EC110 ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP
Experiment No: 1
FAMILIARIZATION OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
Aim:
To familiarize the electronic components with specification.
Components and Equipments Required:
Resistor, capacitor, inductor, diode, transistor etc.
Theory:
The electronic components are categorized into passive and active components.
Active components are those electronic components which are capable of processing or
amplifying an electrical signal. Transistor and diode are active components. Passive components
are those which are not capable of processing or amplifying an electrical signal. Resistor
,capacitor, inductor are passive components.
Resistors:
These are the components which resist the flow of current through a circuit. Resistance is
measured in Ohms.
They allow current conduction in either direction. Resistors are
characterized by its resistance value, power handling capacity, stability, tolerance etc.
Resistor is classified into two types: fixed and variable
Fixed Resistor- The resistor whose electrical resistance value cannot be adjusted.
The major types of fixed resistor are given below;
1.Carbon composition resistor
2.Carbon film resistor
3.Wire wound resistor
4.Metal film resistor
Symbol is given below:
Variable Resistor - The resistor whose electrical resistance value can be adjusted as per
requirement by adjustable component attached to it is called variable resistor. It is used
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in electronic circuit to adjust value of current and voltages. They find applications in changing
the volume of sound, brightness of television picture etc. Potentiometers, rheostat and preset are
the examples of variable resistors.
Symbol is shown below:
Capacitors:
Capacitor consists of two metal plates kept apart by an insulating material between the
plates. It is used to store and release charge when desires. A capacitor offers low impedance to
AC and high impedance to DC. Due to this property capacitors are used to couple AC signal
from one circuit to another at the same time blocking DC and it is used for signal generation,
tuning, filtering etc.
Inductor:
Inductance is the property of inductors by which it opposes any change in the current
flowing through it. When current flows through a coiled wire, an emf will be generated which
will oppose the flow of current.
Transformers:
A transformer consists of two inductors having the same core. Transformers are used to
increase or decrease the amplitude of an AC voltage, keeping the frequency of the signal same.
It works on the principle of mutual induction. The input winding is called primary winding and
output winding is called secondary winding. In step up transformers, the number of turns in
primary winding is less than that of secondary winding. In step down transformer the number of
turns in secondary winding is less than that of primary winding.
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Active Components:
Semiconductor diode:
It is also called PN junction. It is fabricated by joining together P type and N type
semiconductor which conducts current in one direction only. The lead attached to P type is
called anode and the lead attached to N type is called cathode. Polarity of the leads are indicated
on the diodes.
The arrow head indicates the direction of conventional current flow when the diode is forward
biased.
Zener Diode:
Zener diode makes use of zener breakdown phenomena. In forward bias mode, it
functions as an ordinary diode. In the reverse bias mode, it conducts a particular voltage and the
voltage across the zener remains the constant. Zener diodes are used as voltage regulators.
LED:
When a PN junction diode is forward biased electron-hole recombination takes place and
energy is released in the form of light. Color of light is varied by using different impurities by
dopping.
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Transistors:
It is basically a Si or Ge crystal containing 3 separate layers. It is also be considered as
two diodes connected back to back. Transistors are of 2 types NPN and PNP and 3 layers are
emitter, base, and collector. The middle portion is base and the collector layer is made larger
than emitter. These are also called bipolar junction transistors or BJT. The emitter is heavily
dopped and base is lightly dopped.
Result:
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Experiment No: 2
SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS
Aim:
To familiarize schematic symbols of components and devices used in electronic circuit.
Components and Equipments Required:
Diode, capacitor, inductor, resistor, DC voltage source, AC voltage source, transistor,
JFET, MOSFET, zener diode, tunnel diode, Schottkey diode, LED, photdiode, vacuum tubes,
switches, relays, circuit breakers, and transformers.
Theory:
Symbol Component name
Meaning
Ground Symbols
Used for zero potential reference and electrical shock
Earth Ground
protection.
Resistor Symbols
Resistor (IEEE)
Resistor reduces the current flow.
