Electric Power and
Power Electronics
Part II- Power Electronics
2008-2009
Reference
Power Electronics : Circuits, Devices and
Applications, M. H. Rashid, Prentice Hall,
Third Edition, 2004.
Introduction
Power electronics may be defined as the applications of solidstate electronics for control and conversion of electrical power.
Power electronics are based primarily on the switching of the
power semiconductor devices.
Power electronics combine power, electronics and control.
Power electronics have already found an important place in
modern technology and are now used in a great variety of
high- power products, including heat controls, light controls,
motor controls, power supplies, and high voltage direct current
systems.
3
Course Contents
The following topics will be covered in this course:
1. Power Electronic Devices
2. Power Electronic Circuits
AC-DC converters
DC-DC converters
DC-AC converters
AC-AC converters
3. Power Electronic Application
Uninterruptible power supply (UPS).
Motor speed control (Electrical Drives)
4
Chapter 1
Power Electronic Devices
Power Electronic devices
Switching devices are common to all
power electronic circuits
These devices control current: Ideal
switch turn ON allow current flow with
no resistance and OFF no current flow,
much like valves control the flow of
fluids.
6
Ideal Switch
vsw
+
i
vs
vt
-
vs
R
Switch is closed
vs
Switch is opened Vsw
7
Power Electronic Devices
These devices can be divided broadly into three
main types:
1. Power diodes
2. Transistors
Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT)
Power MOSFETs
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)
3. Thyristors
SCR, GTO, Triac
8
1- Power Diodes
General characteristics:
Anode
+
v
_
Cathode
Symbol
on
off
Instantaneous
i-v
characteristic
A passive switch
Single-quadrant switch:
can conduct positive on-state current
can block negative off-state voltage
Conducts when its anode voltage is higher
than that of the cathode (VA > VC)
Forward voltage drop (when on) is very low
(typically 0.5 and 1.2V)
If VC > VA the diode is said to be in Blocking
mode.
9
Stud-mounted type
Disk type
10
P-N JUNCTION
Depletion Region
p
n
Cathode
Anode
Wp
Wn
Ep
Electric Field
Barrier potential
VT
11
wo
No bias
Anode
n Cathode
Low
High
Low
resistance resistance resistance
vT 0.72V : barrier potential
w f wo
Forward bias
Anode
n Cathode
vS vT
vS
wr w
Reverse bias
Anode
n Cathode
vS vT
vS
12
Switching Characteristics:
turn-on and turn-off in the diode
i
Slop (1/ron)
VBR
VT
13
Types of Power Diodes
General purpose
Rating up to 6000V, 4500A
High speed (or fast recovery)
Rating up to 6000V, 1100A
Reverse recovery time 0.1 to 5ms
Essential for high-frequency switching
14
A diode as a half-wave uncontrolled rectifier
Vsm
iL
vs
vL R
vs Vsm sin(t )
vL
15
2- Transistors
i- Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
(C)
(C)
(C)
IC
Collector
(B)
Base
VCB
N
P
N
IB
(B)
Emitter
(E)
IC I B
I E I B IC
VCE
(B)
VBE
(E)
IE
(E)
VCE VCB VBE
16
17
Main Features of BJT
Current controlled device
High base current must be present during the closing
period
Can operate at high frequencies
High base losses
Available at a relatively low power rating in the
range of 400V, 250A.
The driving circuit must be capable of producing a
large base current for as long as the transistor is
closed. Such a circuit is large, of low efficiency, and
complex to build.
18
ii- POWER MOSFET
MOSFET
Metal-Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
Drain
i+
V
_
Gate
Source
Symbol
On (Vgs>0)
v
Off (Vgs=0)
Instantaneous i-v
characteristic
19
MOSFET General characteristics:
An active switch controlled by terminal Gate
Normally operated as a single-quadrant
switch:
can conduct positive on-state current
can block positive off-state voltage
provided that the intended on-state and
off-state operating points lie on the
MOSFET i-v characteristic, then switch
can be realized using a MOSFET.
20
Main Features of MOSFET
Voltage controlled device
Low gate losses
Typical switching frequencies are tens
and hundreds of kHz
Available at a relatively low power
rating in the range of 1000V, 100A.
21
iii- Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
(IGBT)
(C)
(G)
Symbol
(E)
(C)
(D)
(G)
VGS
Ib
Ie
Equivalent circuit
(E)
22
Main Features of IGBT
Easy to drive similar to MOSFET
Typical switching frequencies:
3 -30kHz
compared with MOSFET:
slower switching times,
lower on-resistance,
useful at higher power rating
(up to 1700V, 2400 A)
IC
VG1>VG2>VG3
VG2
VG3
VG = 0
VCE
23
3-Thyristors
i- Silicon Controlled Rectifiers (SCR)
Anode (A)
Anode (A)
Anode (A)
IA
IA
Anode (A)
Gate (G) Gate
P
N
P
N
P
N
P
Q1
Ic2
Q2
N
P
N
Q1
Gate Ic1
Cathode (K)
Symbol
IG
Q2
IA
Cathode (K)
Cathode (K)
Cathode (K)
Equivalent circuit
24
The SCR:
SCR high voltage and current ratings (6500V,4200A)
low cost, passive turn-off transition.
