Chapter 1: Basic Concepts

and Computer Evolution

Computer Architecture
Computer Organization
Attributes of a system
visible to the programmer
Have a direct impact on
the logical execution of a
program

Hardware details
transparent to the
programmer, control
signals, interfaces
between the computer and
peripherals, memory
technology used

Instruction set, number of

bits used to represent
various data types, I/O
mechanisms, techniques
for addressing memory

Computer
Architecture

Architectural
attributes
include:

Organizational
attributes
include:

Computer
Organization
The operational units and
their interconnections that
realize the architectural
specifications

IBM System
370 Architecture

IBM System/370 architecture

Was introduced in 1970

Included a number of models

Could upgrade to a more expensive, faster model without having to abandon original software

New models are introduced with improved technology, but retain the same architecture so that the
customers software investment is protected

Architecture has survived to this day as the architecture of IBMs mainframe product line

Structure and Function

Hierarchical system

Set of interrelated
subsystems

Hierarchical nature of complex

systems is essential to both
their design and their
description
Designer need only deal with a
particular level of the system at
a time

Concerned with structure and

function at each level

Structure

The way in which

components relate to each
other

Function

The operation of individual

components as part of the
structure

Function

There are four basic functions that a computer can perform:

Data processing
Data may take a wide variety of forms and the range of
processing requirements is broad
Data storage
Short-term
Long-term
Data movement
Input-output (I/O) - when data are received from or delivered to a
device (peripheral) that is directly connected to the computer
Data communications when data are moved over longer
distances, to or from a remote device
Control
A control unit manages the computers resources and
orchestrates the performance of its functional parts in response to
instructions

COMPUTER

Main
memory

I/O
System
Bus

CPU
CPU

Registers

Structure

Internal
Bus

Control
Unit
CONTROL
UNIT
Sequencing
Logic
Control Unit
Registers and
Decoders

Control
Memory

Figure 1.1 A Top-Down View of a Computer

ALU

+
CPU controls the operation of

There are four

main structural
components
of the computer:

the computer and performs its

data processing functions

Main Memory stores data

I/O moves data between the
computer and its external
environment

System Interconnection
some mechanism that provides
for communication among CPU,
main memory, and I/O

+
CPU
Major structural
components:

Control Unit

Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

Performs the computers data

processing function

Registers

Controls the operation of the CPU and

hence the computer

Provide storage internal to the CPU

CPU Interconnection

Some mechanism that provides for

communication among the control unit,
ALU, and registers

Multicore Computer Structure

Central processing unit (CPU)

Core

Portion of the computer that fetches and executes instructions

Consists of an ALU, a control unit, and registers
Referred to as a processor in a system with a single processing unit

An individual processing unit on a processor chip

May be equivalent in functionality to a CPU on a single-CPU system
Specialized processing units are also referred to as cores

Processor

A physical piece of silicon containing one or more cores

Is the computer component that interprets and executes instructions
Referred to as a multicore processor if it contains multiple cores

Cache Memory

Multiple layers of memory between the processor and main memory

Is smaller and faster than main memory

Used to speed up memory access by placing in the cache data from main memory
that is likely to be used in the near future

A greater performance improvement may be obtained by using multiple levels of

cache, with level 1 (L1) closest to the core and additional levels (L2, L3, etc.)
progressively farther from the core

MOTHERBOARD
Main memory chips

I/O chips

Processor
chip

PROCESSOR CHIP
Core

Core

L3 cache

Core

Core

Core

Core

L3 cache

Core

Core

CORE
Instruction
logic

Arithmetic
and logic
unit (ALU)

Load/
store logic

L1 I-cache

L1 data cache

L2 instruction
cache

L2 data
cache

Figure 1.2 Simplified View of Major Elements of a Multicore Computer

Figure 1.3
Motherboard with Two Intel Quad-Core Xeon Processors

Figure 1.4
zEnterprise
EC12 Processor
Unit (PU)
Chip Diagram

Figure 1.5
zEnterprise
EC12
Core Layout

History of Computers
First Generation: Vacuum Tubes

Vacuum tubes were used for digital logic

and memory

IAS computer

elements

Fundamental design approach was the stored program concept

Attributed to the mathematician John von Neumann

First publication of the idea was in 1945 for the EDVAC

Design began at the Princeton Institute for Advanced Studies

Completed in 1952

Prototype of all subsequent general-purpose computers

John von Neumann in front of the IAS computer, 1952.

