Inductors have values that typically
range from 1 H (106H) to 1 H. Many inductors have a magnetic core made of iron
or ferrite inside the coil, which serves to increase the magnetic field and thus the
inductance. Along with capacitors and resistors, inductors are one of the three passive
linear circuit elements that make up electric circuits. Inductors are widely used in
alternating current (AC) electronic equipment, particularly in radio equipment. They
are used to block AC while allowing DC to pass; inductors designed for this purpose
are called chokes. They are also used in electronic filters to separate signals of
different frequencies, and in combination with capacitors to make tuned circuits, used
to tune radio and TV receivers.

Inductance (L) results from the magnetic field around a current-carrying conductor;
the electric current through the conductor creates a magnetic flux. Mathematically
speaking, inductance is determined by how much magnetic flux through the circuit
is created by a given current i

Inductors that have ferromagnetic cores are nonlinear; the inductance changes with
the current, in this more general case inductance is defined as

Any wire or other conductor will generate a magnetic field when current flows
through it, so every conductor has some inductance. The inductance of a circuit
depends on the geometry of the current path as well as the magnetic permeability of
nearby materials. An inductor is a component consisting of a wire or other conductor
shaped to increase the magnetic flux through the circuit, usually in the shape of a coil
or helix. Winding the wire into a coil increases the number of times the magnetic flux
lines link the circuit, increasing the field and thus the inductance. The more turns, the
higher the inductance. The inductance also depends on the shape of the coil,
separation of the turns, and many other factors. By adding a "magnetic core" made of
a ferromagnetic material like iron inside the coil, the magnetizing field from the coil
will induce magnetization in the material, increasing the magnetic flux. The high
permeability of a ferromagnetic core can increase the inductance of a coil by a factor
of several thousand over what it would be without it.

CONSTITUTIVE EQUATION

Any change in the current through an inductor creates a changing flux, inducing a
voltage across the inductor. By Faraday's law of induction, the voltage induced by any
change in magnetic flux through the circuit is

So inductance is also a measure of the amount of electromotive force (voltage)

generated for a given rate of change of current. For example, an inductor with an
inductance of 1 henry produces an EMF of 1 volt when the current through the
inductor changes at the rate of 1 ampere per second. This is usually taken to be the
constitutive relation (defining equation) of the inductor.
The dual of the inductor is the capacitor, which stores energy in an electric field rather
than a magnetic field. Its current-voltage relation is obtained by exchanging current
and voltage in the inductor equations and replacing L with the capacitance C.
Lenz's law
The polarity (direction) of the induced voltage is given by Lenz's law, which states
that it will be such as to oppose the change in current. For example, if the current
through an inductor is increasing, the induced voltage will be positive at the terminal
through which the current enters and negative at the terminal through which it leaves,
tending to oppose the additional current. The energy from the external circuit
necessary to overcome this potential "hill" is being stored in the magnetic field of the
inductor; the inductor is said to be "charging" or "energizing". If the current is
decreasing, the induced voltage will be negative at the terminal through which the

current enters and positive at the terminal through which it leaves, tending to maintain
the current. Energy from the magnetic field is being returned to the circuit; the
inductor is said to be "discharging".
IDEAL AND REAL INDUCTORS
In circuit theory, inductors are idealized as obeying the mathematical relation (2)
above precisely. An "ideal inductor" has inductance, but no resistance or capacitance,
and does not dissipate or radiate energy. However real inductors have side effects
which cause their behavior to depart from this simple model. They have resistance
(due to the resistance of the wire and energy losses in core material), and parasitic
capacitance (due to the electric field between the turns of wire which are at slightly
different potentials). At high frequencies the capacitance begins to affect the
inductor's behavior; at some frequency, real inductors behave as resonant circuits,
becoming self-resonant. Above the resonant frequency the capacitive reactance
becomes the dominant part of the impedance. At higher frequencies, resistive losses in
the windings increase due to skin effect and proximity effect.

Inductors with ferromagnetic cores have additional energy losses due to hysteresis and
eddy currents in the core, which increase with frequency. At high currents, iron core
inductors also show gradual departure from ideal behavior due to nonlinearity caused
by magnetic saturation of the core. An inductor may radiate electromagnetic energy
into surrounding space and circuits, and may absorb electromagnetic emissions from
other circuits, causing electromagnetic interference (EMI). Real-world inductor
applications may consider these parasitic parameters as important as the inductance.