Resistor (IEC)
Potentiometer (IEEE)
Adjustable resistor - has 3 terminals.
Potentiometer (IEC)
Variable
Resistor
Rheostat (IEEE)
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Adjustable resistor .
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Variable
Resistor
Rheostat (IEC)
Trimmer Resistor
Thermistor
Preset resistor
Thermal
resistor
change
resistance
when
temperature changes
Photoresistor / Light dependent Photo-resistor - change resistance with light intensity
resistor (LDR)
change
Capacitor Symbols
Capacitor
Capacitor is used to store electric charge. It acts as
short circuit with AC and open circuit with DC.
Capacitor
Polarized Capacitor
Electrolytic capacitor
Polarized Capacitor
Electrolytic capacitor
Variable Capacitor
Adjustable capacitance
Inductor / Coil Symbols
Inductor
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Coil / solenoid that generates magnetic field
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Iron Core Inductor
Includes iron
Variable Inductor
Power Supply Symbols
Voltage Source
Generates constant voltage
Current Source
Generates constant current.
AC Voltage Source
AC voltage source
Battery Cell
Generates constant voltage
Battery
Generates constant voltage
Meter Symbols
Voltmeter
Ammeter
Ohmmeter
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Measures
voltage.
Has
very
high
resistance.
Connected in parallel.
Measures electric current. Has near zero resistance.
Connected serially.
Measures resistance
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Wattmeter
Measures electric power
Diode / LED Symbols
Diode
Diode allows current flow in one direction only (left
to right).
Allows current flow in one direction, but also can
Zener Diode
flow in the reverse direction when above breakdown
voltage
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Photodiode
LED emits light when current flows through
Photodiode allows current flow when exposed to
light
Transistor Symbols
NPN Bipolar Transistor
PNP Bipolar Transistor
Allows current flow when high potential at base
(middle)
Allows current flow when low potential at base
(middle)
Symbols
Motor
Electric motor
Fuse
The fuse disconnects when current above threshold.
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Fuse
Used to protect circuit from high currents.
Loudspeaker
Converts electrical signal to sound waves
Microphone
Converts sound waves to electrical signal
Antenna Symbols
Antenna / aerial
Transmits & receives radio waves
Antenna / aerial
Logic Gates Symbols
NOT Gate (Inverter)
Outputs 1 when input is 0
AND Gate
Outputs 1 when both inputs are 1.
NAND Gate
Outputs 0 when both inputs are 1. (NOT + AND)
OR Gate
Outputs 1 when any input is 1.
NOR Gate
Outputs 0 when any input is 1. (NOT + OR)
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XOR Gate
Outputs 1 when inputs are different. (Exclusive OR)
Result
....
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Experiment No: 3
FAMILIARISATION OF LABORATORY EQUIPMENTS
Aim:
To familiarize with testing instruments and commonly used tools.
Components and Equipments Required:
Multimeter, Function generator, Power supply, CRO.
Theory:
1. Multimeter
Digital multimeter (DMM) is a cheap and portable instrument used for measuring
voltages (dc and ac), currents (dc and ac) as well as resistances hence the name multimeter.
Digital multimeters are more accurate, handy and easy to use. In addition to the standard
functions (voltage, current and resistance measurements) it also have diode checking and
continuity checking facilities.
2. Function Generator (FG)
The main purpose of the FG is to give the signal required, sine wave, square wave, or
triangular wave, choose both the frequency and amplitude of these functions. The FG knobs and
buttons are used to choose a particular function, its amplitude and frequency. The FG output is
taken through a co-axial cable from the Waveform Output socket.
a) Waveform Selection Key This key selects a sine wave, a square wave or a triangular
wave.
b) Amplitude/ Attenuation Control Sets the sine/ square/ triangular waveform amplitude. Turn
left to decrease or turn right to increase the amplitude.
c) DC Offset Control When pulled out, sets the DC offset level for sine/ square/ triangle
waveform. Turn left to decrease or turn right to increase the offset. The range is -5V to +5V, in
50 Ohm load.
3. Power Supply
The DC power supply is used to generate either a constant voltage (CV) or a
variable voltage. The voltage produced by the power supply is controlled by the knob labeled
voltage. The current is limited by adjusting the knob labeled current. As long as the circuit does
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not attempt to draw more current than the value set by the current knob, the voltage will remain
constant. Current limiting allows the power supply to be set such that it will not generate more
current than it is safe. In addition, current limiting can prevent damage to equipment and parts
which may be unable to handle excessive currents.
