LDMD 01 - Language and Discourse PDF
Uploaded by
armindenLDMD 01 - Language and Discourse PDF
Uploaded by
armindenSECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
IUULLIIAANN B OLD EA
(CCO
OOOR
RDDIIN
NAAT
TO R)
OR
STUD IES O N
LITER ATUR E ,
DIS CO UR SE AND
M ULTICU LT URAL
DIALO G UE
SECTION : LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE
E DITURA A RHIPELAG XXI
2013
1
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Naionale a Romniei
Studies on literature, discourse and multicultural dialogue / ed.: Iulian
Boldea. - Trgu Mure : Arhipelag XXI, 2013
ISBN 978-606-93590-3-7
I. Boldea, Iulian (ed.)
008
The sole responsibility regarding the content of the chapters lies with the authors.
Desktop publishing: Korpos Csilla
Published by
Editura Arhipelag XXI, Trgu-Mure, Romnia, 2013
Strada Moldovei, nr.8, Trgu-Mure, 540519
Tel: +40-744-511546
Editor: Iulian Boldea
Consilier editorial: Dumitru-Mircea Buda
Email: [email protected]
http://www.asociatiaalpha.comxa.com
ISBN 978-606-93590-3-7
2
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Table of Contents
THE UNWRITTEN LAWS OF CREATIVE WRITING
Simona CONSTANTINOVICI, Associate Professor, PhD, University of the West 12
THE EMITTER-RECEIVER RELATIONSHIP IN THE BIBLICAL DISCOURSE
Felicia Raluca TOMA, Associate Professor, PhD, Valahia University of Trgovite 22
TOPONYMIA URBANA MEDIEVALIA EUROPEA. OBSERVATIONS ON THE TRANSLATION
OF EUROPEAN TOWN NAMES IN TEODOR CORBEAS DICTIONARY DICTIONES LATINAE
CUM VALACHICA INTERPRETATION
Adrian CHIRCU, Assistant Professor, Hab. Dr., Babe-Bolyai University of Cluj-Napoca 27
FROM SHAKESPEARE TO SITCOMS: TRANSLATING THE BAWDY WORDPLAY
Oana TATU, Associate Professor, PhD and Raluca SINU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Transilvania
University of Braov 39
OBSERVATIONS REGARDING THE LOCUTIONAL NOUN
Cecilia CPN, Professor, PhD and Anamaria PREDA, Assistant Professor, PhD, University of
Craiova 51
CONSIDERATIONS UPON THE LEXICO-GRAMMATICAL CLASS OF THE NUMERAL
tefan GITNARU, Professor, PhD, University of Piteti 57
DAS NARRENSCHIF EINE MODERNE PROJEKTION DER REISEN IM WESTEN
Diana CMPAN, Associate Professor, PhD, 1 Decembrie 1918 University of Alba-Iulia 63
DISCOURSES ON VIOLENCE IN CONTEMPORARY EUROPEAN MUSEUMS
Florina CODREANU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca 68
THE ASSOCIATIVE DICTIONARY OF LANGUAGE
Ala SAINENCO, Associate Professor, PhD, Alecu Russo State University of Bli, Moldova 75
ON THE NECESSITY OF COMPILING AN ASSOCIATIVE DICTIONARY OF THE ROMANIAN
LANGUAGE
Gheorghe POPA, Professor PhD, Alecu Russo State University of Bli 80
THE ROLE OF TRANSLATIONS IN THE STRUCTURING OF ROMANIAN SCIENTIFIC
LANGUAGE
Mariana FLAIER, Professor, PhD, Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy 88
LHERMNEUTIQUE DE LOBJET, VECTEUR DE DILOGUE MULTICULTUREL
CONSIDRATIONS SUR BRANCUSI VS. BACHELARD
Matei STIRCEA-CRCIUN, PhD, Institut danthropologie Francisc Rainer, Acadmie Roumaine 94