Types of inductor

Air core inductor

Resonant oscillation transformer from a spark gap transmitter. Coupling can be
adjusted by moving the top coil on the support rod. Shows high Q construction with
spaced turns of large diameter tubing.

The term air core coil describes an inductor that does not use a magnetic core made of
a ferromagnetic material. The term refers to coils wound on plastic, ceramic, or other
nonmagnetic forms, as well as those that have only air inside the windings. Air core
coils have lower inductance than ferromagnetic core coils, but are often used at high
frequencies because they are free from energy losses called core losses that occur in
ferromagnetic cores, which increase with frequency. A side effect that can occur in air
core coils in which the winding is not rigidly supported on a form is 'microphony':
mechanical vibration of the windings can cause variations in the inductance.

Radio frequency inductor

Collection of RF inductors, showing techniques to reduce losses. The three

top left and the ferrite loop stick or rod antenna, bottom, have basket windings.

At high frequencies, particularly radio frequencies (RF), inductors have higher

resistance and other losses. In addition to causing power loss, in resonant circuits this
can reduce the of the circuit, broadening the bandwidth. In RF inductors, which are
mostly air core types, specialized construction techniques are used to minimize these
losses. The losses are due to these effects:

Skin effect: The resistance of a wire to high frequency current is higher than
its resistance to direct current because of skin effect. Radio frequency alternating
current does not penetrate far into the body of a conductor but travels along its
surface. Therefore, in a solid wire, most of the cross sectional area of the wire is not
used to conduct the current, which is in a narrow annulus on the surface. This effect
increases the resistance of the wire in the coil, which may already have a
relatively high resistance due to its length and small diameter.

Proximity effect: Another similar effect that also increases the

resistance of the wire at high frequencies is proximity effect, which occurs
in parallel wires that lie close to each other. The individual magnetic field
of adjacent turns induces eddy currents in the wire of the coil, which
causes the current in the conductor to be concentrated in a thin strip on

the side near the adjacent wire. Like skin effect, this reduces the effective
cross-sectional area of the wire conducting current, increasing its
resistance.

High Q tank coil in a shortwave transmitter

(left) Spiderweb coil (right) Adjustable ferrite slug-tuned RF coil with

basketweave winding and litz wire

Dielectric losses: The high frequency electric field near the

conductors in a tank coil can cause the motion of polar molecules in
nearby insulating materials, dissipating energy as heat. So coils used for
tuned circuits are often not wound on coil forms but are suspended in air,
supported by narrow plastic or ceramic strips.

Parasitic capacitance: The capacitance between individual wire

turns of the coil, called parasitic capacitance, does not cause energy
losses but can change the behavior of the coil. Each turn of the coil is at a
slightly different potential, so the electric field between neighboring turns
stores charge on the wire, so the coil acts as if it has a capacitor in parallel
with it. At a high enough frequency this capacitance can resonate with the
inductance of the coil forming a tuned circuit, causing the coil to
become self-resonant.

To reduce parasitic capacitance and proximity effect, high Q RF coils are constructed
to avoid having many turns lying close together, parallel to one another. The windings
of RF coils are often limited to a single layer, and the turns are spaced apart. To
reduce resistance due to skin effect, in high-power inductors such as those used in
transmitters the windings are sometimes made of a metal strip or tubing which has a
larger surface area, and the surface is silver-plated.

Basket-weave coils: To reduce proximity effect and parasitic

capacitance, multilayer RF coils are wound in patterns in which successive
turns are not parallel but crisscrossed at an angle; these are often
called honeycomb or basket-weave coils. These are occasionally wound on
a vertical insulating supports with dowels or slots, with the wire weaving in
and out through the slots.

Spiderweb coils: Another construction technique with similar

advantages is flat spiral coils.These are often wound on a flat insulating
support with radial spokes or slots, with the wire weaving in and out
through the slots; these are calledspiderweb coils. The form has an odd
number of slots, so successive turns of the spiral lie on opposite sides of
the form, increasing separation.

Litz wire: To reduce skin effect losses, some coils are wound with a
special type of radio frequency wire called litz wire. Instead of a single
solid conductor, litz wire consists of a number of smaller wire strands that
carry the current. Unlike ordinary stranded wire, the strands are insulated
from each other, to prevent skin effect from forcing the current to the
surface, and are twisted or braided together. The twist pattern ensures
that each wire strand spends the same amount of its length on the outside
of the wire bundle, so skin effect distributes the current equally between
the strands, resulting in a larger cross-sectional conduction area than an
equivalent single wire.

