HANDBOOK OF

OPTICS
Volume II
Devices, Measurements,
and Properties
Second Edition

Sponsored by the
OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA
M i c h a e l BaSS

Editor in Chief

The Center for Research and

Education in Optics and Lasers (CREOL)
University of Central Florida
Orlando, Florida

Erie W. Van Stryland

Associate Editor

The Center for Research and

Education in Optics and Lasers (CREOL)
University of Central Florida "
Orlando, Florida

David R. Williams

Associate

Center for Visual Science

j,

rn , >
Umversuy of Rochester
Rochester, New York

William L. Wolfe

-.

,^""''' ;: ' -;'":A ^

Teonniscnfc Hoohscnu a Darmstadt

HoohschulstraBe 4
X -64289

Associate Editor

Optical Sciences Center

. University of Arizona
Tucson, Arizona

McGRAW-HILL, INC.
New York San Francisco Washington, D.C. Auckland Bogota
Caracas Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan
Montreal New Delhi San Juan Singapore
Sydney Tokyo Toronto

CONTENTS

Contributors xvi
Preface xix
Glossary and Fundamental Constants

xxi

Part 1. Optical Elements

Chapter 1. Lenses

1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
1.5.
1.6.
1.7.
1.8.
1.9.
1.10.
1.11.
1.12.
1.13.
1.14.
1.15.
1.16.
1.17.
1.18.
1.19.
1.20.
1.21.
1.22.

R. Barry Johnson

1.3

Glossary / 1.3
Introduction / 1.5
Basics / 1.5
Stops and Pupils / 1.8
F-Number and Numerical Aperture / 1.9
Magnifier or Eye Loupe / 1.9
Compound Microscopes I 1.9
Field and Relay Lenses / 1.10
Aplanatic Surfaces and Immersion Lenses / 1.10
Single Element Lens / 1.11
Landscape Lenses and the Influence of Stop Position / 1.17
Two-Lens Systems / 1.19
Achromatic Doublets / 1.23
Triplet Lenses / 1.26
Symmetrical Lenses / 7.27
Double-Gauss Lenses / 1.28
Petzval Lenses / 1.29
Telephoto Lenses / 1.29
Inverted or Reverse Telephoto Lenses / 1.30
Performance of Representative Lenses 1.30
Rapid Estimation of Lens Performance / 1.36
Bibliography / 1.41

Chapter 2. Afocal Systems

2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
2.5.
2.6.
2.7.
2.8.

1.1

William B. Wetherell

Glossary / 2.1
Introduction / 2.1
Gaussian Analysis of Afocal Lenses / 2.2
Keplerian Afocal Lenses I 2.7
Galilean and Inverse Galilean Afocal Lenses / 2.14
Relay Trains and Periscopes / 2.16
Reflecting and Catadioptric Afocal Lenses / 2.19
References / 2.22

2.1

CONTENTS

Chapter 3. Polarizers Jean M. Bennett

3.1.
3.2.
3.3.
3.4.
3.5.
3.6.
3.7.
3.8.
3.9.
3.10.
3.11.
3.12.

Glossary / 3.1
Prism Polarizers / 3.2
Glan-Type Prisms / 3.9
Nicol-Type Prism / 3.17
Polarizing Beam-Splitter Prisms / 3.19
Dichroic and Diffraction-Type Polarizers / 3.26
"Non-Normal-Incidence Reflection and Transmission Polarizers / 3.36
Retardation Plates / 3.46
Variable Retardation Plates and Compensators / 3.57
Half-Shade Devices / 3.60
Minature Polarization Devices / 3.61
References / 3.62

Chapter 4. Nondispersive Prisms

4.1.
4.2.
4.3.
4.4.
4.5.
4.6.
4.7.

3.1

William L Wolfe

Glossary / 4.1
Introduction / 4.1
Inversion, Reversion / 4.2
Deviation, Displacement / 4.2
Summary of Prism Properties / 4.3
Prism Descriptions / 4.3
References / 4.29

Chapter 5. Dispersive Prisms and Gratings George J. Zissis

5.1.
5.2.
5.3.
5.4.
5.5.
5.6.

