MAE 3130: Fluid Mechanics

Lecture 10: Internal and External Flows

Spring 2003
Dr. Jason Roney
Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering

Outline

Review of Viscous Pipe Flow

Laminar Pipe Flow
Overview of External Flows
Turbulent Pipe Flow
Boundary Layer Characteristics
Pressure Gradients Effects
Lift and Drag

Viscous Pipe Flow: Review

Pipe flow versus Open-channel flow:
Pipe Flow:

Pipe is completely filled with fluid

Pressure gradients drive the flow
Gravity can also be important

Open-Channel Flow:

Pipe is not full of fluids

Pressure gradient is constant
Gravity is the driving force
i.e., flow down a concrete spill way.

Viscous Pipe Flow: Flow Regime

Osborne Reynolds Experiment to show the three regimes Laminar, Transitional,
or Turbulent:

Laminar
Experiment:

Transitional

Turbulent
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Viscous Pipe Flow: Flow Regime

If we measure the velocity at any given point with respect to time in the pipe:
Re > 4000

Reynolds Number
Dependency:

2100< Re < 4000

Re < 2100

1. Turbulence is characterized by random fluctuations.

2. Transitional flows are relatively steady accompanied by occasional burst.
3. Laminar flow is relatively steady.
For laminar flow there is only flow direction:
For turbulent flow, there is a predominate flow direction, but there are
random components normal to the flow direction:

Viscous Pipe Flow: Entrance and Fully Developed

The entrance region in a pipe flow is quite complex (1) to (2):
The fluid enters the pipe with nearly uniform flow.
The viscous effects create a boundary layer that merges.
When they merge the flow is fully developed.

There are estimates for determining the entrance length for pipe flows:
and
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External Flows: Overview

If a body is immersed in a flow, we call it an external flow.
External flows involving air are typically termed aerodynamics.
Some important external flows include airplanes, motor vehicles, and flow
around buildings.
Typical quantities of interest are lift and drag acting on these objects.
Often flow modeling is used to determine the flow fields in a wind tunnel or
water tank.
Lift/Drag:

External Flows: Overview

Types of External Flows:
Two-Dimensional: infinitely long and of
constant cross-sectional size and shape.

Axisymmetric: formed by rotating their crosssectional shape about the axis of symmetry.

Three-Dimensional: may or may not possess a

line of symmetry.
The bodies can be classified as streamlined or blunt. The flow characteristics
depend strongly on the amount of streamlining present. Streamlined object
typically move more easily through a fluid. Shapes:
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External Flows: Drag and Lift

Pressure Distributions around an object (Bluff
Body) lead to lift and drag.
Shear Stresses on the surface also lead to lift
and drag.

Drag: Aligned with the Flow

Pressure (Form) Drag + Skin Friction Drag

projected
area

wetted
area

Lift: Normal to the Flow

External Flows: Friction and Pressure Coefficient

w
Friction Coefficient: C f = 1
U 2
Applying
2
p p0 Bernoulli Eq.
p
=
Pressure Coefficient: C p =
1
1
U 2
U 2
2
2

Skin Friction Drag Coefficient:

CD, f =

Pressure Drag Coefficient:

CD, p

u2
Cp = 1 2
U

Df

1
U 2 A wetted
2
Dp
=
1
U 2 A projected
2

Total Drag Coefficient: C D = C D , f + C D , p

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External Flows: Boundary Layers

Development of a Boundary Layer:

Particles get distorted in the boundary layer.

Viscous effects are important Transition:

Definitions:
Boundary layer height:

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External Flows: Boundary Layers

Local Reynolds Number:

Critical Reynolds Number:

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External Flows: Boundary Layers

Displacement Thickness:

Conservation of Mass

flow reduction = (U u ) dy = U *
0

Momentum Thickness:
Momentum Flux

loss of momentum flux = u (U u ) dy = U 2

0

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External Flows: Boundary Layers

Drag on a Flat Plate: Integral Relationships
b is the width of the plate

Note:
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External Flows: Laminar Boundary Layers

Flow over a Flat Plate can be Solved Exactly: Blasius Solution In 1908
H. Blasius (18831970), one of Prandtls students
Assumes Steady, 2D Laminar, high Re Flow with negligible gravitational effects.
From Boundary Layer Analysis:
conservation of mass:
momentum conservation:
pressure is uniform across the boundary
layer and is determined by the external flow.
boundary conditions:
at y=0: u=0,
at y=: u=U,

v=0,
du/dy=constant, d2u/dy2=0
du/dy=o
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External Flows: Laminar Boundary Layers

After solving, the governing equations with similarity variable:
Boundary Layer Height:
Displacement Thickness:
Momentum Thickness:
Wall Shear Stress:
Coefficient of Friction:
Coefficient of Drag:
note:

CD, f =

1 L
C f , x dx

0
L

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External Flows: Laminar Boundary Layers

If we use various velocity profiles that
match the boundary layer conditions
of a velocity profile:

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External Flows: Transitional and Turbulent Boundary Layers

Turbulent Spots in Transitional Flow

No real theories for transitional

boundary layers.
Turbulent boundary layers are very
similar to those in pipe flow, and we
can use some of those equations
and theories.