4. CRO
An oscilloscope is a test instrument which allows us to look at the 'shape' of electrical
signals by displaying a graph of voltage against time on its screen. It is like a voltmeter with the
valuable extra function of showing how the voltage varies with time. A graticule with a 1cm grid
enables us to take measurements of voltage and time from the screen. The graph, usually called
the trace, is drawn by a beam of electrons striking the phosphor coating of the screen making it
emit light, usually green or blue. This is similar to the way a television picture is produced.
A dual trace oscilloscope can display two traces on the screen, allowing us to easily compare
the input and output of an amplifier
1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a minute or two).
2. Do not connect the input lead at this stage.
3.Set the AC/GND/DC switch (by the Y INPUT) to DC.
4. Set the SWP/X-Y switch to SWP (sweep).
5.Set Trigger Level to AUTO.
6.Set Trigger Source to INT (internal, the y input).
7. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a moderate value).
8.Set the TIMEBASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate speed).
9.Turn the time base VARIABLE control to 1 or CAL.
10.Adjust Y SHIFT (up/down) and X SHIFT (left/right) to give a trace across the middle
of the screen, like the picture.
11.Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp trace.
The Y INPUT lead to an oscilloscope should be a co-axial lead .The central wire carries the
signal and the screen is connected to earth (0V) to shield the signal from electrical interference
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CRO FRONT PANNEL
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(usually called noise). Most oscilloscopes have a BNC socket for the y input and the lead is
connected with a push and twist action, to disconnect we need to twist and pull.
Measuring voltage and time period
The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage against time. The shape of this graph
is determined by the nature of the input signal. In addition to the properties labeled on the
graph, there is frequency which is the number of cycles per second. The diagram shows a sine
wave but these properties apply to any signal with a constant shape
Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is measured in volts.
Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.
Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading an oscilloscope trace it
is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.
Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle. It is measured in seconds
(s), but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms) and microseconds (s) are often used.
1ms = 0.001s and 1s = 0.000001s.
Frequency is the number of cycles per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz), but frequencies
tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often used. 1kHz = 1000Hz and
1MHz = 1000000Hz.
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A) Voltage: Voltage is shown on the vertical y-axis and the scale is determined by the Y
AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/div) control. Usually peak-peak voltage is measured because it can be
read correctly even if the position of 0V is not known. The amplitude is half the peak-peak
voltage. Voltage = No. of div in Y axis ( volts/div)
B) Time period: Time is shown on the horizontal x-axis and the scale is determined by the
TIMEBASE (TIME/div) control. The time period (often just called period) is the time for one
cycle of the signal. The frequency is the number of cycles per second,
frequency = 1/time period. Time period = No.of div in X axis ( time/div)
Result:
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Experiment No: 4
RECTIFIER CIRCUITS
Aim:
To study the rectifying action of half-wave and full wave rectifier circuits.
Components Required:
Step down transformer(6-0-6), Diode(1N4007) and resistor(1K).
Theory:
Rectifier is defined as an electronic device used for converting alternating voltage into
unidirectional voltage. A rectifier utilizes uni-direction conduction device, like PN junction
diode. Rectifiers are classified depending upon the period of conduction as half wave rectifier
and full wave rectifier.
In half wave rectifier an ac voltage into pulsating dc voltage using only one half of the
applied ac voltage. The rectifying diode conducts during positive half of the ac input voltage.
During this positive half cycle, the anode of diode becomes more positive with respect to the
cathode. So the whole input signal (positive half) will appear across the load resistor RL.