Thomas L. Koch, F. J. Leonberger, and

6.1

Glossary / 6.1
Introduction / 6.2
Device Physics / 6.3
Integrated Optics Materials and Fabrication Technology / 6.72
Circuit Elements / 6.20
Applications of Integrated Optics / 6.28
Future Trends / 6.37
References / 6.38

Chapter 7. Miniature and Micro-Optics

7.1.
7.2.
7.3.
7.4.
7.5.

5.1

Glossary / 5.7
Introduction / 5.7
Prisms / 5.7
Gratings / 5.3
Prism and Grating Configurations and Instruments / 5.4"'
References / 5.75

Chapter 6. Integrated Optics

P. G. Suchoski

6.1.
6.2.
6.3.
6.4.
6.5.
6.6.
6.7.
6.8.

4.1

Tom D. Milster

Glossary / 7.1
Introduction / 7.2
Uses of Micro-Optics / 7.2
Micro-Optics Design Considerations / 7.2
Molded Microlenses / 7.4

7.1

CONTENTS

7.6.
7.7.
7.8.
7.9.
7.10.
7.11.

Monolithic Lenslet Modules / 7.72

Distributed-Index Planer Microlenses / 7.13
Smile Microlenses / 7.76
Micro-Fresnel Lenses / 7.75
Other Technologies / 7.27
References / 7.31

Chapter 8. Binary Optics Michael W. Farn and Wilfrid B. Veldkamp

8.1.
8.2.
8.3.
8.4.
8:5.
8.6.
8.7.

Glossary / 8.1
Introduction / 8.2
DesignGeometrical Optics / 8.2
DesignScalar Diffraction Theory / 8.10
DesignVector Diffraction Theory / 8.14
Fabrication / 8.14
References / 8.18

Chapter 9. Gradient Index Optics Duncan T. Moore

9.1.
9.2.
9.3.
9.4.
9.5.
9.6.
9.7.
9.8.
9.9.
9.10.

Glossary / 9.1
Introduction / 9.1
Analytic Solutions / 9.2
Mathematical Representation / 9.2
Axial Gradient Lenses / 9.2
Radial Gradients / 9.5
Radial Gradients with Curved Surfaces / 9.7
Shallow Radial Gradients / 9.7
Materials / 9.8
References / 9.9

9.1

Chapter 10. Optical Fibers and Fiber-Optic Communications

10.1.
10.2.
10.3.
10.4.
10.5.
10.6.
10.7.
10.8.
10.9.
10.10.
10.11.

Tom G. Brown

10.1

Glossary / 70.7
Introduction / 10.3
Principles of Operation / 70.4
Fiber Dispersion and Attenuation / 70.S
Polarization Characteristics of Fibers / 70.77
Optical and Mechanical Properties of Fibers / 70.72
Optical Fiber Communications / 70.79
Nonlinear Optical Properties of Fibers / 70J7
Optical Fiber Materials: Chemistry and Fabrication / 10.42
References / 10.46
Further Reading / 10.49

Chapter 11. X-Ray Optics James B. Harvey

11.1.
11.2.
11.3.
11.4.
11.5.
11.6.
11.7.

8.1

Glossary / 77.7
Introduction / 77.2
Historical Background / 11.3
Optical Performance of X-Ray/EUV Imaging Systems / 77.6
Diffraction Effects of Grazing Incidence X-Ray Optics / 77.5
Ghost Images in Grazing Incidence X-Ray Telescopes / 77.74
Scattering Effects from Optical Fabrication Errors / 77.76

11.1

CONTENTS

11.8. Image Quality Predictions for Various Applications / 77.25

11.9. Summary and Conclusion / 77.29
11.10. References / 77.30
Chapter 12. Acousto-Optic Devices and Applications /. C. Chang

12.1

12.1. Glossary / 72.7

12.2. " Introduction / 72.2
12.3. Theory of Acousto-Optic Interaction / 72.3
12.4. Acoustic-Optic Materials / 72.74
12.5. Basic Acousto-Optic Devices / 72.76
12.6. Applications / 72.34
12.7. References / 72.49
Chapter 13. Electro-Optic Modulators
13.1.
13.2.
13.3.
13.4.
13.5.
13.6.
13.7.

