CHAPTER 1
EB 3002
Degree in Biotechnology
By Rashmirekha Sahoo
COURSE AIMS
To give you a basic understanding of:
Some basic concepts of Chemistry
Some basic principles of Chemistry
Some fundamental Laws of Chemistry
INTRODUCTION TO COURSE
3 Preliminary questions:
What is Chemistry?
What does a Chemist do?
Who are the people who should study Chemistry?
OVERVIEW OF COURSE
Matter, chemical reactions and calculations
The Gaseous state and Kinetic-Molecular Theory
Thermo chemistry
Solutions and Colligative properties
Chemical Kinetics
Chemical equilibrium
Acid-Base and equilibrium and solubility equilibrium
Transition metal chemistry
Nuclear chemistry
INTRODUCTION TO COURSE
What is chemistry?
A study of matter and energy
central of science
study of matter and the changes it undergoes
What does a Chemist do?
Everything is made of chemicals. Chemists find ways to
make chemicals useful to us. They also try to improve things
that people use daily, such as paint, medicine, and
cosmetics, as well as cars and airplanes. Chemists also search
for new chemicals in nature. They search for ways to save
energy and reduce pollution. Their research on living things
helps doctors, farmers, and food preparers do their jobs
better.
Who are the people study Chemistry
They include the following: chemists, industrial scientists,
industrial chemists,biologists,material
scientists,geologists,phamacists,veterinary scientists,
medical scientists,doctors,dentist,engineers,food scientists,
food nutritionists, agricultural scientists etc.
Chapter 1
Matter, chemical reactions
and calculations
1.1 Classification & properties of Matter
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies
space
Light,music,microwaves are not matter
We can classify matter based on whether its solid,
liquid or gas( physical state)
Classification of Matter
Classification of Matter:
Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
The States of Matter:
Solid, Liquid and Gas
Differences between mixtures and compounds
Matter
Pure Substance
Separation from Impure substance-
Mixture
Physical methods
Compound
e.g: H2O, CO2,
NaCl
Element
e.g: Ar, Mg,
Na,
Homogeneous
Heterogeneous
Separation from
chemical methods
Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
Element: a substance consisting of only one kind of atom.
-Each element has a unique number of protons in its nucleus
- The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is called the atomic
number
- Each element has a unique name and symbol
Compound: a substance consisting of 2 or more different
elements in a definite ratio.
Mixture: consisting of 2 or more elements physically mixed
in variable proportions.
Differences between mixtures and
compounds
Mixture
Compound
Components can be
separated by physical
techniques
Components cannot be
separated by physical
techniques
Composition is variable
Composition is fixed
Properties related to those
of its components
Properties unlike those of
its components
Homogeneous and Heterogeneous
mixtures
homogeneous mixture has the same uniform appearance and composition
throughout. Many homogeneous mixtures are commonly referred to as
solutions
Corn oil is homogeneous, White vinegar is homogeneous. A sugar solution is
homogeneous since only a colorless liquid is observed. Air with no clouds is
homogeneous.
A heterogeneous mixture consists of visibly different substances or phases.
The three phases or states of matter are gas, liquid, and solid.
For example beach sand is heterogeneous since you can see different colored
particles. Vinegar and oil salad dressing is heterogeneous since two liquid
layers are present, as well as solids. Air with clouds is heterogeneous, as the
clouds contain tiny droplets of liquid water
Classifying matter by Physical state
Matter can be classified as solid, liquid or gas based on the
characteristics it exhibits
Solids
The particles in a solid are packed
close together and are fixed in
position though they may vibrate
the close packing of the particles
results in solids being incompressible
the inability of the particles to move
around results in solids retaining their
shape and volume when placed in a
new container, and prevents the
particles from flowing
Microscopic view of a
solid.
Crystalline Solids
Some solids have their
particles arranged in an
orderly geometric pattern.
(This means that the atoms in these
solids are arranged in an orderly
manner)
We call these crystalline
solids
Ex-salt and diamonds
Amorphous Solids
Some solids have their
particles randomly distributed
without any long-range pattern.
