27/02/02 2.2 Light Emitting Diodes.
prz
Dublin Institute of Technology
School of Electronic and
Communications Engineering
Optical Communications Systems
Light Emitting Diodes
Dr. Gerald Farrell
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited
Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
27/02/02 2.2 Light Emitting Diodes.prz
Overview
A variety of Light Emitting Diodes have been developed, all of which share a
number of common characteristics
Produces scattered incoherent light.
Electrically simple to use and control.
Low cost and reliable.
Modulation to several hundred MHz.
Coupling sufficient optical power into a fibre is difficult.
Restricted to large core fibres.
Not suitable for singlemode fibres.
Broad spectral width (implications for material dispersion)
Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Source: Master 4_2
27/02/02 2.2 Light Emitting Diodes.prz
LED Structure
Most common structure is so called Double Heterojunction (DH) or Double
Heterostructure.
Heterojunction is an interface between two semiconductor materials of different
bandgap energies (as opposed to a so called homojunction)
Light output
Basic Double
Heterostructure
n
Outer layers
Hetero
junctions
Active layer
Contact
+
Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Source: Master 4_2
27/02/02 2.2 Light Emitting Diodes.prz
DH LED Operation (I)
With forward bias electrons are injected through pn junction into the p type GaAs layer,
from the n type AlGaAs layer.
In the GaAs region these electrons become minority carriers, recombining with holes
(majority carriers), releasing photons. Photon energy corresponds to GaAs bandgap
energy
Injected electrons do not pass into p type AlGaAs region, because of potential barrier at p-p
junction
-
Outer layers
Active
layer
Light output
Alx Ga1-x As
Ga As
Alx Ga1-x As
Recombination
confined to GaAs
region, yielding a good
internal quantum
efficiency
Contact
+
Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Source: Master 4_2
27/02/02 2.2 Light Emitting Diodes.prz
DH LED Operation (II)
Higher bandgap energy in the outer layers means absorption is unlikely for
photons generated in the active layer.
The outer layers are thus transparent to the photons generated
Transparency results in low loss emission of light
-
Transparent Outer layers
Active layer
Light output
Al x Ga1-x As
Ga As
Al x Ga1-x As
p
Contact
+
Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Source: Master 4_2
27/02/02 2.2 Light Emitting Diodes.prz
Total Optical Power Generated
Based on the calculation of the internal quantum efficiency it is possible to
find the total number Rp of photons generated by radiative recombination from
the formulae:
Rp =
1
=
1 +
rr
nr
rr = radiative recombination carrier lifetime
= non-radiative carrier recombination lifetime
nr
where i is the forward bias current
and e is the charge on an electron
Each photon has an energy hf joules, so the optical power Pi generated internally
in the LED is given by the product of Rp and hf
Pi =
hf
or
Pi =
(watts)
i hc
e
in terms of
wavelength
(watts)
Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Source: Master 4_2
27/02/02 2.2 Light Emitting Diodes.prz
External Output Power
Optical power is generated in the active region of the LED
All of the power generated internally does not exit the LED, for a number of
reasons:
Only light emitted in the direction of the air-semiconductor (A-S) interface is useful
Refraction back into the device at the A-S interface
Fresnel reflection at the A-S interface.
Absorption in the region between the active region and the A-S interface
Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Source: Master 4_2
27/02/02 2.2 Light Emitting Diodes.prz
Loss due to TIR within the
Device
LED behaves as a so called Lambertian emitter, radiating light in all directions.
Only light which is emitted toward the air-semiconductor interface contributes to the output
power.
Furthermore only light reaching the A-S interface with an angle less than the critical angle for
refraction actually escapes, otherwise it is reflected back into the LED.
Emitted light
The fraction of the total power
which is available as emitted
light is given by:
Air Na
Semiconductor Ns
c
TIR
TIR
1
2
sin c =
2
Na
2
2 Ns
Optical generation Layer
Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Source: Master 4_2
27/02/02 2.2 Light Emitting Diodes.prz
Output Power Exercise
In an GaAs LED the radiative and non-radiative lifetimes are 60 ns and 100 ns respectively.
The output wavelength is 870 nm. Determine for a drive current of 40 mA:
1. the internal quantum efficiency
2. the total optical power generated internally.
Answer: 62.5% and 35.6 mW
Furthermore if the refractive index of air is 1 and that of GaAs is 3.7 show that the total
fraction of power reaching the air, as a result of loss by TIR only, is 0.0365.