Ferromagnetic core inductor

A variety of types of ferrite core inductors and transformers

Ferromagnetic-core or iron-core inductors use a magnetic core made of

aferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic material such as iron or ferrite to increase the
inductance. A magnetic core can increase the inductance of a coil by a factor of
several thousand, by increasing the magnetic field due to its higher magnetic
permeability. However the magnetic properties of the core material cause several side
effects which alter the behavior of the inductor and require special construction:

Core losses: A time-varying current in a ferromagnetic inductor, which causes a timevarying magnetic field in its core, causes energy losses in the core material that are
dissipated as heat, due to two processes:

Eddy currents: From Faraday's law of induction, the changing magnetic field can
induce circulating loops of electric current in the conductive metal core. The energy
in these currents is dissipated as heat in the resistance of the core material. The
amount of energy lost increases with the area inside the loop of current.

Hysteresis: Changing or reversing the magnetic field in the core also causes losses
due to the motion of the tinymagnetic domains it is composed of. The energy loss is
proportional to the area of the hysteresis loop in the BH graph of the core material.
Materials with low coercivity have narrow hysteresis loops and so low hysteresis
losses.

For both of these processes, the energy loss per cycle of alternating current is constant,
so core losses increase linearly with frequency. Online core loss calculators[10] are
available to calculate the energy loss. Using inputs such as input voltage, output
voltage, output current, frequency, ambient temperature, and inductance these
calculators can predict the losses of the inductors core and AC/DC based on the
operating condition of the circuit being used.[11]

Nonlinearity: If the current through a ferromagnetic core coil is high enough that the
magnetic core saturates, the inductance will not remain constant but will change with
the current through the device. This is called nonlinearity and results in distortion of
the signal. For example, audio signals can suffer intermodulation distortion in
saturated inductors. To prevent this, in linear circuits the current through iron core
inductors must be limited below the saturation level. Some laminated cores have a
narrow air gap in them for this purpose, and powdered iron cores have a distributed
air gap. This allows higher levels of magnetic flux and thus higher currents through
the inductor before it saturates.[12]

Laminated core inductor

Laminated iron core ballast inductor for a metal halide lamp

Low-frequency inductors are often made with laminated cores to prevent eddy
currents, using construction similar to transformers. The core is made of stacks of
thin steel sheets or laminationsoriented parallel to the field, with an insulating
coating on the surface. The insulation prevents eddy currents between the sheets,
so any remaining currents must be within the cross sectional area of the individual
laminations, reducing the area of the loop and thus reducing the energy losses
greatly. The laminations are made of low-coercivity silicon steel, to reduce
hysteresis losses.

Ferrite-core inductor[edit]
For higher frequencies, inductors are made with cores of ferrite. Ferrite is a
ceramic ferrimagneticmaterial that is nonconductive, so eddy currents cannot flow
within it. The formulation of ferrite is xxFe2O4 where xx represents various
metals. For inductor cores soft ferrites are used, which have low coercivity and
thus low hysteresis losses. Another similar material is powdered iron cemented
with a binder.

Toroidal core inductor[edit]

Main article: Toroidal inductors and transformers

Toroidal inductor in the power supply of a wireless router

In an inductor wound on a straight rod-shaped core, the magnetic field
lines emerging from one end of the core must pass through the air to
re-enter the core at the other end. This reduces the field, because
much of the magnetic field path is in air rather than the
higherpermeability core material. A higher magnetic field and
inductance can be achieved by forming the core in a closed magnetic
circuit. The magnetic field lines form closed loops within the core
without leaving the core material. The shape often used is a toroidal or
doughnut-shaped ferrite core. Because of their symmetry, toroidal
cores allow a minimum of the magnetic flux to escape outside the core
(called leakage flux), so they radiate lesselectromagnetic
interference than other shapes. Toroidal core coils are manufactured of
various materials, primarily ferrite, powdered iron and laminated cores.

Choke
Main article: Choke (electronics)

An MF or HF radio choke for tenths of an ampere, and a ferrite bead

VHF choke for several amperes.