THE DEBATES REGARDING TO THE WRITING OF ROMANIAN LANGUAGE DICTIONARY
IN FAMILIA PERIODICAL (1865-1906)
Anca-Elena DAVID, Assistant Professor, PhD, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu 102
LANGUES MINORITAIRES EN ROUMANIE : PRESERVATION, AFFIRMATION ET
DEVELOPPEMENT DE LIDENTITE LINGUISTIQUE PAR DES POLITIQUES AFFIRMATIVES
Marilena MILCU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu 107
3
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
PROPER NOUNS IN ROMANIAN AND GERMAN. A CONTRASTIVE APPROACH
Alina PDUREAN, Assistant Professor, PhD, Aurel Vlaicu University of Arad 115
CONTEXTUAL RELEVANCE IN TRANSLATING DRAMA. THE CASE OF TENOR VARIETIES
IN ROMANIAN VERSIONS OF TENNESSEE WILLIAMS PLAYS
Ana-Cristina CHIRIL ERBAN, PhD Candidate, tefan cel Mare University of Suceava 123
VOCABULARIES OF DIGITAL SELF-REALIZATION AND THE PROBLEM OF ANONYMITY
Camelia GRDINARU, Scientific Researcher, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 131
ARGUMENTATION, DE-DOUBLING AND DE-RATIONALIZATION IN THE ROMANIAN
POLITICAL DISCOURSE
Gabriela GOUDENHOOFT, Assistant Professor, PhD, University of Oradea 142
MEANING, DISCOURSE AND IDEOLOGY. A CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF VAN DIJKS
CONTRIBUTION
Ioan-Alexandru GRDINARU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 153
THE SOCIOLOGICAL DISCOURSE, A CRITICAL AND REALISTIC POINT OF VIEW
Elena PITIU, PhD Candidate, University of Bucharest 159
PRAGMA-SEMANTIC VALUES OF THE METAPHOR IN THE CONTEMPORARY POLITICAL
DISCOURSE
Mihaela MOCANU, Scientific Researcher, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 167
THE HISTORY, PECULIAR TERMINOLOGY AND TRANSLATION PROBLEMS OF THE
LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE
NAGY Imola Katalin, PhD, Sapientia University of Trgu-Mure 179
POLITICAL ORATORY AND LITERATURE. A CASE OF CROSSBREEDING AND
CONTAMINATION IN 19TH CENTURY ROMANIA
Roxana PATRA, Scientific Researcher III, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 190
LA VEILLE MULTILINGUE ET LE PROCESSUS DE TRADUCTION
Marilena MILCU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu 200
BETWEEN LEXICAL TERMINOLOGY AND DISCOURSIVE TERMINOLOGY. THE
LANGUAGE OF ARCHITECTURE
Bianca GEMAN, Assistant, PhD Candidate, The Technical Constructions University of Bucharest 205
DISCOURSIVE MARKERS IN ROMANIAN. TERMINOLOGICAL AND CONCEPTUAL
ASPECTS
Aurelia Nicoleta PAVEL (DICU), PhD Candidate, University of Bucharest 214
THE BULGARIANS FROM BANAT: IMPLEMENT DIFFERENT WAYS OF TRANSMITTING
BULGARIAN FOLK STORIES INTO ROMANIAN
Eliana-Alina POPEI, PhD Candidate, University of the West, Timioara 225
LE LANGUAGE DU POUVOIR: LE SYMBOLE DUNIT DANS LE DISCOURS DE NICOLAE
CEAUSESCU
Cristina PREUTU, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 239
ON THE POSTMODERNITY OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL DISCOURSE