The circuit of a centre-tapped full wave rectifier is shown in figure. A centre tapped
transformer is used in this circuit to step down the input voltage. It converts an ac voltage into
pulsating dc voltage using both half cycle of the applied ac voltage. There are two diodes D1 and
D2 connected to the secondary of the transformer. The centre tap on the secondary winding of
the transformer is usually taken as the ground or zero voltage reference point.
During positive half cycle of the input signal, anode of diode D1 becomes positive and at
the same time anode of D2 becomes negative. Hence D1 conducts and D2 does not conduct. The
load current flows through D1 and voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage.
During the negative half cycle of the input, the anode of D1 becomes negative and anode
of D2 becomes positive. Hence D1 does not conduct and D2 conducts. The load current flows
through D2, load resistor RL and lower half of the winding. The current flows through the load
flows in the same direction during both the positive and negative cycle of the input. As a result,
the output voltage developed across the load resistor is of same polarity and magnitude.
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During negative half cycle of the input voltage, anode of diode becomes negative with respect to
the cathode and hence diode does not conduct. So the whole input voltage appears across diode
D. Hence the voltage drop across RL is zero.
Procedure:
1. Check whether the diode and rectifier are good.
2. Set up the circuit diagram as shown in circuit diagram.
3. Observe the wave form on the CRO.
Result:
..
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Half wave rectifier circuit diagram:
Circuit diagram of center tap rectifier
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Experiment No: 5
LED BLINKING CIRCUIT
Aim:
To assemble LED blinking circuit using transistor BC107.
Components and Equipments Required:
Transistor (BC107) - 2
Capacitor 100F-1
Capacitor 47F-1
Resistor 5.6K - 2
Resistor 820 - 2
LED 2
DC Source.
Theory :
Astable multivibrator is used to generate LED blinking circuit for a given duty cycle.Duty cycle
decides by value of capacitor and resistor .T1=R1C1 and T2=R2C2 .Transistor will not be in ON
condition simultaneously .When Q1 is
ON, then Q2 will be OFF and vice versa. The circuit does not has a stable state .It switches back
and forth between two quasi stable state.
If R1=R2=R and C1=C2=C ,Then T1=T2=T=0.629RC.
Now the duty cycle is 50%.
Procedure:
1.Check the transistor ,resistor and led are good.
2.Set up the circuit on breadboard as shown in the circuit diagram.
Result:
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Experiment no: 6
RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER
Aim:
To assemble an RC coupled amplifier and observe the output wave form.
Components Required:
Transistor (BC107), Resistor, Capacitor, Function generator, CRO and power supply.
Theory:
Amplification is a process of increasing the signal strength by increasing the amplitude of
a given signal without changing its characteristics. An RC coupled amplifier is a part of a
multistage amplifier wherein different stages of amplifiers are connected using a combination of
resistor and a capacitor. An amplifier circuit is one of basic circuits in electronics.An amplifier
which is completely based on transistor is basically known as transistor amplifier. The input
signal may be a current signal, voltage signal or a power signal. An amplifier will amplify the
signal without changing its characteristics and the output will be a modified version of the input
signal. Applications of amplifiers are of wide range. They are mainly used in audio and video
instruments, communications, controllers, etc.
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Circuit diagram for RC coupled amplifier:
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Procedure:
1.Check the transistor ,resistor and capacitor are good.
2.Set up the circuit on breadboard as shown in the circuit diagram.
3.Observe the wave form in the CRO
Waveform:
Result:
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Experiment No: 7
INTER CONNECTION AND SOLDERING METHODS
Aim:
To familiarize with soldering , Crimping and inter connection methods of bread board.
Components Required:
SL No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Materials Required
Soldering Iron
Solder
Flux
De soldering Pump
Knife or blade
General purpose PCB
Nose Pliers
Quantity
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
Theory:
Soldering is the process of joining two or more metals using an alloy metal having a low
melting point to establish electrical connection. There are two types of soldering hard soldering
and soft soldering.
Soft Soldering: It is a process for joining small intricate parts having low melting point
which damages when soldering process is carried out at high temperature. It uses tin -lead alloy
as filler material .The melting point of the filler material should be below 400. It uses gas torch
as the heat source.