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Fully Developed Turbulent Flow: Overview

Turbulent flow is the least understood of all flow phenomena, yet is more
likely to occur than laminar flow, so we address ways of describing the flow.
Transition from Laminar to Turbulent Flow in a Pipe:

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Fully Developed Turbulent Flow: Overview

One see fluctuation or randomness on the macroscopic scale.

mean

fluctuating

One of the few ways we can describe turbulent flow is by describing it in

terms of time-averaged means and fluctuating parts.

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Fully Developed Turbulent Flow: Overview

Now consider, the time average of the fluctuating parts:

The fluctuations are equally distributed on either side of the average.

Now, consider the average of the square of the fluctuations:

Turbulence Intensity:

Indication of the gustiness of the flow.

in Atmosphere,

In good wind tunnel

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Fully Developed Turbulent Flow: Overview

Now, shear stress:
However,
Laminar Flow:

for turbulent flow.

Turbulent Flow:

Experiment:

Shear relates to random motion

as particles glide smoothly past
each other.

Shear comes from eddy motion

which have a more random motion
and transfer momentum.

For turbulent flow:

Is the combination of laminar and turbulent shear. If there are no fluctuations,
the result goes back to the laminar case. The turbulent shear stresses
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(Reynolds Stresses) are positive, thus turbulent flows have more shear stress.

External Turbulent Flow: Velocity Profile

The velocity profile for turbulent flow is been obtained through experimental
analysis, dimensional analysis, and semiempirical theoretical efforts.
Boundary Layer Height:

1/7 Power Law

Displacement Thickness:
Momentum Thickness:
Wall Shear Stress:
Coefficient of Friction:

= 0.0592
f ,x Re1 5
x

Coefficient of Drag:
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External Flows: Flow Past Objects

Flat Plate Flow:
Low Reynolds
Number: Re = 0.1
Large Boundary Layer

Medium Reynolds
Number: Re = 10

Large Reynolds
Number: Re = 105
Thin Boundary Layer
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External Flows: Flow Past Objects

Symmetric

Separation

Wake

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External Flows: Drag on Immersed Objects

If there were not viscous effects acting on an object there would be no

friction drag nor any pressure drag.
Viscosity causes friction and separation which causes pressure drag.
Friction Drag: the part of drag due directly to the shear stress
Pressure Drag/Form Drag: the part of drag due directly to the pressure
The Drag Coefficient is highly dependent on shape and the Reynolds Number:

At the same Reynolds number, the above shapes have the same amount of drag.

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External Flows: Separation

In a situation where pressure increases down
stream the fluid particles can move up against
it by virtue of its kinetic energy.
Inside the boundary layer the velocity in a
layer could reduce so much that the kinetic
energy of the fluid particles is no longer
adequate to move the particles against the
pressure gradient. This leads to flow reversal.
Since the fluid layer higher up still have
energy to mover forward a rolling of fluid
streams occurs, which is called separation.
Separation

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External Flows: Separation

Separation starts with zero velocity
gradient at the wall
Flow reversal takes place beyond
separation point
Adverse pressure gradient is necessary
for separation (dp/dx >0)
There is no pressure change after
separation So, pressure in the
separated region is constant.
Fluid in turbulent boundary layer has
appreciably more momentum than the
flow of a laminar B.L. Thus a turbulent
B.L can penetrate further into an
adverse pressure gradient without
separation.

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External Flows: Separation

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External Flows: Separation

Streamlining reduces adverse pressure gradient beyond the maximum
thickness and delays separation
Fluid particles lose kinetic energy near separation point. So these are
either removed by suction or higher energy
High energy fluid is blown near separation point
Roughening surface to force early transition to turbulent boundary layer

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External Flows: Drag on Immersed cylinder

at very small velocities (Re<0.5)
the fluid sticks to the cylinder all
the way round and never
separate from cylinder. This
produces a streamline pattern
similar to that of an ideal fluid.
as velocity increases the
boundary layer breaks away and
eddies are formed behind.
Further increases in velocity
cause the eddies to elongate.
at Re number of around 90 the vortices break away alternatively form the top
and bottom of the cylinder producing a vortex street in the wake region called
Karman vortex street.
Note: in the laminar flow as Re number increases, the separation point moves
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to front.

External Flows: Drag on Immersed cylinder

as flow within the boundary later becomes turbulent, the point of separation
moves back producing a narrow wake since fluid particles have more kinetic
energy (momentum) due to the nature of the turbulent flow (eddies existence).
the friction drag is higher in the turbulent flow, but since pressure drag
dominates, the net result is a significant reduction in the total drag.

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External Flows: Drag on Immersed cylinder

Roughness Effect:

smooth ball

rough ball (et. Golf ball)

Wire Ring Effect:

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External Flows: Drag on Immersed cylinder

the front to rear pressure difference is greater for laminar flow, thus grater
drag.

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External Flows: Drag on Immersed Objects

Drag on a Smooth Sphere and Cylinder:

at Re<0.5 the drag coefficient is at its highest and is mainly due to skin friction.
as boundary layer becomes turbulent, a pronounced drop in the drag coefficient
is produced.
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External Flows: Lift on Immersed Objects

Most all lift comes from pressure forces and not viscous forces.
Most lift generating devices are not symmetrical.
Lift can be generated by adjusting the angel of attack of the object.
Lift and drag coefficients of wings are dependent on angle of attack.
At large angles of attack, the boundary layer separates and the wing stalls.

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