SOCIAL SCIENCE - DEFINITIONS

Sociology - study of human groups, their customs and institutions, and their development at
all times and places
Social Science Theories
Macro-level theories- approaches to sociology that focus primarily on society and/or other
large social units
Structural-Functionalists- usually more optimistic and view society as a system of
differentiated, interrelated elements that tend to move towards stability.
Conflict Theorists- more pessimistic and view society as full of confliting elements that can
play a role in social change and even upheaval.
Micro-level theories- deal with individual interactions within smaller social units.
Acculturation/ Enculturation - is a process in which members of one cultural group adopt the
beliefs and behaviors of another group.
CULTURE - is the sum total of ideas, beliefs, values, material cultural equipments and nonmaterial aspects which man makes a member of society. It can be conceived as a
continuous, cumulative reservoir containing both material and non-material elements that
are socially transmitted from generation to generation.
COMPONENTS OF CULTURE
Material Culture- consists of all the physical objects people have borrowed, discovered, or
invented and to which they have attached meaning. (natural resources, trees, plants)
Non-material culture- consists of intangible creations or things that we cannot identify
directly through the senses.
Beliefs- first component of nonmaterial culture is beliefs, conceptions that people accept as
true, concerning how the world operates and where the individual fits in relationship with
others. Can be rooted in blind faith, experience, tradition or the scientific method.
Values- represent societys stipulations about what is acceptable in life.
Norms- standards of behaviour governing social situations that are established by a
societys values.
- patterns of beliefs that serve to guide, control, and regulate conduct
TYPES OF NORMS
Folkways - customary patterns of everyday life that specify what is socially correct and
proper in everyday life.
Mores - norms that are tied to a societys core values and to which people must adhere.
Unlike folkways, they are seen as forms of truth that all people should understand and
follow.
Taboos - is a norm that society holds so strongly that violating it results in extreme disgust.
Often times the violator of the taboo is considered unfit to live in that society. INCEST- sex
between close relatives
Laws - norms that are enforced formally by a special organization. SANCTION - a threatened
penalty for disobeying a law or rule.
Language - system of symbols that have specific and arbitrary meaning in a given society.

SUB-CULTURE - refers to attitude of certain group from the habitual practices of the majority.
(e.g. new styles of dressing, language and other practices of a group of people which are
different from other majority)
STEREOTYPE - is any commonly known public belief about a certain social group or a type of
individual. regarded as the most cognitive component, prejudice as the affective and
discrimination as the behavioral; gender stereotypes, sexual orientation stereotypes; Many
people interact initially with the stereotype rather than with the true person.
SOCIAL CHANGE - is a complex and multi-faceted phenomenon. There are both endogenous
(internal to the society concerned) and exogenous (external to the society).
SOCIAL STRATIFICATION - is the socioeconomic layering of society's members according to
property, power, and prestige.
SOCIALIZATION - is the lifelong process of learning how to become functioning, contributing
members of society. It is through this mechanism that the heritage and culture of a society
can be passed on from generation to generation. This allows society to survive and even
proliferate beyond the lifespan of individual members.
OPEN CLASS SYSTEM - is an economic system that has upward and downward mobility. It is
achievement-based, and allows social relations between the classes. Industrialized nations
tend to have open class systems
CLOSED CLASS SYSTEM - have been confined to their ancestral occupations, and their social
status has mostly been prescribed by birth. Most closed class systems are found in less
industrialized countries. An example of a closed class system with limited social mobility is
French society before the French Revolution. Under the Ancien Rgime, French society was
divided between the 1st estate (clergy), 2nd (nobility), and 3rd (commoners).
Members of each estate were likely to socialize only with others in the same group
ASCRIBED STATUS - the social status of a person that is given from birth or assumed
involuntarily later in life.
It is the social position one is born into and personal characteristics beyond one's control,
such as race and gender.
A social status of a person that is acquired, such as being an Olympic athlete, being a
criminal, or being a college professor. It is one's social standing that depends on personal
accomplishments.
ACHIEVED STATUS - in an open class system, people are ranked by achieved status, whereas
in a closed class system, people are ranked by ascribed status.
STRUCTURAL MOBILITY - opportunity for movement in social class that is attributable to
changes in the social
structure of a society, rather than to changes in an individual.
RELIGION primary function to society is to establish an orderly relationship between man
and his surroundings.
CASTE SYSTEM - is a form of social stratification characterized by endogamy, hereditary
transmission of a style of life which often includes an occupation, ritual status in a hierarchy,
and customary social interaction and exclusion based on cultural notions of purity and
pollution. More rigid than class system
CONFORMITY - is an individuals adopting of attitude and behaviours of others because of
pressure (real or imagined) to do so. Example, a cheerleader who wants to do an original