25
Thyristor Characteristic
IA
Anode (A)
Ig = max
Ig > 0
Gate (G)
VRB
Ig = 0
Ih
V
AK
VBO
Cathode (K)
26
Closing Conditions of SCR
1. Positive anode to
cathode voltage
(VAK)
2. Maximum
triggering pulse is
applied (Ig)
Anode (A)
Gate (G)
Cathode (K)
Closing angle is
27
Thyristor commutation techniques
Commutation is the process of turning off a thyristor. There are
many techniques to commutate a thyristor. However, these can
be broadly classified into two types:
1- Natural or line commutation:
If the voltage source is ac, the thyristor current goes through a
natural zero, and a reverse voltage appears across the thyristor.
The device is then automatically turned off.
2- Forced commutation:
If the voltage source is dc, the forward current of the thyristor is
forced to be zero by an additional circuitry called commutation
circuit to turn off the thyristor. The commutation circuit
normally consists of a capacitor, an inductor and one or more
28
thyristor(s) and/or diode(s).
A thyristor as a half-wave controlled rectifier
Vsm
iL
vs
vL R
vs Vsm sin(t )
ig
vL
t
29
ii- Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO)
Thyristors are suitable for ac line operation
systems.
Thyristors are NOT suitable for dc line operation
systems because of the turn-off problems.
GTO is the solution, a GTO is an SCR fabricated
using modern techniques.
Negative gate current is able to completely
reverse-bias the gate-cathode junction.
GTO requires positive current impulse at the gate
for turn-on and negative impulse for turn-off.
30
GTO: General Characteristics
Anode (A)
Gate (G)
Cathode (K)
Symbol
Maximum controllable current (MCC) is
highest anode current that can be turned
off under gate control.
GTO is designed for an allowable peak
current that is less than the MCC by a
safety factor.
Turn-on positive gate current pulse is higher
than that of a normal SCR.
31
GTO turn-on and turn-off.
iL
Vs
GTO
Vs
vL R
ig
vL
Vs
32
The GTO:
GTO intermediate
ratings (less than SCR,
somewhat more than
IGBT).
Slower than IGBT.
Difficult to drive.
A (200 V, 160 A) GTO
33
iii-TRIACS
MT1
i
First
quadrant
Gate
MT2
Symbol
BVf
BVR
MT1
Third
quadrant
G
MT2
Equivalent circuit
i-v characteristics
34
A triac as an ac voltage controller
iL
Vsm
vL
vs
vs Vsm sin(t )
ig
T2
iL
vL
T1
vL
vs Vsm sin(t )
t
35
Classification
1. Uncontrolled turn on and turn off (e.g. diode)
2. Controlled turn on and uncontrolled turn off
(e.g. SCR)
3. Controlled turn on and off (e.g. BJT, MOSFET,
IGBT, GTO)
4. Continuous gate signal requirement (e.g. BJT,
MOSFET, IGBT)
5. Pulse gate requirement (e.g. SCR, GTO)
36
Chapter 2
Power Electronic
Circuits
37
Power electronic circuits
The main task of power electronics is to control and convert
electrical power from one form to another.
The four main forms of conversion are:
- AC-to-DC conversion,
- DC-to DC conversion,
- AC-to-AC conversion, and
- DC-to-AC conversion.
38
"Electronic Power Converter" is the term that is used to
refer to a power electronic circuit that converts voltage and
current from one form to another. These converters can be
classified as:
1- Rectifier converting an ac voltage to a dc voltage,
2- Chopper that converts a dc voltage to another dc
voltage,
3- AC voltage controller and Cycloconverter converting
an ac voltage to another ac voltage, and
4- Inverter converting a dc voltage to an ac voltage.
39
1- Rectifiers
Rectifiers can be classified as controlled
and uncontrolled rectifiers.
Uncontrolled rectifier circuits are built with
diodes only.
Controlled rectifiers can be further divided into
semi-controlled and fully-controlled rectifiers.
Fully-controlled rectifier circuits are built with
SCRs and semi-controlled rectifier circuits are
built with both diodes and SCRs .
