Precision Castings

Division
Cost Drivers and Design Considerations
for Investment Casting

Contents

INVESTMENT CASTINGS................................................................................................................................................................ 3
WHY INVESTMENT CASTINGS?.................................................................................................................................................... 3
SPOKANE INDUSTRIES INVESTMENT CASTING PRODUCTION AND SUPPORT CAPABILITIES........................................... 4
Production Capabilities.................................................................................................................................................................................
Quality Assurance.........................................................................................................................................................................................
Engineering Support.....................................................................................................................................................................................

4
5
5

COST FACTORS AND DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS...................................................................................................................... 6

Number of Gates..........................................................................................................................................................................................
Gate Witness................................................................................................................................................................................................
Normal Linear Tolerances.............................................................................................................................................................................
Premium Linear Tolerances..........................................................................................................................................................................
General Linear Tolerances............................................................................................................................................................................
Tooling..........................................................................................................................................................................................................
Flatness and Straightness............................................................................................................................................................................
Concentricity..............................................................................................................................................................................................
Roundness..................................................................................................................................................................................................
Angularity....................................................................................................................................................................................................
Parallelism..................................................................................................................................................................................................
Perpendicularity..........................................................................................................................................................................................
Draft............................................................................................................................................................................................................
Surface Texture...........................................................................................................................................................................................
Radii...........................................................................................................................................................................................................
Internal Radii and Fillets.............................................................................................................................................................................
Blind Holes.................................................................................................................................................................................................
Wall Thickness............................................................................................................................................................................................
Splines/Gears/Threads...............................................................................................................................................................................
Letters/Number/Logos................................................................................................................................................................................
Gaging........................................................................................................................................................................................................
Bibliography/Sources..................................................................................................................................................................................
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Spokane Precision Castings

Design Guide
Investment Castings
Utilizing a state of the art investment casting process, Spokane
Industries Precision Castings Division provides high quality
investment castings for a wide variety of commercial, industrial
and manufacturing applications. When it comes to choosing and
designing for investment castings it is important to consider the
cost drivers. This paper highlights the key cost drivers and ideas
for how to reduce them.

Why Investment Castings?

Near Net Shape
Investment casting produces near net shape parts. This means
the as cast part meets a majority of the finished part requirements
for dimensional tolerances, surface finish and precise detail such
as lettering, threads or gear teeth.

Design Flexibility
Virtually any shape, configuration, level of complexity or material
can be accurately and reliably made as an investment casting.
This allows you to design a part that is ideal for your application.
Spokane Industries has experienced engineers to help you take
full advantage of the flexibility provided by the investment casting
process.

Product Simplification
Combine existing fabrications or multiple sub-assemblies into
a single casting to address production problems, cost and
complexity. Our design engineers will work with you to assess
existing parts or production problems, and can recommend
solutions that will reduce production complexity and cost, and
increase reliability.

Cost Savings
Cost savings can be realized by optimizing designs to integrate
existing fabrications and parts, improve part strength, reduce
weight, reduce or eliminate finishing costs such as machining,
and lower tooling costs as compared to forging and die casting
processes.

Rapid Prototyping
Rapid prototyping is ideal for first articles, R&D and limited
production runs. It also provides further reduction in lead times
and tooling costs. We use both SLA (Stereolithography) and
foam processes to provide quick turnaround for prototyping and
limited production runs.

Material Choices
Investment casting offers the widest selection of alloy choices in
all manufacturing fields. See production capabilities for a list of
alloys that Spokane Industries is capable of pouring.

Markets Served
There are many industries that benefit from producing parts
via investment casting. Spokane Industries is experienced in
providing services to all of the following industries.

Aerospace

Auto industry

Food industry machinery

Gas turbines

Machine tools

Medical and dental

Military applications

Oil industries

Pumps and compressors

Weapon systems

Improved Surface Finishes
Investment casting can provide a higher quality surfaces finish
than any other casting process. It is common to produces parts
with a surface finish as low as 60 RMS without secondary
finishing.