routine but goes along with the majority of the squad in voting to do a stolen routine exhibits
conformity. Conformity can be positive or negative.
ROLE STRAIN - happens when contradicting roles for the same status are both tried to be
attained. A teacher very friendly with her students but must grade them objectively can
succumb to role strain; although it is possible to maintain both role prescriptions, it can also
lead to psychological stress
TYPES OF INTERGROUP INTERACTION
1. Assimilation 2. Pluralism 3. Segregation 4. Domination 5. Population Transfer / Expulsion 6.
Annihilation

Marxists Model Of Society - is an economic and sociopolitical worldview and method of

socioeconomic inquiry based upon a materialist interpretation of historical development, a
dialectical view of social change, and an analysis of class-relations within society and their
application in the analysis and critique of the development of capitalism. The most valid
criticism of Marxists model of society is the overemphasis on the importance of economic
class to explain historical trends.
Bureaucracy- a bureaucracy is a system of organization noted for its size and complexity.
Everything within a bureaucracy responsibilities, jobs, and assignments exists to
achieve some goal. (Max Weber)
6 characteristics of bureaucracy: hierarchy, rules, function, focus, impersonal, qualification
3 dimensions of webers notion of social class: economic resources; political power, social
prestige
Fascism - is a form of radical authoritarian nationalism. Fascists seek to unify their nation
through a totalitarian state that seeks the mass mobilization of the national
community, relying on a vanguard party to initiate a revolution to organize the nation on
fascist principles. It promotes regulated private enterprise and private property contingent
whenever beneficial to the nation and state enterprise and state property where private
enterprise and private property is unable to meet the nation's needs.
Communism - an equal society, without social classes or class conflict, in which the means
of production are the common property of all.
Capitalists - the social class of owners of the means of production in industrial societies,
whose primary purpose is to make profits.
Socialism - is an economic system characterized by social ownership of the means of
production and co-operative management of the economy. "Social ownership" may refer to
cooperative enterprises,
common ownership, state ownership, or citizen ownership of equity.
Legal authority - The authority fostering belief in the competence of the individuals
discharging statutory obligation
Innovation - any human action which is considered sufficiently out of the ordinary so as to be
regarded as unique or unprecedented
Discovery - Initial awareness of existing but unobserved elements of nature

Extrasensory perception (ESP) / sixth sense - includes reception of information

not gained through the recognized physical senses but sensed with the mind
Clairvoyance - alleged ability to gain information about an object, person, location or
physical event through extrasensory perception.
Psychokinesis - The process of moving or causing some physical change (e.g., motion,
distortion) in an object using only the "power of the mind"
Precognition - a form of clairvoyance or telepathy in which a person can foresee events
before they happen (pre-cognitive clairvoyance) or predict another person's future thoughts
(pre-cognitive telepathy)
Telepathy - (tele meaning distant, -patheia meaning feeling, perception, passion, affliction,
experience) purported transmission of information from one person to another without using
any of our known sensory channels or physical interaction.

Acting Out: performing an extreme behavior in order to express thoughts or feelings the
person feels incapable of otherwise expressing
Compartmentalization: lesser form of dissociation, wherein parts of oneself are separated
from awareness of other parts and behaving as if one had separate sets of values.
Conversion: the expression of an intrapsychic conflict as a physical symptom; some
examples include blindness, deafness, paralysis, or numbness.
Denial: Refusal to accept external reality
Dissociation: when a person loses track of time and/or person, and instead finds another
representation of their self in order to continue in the moment.
Displacement: Defense mechanism that shifts sexual or aggressive impulses to a more
acceptable or less threatening target; redirecting emotion to a safer outlet
Hypochondriasis: An excessive preoccupation or worry about having a serious illness.
Isolation: Separation of feelings from ideas and events, for example, describing a murder
with graphic details with no emotional response
Identification: The unconscious modelling of one's self upon another person's character and
behaviour.
Introjection: Identifying with some idea or object so deeply that it becomes a part of that
person.
Intellectualization: the overemphasis on thinking when confronted with an unacceptable
impulse, situation or behavior without employing any emotions whatsoever to help mediate
and place the thoughts into an emotional, human context.
Rationalization: putting something into a different light or offering a different explanation for
ones perceptions or behaviors in the face of a changing reality.
Rxn formation: Converting unconscious wishes/impulses that are perceived to be dangerous
into their opposites
Repression: process of attempting to repel desires towards pleasurable instincts, caused by
a threat of suffering if the desire is satisfied; the desire is moved to the unconscious in the
attempt to prevent it from entering consciousness

Undoing: tries to 'undo' an unhealthy, destructive or otherwise threatening thought by

acting out the reverse of unacceptable.