Raluca STANCIU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu 248
4
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE STRUCTURAL-SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF SOME CAUSATIVE VERBS IN THE
MEDICAL LANGUAGE
Simona Nicoleta STAICU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Victor Babe University of Medicine and
Pharmacy, Timioara 253
TRANSCENDING MEDIA: ANALYSIS CONCERNING THE ADAPTATION OF HARAP-ALB
ROMANIAN FAIRY TALE IN COMIC FORMAT
Andreea-Nicoleta CATALINA, PhD Candidate, University of Bucharest
Monica BOTTEZ, Professor, PhD, University of Bucharest 263
LANGUAGE AWARENESS AND LINGUISTIC INTERFERENCE IN THE DISCOURSE OF
ROMANIAN IMMIGRANTS IN SPAIN
Paul BUZIL, Assistant, PhD Candidate, University of Bucharest 273
STUDYING RARE LINGUISTIC PHENOMENA WITH CORPORA
Nadina CEHAN, PhD Candidate, Babe-Bolyai University of Cluj-Napoca 286
THE FRUIT OF THE TREE: EDITH WHARTONS DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVE ON SOCIAL
AND MORAL CONFLICTS
Oana Alexandra ALEXA, Assistant Lecturer, PhD Candidate, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 293
CIORAN ENTRE LA TRADUCTION ET LORIGINAL : LE CAS DE LA TRADUCTION
FRANAISE DES LARMES ET DES SAINTS
Andreea Maria BLAGA, PhD Candidate, Babe-Bolyai University of Cluj-Napoca / Universit
Jean-Moulin Lyon 3, 304
ANALYSE DES TRADUCTIONS EN ROUMAIN DE LA PIECE LA CANTATRICE CHAUVE DE
LA PERSPECTIVE DE LA DOUBLE LECTURE
Violeta CRISTESCU, PhD Candidate, tefan cel Mare University of Suceava 313
THE PREPOSITIONAL REGIME OF VERBS
Anamaria PREDA, Assistant Professor, PhD, University of Craiova 328
THE INFLUENCE OF GRAMMATICAL GENDER ON SEMANTIC JUDGEMENT. AN
INVESTIGATION OF ROMANIAN AND HUNGARIAN
Anca NEME, Assistant, PhD Candidate, Dimitrie Cantemir University Trgu Mure 335
BLUE AND ITS TINTS IN THE ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN LANGUAGES: COMPARATIVE
DICTIONARY AND CULTUROLOGICAL ANALYSIS
Arina POLOZOVA, PhD Candidate, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 345
LEGAL TRANSLATION AS AN INTERSPACE OF LANGUAGE AND LAW
BALZS Melinda, Assistant Lecturer, Sapientia University Trgu-Mure 357
FEATURES OF THE INTONATION OF INTERROGATIVES FROM IAI AND BUCHAREST
Anca-Diana BIBIRI, Scientific Researcher, Andreea MIRONESCU, Scientific Researcher, Adrian
TURCULE, Professor, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 365
THE DIATOPIC AND DISTRATIC VARIATION IN THE TRANSLATION OF DRAMATIC
DIALOGUE
Ana-Cristina CHIRIL (ERBAN), PhD Candidate, tefan cel Mare University of Suceava 374
5
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
CHANGING LANDSCAPES IN TRANSLATION AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION
Olga COJOCARU, PhD Candidate, Dunrea de Jos University of Galai 384
THE IMAGE OF ALTERITY IN ROMANIAN CONTEMPORARY ART
Lucian-Nicu RDAN, PhD Candidate, Petru Maior University of Trgu-Mure 392
CRITICAL DISCOURSE ON ENGLISH CANADIAN FICTION IN COMMUNIST PERIODICALS.