Hence calculate the total transmitted output power, assuming that for GaAs fresnel
reflection causes a loss of 33% of the optical power at the air-semiconductor interface and
that no absorption takes place.
If the forward voltage is 1.5 Volts what is the overall electrical to optical power conversion
efficiency?
Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Source: Master 4_2
27/02/02 2.2 Light Emitting Diodes.prz
LED Structures
The Planar LED and Dome LED where among the first structures but were not
efficient.
Surface emitting LEDs, (SLED) also called Burrus type LED are more efficient and
are now commonly used in communications systems.
Other types include Edge emitting LEDs (ELED) and the newest and fastest LEDs
called superluminescent LEDs (SLD), using laser like structures.
DH Burrus type LED, with
fibre coupling
Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Source: Master 4_2
27/02/02 2.2 Light Emitting Diodes.prz
Optical Confinement
As bandgap energy increases refractive index decreases
In DH low absorption outer layers have a high bandgap energy
Result is a planar waveguide, giving optical confinement in the active layer
Used in edge emitting LEDs and Lasers
Contact metallization
Refractive
index profile
n -AlGaAs
p-AlGaAs
GaAs Active
Layer
Confinement Layers
Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Source: Master 4_2
27/02/02 2.2 Light Emitting Diodes.prz
Edge Emitting LEDs
Similar geometry to laser diode
Light emitted parallel to junction
Reflector at one end face reduces
loss
High bandgap energy
confinement regions result in
waveguiding in parallel to junction
hence narrow 30 degree half
power width
No waveguiding perpendicular to
the junction, hence broad 120
degree half power width
High coupling efficiency into fibre
Edge emitting LED
(Senior)
Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Source: Master 4_2
27/02/02 2.2 Light Emitting Diodes.prz
LED Characteristics
Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Source: Master 4_1
27/02/02 2.2 Light Emitting Diodes.prz
LED Light-Current Curve
(L-I Curve)
LEDs are intrinsically reasonably linear devices
Suitable for analog transmission systems, typically short range video
Some LEDs may require a linearizing feedback system to lower distortion
Optical
Output
Power
Real LED L-I
characteristic
Ideal linear
L-I characteristic
Current
Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Source: Master 4_2
27/02/02 2.2 Light Emitting Diodes.prz
Linearizing an LED
Some analog LED applications may be sensitive to distortion
LED transmitter may involve a linearizing feedback system to lower distortion
One approach is to use optical feedback from a coupler, via a photodiode to
"linearize" the transmitters overall L-I curve
Output Fibre
Linearizing
Circuit
Drive
Electronics
Feedback
Photodiode
Fibre
Coupler
Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Source: Master 4_2
27/02/02 2.2 Light Emitting Diodes.prz
Light .v. Current Characteristic
L-I characteristic is temperature dependent,
For a given input current the optical output falls as temperature increases.
Temperature dependence increases from SLEDs to ELEDs to SLDs,
For superluminescent LEDs (SLD) an increase from 20 degrees centigrade to
60 degrees centigrade can reduce the optical output power by factor of 10.
Optical
Output
Power
Increasing
temperature
Current
Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Source: Master 4_2
27/02/02 2.2 Light Emitting Diodes.prz
LED Optical Spectra
For LEDs at 800-900 nm the typical spectral width at the half power points is
about 25-40 nm.
In the region 1100 to 1700 nm the spectral width is about 50 to 160 nm, (see
diagram).
Output spectra broaden with increasing temperature, at a rate of about 0.1 to 0.3
nm per degree centigrade.
Peak
Half
Maximum
Full width at half maximum (FWHM)
or
Full width at half power (FWHP)
Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Source: Master 4_2
27/02/02 2.2 Light Emitting Diodes.prz
LED Modulation Bandwidth
Defined as 3 dB optical bandwidth, at which the optical modulation output power falls to half
the low frequency value.
Modulation bandwidth in LEDs is determined by a number of factors including:
Radiative recombination carrier lifetime
Device parasitic capacitance
Assuming negligible parasitics it can be easily shown that the optical output power at a
frequency f is given by:
P( f ) =
P dc
1 + ( 2 f rr ) 2
Pdc is the low
frequency
output power
As an exercise show that the 3dB frequency is given by:
3
f =
3dB
2 rr
Optical Communications Systems, Dr. Gerald Farrell, School of Electronic and Communications Engineering
Unauthorised usage or reproduction strictly prohibited, Copyright 2002, Dr. Gerald Farrell, Dublin Institute of Technology
Source: Master 4_2