Withdrawal: Withdrawal is a more severe form of defence. It entails removing oneself from
events, stimuli, interactions, etc. under the fear of being reminded of painful thoughts and
feelings.
Thought suppression: The conscious process of pushing thoughts into the preconscious; the
conscious decision to delay paying attention to an emotion or need in order to cope with the
present reality
Somatization: The transformation of negative feelings towards others into negative feelings
toward self, pain, illness, and anxiety.
Sublimation: Transformation of negative emotions or instincts into positive actions,
behaviour, or emotion.
Compensation: process of psychologically counterbalancing perceived weaknesses by emphasizing
strength in other arenas.

Assertiveness: the emphasis of a persons needs or thoughts in a manner that is respectful,

direct and firm.
Regression: Temporary reversion of the ego to an earlier stage of development rather than
handling unacceptable impulses in a more adult way. When Rita fights with her older
brother, she starts off rationally but ends up in tears, stamping her foot, or throwing objects
in all directions.
Projection: the misattribution of a persons undesired thoughts, feelings or impulses onto
another person who does not have those thoughts, feelings or impulses. Romy justifies his
cheating on exams by claiming that everyone else does it.
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT BASED ON PIAGETS THEORY
1.Sensorimotor Stage (< 2 years) - an infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his or her
sensory perceptions and motor activities.
2. Pre-Operational Stage (2 - 7 yo) - language development is one of the hallmarks of this
period. Piaget noted that children in this stage do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot
mentally manipulate information, and are unable to take the point of view of other people,
which he termed egocentrism.
3. Concrete Operations (7 11 yo) - children gain a better understanding of mental
operations and begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty
understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.
4. Formal Operations (11 to 16 years old) -develops logical reasoning skills and decreases
egocentricity
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY - introduced by Freud, tends to be the most pessimistic about
human nature. Freud believed two basic drives guide and shape human behavior:
(1) eros reflects the sexual drive and (2) thanatos reflects the aggressive survival instinct.
Pleasure Principle people are driven towards seeking pleasure and avoiding pain.
Trait theory and behavioural theory - tend to be neutral about human nature.
Humanistic theory & cognitive social learning theory - tend to be more optimistic about
nature of people
PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY (PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY)
According to Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), personality is mostly established by the age of
five.

Stages of Development Based on the Psychoanalytic Theory

1. Oral Stage
Birth to 1 Year
Erogenous Zone: Mouth
2. Anal Stage 1 to 3 years
Erogenous Zone: Bowel and Bladder Control
3. Phallic Stage
3 to 6 Years
Erogenous Zone: Genitals
4. Latency Stage
6 to Puberty (12)
Erogenous Zone: Sexual Feelings Are Inactive
5. Genital Stage
Puberty to Death (12<)
Erogenous Zone: Maturing Sexual
Interests

GESTALT PSYCHOLOGYS PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTUAL ORGANIZATION

-the process whereby people categorize and organize stimulus information into meaningful
units to make sense of the stimuli.
The underlying idea is that stimuli are perceived as an organized whole, not as unrelated or
disjointed piecesthe whole is greater than the sum of the parts.-For instance, people
recognize a familiar tune but do not ordinarily hear each distinct note or even every musical
instrument playing the song. They identify a persons face but do not usually pay attention
to each eye, eyebrow, nostrils, etc.
Principles of Grouping
Grouping is a process whereby individuals are inclined to perceive stimuli as groups or
chunks of information rather than as discrete bits of data.