(lacks the long-range order
characteristic of a crystal)
We call these amorphous solids
Ex- plastic
- glass
- charcoal
Liquids
the particles in a liquid are closely
packed, but they have ability to move
around
the close packing of the particles
results in liquids being incompressible
the ability of the particles to move
allows liquids to take the shape of their
container and to flow.however,they
dont have enough freedom to escape
and expand to fill the container
Microscopic view of a liquid
Gases
in the gas state, the particles have
complete freedom from each other
the particles are constantly flying around,
bumping into each other and the container
in the gaseous state, there is a lot of
empty space between the particles.
particles can be squeezed closer together.
therefore gases are compressible.
because the particles are not held in close
contact and are moving freely, gases
expand to fill and take the shape of their
container, and will flow
1.3 Atomic mass scale and Isotopes
2 atoms of the same element can have different
mass numbers called isotopes
Atoms with the same atomic number but
different mass numbers are called Isotopes.
Isotopes
Eg. the mass spectrum of boron shows the
presence of two types of boron atoms: 10B and 11B.
Since a atoms of the same element have the same
of protons, to have differrent masses, isotopes must
have different no of neutrons.
Some Common Isotopes
1
H
1
12
C
6
2
1H
13
C
6
3
1H
14
C
6
235
92 U
238
92 U
Atomic Mass Scale
The atomic number, generally given the symbol Z, is the number of
protons in the nucleus of an atom of that element.E.g. a sodium atom
has 11 protons in its nucleus, so its atomic number is 11.A uranium atom
has 92 nuclear protons and Z= 92
The mass number of an atom is the sum of the number of protons and
neutrons in its nucleus, and is given the symbol A. E.g., a sodium atom
has 11 protns and 12 neutrons in its nucleus, so its mass number is
23.The most common atom of Uranium has 146 neutrons,So A=238
We can symbolize an atom of known composition y the notation:
A
ZX
= ELEMENT SYMBOL
Atomic Mass Scale
Although the atomic mass equals to the mass number, the actual mass is
not an integral number(except for carbon which is exactly 12 by
definition).
The mass of an iron atom with 32neutrons, 58Fe is 57.9333 amu,slightly
less than the mass number
An atomic mass unit, amu, is 1/12th of the mass of an atom of carbon
with six protons and six neutrons
.All other atomic masses are determined relative to 12C as a standard with
a mass of 12.000 amu.The atomic mass unit can be related to other units
of mass using conversion factors ( 1amu=1.66054 x 10-24 g)
1.4 Balancing Chemical Equations
.
An equation is balanced when the number of atoms of
each type of element present is the same on both sides
of the equation. The chemical formulas cannot be
changed in the process of balancing an equation
1 .Start with the most complicated chemical first and start with
the element that appear the most number of times
2. Save free element for last
Balancing Chemical Equations
Identify each element found in the equation. The
number of atoms of each type of element must be the
same on both side of the equation once it has been
balanced.
The net charge must be the same on each side of the
equation once it has been balanced.
Balancing Chemical Equations
Consider the reaction of metals with oxygen to give
oxides:
Fe(s) + O2(g) Fe2O3(s)
Step 1: Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)
Step 2: 4Fe(s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)
Consider the burning of propane gas in oxygen or air:
C3H8 + O2 CO2 + H2O
Step 1: C3H8 + O2 3CO2 + H2O
Step 2: C3H8 + O2 3CO2 + 4H2O
Step 3: C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O
QUESTION: Tin oxide is heated with hydrogen
gas to form tin metal and water vapor. Write the
balanced equation that describes this reaction
1.5 The Mole Concept
Definition of a mole:
the quantity of a given substance that contains as many
molecules or formula units as the number of atoms in
exactly 12 g of carbon -12.
Avogadros Number (NA):
the number of atoms in a 12-g sample of carbon-12.
NA = 6. 6.0221367 x 1023 (02 x 1023) of molecules
MOLE
Mole is a unit of measurement for the amount of substance. In
chemistry, the term mole represents mass of atoms, molecules,
ions or electrons.
The mole represents a number. Just as the term dozen refers to
the number twelve, the mole refers to the number 6.023 x 1023.
its symbol is "mol."
This number is called Avogadro's number or Avogadro's
constant and is equal to 6.023x 1023 particles.
A mole of a substance contains Avogadros
number (6.02 x 1023) of molecules.
Molar Mass
Definition:
the mass in grams of 1 mole of a substance.