Central processing unit (CPU)

Arithmetic-logic unit (CA)
AC

MQ

Inputoutput
equipment
(I, O)

Arithmetic-logic
circuits

MBR
Instructions
and data
Instructions
and data

M(0)
M(1)
M(2)
M(3)
M(4)

PC

IBR

MAR

IR

Main
memory
(M)
Control
signals

M(4092)
M(4093)
M(4095)

Control
circuits

Program control unit (CC)

Addresses

Figure 1.6 IAS Structure

AC: Accumulator register

MQ: multiply-quotient register
MBR: memory buffer register
IBR: instruction buffer register
PC: program counter
MAR: memory address register
IR: insruction register

0 1

39

(a) Number word

sign bit

left instruction (20 bits)

0

right instruction (20 bits)

opcode (8 bits)

20

address (12 bits)

28

opcode (8 bits)

(b) Instruction word

Figure 1.7 IAS Memory Formats

39

address (12 bits)

Registers
Memory buffer register
(MBR)
Memory address
register (MAR)

Instruction register (IR)

Contains a word to be stored in memory or sent to the I/O

unit
Or is used to receive a word from memory or from the I/O unit

Specifies the address in memory of the word to be written

from or read into the MBR

Contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being executed

Instruction buffer
register (IBR)

Employed to temporarily hold the right-hand instruction from a

word in memory

Program counter (PC)

Contains the address of the next instruction pair to be fetched

from memory

Accumulator (AC) and

multiplier quotient (MQ)

Employed to temporarily hold operands and results of ALU

operations

Start

Is next
instruction
in IBR?

Yes
No memory
access
required

Fetch
cycle

IR
MAR

IBR (0:7)
IBR (8:19)

No
MAR

MBR

IR
MAR

MBR (20:27)
MBR (28:39)

PC

No

PC

M(MAR)

Left
instruction
required?

Yes

IBR MBR (20:39)

IR MBR (0:7)
MAR
MBR (8:19)

PC + 1
Decode instruction in IR

AC

Go to M(X, 0:19)

M(X)

If AC > 0 then
go to M(X, 0:19)
Yes

Execution
cycle
MBR

AC

M(MAR)

PC

MAR

MBR

AC

AC + M(X)

Is AC > 0?

No

MBR

AC

M(X) = contents of memory location whose addr ess is X

(i:j) = bits i through j

Figure 1.8 Partial Flowchart of IAS Operation

M(MAR)

AC + MBR

Instruction Type

Opcode
00001010

Symbolic
Representation
LOAD MQ

00001001

LOAD MQ,M(X)

00100001

STOR M(X)

00000001
00000010
00000011

LOAD M(X)
LOAD M(X)
LOAD |M(X)|

00000100
00001101
00001110
00001111

LOAD |M(X)|
JUMP M(X,0:19)
JUMP M(X,20:39)
JUMP+ M(X,0:19)

00000101
00000111
00000110
00001000

0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
ADD M(X)
ADD |M(X)|
SUB M(X)
SUB |M(X)|

00001011

MUL M(X)

00001100

DIV M(X)

00010100

LSH

00010101

RSH

00010010

STOR M(X,8:19)

00010011

STOR M(X,28:39)

Data transfer

Unconditional
branch

Conditional branch

JU
MP
+
M(X
,20:
39)

Arithmetic

Address modify

Description
Transfer contents of register MQ to the
accumulator AC
Transfer contents of memory location X to
MQ
Transfer contents of accumulator to memory
location X
Transfer M(X) to the accumulator
Transfer M(X) to the accumulator
Transfer absolute value of M(X) to the
accumulator
Transfer |M(X)| to the accumulator
Take next instruction from left half of M(X)
Take next instruction from right half of M(X)
If number in the accumulator is nonnegative,
take next instruction from left half of M(X)
If number in the
accumulator is nonnegative,
take next instruction from
right half of M(X)

Add M(X) to AC; put the result in AC

Add |M(X)| to AC; put the result in AC
Subtract M(X) from AC; put the result in AC
Subtract |M(X)| from AC; put the remainder
in AC
Multiply M(X) by MQ; put most significant
bits of result in AC, put least significant bits
in MQ
Divide AC by M(X); put the quotient in MQ
and the remainder in AC
Multiply accumulator by 2; i.e., shift left one
bit position
Divide accumulator by 2; i.e., shift right one
position
Replace left address field at M(X) by 12
rightmost bits of AC
Replace right address field at M(X) by 12
rightmost bits of AC

Table 1.1
The IAS
Instruction Set

(Table can be found on page 17 in the textbook.)

History of Computers
Second Generation: Transistors

Smaller

Cheaper

Dissipates less heat than a vacuum tube

Is a solid state device made from silicon

Was invented at Bell Labs in 1947

It was not until the late 1950s that fully transistorized

computers were commercially available

Table 1.2
Computer Generations
Generation

Approximate
Dates

19461957

Vacuum tube

2
3

19571964
19651971

4
5
6

19721977
19781991
1991-

Transistor
Small and medium scale
integration
Large scale integration
Very large scale integration
Ultra large scale integration

Technology

Typical Speed
(operations per second)
40,000
200,000
1,000,000
10,000,000
100,000,000
>1,000,000,000

+
Second Generation Computers
Introduced:
More

complex arithmetic and logic units and

control units
The use of high-level programming languages
Provision of system software which provided the
ability to:
Load programs
Move data to peripherals
Libraries perform common computations