SIMILARITY - things that are physically similar are perceived as belonging together or as
forming a whole figure (gestalt). Therefore, XXOO is seen as two groups, with the XX as
one group and the OO as another group.
PROXIMITY/ CONTIGUITY - group like with like,suggests that things that are in close
proximity to one another are perceived as belonging together or as forming a gestalt. In your
clothing drawers you probably put things together that logically go together; undergarments
in one drawer, shirts or blouses in another, and so on. You would not expect to find canned
peas in someones medicine cabinet but rather in the kitchen pantry.
CONTINUITY (LAW OF GOOD CONTINUATION) - holds that people categorize stimuli into
smooth, uninterrupted, continuous forms, rather than into discontinuous patterns.
SIMPLICITY- (PRAGNNZ) - suggests that individuals opt for relatively simple perceptions
even when more complex perceptions can be derived. That is, every stimulus pattern is seen
in such a way that the resulting structure is as simple as possible.
CLOSURE (MENTAL COMPLETION) PRINCIPLE - states that people tend to perceive incomplete
patterns as being complete. We tend to fill in the blanks based on prior experiences. A
triangle with a small part of its edge missing will still be seen as a triangle. Consider the
annoyance that arises from having a missing element or two from a collection, such as
stamps, magazines, or CDs by a particular musical group. And, soap operas keep viewers
hanging on with cliffhanger endings.
DEPTH PERCEPTION - The images we see appear on our retinas in 2-D form, but we tend to
perceive a 3-D world. We see depth by using monocular and binocular cues.
Monocular cues - depth cues based on each eye working independently. E.g. linear
perspective, texture gradient, relative size, and interposition.

Binocular cues - rely on both eyes working together. E.g. convergence, wherein the eyes turn
inward as an object comes closer
TYPES OF PARENTING
INDULGENT PARENTING - is a style of parenting wherein parents are involved with their
child; however, the parents place few demands and restrictions on the child, resulting in the
social incompetence and lack of self-control of the child. In short, children raised via
indulgent parenting tend to become spoiled.
AUTHORITARIAN PARENTING - is a restrictive, controlling, and demanding style; the child is
given little opportunity to disagree and is expected to follow without question.
NEGLECTFUL PARENTING - is a style wherein the parents are uninvolved in the childs life;
as a result, the child tends to show poor self-control and does not handle independence
well.
AUTHORITATIVE PARENTING - encourages a child to be independent without neglecting to
place limits and controls on behavior; parents tend to be nurturant, and good
communication is encouraged. Authoritative parents tend to raise more socially-competent,
self-reliant, and responsible children.fixation
Psychoanalysis from behavior therapy - The view that psychopathology is the result of
inadequate resolution of certain development stages rather than learned ways of behaving
separates
Psychoanalysis - a type of psychotherapy that focuses on changing undesirable behaviors;
commonly used to treat depression and anxiety disorders.
Behavior therapy - involves identifying objectionable, maladaptive behaviors and replacing
them with healthier types of behavior.
Cognitive therapy - a mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that come to mind.
When you are trying to make a decision, a number of related events or situations might
immediately spring to the forefront of your thoughts.
Heuristic availability - To determine whether someone is trustworthy, I try to recall instances
of such behavior.
Roger's Self Theory - all individuals have an innate tendency to move in the direction of
positive change
PROBLEMS IN EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY
Demand Characteristics - refers to an experimental artifact where participants form an
interpretation of the experiment's purpose and subconsciously change their behavior to fit
that interpretation.
The Hawthorne Effect - is a cognitive bias in which one's judgments of a persons
character can be influenced by one's overall impression of him or her.
The Halo Effect or halo error - is a psychological phenomenon in which people are less
likely to take action or feel a sense of responsibility in the presence of a large group of
people. Essentially, in a large group of people, people may feel that individual responsibility
to intervene is lessened because it is shared by all of the onlookers.
DIFFUSION RESPONSIBILITY
Example: imagine that you are in a large city on a bustling street. You notice a young man fall to the
ground and start convulsing as if having a seizure. Many people turn and look at the man, but no one
moves to help or call for medical assistance. Why? Because there are so many people present, no one

individual feels pressured to respond. Each person might think, "Oh, someone else has probably
already called for help" or "No one else is doing anything, so it must not be that serious."
Wilhelm Wundt - credited by most historians as establishing the first scientific
laboratory dedicated to studying behavior. This laboratory was opened in Leipzig in
the year 1879.
Classical Conditioning - A process whereby one stimulus that does not elicit a certain
response is associated with a second; emphasizes stimulus and behavior
Operant conditioning - a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior
produce changes in the behaviors occurrence. An illustration of how these two forms
of learning differ is teaching a dog some tricks; emphasizes behavior and consequence.
conditioned response (CR) - The response often similar to the unconditioned response,
that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus.
conditioned stimulus (CS) - Any stimulus that, although initially neutral, comes to
elicit a response because it has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus.
unconditioned response (UR) - the natural or instinctive response to the presence of a
stimulus; refer to any reaction to a stimulus that occurs naturally and does not need
to be learned through repeated exposures or conditioning.
unconditioned stimulus (US) - A stimulus that elicits a response from an
organism where no learning or conditioning is necessary