1 mole 12C atoms weighs
1 mole H2O molecules weighs
1 mole NaCl weighs
12.0 g
18.0g
58.5 g
Calculate the number of moles of
atoms in 64gms of oxygen atoms.
Exercise
What is the mass in grams of 1 mole
of C2H5OH?
Atomic Radius
Measures as distance from nucleus to nucleus and
divided by 2.
Unit commonly used is pm
picometer= 10-12m
Example: iodine atomic radius 140pm
How does atomic radius change across a
period?
Moving from left to right across a period, the atomic radius
decreases.
Why?
More protons in the nucleus
higher electrical force
pulls electrons closer to nucleus.
The nucleus of the atom gains protons moving from left to right,
increasing the positive charge of the nucleus and increasing the
attractive force of the nucleus upon the electrons. True, electrons are
also added as the elements move from left to right across a period, but
these electrons reside in the same energy shell and do not offer
increased shielding
How does atomic radius change down
a group?
It is larger down the group.
Why?
As the atomic number increases, Valence electrons are at
higher energy levels and are not bound as tightly to the
nucleus because they are screened or shielded (pushed
away) by other electrons in inner levels.
The Periodic Table and Atomic Radius
Example:
Which is larger: a lithium atom or a fluorine
atom?
A lithium atom
Ionization energy
This term always refers to the formation of positive ions. In order to
remove an electron from an atom, work must be done to overcome the
electrostatic attraction between the electron and the nucleus; this work
is called the ionization energy of the atom and corresponds to the
exothermic process
M(g) M+(g) + e
in which M(g) stands for any isolated (gaseous) atom
Ionization energy is the amount of energy needed to remove an electron
from a gaseous atom.
First ionization energy
1+
Second ionization energy 2+
How does ionization energy change down
a group?
The first ionization energy decreases as you
move down a group.
Why?
The size of the atom increases.
Electron is further from the nucleus.
How does ionization energy change
across a period?
The first ionization energy increases as you move
from left to right across a period.
Why?
Nuclear charge increases while shielding is constant.
Attraction of the electron to the nucleus increases.
The noble gases have the highest IE's of any element in the period.
This has nothing to do with any mysterious "special stability" of the
s2p6 electron configuration; it is simply a matter of the high nuclear
charge acting on more contracted orbitals.
Each of the Group 13 elements has a lower first-IE than that of the
element preceding it. The reversal of the IE trend in this group is
often attributed to the more easy removal of the single outer-shell
p electron compared to that of electrons contained in filled (and
thus spin-paired) s- and d-orbitals in the preceding elements.
The first ionization energy of the chlorine atom is
1251 kJ/mol. Which of the following values
would be the most likely ionization energy for
the iodine atom? Explain.
(a) 1000 kJ/mol(b)
b)1400 kJ/mol
What is electron affinity?
The electron affinity is the energy change for the process of
adding an electron to a neutral atom in the gaseous state to
form a negative ion.
Example:
Cl ([Ne] 3s2 3p5) + e Cl- ([Ne] 3s2 3p6)
The electron affinity of Cl is 349 kJ/mol
Halogens have high values for electron affinity due to their small atomic sizes
and requirement of only one electron to get the nearest inert gas configuration.
the electron affinity values are mentioned with numerals carrying negative sign
before them
For example , in halogens , the electron affinity of fluorine is -333 kj mol-1 while
the electron affinity of chlorine is -348 kj mol-1 . It is because fluorine atom is
smaller in size than chlorine atom and has strong inter repulsions . During the
addition of electrons of fluorine atom the electronic repulsions are overcome at
the expense of some liberated energy and hence , the overall energy liberated is
less than that of chlorine atom .
Trends in Electron Affinity
Affinity for electron increases across
a period (EA becomes more
negative)..
negative)
Affinity decreases down a group (EA
becomes less negative)
negative)..
Electron affinity depend on the size
and the effective nuclear charge of
atom . They cannot be determined
directly.
Electron
affinity
are
measured in kj mol-1
Similarly phosphorus has bigger
electron affinity value than nitrogen
and sulphur has greater electron
affinity than oxygen in V and VI
groups .
.
Atom EA
F
-328 kJ
Cl -349 kJ
Br -325 kJ
I
-295 kJ
Trends in Electron Affinity
Empirical & Molecular formula
Empirical Formula
Empirical formula is defined as the simplest formula which gives
the relative number of atoms of all the element present in the
molecule of the substance.