Theresa A. Maldonado

Glossary / 13.1
Introduction / 73.3
Crystal Optics and the Index Ellipsoid / 73.4
The Electro-Optic Effect / 73.6
Modulator Devices / 73.75
Appendix: Euler Angles / 73.33
References / 73.33

Chapter 14. Liquid Crystals Shin-Tson Wu

14.1.
14.2.
14.3.
14.4.
14.5.
14.6.
14.7.
14.8.
14.9.

14.1

Glossary / 74.7
Introduction / 74.2
Physical Properties of Thermotropic Liquid Crystals / 74.2
Physical Mechanisms for Modulating Light / 74.70
Electro-Optics of Nematic Liquid Crystals / 74.72
Electro-Optics of Polymer-Dispersed Liquid Crystals / 74.77
Electro-Optics of Ferroelectric Liquid Crystals / 74.79
Conclusion / 74.23
References / 74.24

Part 2.

Optical Instruments

Chapter 15. Cameras Norman Goldberg

-15.1..
15.2.
15.3.
15.4.
15.5.
15.6.
15.7.
15.8.
15.9.
15.10.
15.11.
15.12.
15.13.

13.1

Introduction / 75.3
Background / 75.3
Properties of the Final Image / 75.4
Film Choice / 75.5
Resolving Fine Detail / 75.5
Film Sizes / 75.6
Display / 75.6
Distributing the Image / 75.7Video Cameras / 75.7
Instant Pictures / 75.S
Critical Features / 15.8
Time Lag / 75.9
Automation / 75.70

15.1
15.3

CONTENTS
15.14.
15.15.
15.16.
15.17.
15.18.
15.19.

Flash / 75.76
Flexibility through Features and Accessories / 75.77
Advantage of Various Formats / 75.78
Large Format: A Different World / 75.79
Special Cameras / 75.27
Further Reading / 75.28

Chapter 16. Camera Lenses Ellis Betensky, M. Kreitzer, and J. Moskovich

16.1.
16.2.
16.3.
16.4.
16.5.
16.6.
16.7.

Introduction / 76.7
Imposed Design Limitations / 76.7
Modern Lens Types / 76.2
Classification System / 76.20
Lens Performance Data / 76.25
Acknowledgments / 76.26
References / 76.26

Chapter 17. Microscopes Shinya Inoue and Rudolf Oldenboug

17.1.
17.2.
17.3.
17.4.
17.5.
17.6.
17.7.
17.8.
17.9.
17.10.

18.1

Glossary / 78.7
Introduction / 18.1
Glass Varieties / 78.2
Introduction to Catadioptric and Reflective Objectives / 18.2
Field-of-View Plots / 78.38
Definitions / 78.40
References / 78.42

Chapter 19. Scanners Leo Beiser and R. Barry Johnson

19.1.
19.2.
19.3.
19.4.
19.5.
19.6.
19.7.
19.8.
19.9.

17.1

Glossary / 77.7
Introduction / 77.7
General Optical Considerations / 77.4
Microscope Lenses, Aberrations / 77.72
Contrast Generation / 77.22
Illumination and Imaging Modes / 77.37
Optical Manipulation of Specimen with the Light Microscope / 17.47
Mechanical Standards / 77.4S
*
Acknowledgments / 77.49
References / 77.49

Chapter 18. Reflective and Catadioptric Objectives Lloyd Jones

18.1.
18.2.
18.3.
18.4.
18.5.
18.6.
18.7.