40
There are several rectifier circuit configurations. The popular
rectifier configurations are listed below:
- Single-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier,
- Single-phase full-wave uncontrolled rectifier,
- Three-phase half-wave uncontrolled rectifier,
- Three-phase full-wave uncontrolled rectifier,
- Single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier,
- Single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier,
- Three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier,
- Three-phase full-wave controlled rectifier,
41
1- Single-phase half-wave uncontrolled
rectifier
Resistive Load:
D
id
400
vs
vo
300
+ vd R
+
Vo
_
200
io
100
0
vs Vsm sin( )
vs if vs 0
v0
0 if vs 0
v0
id i0
R
-100
vs
-200
-300
-400
0
0.005
1
V0
2
0.01
0.015
Vsm sin d
0.02
Vsm
42
R-L Load:
400
id
vo
300
+ vd -
vs
100
vo
L
200
io
0
-100
vd
-200
di0
Ri0 L
Vsm sin t ,
dt
i0
i0 0
Vs
R (L)
2
-300
-400
0
0.005
0.01
[sin( t ) e R t / L sin ]
( t 2 )
0.02
(0 t )
tan 1
0.015
43
R-L Load with freewheeling diode:
D1
id
+ vd -
+ vd vs
D1
id
R
vs
vo
D2
L
vo
D2
Mode 1
vo
300
D1
id
200
io
+ vd vs
+
R
vo
D2
L
-100
vd
-200
0.005
0.01
0.015
Mode 2
-300
-400
0
R
L
400
100
0.02
44
2- Single-phase full-wave uncontrolled
rectifier
Resistive load:
Mode 1: 0<<
Mode 2: <<2
Mode 1
D1
D2
Io
+
_vo
vo
is
D4
vs
D3
Mode 1
Mode 2
Mode 1
Mode 2
vs
V0
sm
sin d
2Vsm
45
3-Three-phase half-wave uncontrolled
rectifier
High output voltage ripple
Single-phase:
Limitations
Low ripple frequency (2fs)
Limitations can be overcome or minimized using multiphase
(3) input sources.
D1
id
va
n
vc
vb
D2
D3
+
Vo
_
46
1.5
vo
Voltages
1
0.5
0
-0.5
van
vcn
vbn
-1
-1.5
30
D1
30
3
V0
2
D2
150
5 / 6
/6
390
270
150
Angle o
D3
270
390
Angle o
3 3Vsm
Vsm sin d
2
47
4- Three-phase full-wave uncontrolled
rectifier
A
i
B A
i
C B
iC
D1
D3
D5
io
+
v
_ 0
D4
D6
D2
v AN 2V p sin
v AB 2VLL sin 30o
vCN 2V p sin 240o
vCA 2VLL sin 210o
vBN 2V p sin 120o
V LL
vBC 2VLL sin 90o
3 Vp
48
D1
iA
B
i
C B
iC
D3
D5
io
Mode 1:
+
_v0
D4
D6
D2
v AB vBC & vCA
v AB 0
D1 & D6 conduct
v0 v AB 2VLL sin / 6 , ( / 6 / 2)
1.5
vo
Voltages
1
0.5
0
-0.5
vAB
vBC
vCA
-1
-1.5
-30
30
D1
D6
90 150 210
270 330 390
Angle
49
D1
iA
B
iB
C
iC
D5
D3
io
Mode 2:
+
_v0
D4
vCA v AB & vBC
D2
D6
v AC 0
D1 & D2 conduct
1.5
vo
Voltages
1
0.5
0
-0.5
vAB
vBC
vCA
-1
-1.5
-30
30
90 150 210
D1 D2
D6 D1
270 330 390
Angle o
50
- Therefore the output voltage v0 is periodical with a period of
60o as shown. (six-pulse)
1.5
vo
Voltages
1
0.5
0
vAB
vCA
vBC
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-30
30
90
D1
D6
D2
D1
150
D3
D2
210
D4
D3
270
D5
D4
330 390
Angle
D6
D5
51
-The average output voltage can be calculated over one
period from /6 to /2 (mode 1).
1 /2
2VLL sin / 6 d
V0
/
6
/3
3 2
3 2
3 3
3 Vp
VLL
Vms
It should be noted that:
Ripple frequency is higher in 3-phase rectifiers than in singlephase ones.
The higher the ripple frequency, the better the filtering is
possible on the output side with small size filter components.