It gives the simplest whole number ratio of all the elements
present in the compound.
Example,
In the compound benzene, C6H6, there are six carbon atoms and
six hydrogen atoms. The lowest whole number ratio between
them is 1:1 (6:6 can be simplified to 1:1). Therefore, the empirical
formula of benzene having molecular formula of C6H6 is CH
Empirical & Molecular formula
Molecular Formula
The molecular formula of a compound is a multiple of its empirical
formula.
The formula that gives the symbolic representation of the actual number
of atoms of all elements present in the compound is called the
molecular formula
Molecular formula = n x empirical formula
(where n is the number of empirical formula units in a compound)
1.6 Determining Empirical and Molecular
Formulas
An empirical formula for a compound is the formula of a
substance written with the smallest integer (whole number)
subscripts.
The molecular formula of a compound is a multiple of its
empirical formula.
Compounds with different molecular formulas can have the
same empirical formula.
determining the empirical formula :
The empirical formula of a compound is
determined from the percentage composition of
different elements and atomic masses of the
elements.
The various steps involved in determining the
empirical formula are:
1. Start with an amount of each element.
2. Convert the amount to grams of the element
3. Convert grams to moles (atomic weights)
4. Compare mole: mole ratios (by the smallest)
5. Reduce to whole integers
6. Produce an empirical formula
A compound was analyzed and found to contain 13.5 g Ca,
10.8 g O, and 0.675 g H. What is the empirical formula of the
compound?
Solution:
This is the mole ratio of the elements and is represented by
subscripts in the empirical formula.
Calculate the empirical formula of a
compound composed of 38.67 % C, 16.22 %
H, and 45.11 %N.
determining the molecular formula:
If we know the empirical formula of a compound, all we
need to do is divide the molecular mass of the compound by
the mass of the empirical formula.
It is also possible to do this with one of the elements in
the formula; simply divide the mass of that element in one
mole of compound by the mass of that element in the
empirical formula. The result should always be a natural
number.
The analysis of a rocket fuel showed that it contained 87.4% nitrogen and
12.6% hydrogen by weight. Mass spectral analysis showed the fuel to have a
molar mass of 32.05g. What are the empirical and molecular formulas of the
fuel?
solution:
Assume that 100 g of compound are present. The percentages
can be used as gram masses.
empirical formula: N????/?H-------------------2
molecular formula: N2H4 (the compound is called hydrazine)
Exercise
1) A sample of compound weighing 83.5 g contains
33.4g of sulfur. The rest is oxygen. What is the
empirical formula?
2) The percentage composition of acetaldehyde is
54.5% C, 9.2% H, and 36.3% O, and its molecular
weight is 44amu.
Obtain the molecular formula of acetaldehyde.
Exercise
What is the mass in grams of 1 mole of
C2H5OH?
Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions
Definition:
Stoichiometry is the calculation of the
quanitities of reactants and products involved
in a chemical reaction.
H2
1 molecule of H2
1 mol H2 +
+ Cl2
2HCl
+ 1molecule of Cl2 2 molecules of HCl
1 mol Cl2
2 mols HCl
1.8 Limiting reactant, theoretical and
percentage yield
After your laboratory reaction is complete, you will isolate
and measure the amount of product, then compare
the actual yield to the theoretical yield(calculated product)
to determine the percent yield:
(product loss due to incomplete reaction or loss during product formation)
Percentage Yield = mass of Actual Yield x 100%
mass of Theoretical Yield
Limiting Reactant
Definition:
Reactants are not in exact ratios, one is in excess and one is
limiting.
A limiting reactant is a reactant that is entirely consumed
when a reaction goes to completion.
The reactant that gives the smaller theoretical yield is the
limiting reactant.
The moles of product are always determined
starting moles of limiting reactant.
by
the
Limiting reactant, theoretical and percentage
yield
The general mechanism for finding percentage
yield :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Balance the chemical equation
Find the limiting reagent
Find the theoretical yield
Find the actual yield
Find the percentage yield
Calculating theoritical yield
In order to calculate the theoretical yield you
need to
Write a balanced chemical equation.
Calculate the amount of product produced from each
reactant individually.