History of Computers
Third Generation: Integrated Circuits

1958 the invention of the integrated circuit

Discrete component

Single, self-contained transistor

Manufactured separately, packaged in their own containers, and

soldered or wired together onto masonite-like circuit boards

Manufacturing process was expensive and cumbersome

The two most important members of the third generation were

the IBM System/360 and the DEC PDP-8

Input

Boolean
logic
function

Output

Input

Binary
storage
cell

Read
Write

Activate
signal
(a) Gate

(b) Memory cell

Figure 1.10 Fundamental Computer Elements

Output

Integrated
Circuits

Data storage provided by memory cells

Data processing provided by gates

Data movement the paths among

components are used to move data from
memory to memory and from memory
through gates to memory

Control the paths among components can

carry control signals

A computer consists of gates,

memory cells, and
interconnections among these
elements

The gates and memory cells

are constructed of simple digital
electronic components

Exploits the fact that such

components as transistors,
resistors, and conductors can be
fabricated from a semiconductor
such as silicon

Many transistors can be

produced at the same time on a
single wafer of silicon

Transistors can be connected

with a processor metallization to
form circuits

Wafer

Chip

Gate
Packaged
chip

Figure 1.11 Relationship Among Wafer, Chip, and Gate

In
in ve
te n
gr tio
at n
ed of
ci
rc
M
ui
p r oo
t
r
om e
s
ul l a
ga w
te
d

F
tr irst
an w
si o
st rk
or in
g
1947 50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

2000

05

100 bn
10 bn
1 bn
100 m
10 m
100,000
10.000
1,000
100
10
1
11

Figure 1.12 Growth in Transistor Count on Integrated Circuits

(DRAM memory)

Moores Law
1965; Gordon Moore co-founder of Intel

Observed number of transistors that could be

put on a single chip was doubling every year

Consequences of Moores law:

The pace slowed to a
doubling every 18
months in the 1970s
but has sustained
that rate ever since

The cost of
computer logic
and memory
circuitry has
fallen at a
dramatic rate

The electrical
path length is
shortened,
increasing
operating
speed

Computer
becomes smaller
and is more
convenient to use
in a variety of
environments

Reduction in
power and
cooling
requirements

Fewer interchip
connections

Microprocessors

The density of elements on processor chips continued to rise

1971 Intel developed 4004

First chip to contain all of the components of a CPU on a single chip

Birth of microprocessor

1972 Intel developed 8008

More and more elements were placed on each chip so that fewer
and fewer chips were needed to construct a single computer
processor

First 8-bit microprocessor

1974 Intel developed 8080

First general purpose microprocessor

Faster, has a richer instruction set, has a large addressing capability

Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

Introduced
Clock speeds
Bus width
Number of transistors
Feature size (m)
Addressable
memory
Virtual
memory
Cache

80286

386TM DX

386TM SX

1982
6 MHz - 12.5
MHz
16 bits

1985
16 MHz - 33
MHz
32 bits

1988
16 MHz - 33
MHz
16 bits

486TM DX
CPU
1989
25 MHz - 50
MHz
32 bits

134,000

275,000

275,000

1.2 million

1.5

0.8 - 1

16 MB

4 GB

16 MB

4 GB

1 GB

64 TB

64 TB

64 TB

8 kB

(b) 1980s Processors

Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

Introduced
Clock speeds
Bus width
Number of
transistors
Feature size (m)
Addressable
memory
Virtual memory
Cache

486TM SX
1991
16 MHz - 33
MHz
32 bits

Pentium
1993
60 MHz - 166
MHz,
32 bits

Pentium Pro
1995
150 MHz - 200
MHz
64 bits

Pentium II
1997
200 MHz - 300
MHz
64 bits

1.185 million

3.1 million

5.5 million

7.5 million

0.8

0.6

0.35

4 GB

4 GB

64 GB

64 GB

64 TB

64 TB

64 TB

8 kB

8 kB

64 TB
512 kB L1 and 1
MB L2

(c) 1990s Processors

512 kB L2

Evolution of Intel Microprocessors

Pentium III

Pentium 4

1999
450 - 660 MHz

2000
1.3 - 1.8 GHz

2006
1.06 - 1.2 GHz

Core i7 EE
4960X
2013
4 GHz

64 bits

64 bits

64 bits

64 bits

Number of
transistors
Feature size (nm)
Addressable
memory
Virtual memory

9.5 million

42 million

167 million

1.86 billion

250

180

65

22

64 GB

64 GB

64 GB

64 GB

64 TB

64 TB

64 TB

Cache

512 kB L2

256 kB L2

2 MB L2

64 TB
1.5 MB L2/15
MB L3
6

Introduced
Clock speeds
Bus
wid
th

Number of cores

Core 2 Duo

(d) Recent Processors

The Evolution of the Intel x86 Architecture

Two processor families are the Intel x86 and the ARM architectures

Current x86 offerings represent the results of decades of design effort on complex
instruction set computers (CISCs)

An alternative approach to processor design is the reduced instruction set computer

(RISC)

ARM architecture is used in a wide variety of embedded systems and is one of the
most powerful and best-designed RISC-based systems on the market