16.1

Glossary / /9.7
Introduction / 79.2
Scanned Resolution / 19.7
Scanners for Remote Sensing / 79.75
Scanning for Input/Output Imaging / 79.26
Scanner Devices and Techniques / 79.34
Scan-Error Reduction / 79.57
References / 79.54
Further Reading / 79.56

19.1

CONTENTS

Chapter 20. Optical Spectrometers

Brian Henderson

20.1

20.1. Glossary / 20.7

20.2. Introduction / 20.2
20.3. Optical Absorption Spectrometers / 20.2
20.4. Luminescence Spectrometers / 20.5
20.5. Photoluminescence Decay Time / 20.72
20.6. Polarization Spectrometers / 20.75
20.7. ' High-Resolution Techniques / 20.23
20.8. Light Scattering / 20.30
20.9. References / 20.32

Chapter 21. Interferometers

21.1.
21.2.
21.3.
21.4.
21.5.
21.6.
21.7.
21.8.
21.9.
21.10.
21.11.
21.12.
21.13.
21.14.
21.15.
21.16.
21.17.
21.18.
21.19.

P. Hariharan

Glossary / 27.7
Introduction / 27.7
Basic Types of Interferometers / 27.2
Three-Beam and Double-Passed Two-Beam Interferometers / 27.7
Fringe-Counting Interferometers / 21.10
Two-Wavelength Interferometry / 27.77"
Frequency-Modulation Interferometers / 27.77
Heterodyne Interferometers / 27.72
Phase-Shifting Interferometers / 27.73
Phase-Locked Interferometers / 27.74
Laser-Doppler Interferometers / 27.75
Laser-Feedback Interferometers / 27.76
Fiber Interferometers / 27.77
Interferometric Wave Meters / 27.79
Second-Harmonic and Phase-Conjugate Interferometers / 27.27
Stellar Interferometers / 27.22
Michelson's Stellar Interferometers / 27.22
Gravitational-Wave Interferometers / 27.23
References / 27.25

Chapter 22. Polarimetry Russell A. Chipman

22.1.
22.2.
22.3.
22.4.
22.5.
22.6.
22.7.
22^8.
22.9.
22.10.
22.11.
22.12.
22.13.
22.14.
22.15.
22.16.
22.17.
22.18.
22.19.
22.20.

21.1

Glossary / 22.7
Objectives / 22.3
Polarimeters / 22.3
Light-Measuring and Sampling-Measuring Polarimeters / 22.3
Sample-Measuring Polarimeters / 22.4
Complete and Incomplete Polarimeters / 22.4
Polarization Generators and Analyzers / 22.4
Classes of Light-Measuring Polarimeters / 22.5
Time-Sequential Measurements / 22.5
Polarization Modulation / 22.5
Division of Aperture / 22.5
Division of Amplitude / 22.6
Definitions / 22.6
Stokes Vectors and Mueller Matrices / 22.8
Phenomenological Definition of the Stokes Vector / 22.8
Polarization Properties of Light Beams / 22.9
Mueller Matrices / 22.70
Coordinate System for the Mueller Matrix / 22.72
Elliptical and Circular Polarizers and Analyzers / 22.73
Light-Measuring Polarimeters / 22.74

22.1

CONTENTS

22.21.
22.22.
22.23.
22.24.
22.25.
22.26.
22.27.
22.28.
22.29.
22.30.
22.31.
22.32.
22.33.
22.34.
22.35.
22.36.
22.37.
22.38.

Sample-Measuring Polarimeters for Measuring Mueller Matrix Elements / 22.76

Polarimetric Measurement Equation and Polarimetric Data Reducation Equation / 22.77
Dual Rotating Retarder Polarimeter / 22.79
Incomplete Sample-Measuring Polarimeter / 22.20
Dual Rotating Polarizer Polarimeter / 22.20
Nonideal Polarization Elements / 22.22
Polarization Properties of Polarization Elements / 22.23
Common Defects of Polarization Elements / 22.23
The Muller Matrix for Polarization Component Characterization / 22.25
Application of Polarimetry / 22.26
Interpretation of Mueller Matrices / 22.28
Diattenuation and Polarization Sensitivity / 22.28
Polarizance / 22.29
Physically Realizable Mueller Matrices / 22.30
Depolarization / 22.30
Nondepolarizing Mueller Matrices and Jones Matrices / 22.31
Homogeneous and Inhomogeneous Polarization Elements / 22.32
References / 22.33

Chapter 23. Holography and Holographic Instruments

23.1.
23.2.
23.3.
23.4.
23.5.
23.6.
23.7.
23.8.
23.9.
23.10.

