KTUS1&S2ElectronicsEngineeringModule1FullNotes
Evolutionofelectronics
Theword'electronics'isderivedfromelectronmechanics,whichmeansthestudyofthebehaviorofanelectronunderdifferentconditionsof
externallyappliedfields.TheInstitutionofRadioEngineers(IRE)hasgivenastandarddefinitionofelectronicsas"thatfieldofscienceandengineering,whichdeals
withelectrondevicesandtheirutilization."
Applicationsofelectronics
Electronicsplayamajorroleinalmosteverysphereofourlife.Themainapplicationsofelectronicsareasfollows.
CommunicationandEntertainment
Incommunication,themainapplicationofelectronicswasinthefieldoftelegraphyandtelephony.Thisutilizesapairofwires.However,itisnowpossiblewiththehelp
ofradiowavestotransmitanymessagefromoneplacetoanother,thousandsofkilometersaway,withoutanywires.Withsuchwirelesscommunication(radio
broadcasting),peopleinanypartoftheworldcanknowwhatishappeninginotherparts.
RadioandTVbroadcastingprovideameansofbothcommunicationaswellasentertainment.Withthehelpofsatellitesithasbecomepossible
toestablishinstantcommunicationbetweenplacesveryfarapart.
DefenseApplications
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OneofthemostimportantdevelopmentsduringWorldWarIIwastheRADAR.Byusingradaritispossibletodetectandfindtheexactlocationoftheenemy
aircraft.Theantiaircraftgunsdirectedtoshootdowntheaircraft.Theradarandantiaircraftgunscanbelinkedbyanautomaticcontrolsystemtomakeacompleteunit.
RADAR
Guidedmissilesarecompletelycontrolledbyelectroniccircuits.Inawar,successordefeatforthenationdependsonthereliabilityofitscommunicationsystem.
IndustrialApplications
Useofautomaticcontrolsystemsinindustriesisincreasingdaybyday.Electroniccircuitsareusedinindustrialapplicationslikecontrolofthickness,quality,weightand
moisturecontentofamaterial.Itisalsousedinautomaticdooropeners,lightningsystems,powersystemsandsafetydevices.
MedicalSciences
Doctorsandscientistsareconstantlyfindingnewusesforelectronicsystemsinthediagnosisandtreatmentofvariousdiseases.Someoftheinstrumentswhichhave
beeninuseare:
Xrays,fortakingpicturesofinternalbonestructuresandalsotreatmentofsomediseases
Electrocardiographs(ECG),tofindtheconditionoftheheartofapatient.
Shortwavediathermyunits,forhealingsprainsandfractures.
Oscillographsforstudyingmuscleaction.
Instrumentation
Instrumentationplaysaveryimportantroleinanyindustryandresearchorganization,forprecisemeasurementofvariousquantities.e,g.VTVM,CRO,frequency
counters,pHmeters,straingauges,etc.
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CRO
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ELECTRONICCOMPONENTS
Electroniccomponentsaremainlyclassifiedintotwotypestheyare:
Passivecomponents
Activecomponents
PassiveComponents
Resistors,capacitorsandinductorsarecalledpassivecomponents.Thesecomponentsarethemselvesnotcapableofamplifyingorprocessinganelectricalsignal.But,
thesecomponentsareveryimportantinaelectroniccircuit.Withoutaidofthesecomponentsactivecomponents(suchastransistor)cannotbemadeofamplifysignal.
Resistor
Theflowofchargethroughanymaterialproduceanopposingforce.Thisopposingforceiscalledresistanceofthematerial.
Resistor
Resistorsymbol
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Aresistorisapassiveelectroniccomponentthatoffersaspecificamountofelectricalresistancetotheflowofcurrentwhenconnectedinacircuit.Unitofresistanceis
ohm(Symbol).Ohmisaverysmallunit.Mostpracticalresistorshaveresistanceinthousandsorhundredofthousandsofohm.Thereforeresistanceisoften
measuredinkiloandmegaohms.
Colorcodingofresistors
Carbonresistorsarecolorcoded.Carbonresistorsareverysmallsize,itisdifficulttowritetheohmicvaluesasnumberssocolorcodingisused.Eachcolorhas
specificnumericalvalues,thishelptofindthevalueoftheresistor.
Thecolorbandsarereadfromlefttoright.Thefirstandsecondbandsrepresentsignificantdigitsrespectivelyoftheresistancevalue.Thethirdbandshowsthe
multipliervalue.Thefourthbandgivesthetolerancevalue.
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TypesofResistors
Accordingtotheoperatingconditionstheresistorsarebroadlyclassifiedintotwotypestheyare
FixedResistors
Variable(orAdjustable)Resistors
FixedResistors:Resistorswhoseohmicvaluesremainsataconstantvalueareknownasfixedresistors.
Fixedresistorsymbolusedincircuitdiagrams
Fixedresistorsymbol
Fixedtyperesistorsarefurtherclassifiedas:
Wirewoundresistors
Carboncompositionresistors
Carbonfilmresistors
Metalfilmresistors
VariableResistors:Inavariableresistortheresistancevaluecanbevariedoveraspecifiedresistancerange.Variableresistorsareclassifiedas:
Potentiometers
Rheostats
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Potentiometer
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Capacitors
Capacitorisaphysicaldevicewhichiscapableofstoringenergybyvirtueofavoltageexistingacrossit.Capacitorstoreenergyinelectrostaticfields.Acapacitor
consistsoftwoconductingplatesseparatedbyaninsulatingmaterial,Theinsulatingmaterialisknownasdielectric.Capacitanceismeasuredbytheabilityofcapacitor
tostorecharge.Capacitanceismeasuredinfarads(F).Practicalcapacitorsaremeasuredinmicrofarads(F)andpicofarads(pF).Therearetwotypesofcapacitors
fixedcapacitorandvariablecapacitors.