A choke is designed specifically for blocking higher-frequency alternating current

(AC) in an electrical circuit, while allowing lower frequency or DC current to
pass. It usually consists of a coil of insulated wire often wound on a magnetic
core, although some consist of a donut-shaped "bead" of ferrite material strung on
a wire. Like other inductors, chokes resist changes to the current passing through
them, and so alternating currents of higher frequency, which reverse direction
rapidly,

are

resisted

more

than

currents

of

lower

frequency;

the

choke's impedance increases with frequency. Its low electrical resistance allows
both AC and DC to pass with little power loss, but it can limit the amount of AC
passing through it due to its reactance.

Variable inductor

(left) Inductor with a threaded ferrite slug (visible at top) that can be turned to
move it into or out of the coil. 4.2 cm high. (right) A variometer used in radio
receivers in the 1920s

A "roller coil", an adjustable air-core RF inductor used in the tuned circuits of

radio transmitters. One of the contacts to the coil is made by the small grooved
wheel, which rides on the wire. Turning the shaft rotates the coil, moving
the contact wheel up or down the coil, allowing more or fewer turns of
the coil into the circuit, to change the inductance.

Probably the most common type of variable inductor today is one with a
moveable ferrite magnetic core, which can be slid or screwed in or out of the coil.
Moving the core farther into the coil increases the permeability, increasing the
magnetic field and the inductance. Many inductors used in radio applications
(usually less than 100 MHz) use adjustable cores in order to tune such inductors
to their desired value, since manufacturing processes have certain tolerances
(inaccuracy). Sometimes such cores for frequencies above 100 MHz are made
from highly conductive non-magnetic material such as aluminum.[14] They
decrease the inductance because the magnetic field must bypass them.

Air core inductors can use sliding contacts or multiple taps to increase or decrease
the number of turns included in the circuit, to change the inductance. A type much
used in the past but mostly obsolete today has a spring contact that can slide along
the bare surface of the windings. The disadvantage of this type is that the contact
usually short-circuits one or more turns. These turns act like a single-turn shortcircuited transformer secondary; the large currents induced in them cause power
losses.
A type of continuously variable air core inductor is the variometer. This consists
of two coils with the same number of turns connected in series, one inside the
other. The inner coil is mounted on a shaft so its axis can be turned with respect to
the outer coil. When the two coils' axes are collinear, with the magnetic fields
pointing in the same direction, the fields add and the inductance is maximum.
When the inner coil is turned so its axis is at an angle with the outer, the mutual
inductance between them is smaller so the total inductance is less. When the inner
coil is turned 180 so the coils are collinear with their magnetic fields opposing,
the two fields cancel each other and the inductance is very small. This type has
the advantage that it is continuously variable over a wide range. It is used
in antenna tuners and matching circuits to match low frequency transmitters to
their antennas.
Another method to control the inductance without any moving parts requires an
additional DC current bias winding which controls the permeability of an easily
saturable core material. See Magnetic amplifier.
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

Ledsare pn junction devices which emit light radiation when biased in the
forward direction. The semiconductor material used for these junctions is a
compound semiconductor like AlGaAs whose band gap corresponds to a
particular wavelength according to equation Eg = 1.24 / where Eg is the

band gap in ev and is the wavelength in microns. (e.g. red ~ 0.7 hence
corresponding E

= 1.24 / 0.7 = 1.77 ev).

When the pn junction is forward biased, the electrons are excited to

conduction band and when they fall to the valence band, they give out
energy in the form of radiation corresponding to the Eg of the material
Conventional leds are made from the materials like AlGaAs, GaAlP, GaAsP,
GaP and GaN which emit Red, green, orange, yellow and blue colours
respectively. Leds come in a special transparent casing as shown in fig 8.
Dual colour leds are also available where two junctions are encapsulated
on the same chip. It has three leads where cathode is common whereas
normal leds have two leads one for cathode and other for anode. A very
important precaution while using an led is the amount of current being
passed through it. For most leds the maximum allowable current is 20 mA
beyond which the led can burn out. Hence in most of the circuits a resistor
is used to limit the current. Some important specifications before using an
led are: LED colour, peak wavelength, viewing angle, optical power output,
luminous intensity, forward current and forward voltage.