52
5- Single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier
+
vt
-
vs
vt
vs Vmax sin( t )
t
vs
vt i R vs ( u u )
vs
i ( u u )
R
53
1
Vav
2
1
0 vs (u u ) d t 2 vs d t
vt
1
Vav
Vmax sin ( t ) dt
Vmax
Vav
(1 cos )
2
I av
Vav
vs
54
Vav
V av
V max
(1 cos )
2
V max
V max
2
55
RMS of load voltage
vt
t
vs
2
Vmax
sin t d t
Vrms
Vmax
Vrms
2
Vmax
2
Vmax
[ 1 cos( 2 t ] dt
sin 2
1
2 Vs rms
RMS of Supply
Voltage
56
Vrms
Vmax
2
Vrms
I rms
R
2
Vrms
2
I rms R
P
R
2
Vmax
P
2 ) sin 2
8 R
57
6- Single-phase full-wave controlled rectifier
C
i1
S1
S3
vs
i2
R
A
S4
vt
S2
D
58
i1
S1
S3
vs
i2
R
vt
S2
S4
i1
vt
i2
vt
vs
59
i1
vt
Vav
d t
vt
Vav
i2
vs
max
Vmax
sin(t ) dt
Vmax
(1 cos )
(1 cos )
60
Vrms
Vrms
v(t ) dt
2
2
Vmax
sin( t )2 dt
Vmax
Vrms
2
2
[
V
sin(
t
)]
dt
max
2
Vmax
[ 1 cos( 2t )] dt
sin( 2 )
1 2
2
2
Vrms Vmax
P
2 ) sin 2
4 R
61
Half Wave Versus Full Wave
Half Wave
Average
Voltage
RMS
Voltage
Power
Vmax
Vave
(1 cos )
2
Vrms
Vmax
2
sin( 2 )
1 2
2
Vmax
P
2 ) sin 2
8 R
Full Wave
Vave
Vrms
Vmax
Vmax
(1 cos )
sin( 2 )
1 2
2
Vmax
P
2 ) sin 2
4 R
62
7- Three-phase half-wave controlled rectifier
S1
id
van
vcn
vbn
S2
S3
+
Vo
_
63
No delay
=0
1.5
vo
Voltages
1
0.5
0
-0.5
van
vcn
vbn
-1
-1.5
30
S1
390
270
150
S3
Triggering
S2
Angle o
30
150
270
390
Angle o
64
Delayed Triggering
(/6)
1.5
vo
Voltages
1
0.5
0
-0.5
van
vcn
vbn
-1
-1.5
150 +
0 30 30+
S1
S2
o
390 + Angle
S3
Triggering
270 +
3
Vav
2
5 / 6
/ 6
Vsm sin d
3 3Vsm
cos( )
2
65
For (/6)
1.5
Voltages
1
0.5
0
-0.5
van
vcn
vbn
-1
-1.5
150 +
30+
0 30
S1
S2
390 +
Angle o
S3
150 +
30+
3
Vav
2
270 +
/ 6
Vsm sin d
3Vsm
[1 cos( )]
2
6
66
8- Three-phase full-wave controlled rectifier
S1
a
b
c
S3
S5
van
vbn
ZL
vL
vcn
S4
S6
S2
67
1.5
Voltages
3-phase, AC/DC 1
Conversion
0.5
No delay
0
vAB
a
b
c
S3
=0
vCA
-1
S5
van
vbn
-30
S6
S5
30
90 150 210
270 330 390
Angle
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6
S6 S1 S2 S3 S4 S5
ZL
vL
vcn
vBC
-0.5
-1.5
S1
vo
S4
S6
S2
Triggering
68
Delayed Triggering
(/3)
1.5
vo
Voltages
1
0.5
0
vAB
vCA
vBC
-0.5
-1
-1.5
-30
30
90
150
210
270
330
390
Angle
Triggering
69
The output voltage v0 is periodical with a period of 60o
The average output voltage can be calculated over one
period from /3+ to 2/3+ .
v0 v AB 3Vmax sin / 6 , ( / 6 3 / 6 )
1 3 / 6
Vav
3Vmax sin / 6 d
/ 3 / 6
3 3
Vmax cos
70
For (/3)
1 5 / 6
Vav
3Vmax sin / 6 d
/ 3 / 6
3 3
Vmax [1 cos( )]
3
71
2- Choppers
(DC-to-DC Conversion)
Choppers are widely used for traction motor control, marine
hoists, forklift trucks and mine haulers. They provide smooth
acceleration control, high efficiency and fast dynamic response.
They are used also as dc voltage regulators.
The choppers can be step-down or step-up chopper.
1. Step-down (Buck) chopper:
where the output voltage of the chopper is lower than the
input voltage.
2. Step-up (Boost) chopper:
where the output voltage is higher than the input voltage.
72
Step-down Chopper
VS
I
Vl
ton
Time
VS
VCE
+
Vl
-
ton
Time
Vav
t on
dt
ton
Vs K Vs
K is Chopper
duty cycle
73
The duty cycle k can be varied from 0 to 1 as follows:
1- Constant frequency operation:
The chopping frequency (or chopping period ) is kept
constant and the on-time ton is varied. The width of the
pulse is varied and this type of control is known as pulse
width modulation (PWM)
2- Variable frequency operation:
The chopping frequency is varied. Either on-time ton or
off-time toff is kept constant. This is called frequency
modulation.