23.1

Glossary / 23.7
Introduction / 23.2
Background and Basic Principles / 23.2
Holographic Interferometry / 23.5
Holographic Optical Elements / 23.72
Holographic Inspection / 23.77
Holographic Lithography / 23.16
Holographic Memory / 23.25
Conclusion / 23.26
References / 23.26

Part 3.

Optical Measurements

Chapter 24. Radiometry and Photometry

24.1.
24.2.
24.3.
24.4.
24.5.
24.6.
24.7.

Lloyd Huff

24.1
Edward F. Zalewski

24.3

Glossary / 24.3
Introduction / 24.6
Radiometric Definitions and Basic Concepts / 24.8
Radiant Transfer Approximations / 24.75
Absolute Measurements / 24.72
Photometry / 24.40
References / 24.48

Chapter 25. The Measurement of Transmission, Absorption, Emission, and

Reflection James M. Palmer
25.1.
25.2.
25.3.
25.4.
25.5.
25.6.

Glossary / 25.7
Introduction and Terminology / 25.2
Transmittance / 25.3
Absorption / 25.4
Reflectance / 25.4
Emittance / 25.7

25.1

xii

CONTENTS
25.7.
25.8.
25.9.
25.10.
25.11.
25.12.
25.13.
25.14.

Kirchhoff's Law / 25.8

Relationship Between Transmittance, Reflectance, and Absorption / 25.8
Measurement of Transmittance / 25.8
Measurement of Absorption / 25.77
Measurement of Reflectance / 25.77
Measurement of Emittance / 25.76
References / 25.78
Further Reading / 25.25

Chapter 26. Scatterometers

26.1.
26.2.
26.3.
26.4.
26.5.
26.6.
26.7.
26.8.
26.9.

Rasheed M. A. Azzam

Glossary / 27.7
Introduction / 27.2
Conventions / 27.3
Modeling and Inversion / 27.4
Transmission Ellipsometry / 27.70
Instrumentation / 27.70
Jones-Matrix Generalized Ellipsometry / 27.79
Mueller-Matrix Generalized Ellipsometry / 27.20
Applications / 27.22
References / 27.22

Chapter 28. Spectroscopic Measurements

28.1.
28.2.
28.3.
28.4.
28.5.
28.6.

21A

Brian Henderson

25.1

Glossary / 28.7
Introductory Comments / 28.2
Optical Absorption Measurements of Energy Levels / 28.2
The Homogeneous Lineshape of Spectra / 28.74
Absorption, Photoluminescence, and Radiactive Decay Measurements / 28.20
References / 28.26

Chapter 29. Optical Metrology

29.1.
29.2.
29.3.
29.4.
29.5.
29.6.
29.7.

26.1

Glossary / 26.7
Introduction / 26.7
Definitions and Specifications / 26.2
Instrument Configurations and Component Descriptions / 26.5
Instrumentation Issues / 26.9
Measurement Issues / 26.77
Incident Power Measurement, System Calibration, and Error Analysis / 26.73
Summary / 26.74
References / 26.75

Chapter 27. Ellipsometry

27.1.
27.2.
27.3.
21 A.
27.5.
27.6.
27.7.
27.8.
27.9.
27.10.

John C. Stover

Daniel Malacara and Zacarias Malacara

Glossary / 29.7
Introduction and Definitions /_29.7
Lengths and Straightness Measurements / 29.3
Angle Measurements / 29.72
Curvature and Focal Length Measurements / 29.20
Velocity Measurements / 29.27
References / 29.29

29.1

Chapter 30. Optical Testing

30.1.
30.2.
30.3.
30.4.
30.5.
30.6.
30.7.
30.8.
30.9.