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Table 1 provides a quick reference to illustrate investment castings strengths.

Process

Tolerance
Capabilities

Design
Freedom

Alloy
Selection

Size
Range

Lead
Time

Volume
Capacity

Surface
Finish

Tool
Cost

Machine
Cost

Investment
Casting

Excellent

Excellent

Excellent

Excellent

Short

All

Good

Average

Low

Powdered
Metal

Excellent

Fair

Good

Fair

Long

High

Excellent

Average

Low

Permanent
Mold
Casting

Excellent

Excellent

Fair

Good

Long

High

Good

High

Low

Sand
Casting

Good

Good

Good

Good

Short

All

Fair

Low

High

Die
Casting

Excellent

Excellent

Poor

Good

Long

High

Good

High

Low

Spokane Industries Investment Casting Production

Support Capabilities:
Production Capabilities

From a few grams up to 45 Kg

Thousands of units per week
Alloys:

Carbon Steels

Low Alloy Steels

Copper base Alloys

Nickel base Alloys

Cobalt base Alloys

Precipitation Hardening Alloys

Tool Steels

Stainless Steels

300 Series

400 Series

17-4
In-House Heat Treat:
Normalizing, Quenching, Annealing

Tilt up ovens surveyed per AMS 2750, certified to +/-25

Deg F

<30 sec transit time from opening oven to full

submersion in quench tank with full agitation
Support Services:

Quick turnaround samples

Prototype Runs
In-House Machine Shop
Reliable partners for outsourcing appropriate finishing
operations.

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Quality Assurance

Engineering Support

Radiographic:

Iridium and Cobalt sources for material thicknesses up

to 8 inches

Traditional Film Images

Digital Images

Engineering Consulting for:

Fabrication to Casting Conversions

Product Enhancements

Design for castability

Alloy Selection

Magnetic Particle:

Wet continuous fluorescent AC/DC

Dry Powder AC/DC

Modeling Services:

MagmaSoft Casting Simulation

3D CAD Modeling

Mechanical Property:

Charpy V-Notch Impact Testing (to -50F)

Tensile Testing

Material Evaluation:

On-site degreed Metallurgists

Materials Experimentation and Analysis

Ceramic Composite Casting Development

Leading edge mechanical property and casting

cleanliness improvement

10 Ceramic Composite patents granted or pending

Chemical:

ThermoScientific ARL 3460 OES

Bruker 04 Tasman

File Capabilities:

Preferred file types for casting, tooling and machining
quotes.

.stp

.igs

.dwg

.pdf with dimensional specifications ( this is critical to

determine the casting and machining tolerances)

Dimensional:

CMM - Mitutoyo

12 Faro Laser Scan Arm

8 Faro Standard Arm
Hardness:

Brinell

Rockwell
Certifications:

Class 1, 2 armor plate MIL-A-11356

Welding - ASTM-A488, ASME Section IX

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Cost Factors and Design Considerations

In general, casting costs depend on the size and
weight of the part and the precise dimensional
tolerances required by the blueprint and the 3D
model. The cost of any part increases in direct
proportion to the dimensional tolerance requirements. Tighter
than standard tolerance will increase part cost.
Mold capacity is limited by both size and weight of the part thus
making them critical factors in economical part design. The more
pieces that can run on a single mold, the lower the part cost will
be. If possible, unnecessary mass should be removed to reduce
part weight.
Part geometries also impact costs. Collaboration between
design and casting engineers is very important during the design
process. This communication can eliminate part geometries that
complicate the casting process and will help prevent added part
costs. This paper provides a breakdown of specific cost drivers
and design considerations.

Number of Gates

Gates are used to attach the part to the mold and are the feed
mechanism for the casting. When possible, parts should be
designed with a single gate to feed each part on the mold. This
will yield more pieces per mold and reduce the pour weight per
mold. Single gate feeding also enhances the dimensional stability
of a given part by providing a directional grain structure during
solidification.