Example
Step-down (Buck) chopper
f 5 kHz ( switching frequency )
Vs 12 V ; Vav 5 V ; ton ?
Solution
1
1
0.2 ms
f
5000
Vav K Vs
5
K
o.417
12
ton K 0.417 0.2 0.0834 ms
75
Step-Up Chopper
When the chopper is turned on, the
voltage across the inductor is:
vL L
V
I s kT
L
where I is 2 is1
ia
Vs
di
I
L
dt
T
This gives the peak-to-peak
ripple current in the inductor
is
va
+
_
iC
ic
ON
is
OFF
kT
is2
is1
76
When the chopper is turned off
The average output voltage is:
vo Vs L
Vo
di
dt
I
k
)
vo Vs L
Vs (1
(T kT )
1 k
Vs
vo
1 k
2Vs
Vs
0.5
77
Example
Step-up (Boost) chopper
f 5 kHz ( switching frequency )
Vs 12 V ; Vo 30 V ; ton ?
Solution
1
1
0.2 ms
f
5000
Vs
Vo
1 k
12
1 k
o.4
30
k 0.6
ton 0.6 0.6 0.2 0.12 ms
78
3- AC to AC Converters
Types of Ac to Ac converters :
AC Voltage Controllers
control the output rms voltage using SCR-type
switch.
On-Off Control
Phase-angle Control
Cycloconverters
control both the frequency and the output rms
voltage
79
AC Voltage Controllers
(AC Voltage Regulator)
T2
iL
iL
T1
vL
vs Vsm sin(t )
ZL
Triac
vL
ZL
vs Vsm sin(t )
80
i- On-Off Control
Vsm
iL
vs
vL R
t
vL
vs Vsm sin(t )
t
n
N
N : number of half cycle during one period
n : number of half cycles during switch on
K : is called the duty cycle
VLrms Vrms
Vsm n
2 N
N
n
Vsm K
2
81
Example
A single-phase ac voltage controller uses on-off control for heating a
resistive load of R = 4 and the rms input voltage is 240 V. If the
desired output power is 3.6 kW, determine the duty cycle K.
Solution:
VL2
PL
RL
VL PL RL 3600 * 4 120
VL k Vs
VL 120
0 .5
Vs 240
k 0.25
82
ii- Phase-angle control
1. Resistive Load
iL
Vsm
vs
vL R
vL
vs Vsm sin(t )
VLrms
Vsm
2 - sin 2
t
2
83
Example
A single-phase ac voltage controller uses phase control has a resistive
load of R = 5 and the input voltage vs = 170 sin 314t . For delay angle
= 90
a- Sketch the waveforms for the output voltage and output current.
b- Calculate the values of the rms output voltage, rms output current
and output power.
Vsm 170
R5
90
Vsm 2 - sin 2 170 2 - 2 sin
b VLrms
85 V
2
2
V
85
I Lrms Lrms
17 A
R
5
P ( I Lrms ) 2 R (17) 2 . 5 1445W
84
3-PHASE AC REGULATORS
vA
vB
vC
N
vA
vB
vC
i0 A 1
T1
T2
T3
vA
i0 B 2
i0C 3
ZL
ZL
vB
ZL
vC
T2
T3
i0 B 2
i0C 3
T1
T2
T3
i0 B 2
ZL
ZL
i0C 3
T1
ZL
N
ZL
vA
i0 A 1
T1
i0 A 1
ZL
ZL
T3
ZL
ZL
vB
vC
ZL
T2
85
CYCLOCONVERTERS
A cycloconverter is a direct frequency changer that converts ac power
at one frequency to ac power at another frequency.
It consists of two similar controller rectifiers positive P and negative
N. The P rectifier is connected in anti-parallel with the N rectifier so
that the voltage of either polarity can be controlled in the load.
T1
T3
T4
T2
vo
Load
vs
Single phase controller rectifier
86
CYCLOCONVERTERS
SINGLE-PHASE CYCLOCONVERTER
N-converter
P-converter
T3
v01
vs
T4
Load
T1
T4'
T3'
T1'
v02
T2
T2'
Variable voltage
variable frequency
converter.