THE CASE OF HUGH MACLENNAN AND MORLEY CALLAGHAN
Ana-Magdalena PETRARU, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 396
THE ALJAMIADO-MORISCO QURANIC TRANSLATIONS AND THE PROBLEM OF
IDENTIFYING THE ARABIAN ORIGINAL
Daniela-Corina CHIRU, PhD Candidate, University of Bucharest 404
GLOBALIZATION AND THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPING LINGUISTIC COMPETENCIES
Sebastian CHIRIMBU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Spiru Haret University of Bucharest 418
DISTORSIONS OF THE INDIVIDUAL LEVEL OF THE LANGUAGE. MODERN POETRY AS
FAILED LINGVISTIC ACT
Radu DRGULESCU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu 428
ETHOS AND EUDAIMONIA. ETHICS AS HAPPINESS
Anca Raluca PURCARU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Apollonia University of Iai 444
LINGUISTIC NORM AND LANGUAGE CONTACT: THE CASE OF THE HUNGARIAN
LANGUAGE IN ROMANIA
FAZAKAS Nomi, Assistant Professor, PhD and BOTH Csaba Attila, Sapientia University of
Trgu-Mure 453
THE POLEMIC DISCOURSE OF ALEXANDRU I. PHILIPPIDE
Simona-Andreea OVA, PhD Candidate, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 463
OCTAVIAN PALER: THE IMAGE OF THE THINKER AND TRAVELER
SZVRFI Judith, PhD Candidate, Petru Maior University of Trgu-Mure 472
LES TRADUCTEURS DE LITTRATURE - CONSTRUCTEURS DE DIALOGUE
MULTICULTUREL
Raluca-Nicoleta BALACHI, Assistant Professor, PhD, tefan cel Mare University of Suceava
Daniela HISAN, Assistant Professor, PhD, tefan cel Mare University of Suceava 482
LITERATURE AND FILM ADAPTATION THEORY
Maria TIRBEIU, PhD Candidate, Ovidius University of Constana 491
ARGUMENTS BASED ON AUTHORITY IN THE RELIGIOS DISCOURSE
Sorin GUIA, Assistant Professor, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 499
INFLUENCES DE LA LANGUE FRANAISE SUR LE DISCOURS DES CRIVAINS ET DES
HISTORIENS ROUMAINS DU XIXME SICLE
Ana-Elena COSTANDACHE, Assistant Professor, PhD, Dunrea de Jos University of Galai 509
LANGUAGE AND LOGIC AS EFFICIENT TOOLS IN ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING
Anca Irina CECAL, Assistant Professor, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 520
6
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
UNDERSTANDING RACE IN EARLY MODERN ENGLAND: SHAKESPEARES DRAMAS
Liliana Tronea-GHIDEL, Assistant, PhD, University of Craiova 527
THE VANISHING HITCHHIKER IN ROMANIAN URBAN LEGENDS
Oana-Ctlina VOICHICI, Assistant, PhD Candidate, Valahia University of Trgovite 534
RED COLOUR AND ITS TINTS IN TRANSLATION: THE MASQUE OF THE RED DEATH
BY EDGAR ALLAN POE
Arina POLOZOVA, PhD Candidate, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 541
ZORA NEALE HURSTONS EARLY FEMINISM
Amada MOCIOALCA, Assistant, PhD, University of Craiova 550
INTER-PHRASEMES: BETWEEN FORM AND CONTENT
Anca Mihaela TEFANACHE (ZAHARIA), PhD Candidate, tefan cel Mare University of Suceava 557
SOCIO-LITERARY TERRORISM
Gabriela-Alexandra BNIC, M.A., Mihai Viteazul National Intelligence Academy, Bucharest 564
SALMAN RUSHDIES THE MOORS LAST SIGH: PEELING OFF HISTORY AS THE
NECESSITY OF BECOMING AN INDIVIDUAL
Roxana Elena DONCU, Assistant Lecturer, and Liliana ANDRONACHE, Assistant Lecturer, Carola
Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest 572