Habituation - is a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations. As a

procedure, habituation is the repeated presentation of an eliciting stimulus that results in
the decline of the elicited behavior (the process of habituation).
Sensitization - An increase in the strength of an elicited behavior following repeated
presentations of the eliciting stimulus
Desensitization - diminished emotional responsiveness to a negative or aversive stimulus
after repeated exposure to it. It also occurs when an emotional response is repeatedly
evoked in situations in which the action tendency that is associated with the emotion proves
irrelevant or unnecessary
Modeling - a general process in which persons serve as models for others, exhibiting the
behavior to be imitated by the others. Also, a method used in certain techniques of
psychotherapy whereby the client learns by imitation alone, without any specific verbal
direction by the therapist
Spontaneous Recovery - The reappearance of a conditioned response to a CS following a rest
period after extinction.
Negative Transfer - a behavioral psychology term that refers to the interference of the
previous knowledge with new learning. It relates to the experience with one set of events
could hurt performance on related tasks. It occurs when a learned, previously adaptive
response to one stimulus interferes with the acquisition of an adaptive response to a novel
stimulus that is similar to the first.
Stimulus Discrimination - The tendency for a response to be elicited more by one stimulus
than another.
Stimulus Generalization - The tendency for a CR to occur in the presence of a stimulus that
is similar to the CS.
Selective Attention - A type of attention which involves focusing on a specific aspect of a
scene while ignoring other aspects. Selective attention can be conscious (as when one

chooses to attend to an interesting object, like a tv, instead of a less interesting one, like a
coffee table) or unconscious (as in a scene of a green field with a single red tulip - the tulip
will receive attention initially).
Sensory Adaptation - aka Neural adaptation; is a change over time in the responsiveness of
the sensory system to a constant stimulus. It is usually experienced as a change in the
stimulus. For example, if one rests one's hand on a table, one immediately feels the table's
surface on one's skin
Subliminal - (of a stimulus or mental process) below the threshold of sensation or
consciousness; perceived by or affecting someone's mind without their being aware of it.
Subliminal stimuli - below threshold", contrary to supraliminal stimuli or "above threshold",
are any sensory stimuli below an individual's threshold for conscious perception.
Threshold - minimum intensity that a stimulus must achieve before it can be perceived
Percept - A mental impression of something perceived by the senses, viewed as the basic
component in the formation of concepts
Eidetic Imagery - type of vivid mental imagery, not necessarily derived from an actual
external event or memory.
Auditory Imagery - a form of mental imagery that is used to organize and analyze sounds
when there is no external auditory stimulus present. This form of imagery is broken up into a
couple of auditory modalities such as verbal imagery or musical imagery.

GREENSPOON EFFECT - refers to an experimental effect found in some studies of verbal

conditioning in which the speaker's use of certain classes of words may increase in
frequency when reinforced by the listener making appropriate diffident gestures of assent.
Nevertheless, mmm-hmm (assenting murmur) increased the number of plural nouns that were said, and huhuh (dissenting murmur) decreased the number of plural nouns.

ZEIGARNIK EFFECT - the psychological tendency to remember an uncompleted task rather

than a completed one.
Mller-Lyer illusion - an optical illusion consisting of a stylized arrow. When viewers are asked
to place a mark on the figure at the midpoint, they invariably place it more towards the "tail"
end.
VON RESTORFF EFFECT - We remember things that stand out. also known as the "isolation

effect", predicts that when multiple homogenous stimuli are presented, the stimulus
that differs from the rest is more likely to be remembered.
Difference Thresholdalso known as just noticeable difference (jnd), is the smallest
difference in stimulation required to discriminate one stimulus from another 50% of the
time. For instance, a painter may easily see the difference between two similar shades of
color; a wine-taster may have no problem discriminating between similar types of wine.
Functional Fixedness - the inability to solve a problem because the things involved are
viewed only in terms of usual functions.
Placebo Effect - happens when the participants expectations, not the actual experimental
treatment, produce a desired outcome in a study.