87
vs
Vsm
vo
N-converter
on
P-converter
on
fo = fs/n
V0
v d
2
s
Vs
1
sin 2
2
88
Three-phase/single-phase cycloconverter
N-converter
P-converter
T3
T2'
T5
v01
T4
T6
Load
A
B
C
T1
T4'
C
B
A
v02
T2
T6'
T5'
T3'
T1'
89
Three-phase/three-phase cycloconverter
Three-phase supply
Phase a
load
Phase b
load
Phase c
load
Neutral
A
B
C
N
Phase a load
90
4- Inverters
(DC to AC Converters)
1. SINGLE-PHASE INVERTER
Converting a dc voltage to a single-phase
ac voltage
2. THREE-PHASE INVERTER
Converting a dc voltage to a three-phase
ac voltage
91
SINGLE-PHASE INVERTER
T1
Half-Bridge
D1
Vs/2
Load
D2
Vs/2
T1
Full-Bridge
T2
D1
D3
T3
Vs
T4
Load
D4
D2
T2
92
Half-Bridge
Resistive Load
T1
D1
i0
Vs/2
Vs/2
Load
v0
D2
v0
Vs/2
Vs/(2R)
i0
T/2
T2
-Vs/2
Vs
V0 rms
2
2V
2V
2V
v0 s sin( t ) s sin( 3 t ) s sin( 5 t )
3
5
2V
v0 s sin( n t )
1, 3 , 5 n
V1 0.45Vs
No even harmonics
93
Definitions:
(Harmonic Factor of nth harmonic)
Vn rms of the n th harmonic
HFn
V1 rms of the fundamental
(Total Harmonic Distortion)
THD
2
V
n
3, 5 , 7
V1
V V
V1
2
o
2
1
Measure of closeness in shape
between a waveform and its
fundamental.
94
For half bridge
v0
2Vs
2Vs
2V
sin(3 t ) s sin(5 t )
3
5
, V3 0.15Vs , V5 0.09 Vs
sin( t )
V1 0.45Vs
Vn rms of the n th harmonic
HFn
V1 rms of the fundamental
HF3
V3 0.15Vs
0.333
V1 0.45Vs
V5 0.09 Vs
0.2
HF5
V1 0.45Vs
(V V )
THD
V1
2
o
2
1
(0.5Vs 0.45Vs )
0.45Vs
0.484
95
Purely (or highly) Inductive Load
Vs/2
Imax
Imin
-Vs/2
v0
T1
i0
T1 ON
T/4
D2 ON
D1
i0
Vs/2
T/2
T2 ON
3T/4
T
D1 ON
Vs/2
T2 OFF
T1 OFF
Load
v0
D2
T2
i0
Quadrant 2
[T/4, T/2]
Quadrant 1
[0, T/4]
v0
Quadrant 3
[T/2, 3T/4]
Quadrant 4
[3T/4, T]
96
Full-Bridge
T1
D1
Vs/2
Vs/2
Inductive Load
T1T2
D3D4
T/4
T4
D4
v0
D3
Load
i0
D2
T3
T2
T3T4 D1D2
T/2
3T/4
Same as half-bridge (Vs instead of Vs/2)
V0 rms Vs
v0
Vs
Imax
Imin
-Vs
i0
T1T2
T/4
D3D4
T/2
T3T4
3T/4
D1D2
T
97
THREE-PHASE INVERTER
Three-phase Bridge Inverter
180o Conduction
120o Conduction
98
Three-Phase Bridge Inverter
99
1- 180o Conduction
Vs
3
2V
vbn s
3
V
vcn s
3
van
2Vs
3
V
vbn s
3
Vs
vcn
3
van
Vs
3
V
vbn s
3
2V
vcn s
3
van
(a) Line voltages for 180conduction
100
vab
vbc
vca
n 1, 3, 5,
n 1, 3, 5,
n 1, 3, 5,
4Vs
cos
sin n t
6
6
n
4Vs
cos
sin n t
6
2
n
4Vs
7
n
cos
sin n t
6
6
n
Note that for n=3,9,15,21, vab=vbc=vca=0
101
Line-to-line rms voltage
2
vL
2
1/ 2
2 / 3
0 V d t
2
s
2
Vs 0.8165Vs
3
102
Line-to-line rms harmonic voltage
4Vs
4Vs
n
vLn
cos
cos 0.7797Vs
vL1
6
6
2 n
2
Phase rms voltage
2Vs
vL
0.4714Vs
vp
3
3
103
2- 120o Conduction
/ 3 2 / 3
Only two transistors remain on at any time.
0.5
0.5
0.5
Vs
van
2
V
vbn s
2
vcn 0
V
van s
2
vbn 0
vcn
Vs
2
van 0
Vs
2
V
vcn s
2
vbn
Note: The waveforms of phase voltages are the same as the waveforms of line
voltages with the only difference in the amplitudes (Vs/2 instead of Vs)
104
van
vbn
vcn
n 1, 3, 5,
n 1, 3, 5,
n 1, 3, 5,
2Vs
n
cos
sin n t
6
6
n
2Vs
n
cos
sin n t
6
2
n
2Vs
n
7
cos
sin n t
n
6
6
vline 3v ph
105
Chapter 3
Power Electronic
Applications
106
1- Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS).
It is used as standby ac source for critical loads. The UPS
configuration is as shown. The load is normally supplied from
the ac main supply and the rectifier maintains the full charge
of the battery. If the supply fails, the load is switched to the
output of the inverter, which then takes over the main supply.