'BRAKING' NEWS BREAKS SPIRITS. A CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE ON MEDIA DISCOURSE
WHILE TAKING AN ETHICAL APPROACH
Ioana RAICU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Valahia University of Trgovite 582
THE RENDERING OF SUPERLATIVE PARANOMASTIC CONSTRUCTIONS IN QURANIC
ALJAMIADO-MORISCO TRANSLATIONS
Daniela-Corina CHIRU, PhD Candidate, University of Bucharest 592
COSTACHE NEGRUZZI - COMMISSIONER OF GOVERNMENT, PROSE ROMANTIC,
EPISTOLIER, TRANSLATOR
Adrian Petre POPESCU, PhD, UCEE Bruxelles 606
DO MENTION IT! THE (HUSHED-UP) USE OF TRANSLATION IN THE TRANSFER OF
KNOWLEDGE AND TERMINOLOGY FROM L1 INTO L2
Ileana Oana MACARI, Associate Professor, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 615
CONCEPTUAL EXOGENOUS MODELS AND TERMINOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
Doina BUTIURC, Associate Professor, PhD, Petru Maior University of Trgu-Mure 622
MARITIME ENGLISH AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION AT SEA
Lavinia NDRAG, Professor, PhD, Ovidius University of Constana 629
BLURRING THE LEXIS - GRAMMAR DISTINCTION IN TEFL
Anca CEHAN, Professor, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 637
LA TERMINOLOGIE RELIGIEUSE ORTHODOXE EN LANGUE FRANAISE ET LE
DIALOGUE MULTICULTUREL DES COMMUNAUTS ORTHODOXES DE FRANCE
Felicia DUMAS, Professor, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 646
7
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE POLITICS OF HISTORICAL DISCOURSE AND INTERCULTURAL REPRESENTATION
IN TIMOTHY MOS AN INSULAR POSSESSION
Angela STNESCU, Associate Professor, PhD, Valahia University of Trgovite 656
LIDENTITE MULTICULTURELLE DANS LA LITTERATURE FRANCOPHONE. LE CAS
DATIQ RAHIMI
Simona MODREANU, Professor, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 666
EMINESCU EN FRANAIS. LA LANGUE DES TRADUCTIONS
Mircea ARDELEANU, Professor, PhD, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu 674
IDENTITY CRISIS AND SURVIVAL SOLUTIONS IN THE FADED HELL. THE CASE OF
THE ORTHODOX PRIESTS
Emanuela ILIE, Associate Professor, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 690
ARGUMENTS EN FAVEUR DUN CURRICULUM QUI PROMEUVE ET CONSERVE
LIDENTITE NATIONALE
Silvia NEGRUIU, Associate Professor, PhD, Universit dArts, Trgu-Mure 702
MULTICULTURALISM, DEATH, FAITH AND ITS LIMITS
Rodica GRIGORE, Associate Professor, PhD, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu 712
THE ARGUMENTATIVE JUDICIAL DISCOURSE LINGUISTIC HIGHLIGHTS
Silvia PITIRICIU, Associate Professor, PhD, University of Craiova 722
NATIONAL AND EUROPEAN CULTURAL IDENTITY
Sabina FNARU, Associate Professor, PhD, tefan cel Mare University of Suceava 727
GENDER(ED) DISCOURSE:
IMAGES AND EXPERIENCES IN 19TH CENTURY WOMENS WRITING
Ramona MIHIL, Associate Professor, Ph.D., Spiru Haret University, Bucharest 734
REFLECTIONS ON THE NATURE OF ART IN NOBEL PRIZE FOR LITERATURE
ACCEPTANCE SPEECHES
Eva-Nicoleta BURDUEL, Associate Professor, PhD, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu 742
TRANSLATING WORDS AND (THEIR?) MEANING
Bianca-Oana HAN, Assistant Professor, PhD, Petru Maior University of Trgu-Mure 746
NEOLOGY, NEONYMY, NEOSEMY: TERMINOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Inga DRU, PhD, The Philology Institute of the Moldavian Science Academy 749