Hard Solder: It is a process for joining two pieces of metals by expanding into pores of
the work piece opened by high temperature. The filler material posses above 450C.
The mainly used solders are the alloys of tin(63%) and lead (37%).They melts at
183C(361 F) and solidifies when it cools. Solder with a greater tin content melts at a lower
temperature, takes less time to harden and generally makes it easier to do a good soldering job
.Melting point of tin and lead mixed in 63:37 ratios, it becomes molten at 183C .
Soldering Fluxes:
In order to make the surface accept the solder readily, the connection terminal should be
free from oxides and other obstructing films. Soldering flux cleans the oxides from the surface of
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the metal. This is called wetting the metal. The leads are cleared chemically or by scrapping
using a knife or blade. Small amount of solder should be coated on the cleaned portion of
component leads and the bit of soldering iron. This process is called tinning .Zinc chloride,
ammonium chloride and rosin are the most commonly used flux. These are available in
petroleum jelly as paste flux. The residue which remains after the soldering may be washed out
with isopropyl alcohol or acetone. In the electronics industry, only the rosin type is used .Rosin
flux comes in two types pure and active. Since it does not cause dendrites between the tracks on
the PC board as the active type does. Due to the highly corrosive and moisture attracting
characteristics of the chloride and organic type fluxes they should not be used in electronics.
Procedure:
1.Clean the component leads using a blade. Apply a little flux on t he leads. Solder on the
soldering iron and apply the rotten solder on the leads.
2. Clean the tip of soldering iron. Keep a bit away from oxide formation while soldering.
3. Do not overheat the PCB and devices. Soldering must be done in a minimum time.
4. Do not use excess solder or flux.
Result:
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EXPERIMENT NO: 8
FIXED POWER SUPPLY USING IC REGULATOR
Aim:
To assemble a fixed voltage power supply with transformer, rectifier diode, capacitor
filter and 7805 regulator IC.
Components Required:
Transformer (6-0-6) -1
Capacitor (1000F16V) - 1
Diode (1N4007) -4
Regulator IC(L7805)-1
Soldering iron, flux, de soldering pump, multimeter,etc
Theory:
The basic building block of the fixed voltage power supply is given above .A transformer
supplied AC voltage at the required level. Rectifier which converts the sinusoidal ac voltage into
either positive or negative pulsating dc ie , it contains unwanted ac components. For most supply
purposes constant voltage is required than that furnished by a rectifier. To reduce ac component
from the rectifier output voltage a filter circuit is required.
The magnitude of output dc voltage may vary with the variation of either the input ac voltage
or the magnitude of load current .So at the output of a rectifier filter combination a voltage
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Circuit diagram of 5V regulator
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regulator is required, to provide almost constant dc voltage at the output of the regulator .The
voltage regulator may be constructed from a zener diode or integrated circuits (ICs).
Procedure:
1. Clean the component leads using a blade .Apply a little flux on the leads for cleans the oxides
from the surface.
2. Solder the component as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not use excess solder or flux.
4. Observe the output in the multimeter.
Result:
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Experiment No: 9
SQUARE WAVE GENERATION
Aim:
Assemble an astable multivibrator on general purpose PCB using IC 555 timer to
generate a square wave.
Components and equipments required:
Sl No.
Components
Specification
Quantity
Timer IC
SE/NE 555
Capacitors
0.1F,0.01F
Resistors
6.8K
D C source
CRO
4
5
Theory:
555 timer IC is used for generating accurate time delay or oscillations. This will provide
time delay ranging from micro seconds to hours.
Pin diagram
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Circuit diagram:
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The circuit diagram of a 555 Timer wired in Astable mode is shown. 8th pin and 1st pin of the IC
are used to give power, Vcc and GND respectively. The 4th pin is RESET pin which is active
low and is connected to Vcc to avoid accidental resets. 5th pin is the Control Voltage pin which
is not used. So to avoid high frequency noises it is connected to a capacitor C1 whose other end
is connected to ground. Usually C1 = 0.01F. The Trigger (pin 2) and Threshold (pin 6) inputs
are connected to the capacitor which determines the output of the timer. Discharge pin (pin 7) is
connected to the resistor R2 such that the capacitor can discharge through R2.