Normally on
Normally off
AC main
Rectifier
Inverter
Critical
supply
AC/DC
DC/AC
Load
Normally off
Batteries
107
2- Electrical Drives
Electric drive systems involves controlling electric motors
using power electronic converters.
Source
Source
Power
Power
Semiconductor
Semiconductor
converter
converter
Control
Control
unit
unit
Command Signal
Motor
Motor
Load
Load
Sensing
Sensing
unit
unit
108
Speed control
Constant-Speed Drives:
(or single-speed drive)
Variable-Speed Drives:
(or multi-speed drives)
No converter during normal running
Converter may be used during starting & braking
Converter is used during normal running and
it is also used for starting and braking
109
Motors Speed-Torque
Characteristics
i) AC-Motors
ii) DC-Motors
Induction Motor
m0
ms
Separate
or shunt
Tmax
Compound
Series
Ts
Tm
Tm
110
Speed Control of DC Motors
DC motors playa significant role in modern industrial drives.
DC motors have variable characteristics and are used extensively
in variable-speed drives.
DC motors can provide a high starting torque and it is also
possible to obtain speed control over a wide range.
The methods of speed control are normally simpler and less
expensive than those of ac drives.
Both series and separately excited dc motors are normally used
in variable-speed drives, but series motors are employed for
traction applications.
Due to commutators, dc motors are not suitable for very high
speed applications and require more maintenance than do ac
111
motors.
Basic Characteristics of DC Motors
Ia
Separately Excited
Motors
Ra
If
Vt
Rf
Ea
Vf
112
At steady-state & neglect saturation.
If =
Vf
Ia
Rf
Vt Ea I a Ra
Ea K I f
Td K I f I a
Pd Ea I a Td
+
If
Ra, La
+
Vf
Vt
Rf
Ea
Td,
113
Ia
+
If
Ra
+
Vf
Vt
Rf
Ea K I f
Vt Ra I a K I f
Td K I f I a
Ea
Td ,
Vt
Ra I a
K If
K If
Vt
Ra
T
2 d
K If
(K I f )
114
Speed-Torque CC of Separately Excited Motors
Speed
Load
Vt
Ra
T
2 d
(K I f )
K If
Motor
Operating
Point
Tm
Torque
115
SPEED CONTROL
Since
V t E a I a ra
Ea K I f m
Vt I a ra
m
Ka I f
So the speed of the d.c .motor can be controlled by controlling Vt or
1- Armature Voltage Control
In this method If (i.e.) is kept constant, and Vt
is varied to change the speed.
Armature voltage control can control the speed
of the motor for speeds below rated speed but
not for speed above rated speed.
116
2- Field current control
In this method Vt remains fixed and
the speed is controlled by varying If .
This is normally achieved by using a
field rheostat as shown in the
following Figure for separately
excited d.c. motor. Field control can
control the speed of the motor for
speeds above base speed but not for
speeds below base speed.
117
Operating modes
118
DC Drives
In Recent years, solid-state control have been used for
armature and field voltage control. Both can be achieved
using controlled rectifier or choppers.
DC drives can be classified in general into three types:
1- Single phase drives
2- Three phase drives
3- DC-DC converter (chopper) drives
AC/DC
1
3
DC/DC
Arm.
AC/DC
1
3
119
1- Single phase Drive
Single phase Drive may be subdivided into:
a) Single-phase half-wave converter drive
b) Single-phase full-wave converter drive
c) Single-phase duall converter drive
120
a- Single-phase half-wave converter drive:
Vmax
Va
(1 cos a )
2
Vmax
cos f
Vf
121
b- Single-phase full-wave converter drive:
Va
Vf
2Vmax
cos a
2Vmax
cos f
122
c- Single-phase dual converter drive:
Va
Va
2Vmax
2Vmax
cos a1
cos a 2
where a 2 a1
Ia
Vf
2Vmax
cos f
Va
Quadrant123
Example
A dc separately excited motor drives a constant
torque load of 18 NM. The motor is driven by a
full-wave converter through a 120 V ac supply.
Assume that K If = 2.5 and the armature resistance
is 2 . Calculate the triggering angle for the
motor to operate at 200 rev/min. The motor
current is continuous.
124
Solution
Va Ea Ra I a
n
200
) 52.36V
Ea KI f KI f * (2 ) 2.5 * (2
60
60
18
T
7.2 A
T KI f I a I a
KI f 2.5
Va Ea Ra I a 52.36 2 * 7.2 66.76 V
Va
2Vmax
66.76
cos( )
2 *120 2
cos( ) 51.83
125
OR
Va
2Vmax
cos( ) Ea Ra I a KI f Ra I a
Ra I a KI f
cos
2Vmax
cos
2Vmax
T
Ra
KI f
KI
200
18
o
cos
2
2
.