SELF-TRANSLATION, COMMUNICATION BRIDGE BETWEEN CULTURES
Irina PETRUC, Assistant Professor, PhD, Apollonia University of Iai 759
COSMOPOLITANISM AND NATIONALISM IN SOVIET DISSIDENCE: SAKHAROV VERSUS
SOLZHENITSYN
Laura CIUBOTARAU PRICOP, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 763
GOD IS A DJ A CORPUS-BASED APPROACH TO CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH SONG
LYRICS
Mihaela DUMA, Assistant Lecturer, Petroleum-Gas University of Ploieti 775
8
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING
FARKAS Zoltn-Bla, PhD Candidate, Politehnica University, Timioara 782
MEDIA AND VIRTUAL MEDIUM IN SECOND LIFE
Claudia TALASMAN CHIOREAN, Research Assistant, Babe-Bolyai University of Cluj-Napoca 787
THE THERAPEUTIC METAPHOR - AN INTERDICIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE
Irina CRUMPEI, Assistant, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 801
NUEVOS CONTACTOS RUMANO-ROMANCE: ALGUNOS FENMENOS DE
INTERFERENCIA
Iulia NICA, Assistant Professor, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai / Universidad de Sevilla 807
ON THE FIRST WOMAN TRANSLATOR OF DANTE'S THE DIVINE COMEDY INTO ROMANIAN
Nicoleta CLINA, Assistant Professor, PhD, University of Craiova 818
PERSPECTIVES ON DEFINING EUPHEMISMS
Oxana CHIRA, Assistant Professor, Alecu Russo State University of Bli 827
THE LEGIONARY DISCOURSE: CONTENT ANALYSIS
Paula MUREAN, PhD, Babe-Boyai University of Cluj-Napoca 832
MONSTRUOUS IDIOMS - SCARY IDIOMS IN ROMANIAN TRANSLATION
PUSKS-BAJK Albina, PhD Candidate, Petru Maior University of Trgu-Mure 839
POSSIBLE STRUCTURAL AMBIGUITIES IN ENGLISH PROVERBS
AND THEIR ROMANIAN CORRESPONDING VERSIONS
Anca-Mariana PEGULESCU, PhD, Ministry of National Education 846
TOWARDS A NEW ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK:
JEANETTE WINTERSON AND THE DESPERADO PROJECT
Alina PREDA, Assistant Professor, PhD, Babe-Boyai University of Cluj-Napoca 853
SOCIO-CULTURAL IMAGINARY AND LITERARY FUNCTIONS OF CREMATION IN
ROMANIAN EPIGRAMS
Adriana TEODORESCU, Researcher, PhD and Marius ROTAR, Researcher, PhD, 1 Decembrie
1918 University of Alba-Iulia 862
LA TRADUCTION DES REFERENTS CULTURELS DANS LE ROMAN LE TESTAMENT
FRANAIS DANDRE MAKINE VERS LE ROUMAIN
Iulia CORDU, PhD Candidate, tefan cel Mare University of Suceava 876
EXHIBER LA DIFFICULTE DU DIALOGUE ORIENT OCCIDENT POUR MIEUX LA
SURMONTER? UNE LECTURE DE PARAGES DE THEODORE CAZABAN
Gina PUIC, Assistant Professor, PhD, Universit de Strasbourg and tefan cel Mare University of
Suceava 884
WARRIORS BEGINNINGS OF XXTH CENTURY LITERATURE
Alina BAKO, Assistant, PhD, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu 895
MASTERING THE RULES: A NEW STRATEGY OF SUBVERTING AUTHORITY. THE CASE
OF LEWIS CARROLLS ALICES
Ctlina BLINITEANU, Assistant, PhD, Vasile Alecsandri University of Bacu 904
9
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
CONSIDERATIONS ON CONSTRUCTIONAL HOMONYMY IN ROMANIAN
Florina-Maria BCIL, Assistant Professor, PhD, University of the West, Timioara 909
CULTURAL INTERFERENCE IN LANGUAGE LEARNING: DIFFICULTIES OF THE
SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION IN ALTERNATE LANGUAGE CODES
Aida TODI, Assistant Professor, PhD, Ovidius University of Constana 920
WHAT IS SEEN FROM THE HOSPITALITY/ HOSTILITY OF THE POSTMODERN TEXT