Gate witness

Gate witness tolerances; in order of increasing costs:

Break-off witness - .06- .120 maximum

Plunge grind - .010- .025 maximum

Flush grind to minus .010

Swivel grind - .010- .025 maximum

Grind to specified dimension

Normal Linear Tolerances

Normal tolerances are industry standard tolerances for the

investment casting process. These tolerances can be expected
for all casting dimensions and in many cases can be exceeded
with proper design.
ENGLISH (inches)
Dimension

Tolerance

METRIC (millimeters)
Dimension

Tolerance

Up to .500

+/- .007

Up to 15mm

+/- 0.20

Up to 1.000

+/- .010

Up to 25mm

+/- 0.25

Up to 2.000

+/- .013

Up to 50mm

+/- 0.35

Up to 3.000

+/- .016

Up to 75mm

+/- 0.40

Up to 4.000

+/- .019

Up to 100mm

+/- 0.50

Up to 5.000

+/- .022

Up to 125mm

+/- 0.550

Up to 6.000

+/- .025

Up to 150mm

+/- 0.65

Up to 7.000

+/- .028

Up to 175mm

+/- 0.70

Up to 8.000

+/- .031

Up to 200mm

+/- 0.80

Up to 9.000

+/- .034

Up to 225mm

+/- 0.850

Up to 10.000

+/- .037

Up to 250mm

+/- 0.95

Allow +/- .003 for each additional inch

Allow +/- 0.1mm for each additional 25mm

Meeting design tolerances is also largely dependent on part

geometry. Parts with uniform wall thickness and shape will have
much less distortion and deviation than non-uniform shapes.

The gate witness is the small amount of gate material left

behind after removing the part from the mold. Leaving a gate
witness between .010- .030 high is the most economical for
manufacturing. If necessary gates can be removed flush to the
adjacent surface or ground to specific dimensions. However, this
extra removal often results in a higher manufacturing cost. When
possible, design parts so the gate can be put on a flat surface
rather than a curved surface.
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Complex geometries will cause normal linear tolerances to vary.

This variation is due to the following three factors:

1. Part Shrinkage Factors (20% of linear tolerance)

2. Tooling Tolerances (10% of linear tolerance)
3. Process Variation (70% of linear tolerance)

All three sources of variation can be reduced by:

1. Part design

2. Including the addition of tie bars, ribs, and gussets

to maintain shapes.

3. Tuning of wax injection tooling after the first sample to

meet nominal dimensions.

4. Straightening / coining

5. Machining
All of these options can assist in achieving tighter than normal
tolerances. There may be additional costs associated with these
options. Premium tolerance capability can be achieved, but must
be considered on a part-by-part, dimension-by-dimension basis.
Premium Linear Tolerances
Premium tolerances may add secondary operations and cost to
parts and may only be achieved on selected dimensions. The
premium tolerance achieved will depend on the alloy used and
the part geometry. It is important to designate tight tolerances
only when necessary for part function and leave the rest open
to normal linear tolerances. These premium tolerances and
associated costs can be determined during your consultation
with a Spokane Industries engineer.
General Linear Tolerances
General linear tolerances differ from Normal tolerances

as they are used for non critical part features that require less
dimensional precision. By using general tolerances for non critical
features, parts can be produced more efficiently and economically.
Incorporate these non critical features into the drawings and 3-D
CAD file but do not dimension them for inspection purposes. The
non critical features can then be tooled per design and non-value
added inspections and evaluation time can be eliminated.
ENGLISH (inches)
Dimension

Tolerance

METRIC (millimeters)
Dimension

Tolerance

Up to 2

+/- .020

Up to 15mm

+/- 0.50

Each Additional 1.000

+/- .010

Each Additional 25mm

+/- 0.25

Tooling
Spokane Industries utilizes a system of tooling standards to
ensure uniform high quality design and fabrication of wax injection
dies guaranteed for the life of the part.
Tooling types in order of least tooling expense but highest piece
price:

Manual

Tools in which the operator disassembles the

tool and removes the pattern manually.