5
51
.
83
60
2 2 120 2.5
126
1
2- Three phase Drive
Three phase Drive may be subdivided into:
a) Three-phase half-wave converter drive
b) Three-phase full-wave converter drive
c) Three-phase duall converter drive
127
a-Three-phase half-wave converter drive
S1
id
va
n
vc
vb
S2
+
R
S3
va
E
_
3 3 Vmax
cos( a )
Va
2
Vf
3 3 Vmax
cos f
Rf
Vf
3-phase full-wave
converter
3-phase ac supply
128
c-Three-phase full-wave converter drive
a
b
c
S1
S5
S3
van
vbn
vcn
va
E
S4
S6
Vf
S2
Va
3 3 Vmax
cos a
3 3 Vmax
cos f
Vf
3-phase full-wave
converter
a
b
c
3-phase ac supply
129
c-Three-phase dual converter drive
a
b
c
S1
S3
S5
Ra
van
vbn
La
vcn
S6
S4
S2
S6
va
van
vbn
vcn
Ea
S4
S2
S1
S3
S5
Rf
Va
Va
3 3 Vmax
3 3 Vmax
cos a1
cos a 2
Vf
3-phase fullwave converter
Vf
3 3 Vmax
cos f
a
b
c
3-phase ac supply
130
3- DC-DC converter (chopper) drives
For 0 < t < kT Q1 is on
For kT < t < T Q1 is off, Ia flows through Dm
131
The average armature voltage is:
Va K V s
Where K is the chopper duty cycle
The power supplied to the motor is:
P0 Va I a K Vs I a
Where Ia is the average armature current.
Assuming lossless chopper,
Pi P0 K Vs I a Vs I s
i.e. the average value of supply current is:
The equivalent input resistance
Is K Ia
Vs
Vs
Req
Is k Ia
132
Example
A separately excited dc motor drives a drilling machine load
whose torque is proportional to the inverse of its speed. The
motor has an armature resistance of 1. The armature
voltage of the motor is controlled using a chopper. The input
voltage to the chopper is 250V. For chopper duty cycle of
50 % the motor draws a current of 45A and runs at 800 rpm.
Calculate the motor current and speed if the chopper duty
cycle is increased to 80 %, neglect rotational losses and
assume constant field excitation.
133
Solution :
Ra = 1 , T (1/N)
Vs = 250 V
Chopper duty cycle K = 0.5
V1 KV s 0 . 5 250 125 V
E1 V t I a 1 R a 125 45 (1 . 0 ) 80 V
V 2 KV s 0 . 8 250 200 V
E 2 V t I 2 ( R a ) 200 I a 2
k I a1
I a1
T1
)
(
T2 k I a 2
Ia2
T1
N2
but
T2
N1
134
Since
I a1
N2
Ia2
N1
N2
45
Ia2
800
N 2 I a 2 36000
k N 1
N1
E1
E2
k N 2
N2
80
800
N2
200 I a 2
N 2 2000 10 I a 2 0
N 22 2000 N 2 10 I a 2 N 2 0
N 22 2000 N 2 360000
N 2 1800
rpm
from which
I a 2 20 A
135
Closed-loop control of dc drives
Power supply
Ve
+
-
Vr
TL
Va
Vc
Speed
Converter
DC Motor
controller
Speed sensing
136
Closed-loop speed-control threephase full-wave converter dc drive
137
Microcomputer control of dc drives
138
Speed Control of AC induction motors
Ac motors are lightweight, inexpensive, have low maintenance
compared with dc motors.
They required control of frequency, voltage, and current for
variable speed applications.
The power rectifiers, inverters, and ac voltage controllers can be
used to meet the drive requirements. These power controllers
are complex, more expensive and require advanced feed-back
control techniques.
The advantages of ac drives outweigh the disadvantages.
Therefore Ac drives are replacing dc drives and are used in
many industrial and domestic applications.
139
Speed control of induction motors
The speed and the torque of induction
motors can be varied by one of the
following means:
1- Stator voltage control
2- Frequency control
140
1- Stator voltage control using ac voltage controller
T
i
A
vA
vB
vC
C
T
3
i
b
T
6
T
5
T
2
ic
TL
Induction
motor
alpha = 100
Speed control range
141
Closed loop speed control system
Tachogenerator
I.M.
Load
Firing
angle
Reference
speed
Error
Firing
circuit
Actual speed
142
2- Stator Frequency Control
The induction motor speed is given by:
nm= (1-s) ns
where
ns= 120 fs /P
fs= supply frequency
P= total no of poles
143
Circuit arrangements
Controlled
rectifier
6 step
Inverter
Diode
rectifier
PWM
Inverter
Diode
rectifier
6 step
Inverter
144