Lucia ISPAS, Assistant Professor, PhD, Petroleum-Gas University of Ploieti 926
UNIVERSAL CULTURE VS. GLOBAL CULTURE
Aurora PACAN, Assistant, PhD, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Trgu-Mure 935
NATURAL LANGUAGE COMPLEXITY. SENTIMENT ANALYSIS
Daniela GFU, Scientific Researcher III, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai
ACS Andrei SCUTELNICU, Institute of Computer Science, Iai-Romanian Academy, Alexandru
Ioan Cuza University of Iai 944
LA LANGUE ETRANGERE, INSTRUMENT DE DIALOGUE DANS LE PROCES LE ROLE DU
TRADUCTEUR-INTERPRETE
Diana DNIOR, University of Craiova 955
ARGUMENTS IN FAVOR AND AGAINST FEMINISING PROFESSION NAMES IN
CONTEMPORARY FRENCH
Alina IFTIME, Assistant Professor, PhD Candidate, Ovidius University of Constana 962
THE GRAMMAR OF ELOQUENCE IN TAKE IONESCUS DISCOURSE PENTRU ROMNIA
MARE / FOR GREAT ROMANIA
Cristina RADU-GOLEA, Assistant Professor, PhD, University of Craiova 969
GEOMETRIZATION OF POETIC SPACES. MATHEMATICS AS A GAME
Virginia POPOVI, PhD, University of Novi Sad, Serbia 976
PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS WITH ONOMASTIC ELEMENTS IN FRENCH
Drago Vlad TOPAL, Assistant Professor, PhD, University of Craiova 982
TRAIAN CHELARIUS JOURNALS, OR WHAT DOES A NON-CANONICAL HISTORY SPEAK OF
Dana Alexandra DOLGU URSULEANU, PhD Candidate, tefan cel Mare University of Suceava 989
REPRESENTATIONS AND FEATURES OF DESTINY IN ROMANIAN FAIRY TALES
Claudia COSTIN, Associate Professor, PhD, tefan cel Mare University of Suceava 996
PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE IN THE USE OF DISCOURSE MARKING AND BY
ROMANIAN EFL LEARNERS
Mdlina Georgiana MATEI, Assistant Professor, PhD, Transilvania University of Braov 1002
INTERCULTURAL FORMATIVE METHODS IN THE ROMANIAN UNIVERSITY
Andrei-Lucian MARIAN, Assistant Professor, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 1010
CREATION A REFLEX OF THE TRAGIC (VIEW OVER THE ROMANIAN INTER-WAR POETRY)
Mina-Maria RUSU, Associate Professor, PhD, Apollonia University of Iai 1019
10
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
EXPLORING VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS IN TEACHING ENGLISH FOR TOURISM
Anioara POP, Associate Professor, PhD, Dimitrie Cantemir University of Trgu-Mure
Raluca CRIAN, Assistant professor, PhD candidate, Dimitrie Cantemir University of Trgu-Mure 1031
TRADUIRE POUR REDECOUVRIR LEXPRESSIVITE DE SA PROPRE LANGUE
(APPLICATION SUR LA TRADUCTION DE SAN-ANTONIO EN ROUMAIN)
Monica IOVNESCU, Assistant Professor, University of Craiova
PhD, Anda RDULESCU, Professor, PhD University of Craiova 1037
LEXICAL AMBIGUITY REVISITED: ON HOMONYMY AND POLYSEMY
Alina PREDA, Assistant Professor, PhD, Babe-Boyai University of Cluj-Napoca 1047
SHADES OF BLACK AND WHITE. ALTERITY, IDENTITY, MULTICULTURALITY IN
CONTEMPORARY MEDIA AND LITERATURE
Jlia VALLASEK, Assistant Professor, PhD, Babe-Bolyai University of Cluj-Napoca 1055
I THINK, THEREFORE I AM DANGEROUS - DEVELOPING CRITICAL THINKING AT THE
ENGLISH CLASS- FOR ROMANIAN AND HUNGARIAN STUDENTS
PUSKS-BAJK Albina, PhD Candidate, Petru MaiorUniversity of Trgu-Mure 1065
THE PRESENT STAGE OF LEXICAL NEOLOGISMS ADAPTATION (WITH REFERENCE TO
ANGLICISMS AND AMERICANISMS)
Vlad PREDA, Assistant Professor, PhD, University of Craiova 1073