Semi-Automatic

Slides, cores, and part ejections are operated
mechanically.
Configurations that do not allow metal cores in tooling due to
undercuts or complicated internal shapes must be treated in one
of the following ways:

Collapsible Core With this type of tooling the core
collapses to allow removal from pattern. This more complicated
tooling allows for the lowest piece price but results in higher tool
costs.

Loose Inserts Best for low volume parts due to the
more complicated tooling.
Cores are used to provide internal spaces, cavities or features.
Metal cores are the most common and cost effective but may not
allow for the geometric complexity required.

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Multi-Piece Wax Assemblies Only use for
configurations that require less critical tolerances or are going to
be heavily machined due to loss of tolerance control associated
with these assemblies.

Soluble Cores Requires additional die for the soluble
core and increased labor for injection and removal of the soluble
pattern. Provides excellent flexibility at moderate additional
cost. Use for open geometries where internal features can be
effectively shelled during the standard investing process.

Pre-Formed Ceramic Cores Use ceramic cores for
specialized shapes with small dimensions or where internal
geometries are critical. Necessary for parts with complicated
internal features that cannot be effectively shelled during the
standard investing process. The additional labor and production
of ceramic cores results in the highest cost of all the core options.
* There are many variables to analyze when determining the proper core for each
design project. Our experienced engineers at Spokane Industries will gladly answer
any questions you may have.

Flatness and Straightness

Flatness and straightness are often used interchangeably but
they are in fact different. Flatness is defined by two parallel planes
which the part surface lies within (see Figure 1). The degree of
flatness in an investment casting is almost always determined by
the volumetric shrinkage of the wax pattern and cooling of the
metal. This shrinkage, called sink, often occurs in the center of the
part. General flatness tolerances cannot be quoted because they
vary with part configuration and alloy selection. The following
chart below is a rough guide for sink estimation.
Section Thickness

Volume of Section

In

In3

Possible Sink per Face

of Casting

.25

.5

Not Significant

.5

.005

.012

.014
mm3

Millimeters
13

Not Significant

12

25

.13

25

50

.3

50

200

.36

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Parts will be held flat and/or straight to .005 per inch of length.
Heavy part sections may be dished, or curved, up to an additional
.010.
Straightness tolerance is a tolerance zone which an axis or the
considered element must lie within. To correctly measure axial
straightness of a shaft, bar, or plate, the tolerance zone within
which the axis or axial plane lies must also be measured. (See
Figure 1)

Figures 3 and 4 demonstrate Spokane Industries ability to

consistently produce casting with a high level of flatness and
straightness.

Sometimes straightening cannot be avoided and it will add cost to

the parts. Therefore, do not specify tighter flatness, straightness,
roundness, etc. requirements than you actually require.
Straightening costs are dependent on the tightness of the
tolerance specified.

Figure 3: Cast Straightness

Figure 4: Cast Flatness

Figure 1: Straightness

Figure 2: Flatness
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Concentricity
Concentricity is a condition in which two or more features
(cylinders, cones, spheres, hexagons, etc.) share a common
axis. Any dimensional difference in the locations of centers of
concentric features will be separated by no more than .005 times
the difference between the diameters. If the length of the cylinder
is greater than two times the diameter, add the straightness
tolerance to the concentricity tolerance. Concentricity is a
complicated characteristic to measure so consider changing the
design to a run out or position notation. See Figure 5 below.

Figures 7 and 8 show additional examples of eccentric and

concentric features.

Figure 7: Example of eccentric and concentric features.

Figure 5: Eccentricity and Concentricity

Straightness does affect concentricity if the casting has a shaft
or tube feature. In Figure 6 below, diameters A and B may be
true circles but the out of straightness makes the features not
concentric.

Figure 6: Rod is eccentric but out of concentricity.

Figure 8: Another view of multiple eccentric and concentric

features.