Procedure:
1.Check the resistor and capacitor are good.
2.Set up the circuit on breadboard as shown in the circuit diagram.
3.Observe the wave form in the CRO
Result
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Experiment No: 10
ASSEMBLING AND DISMANTLING OF PC
Aim:
Assembling and disassembling the system hardware components of the personal
computer
Requirements:
1. Processor
6. Cabinet
2. Mother Board
7. Speakers
11. RAM( SD or DDR)
15. Screws
3. SMPS
4. Hard Disk Drive
8. Key Board 9. Mouse
12. Bus Cables
13. Power Cables
5. CD or DVD ROM
10. Monitor
14. Screw Driver
16. Printer etc
Procedure:
1. Mother Board Installation:
i ) Open the cabinet on either side.
ii) An I/O shield is used for connecting the input and output devices through it. Check whether
the mother board is placed in such a way that the I/O ports of the motherboard correctly fit in the
I/O shields. Ensure all the specified screws for the motherboard are fixed and intact.
2. Processor Installations:
1. Processor is one of the most dedicated components of the computer. The processor pins have
to be clearly studied before fixing into the relevant processor space on the motherboard. After the
CPU is rightly placed in its position the lever is to be locked
2 As a part of the processor installation, before the CPU is fixed in the right position a lever is
provided, which needs to be unlocked. This lever is perpendicular to the motherboard.
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3 The processor, which is a square shaped electronic component, comes with pins below it. One
should find for an indication on one of the corners of the processor on both sides. The arrow
mark is also found on the motherboard which guides for the fixation of the CPU. Once match of
the pins verses motherboard slot gently push the processor.
4 After the processor is rightly placed in its position, the lever is to be locked.
Processor heat sink & fan installation:
1. The processor heat sink and fan is to be carefully plugged on to the processor by pushing
down the metal plastic clips.
2. Once the heat sink fan is fixed and locked, it should be connected to the Power supply
available on the mother board through the power connector
RAM Installation:. Insert the RAM into an available expansion socket. RAM can be plugged
into the socket one way only.
SMPS Installations:
1. Next is installing the SMPS. This is an electronic power supply unit that provides and
regulates the power supply to all components of a computer system.
2. After placing the SMPS into the relevant provider space fix the outer screws to it intact. 11
Next installing the ATX power connector. It is a 20/24-pin power connector. This is the primary
power supply to the mother board.
Hard Disk Drive Installation:
Installing the Hard Disk Drive (HDD) is clearly understood in the following steps. First see the
rare of the HDD. It consists of the 3 types of pins. One left side the HDD has multiple pins
termed as the IDE connector. In the middle is the jumper setting pins for the HDD. On the
extreme right side is the power connector pins. Every device except FDD (floppy Disk Drive)
uses this type of power connector. And HDD and CDD (Compact Disk Drive) connected by this
type of IDE cable.
Dept Of ECE
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EC110 ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP
Dept Of ECE
Page 48
EC110 ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING WORKSHOP
Mount the HDD into mounting slot meant for the HDD with the rear end facing and secure the
inner screws intact.
Connect the IDE cable to the HDD as well as the mother.
Remember for all the power connectors to be plugged in, one needs to align the Red line on the
cable to Pin-1 of the IDE port. Hence connect the power cable to the HDD rare end by gently
pushing the connector.
CD ROM Installation:
1.Next installing the CD-ROM. Remove the cover of front side of the cabinet curtaining of the
CD-ROM.
2.Push CD-ROM case into opened space. Secure CD-ROM with inner screws.
3. Connect the one end of cable to motherboard and another end to CD-ROM.
4.Connect the power connector to the CDROM.
IO Devices Installations:
Finally connect all peripheral devices like mouse, key-board, monitor, etc, to the I/O ports .
Result:
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Dept Of ECE
Page 49