The reactant that produces the least amount of product
is the limiting reactant.
The reactant that you have enough of is the excess
reactant.
Limiting reactant, theoretical and
percentage yield
4 NH3(g) + 5 O2(g)
4 NO(g) + 6 H2O(g)
In the production of NO & water from ammonia and oxygen gas suppose
we have 2grams of NH3 and 4gms of O2. Find the limiting reactant.
Solution:
????
The reactant that produces the lesser amount of product: in this case the
oxygen.
It does not matter which product is chosen, but the same product must
be used for both reactants so that the amounts can be compared.
Limiting reactant, theoretical and
percentage yield
Example:
What is the theoretical yield of ethylene in the acid-catalyzed
production of ethylene from ethanol?
Solution:
one mole of ethanol producing one mole of ethylene, therefore the
stoichiometry is 1:1
To calculate the theoretical yield, determine the number of moles of each
reactant, in this case the sole reactant ethanol. Convert the 100 g to
moles; the molecular weight of ethanol is 46 g/mole, therefore:
Limiting reactant, theoretical and percentage
yield
NO of moles of ethanol =2.17
there is only one reactant, it is also the limiting reagent. So the
theoritical no of moles of ethylene = 2.17.
Since the molecular weight of ethylene is 28 g/mole, this corresponds to
61 g from the following calculation:
The theoretical yield is therefore 61 g
( this is how much product will be synthesized in ideal conditions.)
Limiting reactant, theoretical and
percentage yield
4. Find the Actual Yield
This is how much product was actually synthesized in the
experiment
(50 g of ethylene is isolated, which is the actual yield)
5. Find the percentage yield
50g
61g
100 = 82%
2.9 Calculations Involving Solutions
Molar concentration, or molarity (M), is defined as
the moles of solute dissolved in one litre (cubic
decimeter) of solution.
Molarity (M) = moles of solute / litres of solution
Example 1:
What is the molarity of a solution made when water is added
to 11 g CaCl2 to make 100 mL of solution?
Solution:
11 g CaCl2 / (110 g CaCl2 ) = 0.10 mol CaCl2
100 mL x 1 L / 1000 mL = 0.10 L
molarity = 0.10 mol / 0.10 L
molarity = 1.0 M
Exercise (1)
A sample of NaCl weighing 0.0678g is placed in a
25.0 mL volumetric flask. Enough water is added to
dissolve the NaCl, and then the flask is filled to the
mark with water and carefully shaken to mix the
contents. What is the molarity of the resulting
solution?
Calculations involving solutions
Prepare 1 liter of 1.00 M NaCl solution.
First calculate the molar mass of NaCl which is the mass of a mole of Na
plus the mass of a mole of Cl or 22.99 + 35.45 = 58.44 g/mol
Weigh out 58.44 g NaCl.
Place the NaCl in a 1 liter volumetric flask.
Add a small volume of distilled, deionized water to dissolve the salt.
Fill the flask to the 1 L line.
If a different molarity is required, then multiply that number times the
molar mass of NaCl. For example, if you wanted a 0.5 M solution, you
would use 0.5 x 58.44 g/mol of NaCl in 1 L of solution or 29.22 g of NaCl.
Diluting Solutions
Molarity = moles of solute / litres of solution
i.e. Moles of solute = molarity x litres of solution
Initially, moles of solute = Mi x Vi
When the solution is diluted by adding water
Moles of solute = Mf x Vf
Since the moles of solute is not changed during
dilution,
M i x Vi = M f x Vf
Exercise
You have a solution of 1.5 M H2SO4. How many
milliliters of this acid do you need to prepare 100.0
mL of 0.18 M H2SO4?
Calculations involving solutions
Molality is the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. Because
the density of water at 25C is about 1 kilogram per liter, molality is
approximately equal to molarity for dilute aqueous solutions at this
temperature (BUT doesn't apply when the solution is at a different
temperature, isn't dilute, or uses a solvent other than water.)
Example:
What is the molality of a solution of 10 g NaOH in 500 g water?
Solution:
10 g NaOH / (40 g NaOH / 1 mol NaOH) = 0.25 mol NaOH
500 g water x 1 kg / 1000 g = 0.50 kg water
molality = 0.25 mol / 0.50 kg
molality = 0.05 M / kg
molality = 0.50 m