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Roundness

Angularity

Roundness specifies a tolerance zone bounded by two concentric

circles within which each circular element of the surface must lie.
A roundness profile or total indicator reading (TIR) can be
achieved within the normal linear tolerance. Premium tolerances
can easily be achieved on small diameters. See Figures 9 and
10 below.

Angularity is the condition of a surface, axis, or center plane

which is at a specified angle from a datum plane or axis. A good
production tolerance for angularity is +/- 0.5. It is important to
note that for the angularity to be maintained the part may require
mechanical straightening.

Figure 9: Example of roundness.

Figure 10: Example of roundness.

Figure 11 shows examples of angularity. Figure 11-A cannot be

sized but in certain cases it can be reworked to meet tolerances.
Figures 11-B & 11-C represent castings that can be reworked to
+/- 1, depending on alloy. See Figure 12 for another example of
angularity.

Figure 11: Three different examples of angularity.

Figure 12: Example of angularity

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Parallelism
Parallelism is the condition of a surface equidistant at all points
from a datum plane or an axis equidistant along its length to
a datum axis. Parallelism is difficult to control during casting
and may require a straightening operation. See figure 13 for
illustrations of parallelism.

Figure 15: Another cast part with multiple pairs of parallel sides.

Perpendicularity

Figure 13: These drawings illustrate how parallelism is defined.

Figure 14: Casting with two long parallel walls.

Perpendicularity is precise within +/- .008 per inch of length.

When specifying perpendicularity, use the longest plane for
reference, establishing the datum plane with three tooling points,
as shown in Figure 16.

Figure 16: Illustration of perpendicularity. Surface B will be

perpendicular to surface A within .008 per 1 of length of surface
B.
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Draft

Surface texture

Draft allows parts to easily release from the die. Although draft is
only required for certain part geometries it is advised to consult
with investment casting engineers to determine how much draft
is necessary. Some surfaces may require drafting up to per
inch of length. See Figures 17 and 18 for examples of draft.

Roughness will typically be between 60 and 200 RMS for small

parts weighing 0.5 pounds or less. Larger parts may be rougher
than 200 RMS. If surface finish is important, secondary finishing
operations can be used to meet specified surface texture. See
Figure 19.

Figure 17: Example of a part designed with draft. This allows for
easy removal of the part from the mold.

Figure 18: This part was designed with no draft. This often
results in complicated removal of the part from the mold which
may lead to part damage.

Figure 19: Visual example of industry standard surface finishes.

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Radii
Large fillet and corner radii increase castability, reduce part
stress, and improve final appearance. It is important to design
parts with the largest fillet or radii that are practical. Design to
allow a radius of at least .031 for internal or external corners
when possible. Outside corners that require a zero radius may
be tooled sharp but this will decrease part strength and should
be avoided when possible. If a casting requires a zero radius
internal corner, a recessed corner as shown in Figure 20 can
be used to provide relief. See figures 21 and 22 for examples of
outside and inside radii.

Figure 21: Example of outside radii.

Figure 20: Recessed corner used as an alternative to a zero

radius corner.

Figure 22: Example of inside radii.

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Internal Radii and Fillets

Internal radii and fillets improve the strength and integrity of the
casting and reduce shrinkage and cracking verses sharp corners
(see Figure 23). Internal radii can be difficult to control and can
only be checked approximately by radius gages. Thus, internal
radii require the widest tolerances possible.

Figure 24: Examples of shrinkage determined by surrounding

part mass.

Figure 23: Illustration of internal radii.

If possible it is best to incorporate countersinks and counter

bores with the cast holes for improved economy.

Holes
Roundness is affected by the volume of surrounding metal. If
the surrounding metal is symmetric, holes may be cast to the
following dimensions:
Size

Max Depth

.040 - .080

2 x hole diameter

.081 - .200

3 x hole diameter

.201 - .400

4 x hole diameter

.401 +

6 x hole diameter

If a hole is surrounded by an uneven mass of metal the hole will

be pulled out of round. The longer the hole or the more mass
in the section around the hole, the more pronounced the pull
effect. Figure 24-A shows the effect of hole shrinkage concavity
which will be somewhat present in all castings. Top and bottom
openings will be designed dimensions while the center will be
slightly larger in diameter. Reaming can be done for holes that
are used as bearing surfaces. Figure 24-B shows how a heavy
section close to the hole creates additional distortion to the
shrinkage pattern.