Daniel Malacara

30.1

Glossary / 30.7
Introduction / 30.7
Classical Noninterferometric Tests / 30.7
Interferometric Tests / 30.6
Increasing and Sensitivity of Interferometers / 30.8 .
Interferogram Evaluation / 30.72
Phase-Shifting Interferometry / 30.76
Measuring Aspherical Wavefronts / 30.22
References / 30.25

Chapter 3 1 . Use of Computer-Generated Holograms in Optical

Testing Katherine Creath and James C. Wyant

31.1.
31.2.
31.3.
31.4.
31.5.
31.6.
31.7.
31.8.

Glossary / 37.7
Introduction / 37.2
Types of CGHs / 37.2
Plotting CGHs / 37.3
Interferometers Using Computer-Generated Holograms / 37.6
Acuracy Limitations / 37.7
Experimental Results / 37.8
References / 37.70

Chapter 32. Transfer Function Techniques

32.1.
32.2.
32.3.
32.4.
32.5.
32.6.

Glenn D. Boreman

Chapter 33. Properties of Crystals and Glasses

Michael E. Thomas, and Terry J. Harris

33.1

William J. Tropf,
33.3

Glossary / 33.3
Introduction / 33.5
Optical Materials / 33.6
Properties of Materials / 33.7
Properties Tables / 33.38
References / 33.84

Chapter 34. Polymeric Optics

34.1.
34.2.
34.3.
34.4.

32.1

Glossary / 32.7
Introduction / 32.7
Definitions / 32.2
MTF Calculations / 32.4
MTF Measurements / 32.7
References / 32.9

Part 4. Optical and Physical Properties of Materials

33.1.
33.2.
33.3.
33.4.
33.5.
33.6.

31.1

Glossary / 34.7
Introduction / 34.7
Forms / 34.2
Physical Properties / 34.2

John D. Lytle

34.1

CONTENTS
34.5.
34.6.
34.7.
34.8.
34.9.

Optical Properties / 34.6

Optical Design / 34.8
Processing / 34.72
Coatings / 34.19
References / 34.20

Chapter 35. Properties of Metals

35.1.
35.2.
35.3.
35.4.

Roger A. Paquin

35.1

Glossary / 35.7
Introduction / 35.3
Summary Data / 35.12
References / 35.74

Chapter 36. Optical Properties of Semiconductors

David G. Seiler
36.1.
36.2.
36.3.
36.4.
36.5.
36.6.
36.7.

Stephen M. Pompea and

37.1

Introduction / 37.7
Selection Process for Black Baffle Surfaces in Optical Systems / 37.72
The Creation of Black Surfaces for Specific Applications / 37.75
Environmental Degradation of Black Surfaces / 37.78
Optical Characterization of Black Surfaces / 37.27
Surfaces for Ultraviolet and Far-Infrared Applications / 37.23
Survey of Surfaces with Optical Data / 37.29
Paints / 37.30
Conclusions / 37.63
Acknowledgments / 37.63
References / 37.63

Part 5. Nonlinear and Photorefractive Optics

Chapter 38. Nonlinear Optics
38.1.
38.2.
38.3.
38.4.
38.5.
38.6.

36.1

Glossary / 36.7
Introduction / 36.3
Optical Properties / 36.8
Measurement Techniques / 36.59
Acknowledgments / 36.82
Summary and Conclusions / 36.82
References / 36.92

Chapter 37. Black Surfaces for Optical Systems

Robert P. Breault
37.1.
37.2.
37.3.
37.4".
37.5.
37.6.
37.7.
37.8.
37.9.
37.10.
37.11.

Paul M. Amirtharaj and

Chung L. Tang

Glossary / 38.3
Introduction / 38.4
Basic Concepts / 38.6
Material Considerations / 38.20
Appendix / 38.23
References / 38.25

38.1
38.3

CONTENTS

Chapter 39. Photorefractive Materials and Devices

Marvin Klein
39.1.
39.2.
39.3.
39.4.
39.5.

Introduction / 39.7
Materials / 39.7/
Devices / 39.25
References / 39.35
Further Reading / 39.42

Index follows Chapter 39

I.I

XV

Mark Cronin-Golomb and

39.1