TRANSISTORS
Transistors

are

semiconductor

devices

used

for

applications

like

amplification of voltages, current and are also used in oscillator circuits

and switches. Its a two junction and 3 terminal device made of three
layers of n and p type materials. The three regions are emitter, base and
collector. They are of 2 types (i) pnp and (ii) npn. Their most important
specifications are Ic, Vce, hfe and Power rating. They come in different
casings like TO18, TO92C, and TO39 etc Given below is a table of most
commonly used transistors with their specifications (approximate) and
casings. Datasheets from the companies can be referred to to know the
exact specifications.

Code

Structur Case

IC

style max.

BC107

NPN

TO18

BC108

NPN

TO18

BC108C NPN

TO18

BC109

NPN

TO18

BC182

NPN

TO92C

BC182L NPN

TO92A

BC547B NPN

TO92C

Bel 548 NPN

TO92C

BC549B NPN

TO92C

2N3053 NPN

TO39

100m
A
100m
A
100m
A
200m
A
100m
A
100m
A
100m
A
100m
A
100m
A
700m
A

VCE

hFE

max min
.

45V 110

20V 110

20V 420

20V 200

50V 100

50V 100

45V 200

30V 220

30V 240

40V 50

Ptot

Category

Possible

max.

(typical use)

substitutes

300m
W

Audio, low power BC182 BC547

300m

General purpose, BC108C BC183

low power

600m

General purpose,

low power

300m

Audio (low noise),

low power

350m

General purpose,

low power

350m

General purpose,

low power

500m
W

BC548

BC184 BC549

BC107 BC182L

BC107 BC182

Audio, low power BC107B

500m

General purpose,

low power

625m

Audio (low noise),

low power

500m

General purpose,

low power

BC108B

BC109

BFY51

800m

General purpose,

medium power

800m

General purpose,

medium power

BFY51

NPN

TO39

1A

30V 40

BC639

NPN

TO92A 1A

80V 40

TIP29A NPN

TO220 1A

60V 40

30W

TIP31A NPN

TO220 3A

60V 10

40W

TIP31C NPN

TO220 3A

100V 10

40W

TIP41A NPN

TO220 6A

60V 15

65W

2N3055 NPN

TO3

60V 20

117W

BC177

PNP

TO18

BC178

PNP

TO18

BC179

PNP

TO18

BC477

PNP

TO18

BC478

PNP

TO18

15A
100m
A
200m
A
200m
A
150m
A
150m
A

45V 125

25V 120

20V 180

80V 125

40V 125

300m
W

high power
General purpose,
high power
General purpose,
high power

General purpose,
high power
Audio, low power BC477

low power

600m

Audio (low noise),

low power

General purpose,

low power

60V 25

40W

TIP32C PNP

TO220 3A

100V 10

40W

BC478

Audio, low power BC177

360m

TO220 3A

TIP31A TIP41A

high power

TIP32A PNP

TIP31C TIP41A

General purpose,

General purpose,

BFY51

General purpose,

600m

360m

BC639

General purpose,
high power
General purpose,
high power

BC178

TIP32C

TIP32A

Fig 9 gives some of the transistors with the symbols. for npn and pnp. and
fig 10 illustrates some of the casings. with the configurations for emitter ,
base and collector leads

MICROPHONES (MIC)
How Do Microphones Work?

The Basics

Microphones are a type of transducer - a device which converts energy from one form
to another. Microphones convert acoustical energy (sound waves) into electrical
energy (the audio signal).

Different types of microphone have different ways of converting energy but they all
share one thing in common: The diaphragm. This is a thin piece of material (such as
paper, plastic or aluminium) which vibrates when it is struck by sound waves. In a
typical hand-held mic like the one below, the diaphragm is located in the head of the
microphone.
Location of Microphone Diaphragm

When the diaphragm vibrates, it causes other components in the microphone to

vibrate. These vibrations are converted into an electrical current which becomes the
audio signal.

Note: At the other end of the audio chain, the loudspeaker is also a transducer - it
converts the electrical energy back into acoustical energy.

Types of Microphone

There are a number of different types of microphone in common use. The differences
can be divided into two areas:

(1) The type of conversion technology they use

This refers to the technical method the mic uses to convert sound into electricity. The
most common technologies are dynamic, condenser, ribbon and crystal. Each has
advantages and disadvantages, and each is generally more suited to certain types of
application. The following pages will provide details.