For complicated parts that require machining, it may be more cost

effective to cast the part without holes and drill the required holes
during the machining process. This will be more economical and
precise than reaming cast holes that are out of round.
See Figures 25 & 26 for more examples of holes.

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Blind Holes
Part surfaces should be blended into cast holes by large corner
radii to provide adequate core strength. In addition, bottoms of
cast blind holes should be full round or radii used as much as
possible. See Figures 27 and 28 for examples of blind holes.
Blind holes may be cast to:
Size

Max Depth

Blending Corner Radii

.040 - .120

.5 x hole diameter

.5 x hole diameter

.121 - .400

1 x hole diameter

.060 - .090

.401+

2 x hole diameter

.091 - .180

Figure 25: Example of a countersunk hole.

Figure 27: Blind Hold

Diameter

Figure 26: Drilled holes.

Depth

Figure 28: Illustrations of blind holes.

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Wall Thickness

Splines/Gears/Threads

It is very important to design parts with uniform wall thickness

(see Figure 29). As the molten metal solidifies in the molds it
cools from the outside toward the center. Any abrupt changes in
wall thickness or sharp corners will inhibit the free flow of molten
material throughout the mold cavity (See Figure 30). The inability
of the metal to flow freely can create variation in the shrinkage
pattern during cooling creating internal stresses, warpage, sink
marks, or internal voids.

Gear and thread profiles can be produced with accuracies of +/.004 per .5 of pitch.

The minimum wall thickness that can be achieved is dependent

on the material and the distance the molten metal must travel.
Small investment castings, down to .5 diameters, may have
walls cast as .060 in thickness. Medium to large castings, .5 to
3 diameters, require a wall thickness of .060-.125 depending
on the part geometry.

Figure 31: Examples of gears

Letters/Numbers/Logos
Raised letters and numbers should be designed to be depressed
into a protective pad (see Figure 32). A 0.020 high character on
a depressed pad yields sharp, easily cast features. Recessed
characters are also less likely to interfere with the function of the
part.

Figure 29: Examples of uniform wall thickness.

Figure 30: Illustration of how the flow of molten metal is affected

by cooling.

Figure 32: Depressed pad with raised numbering.

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Gaging

Bibliography / Sources

Spokane Industries performs a full visual inspection of all finished parts. If further dimensional verification is required, a small
sampling plan should be devised to avoid the added expense of
gaging every part.

Figures 1,2,5,6,11,13,16,20,23,24,28: The Investment Casting

Handbook, c. 1968, by The Investment Casting Institute.

At Spokane Industries we are committed to quality, service, and

value. By collaborating with you on design requirements, material selection, mechanical properties, and finish and inspection
requirements we can ensure a cost effective product that is right
for your application. Our knowledgeable staff is standing by to
assist you with the design process and we look forward to developing a long term relationship along the way.

Figure 17, 18: Roshdy, Kareem. MECHANICS - METAL

CASTING ( PATTERN ). Google+. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2012.
Figure 27: 8 Secondary Processing. Coconut Palm Stem
Processing: Technical Handbook. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Dec. 2012.
<http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/ag335e/AG335E09.htm>.
Figure 27: Dimensioning and Locating Simple Features.
Dimensioning and Locating Simple Features. N.p., n.d. Web.
18 Dec. 2012. <http://www.engineeringessentials.com/ege/dim/
dim_page4a.htm>.
Figure 31: Gear. Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 18 Dec.
2012. Web. 18 Dec. 2012.
Figure 31: Different Types Of Gears. Types Of Gears. N.p., n.d.
Web. 18 Dec. 2012. <http://www.gearsandstuff.com/types_of_
gears.htm>.

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