Schizophrenia - a severe brain disorders in which people interpret reality abnormally. may
result in some combination of hallucinations, delusions, and disordered thinking and
behavior.
Hallucination- perception in the absence of external stimulus that has qualities of real
perception. It is vivid, substantial, and is perceived to be located in external objective space
ILLUSION- a thing that is or is likely to be wrongly perceived or interpreted by the senses.
deceptive appearance/impression, false idea/belief; Involves distorted or misinterpreted real
perception
DREAMING - does not involve wakefulness
IMAGERY - does not mimic real perception and is under voluntary control
PSEUDO HALLUCINATION - does not mimic real perception, but is not under voluntary control
TYPES OF MEMORY
Sensory memory - holds information in its original sensory form for a brief instant. It is rich
and detailed, but the information is quickly lost unless moved to working or long-term
memory, even most of what is thought to be ignored. Sensory memory does not retain
information for long unless processed.
Working memory (aka short term memory) - is memory that holds information for up to 30
seconds or a bit longer. Despite its relatively longer duration compared to sensory memory,
working memory is limited in capacity. An example of working memory at work is when one
reads a poem and then tries to recite it verbatim immediately after.
Long-term memory - can hold large amounts of information over a long period of time; this is
relatively permanent. One can remember names of relatives unseen for years. One can
easily remember how to subtract. One can instantly identify the seven continents. All these
are due to long-term memory.
is an important aspect in the understanding of psychology as a science.
Context - defined as the historical, economic, social, and cultural factors that influence
mental processes and behavior. Everything that people think, say, and do is affected and
influenced by these factors.
TYPES OF SECTOR
PRIMARY SECTOR - obtains resources from nature (ex. farming, mining, fishing).
SECONDARY SECTOR - transformations said resources via manufacture (ex. food canning
industries, phone manufactures).
TERTIARY SECTOR - provides services that society needs (ex. lawyers, doctors, teachers,
ISPs)
SOCIAL AREA ANALYSIS
a statistical technique used to examine the characteristics of people in the same area, points
out three factors that influence a persons choice of residence. These factors are family
status, social standing, and race/ethnicity.
TYPES OF COMMUNITIES
GEMEINSCHAFT COMMUNITIES
are composed of people who have common interest, know each other well, and who have
strong ties, such communities are characteristic of rural areas.
GESSELSCHAFT COMMUNITIES,
on the other hand, are composed of diverse people with weak ties and more inclined
towards self-interest, and whose traditions do not bind them much; urban communities such
as cities (Metro Manila, New York, Paris, Tokyo)

FECUNDITY - used to describe the number of children the average woman can possibly bear
during her childbearing years.
Fertility - refers to the actual number of children born within a society. Fertility is always less
than fecundity. Natality refers to birth rate, while mortality is death rate.

SYNAPTIC TRANSMITTERS
Acetylcholine
Affects movement, learning, memory, REM Sleep
Dopamine
Affects movement, attention, learning, reinforcement, pleasure
Endorphin
Provide relief from pain and feelings of pleasure and well-being
Epinephrine
Affects metabolism of glucose, energy release during exercise.
Enkephalin
Inhibits the sensation of pain
GABA
Facilitates neural inhibition in the central nervous system (high action
potential)
Glutamate
Active in areas of the brain involved in learning, though and emotion
Norepinephrine
Affects eating, alertness, wakefullness
Serotonin
Affects mood, sleep, appetite, impulsivity, aggression
Thorazine (Chlorpromazine)Treating certain mental or mood disorders (eg, schizophrenia), the
manic phase of manic-depressive disorder, anxiety and restlessness

gestalt therapy from reality therapy - to enhance the individual's self awareness of
sensation, perception, bodily feelings, emotion and behavior, in the present moment. The
relationship is highlighted, along with contact between the self, its environment, and the
other.
client-centered therapy from psychoanalysis - a non-directive form of talk therapy that
was developed by humanist psychologist Carl Rogers during the 1940s and 1950s
rational-emotive therapy from behavior therapy - a comprehensive, active-directive,
philosophically and empirically based psychotherapy which focuses on resolving emotional
and behavioral problems and disturbances and enabling people to lead happier and more
fulfilling lives.