(2) The type of application they are designed for

Some mics are designed for general use and can be used effectively in many different
situations. Others are very specialised and are only really useful for their intended
purpose. Characteristics to look for include directional properties, frequency response
and impedance (more on these later).

Mic Level & Line Level

The electrical current generated by a microphone is very small. Referred to as mic

level, this signal is typically measured in millivolts. Before it can be used for anything
serious the signal needs to be amplified, usually to line level (typically 0.5 -2V).
Being a stronger and more robust signal, line level is the standard signal strength used
by audio processing equipment and common domestic equipment such as CD players,
tape machines, VCRs, etc.
This amplification is achieved in one or more of the following ways:

Some microphones have tiny built-in amplifiers which boost the signal
to a high mic level or line level.

The mic can be fed through a small boosting amplifier, often called
a line amp.

Sound mixers have small amplifiers in each channel. Attenuators can

accommodate mics of varying levels and adjust them all to an even
line level.

The audio signal is fed to a power amplifier - a specialised amp which

boosts the signal enough to be fed to loudspeakers.

CHAPTER-5

Advantages of FM bugger circuit

Resilient to signal strength noise: One of the advantages of frequency modulation is
that it does not suffer audio amplitude variations as the signal level varies.
Does not require linear amplifier in the transmitter: As only frequency changes are
required to be carried, any amplifiers in the transmitter do not need to be linear.
Enables greater efficiency than many other modes: FM gives higher efficiency when
compared to other modes.
DISADVANTAGES OF FM BUGGER CIRCUIT
The demodulator is a little more complicated, it is slightly more expensive than the
very simple diode detectors used for AM. Also requiring a tuned circuit adds cost.
Some other mode has higher data spectral efficiency: Some phase modulation and
QAM formats have a higher spectral efficiency.

APPLICATION:
FM bugger circuit is used in spy agencies: In order to listen the conversation of one
person in the remote location this circuit.
For security purpose: As it is designed for security purpose, this cannot be used by all
the persons.

CONCLUSION
FM bugger circuit cannot be used by all persons as it is illegal, so the application
based on this circuit is very less. It is a very simple as it carries simple components.
To listen the conversation of one person where the normal FM radio set is used in this
project.

REFERENCES

[1] Russell Mohn, A Three Transistor Discrete FM Transmitter, ELEN 4314

Communications Circuits - Design Project, pp. 1, April 2007.
[2] FM broadcasting in the United States
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FM_broadcasting_in_the_USA
[3] The Future of Radio. The Swedish Radio and TV Authority, 2008.
[4] T.U.M Swarna kumara et al., A Mini Project on Simple FM-Transmitter.
[5] E. F. Louis, Principles of Electronic Communication Systems. McGraw-Hill, 2008
[6] Phase-Locked Loop Tutorial, PLL
http://www.sentex.ca/~mec1995/gadgets/pll/pll.html
[7] C. Renee, An Industrial White Paper: HD Radio
[8] C. W. Kelly, Digital HD Radio AM/FM Implementation Issues, USA.
[9] C. W. Kelly, HD-Radio: Real World Results in Asia, USA.
[10] B. Groome, HD Radio (I.B.O.C).
[11] D. Ferrara, Advantages and Disadvantages of HD Radio
[12] D. Correy, HD Radio: What it is and What it is not,
http://abot.com/od/hdradio/a/aa092706a.htm
[13] L. Durant, HD Radio: A Viable Alternative to Satellite? October, 2006
[14] Software Defined Radio: Presentation of ELG 6163 Digital Signal Processing
Microprocessors, Software and application.

[15] V. Singh, A Seminar on HD Radio, EC Department.

[16] J. Ackermann, TARR: Tomorrows Ham Radio Technology Today.
[17] Software-defined radio, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software-defined_radio
[18] Software Defined Radio, http://www.altera.com/endmarkets/
wireless/advanced-dsp/sdr/wir-sdr.html
30
[19] P.E. Chadwick, Possibilities and Limitations in Software Defined Radio
Design.
[20] J. H. Reed et al, Understanding the Issues in Software Defined Cognitive
Radio,
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering.
[21] M. Barousse and T. Oliver, Applications of a Software Defined Radio in Space.
[22]
What
is
Cognitive
communicationtechnologies/

Radio,

cognitive-radio.html
[23] iBiquity Digital Corp; White Paper Archive,
http://www.ibiquity.com/technologypapers.htm

http://www.wifinotes.com/mobile-