FixedCapacitors
Infixedcapacitorstheircapacitancevaluecannotbevariedmechanicallyorbyanyexternalmeans.Infixedcapacitorsthedielectricispermanentlykeptinbetweentwo
fixedplates.Commonlyusedfixedcapacitorsare:
Papercapacitor
Ceramiccapacitor
Micacapacitor
Electrolyticcapacitor
Papercapacitor
Papercapacitor
ItismadeoftissueorcellulosepapercalledKraftpaper.
TheKraftpaperissandwichedbetweentwoaluminumfoils,whichactasconductingparallelplates.
Theentireunitisrolledtoformacylinder.
Theexternalconnectionsaresolderedontothealuminumfoilsandthewholeunitiscoveredwithwaxcoating.
CeramicCapacitor
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Ceramiccapacitor
Ithasmadeinmanyshapesandsizes.
Theceramicdisciscoatedwithcopperorsilver,Thesecoatingsactsasthetwoplates.
Theentireunitiscoatedwithplasticandmarkitscapacitancevalue.
MicaCapacitor
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Micacapacitor
Micacapacitorsareconstructedfromplatesofaluminumfoilseparatedbysheetsofmica.
Theplatesareconnectedtotwoelectrodes.
Micacapacitorshaveexcellentcharacteristicsunderstressoftemperaturevariationsandhighvoltageapplications.
ElectrolyticCapacitors
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Electrolyticcapacitor
Electrolyticcapacitorshaveveryhighcapacityinverysmallvolume.
Ithaslowercostpermicrofarad.
Thiscapacitorwillworksonlyunderdcpotential.
Itisusedasabypasscapacitorinamplifiers.
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Inductors
Inductors
Inductorarelongstretchesofwireswoundinsomespecificmanneroveraninsulatingformerthatmayormaynotcarryacoreinsideit.Inductorsarefurtherclassified
intotwotypesfixedandvariable.
Fixedinductor
Variableinductor
FixedInductors:Itofferafixedinductancewhenconnectedinanelectricalcircuit.Thereisnomethodtoaltertheinductance.
VariableInductors:Itsinductancevaluecanbechangedoveraspecifiedrangeasandwhenrequired.Theinductanceisusuallyvariedbychangingthepositionof
thecorewithrespecttothewinding.
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Transformer
Transformerisastaticdevicewhichtransformselectricalenergyfromonecircuittoanotherwithoutanydirectelectricalconnection.Ittransformstheelectricalenergy
withthehelpofmutualinductionbetweentwowindings.Ittransformspowerfromonecircuittoanotherwithoutchangeinfrequency,butthevoltagemaybeindifferent
levels.
PrincipleofOperation
Transformerworksontheprincipleofmutualinductionbetweentwocoilslinedbyacommonmagneticflux.Thetwowindingsareelectrically
separatedfromeachotherbuttheyaremagneticallycoupled.Thetwowindingsarewoundonsamecore.Thecoilwhichsourceisgiveniscalledprimaryandthecoil
towhichloadisappliediscalledsecondary.
WhenA.Csupplyisgiventotheprimarywinding,analternatingfluxisproducedinit.Thealternatingfluxintheprimary
windinglinkswiththesecondarywindingthroughcore.Thealternatingfluxinthesecondarywindingproducesane.m.finitcalledmutuallyinducedemf.Ifsecondary
circuitisshortedacurrentwillflowthroughthesecondarycircuit.Whennumberofturnsinsecondaryismorethanthatinprimary,itiscalledastepup
transformer.Whennumberofturnsinsecondaryislessthanthatinprimary,itiscalledstepdowntransformer.Inastepuptransformeroutputvoltageismorethanits
inputvoltageandinastepdowntransformeroutputvoltageislessthanitsinputvoltage.
TypesofTransformers
Transformers are classified into several types based on primary and secondary coils arrangement around core, phases and voltage level. According to them,
transformerscanbeclassifiedintotwo:
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1.CoreTypeTransformer
CoretypetransformersarepopularinHighvoltageapplicationslikeDistributiontransformers,Powertransformers,andobviouslyauto
transformers.
2.ShellTypeTransformer
Whereas,ShelltypetransformersarepopularinLowvoltageapplicationsliketransformersusedinelectroniccircuitsandpower
electronicconvertersetc.
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RelaysandContactors
RELAYS
Arelayisaswitchthatisturnedonoroffusingelectricity.Relaysallowalowpowersignaltocontrolalargeamountofpower.Mostrelaysworkbyenergizingasmall
electromagnetwhichcausesthecontactsofaswitchtoclose,asshownbelow.
Here,passingasmallcurrentthroughthecoilcausestheironcoretobecomemagnetizedthemagnetizedironcoreattractsanironmassattachedtothemovable
contacts,causingthecontactstoclose.RelaysaredesignedsothataSMALLcurrentflowingthroughthecoilleadsswitchesaLARGERcurrentthroughthecontact
leads.Therearemanydifferenttypesofrelays(notalluseelectromagnets).Wewillusetherelayshownbelow(enclosureiscutaway).
Contactors
Acontactorisarelaywhichiscapableofswitchinglargeelectricalloads.ContactorsandrelaysareoperatedbyapplyingavoltagetothecoilofanElectromagnet,
whichwillcauseaswitchtoclose.Thecircuitthatappliesthevoltagetothecoilisreferredtoasthecontrolcircuit,becauseitcontrolsthemaindevicethatthe
contactororrelayisswitching.
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