ARTICULATION OF REFERENTIAL QUANTA THROUGH TEXTEMES IN MIHAIL
SADOVEANUS NOVEL THE GOLDEN BOUGH
Simina TERIAN, Assistant Professor, Ph.D., Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu 1078
ILLOCUTIONARY FORCE IN CRIMINAL JUDGMENTS
Alina GIOROCEANU, Assistant Professor, PhD, University of Craiova 1088
UTOPIA OR THE IDEAL STATE THE CASE OF NEWS FROM NOWHERE
Andreea Mihaela MARDAR (STANCU), Phd Candidate, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai 1096
THE COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK OF REFFERENCE FOR LANGUAGES:
MULTILINGUALISM AND COMPLEMENTARY PHENOMENA: THE TRANSFER OF
ROMANIAN LANGUAGE
Gina NIMIGEAN, Assistant Professor, PhD Candidate, University Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iai 1104
NOVEL AND CATHEDRAL: THE CONSTRICTIVE PLURIMORPHISM OF THE UNIQUE CODE
Gina NIMIGEAN, Assistant Professor, PhD Candidate, University Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iai
Ioana OLARU, Lecturer, PhD, University of Arts G. Enescu, Iai 1112
MONDIALISATION, MULTICULTURALISME ET LITTERATURES EN FRANAIS
Efstratia OKTAPODA Prof., Ingnieur de Recherche, PhD, Universit de Paris IV-Sorbonne, France 1121
LODYSSE DUN FOLKLORISTE ROUMAIN GIORGE PASCU
Ioan DNIL, Associate Professor, PhD, Vasile Alecsandri University of Bacu 1129
NOMS PROPRES DANS LESPACE PUBLIC. PRCISIONS TRADUCTIVES SUR LES
ANTHROPONYMES NON CONVENTIONNELS
Georgeta RUS, PhD, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca Northern Baia-Mare University Centre 1136
11
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE UNWRITTEN LAWS OF CREATIVE WRITING
Simona CONSTANTINOVICI, Associate Professor, PhD, University of the West
Abstract: In recent years, creative professional writing underwent various forms of
manifestation, most often within an institutional framework. Major universities around the
world dont overlook such a phenomenon. And they do this very often trough the voice of
some elite intellectuals. We have tried to show that, beyond the pleasure of writing, there are
also some constraints, assumed in different ways by writers. Avoiding superlatives and too
long sentences, or the pertinent use of terms and brackets, are just some of them. To
understand how a literary text works means to recreate it. Under such circumstances, both
reader and interpreter cannot ignore the creative writing techniques.
Keywords: writing, text, constraint, pertinent, technique
Argument
n unele lucrri consacrate teoriei literare sau naratologiei, sensul conceptului de
scriitur se suprapune peste acela de stil individual al autorului. [1] Amndoi termenii,
scriere i scriitur, trimit la fr. criture, cu meniunea c scriitur acoper un cmp semantic
mult mai alambicat, definibil n funcie de teoreticianul la care se face referire (Roland
Barthes, Jacques Derrida, Julia Kristeva, Philippe Sollers, Jean-Louis Baudry, Michel
Foucault, Jean Baudrillard etc.), n funcie de domeniul vizat (critic literar, teoria literaturii,
filosofie etc.), n funcie de curent sau micare cultural. Conceptul a fost introdus, n 1953,
de R. Barthes, n lucrarea Le degr zro de l'criture, i utilizat n definirea statutului
literaturii n relaie cu istoria i societatea: ntre limb i stil exist loc pentru o alt realitate
formal: scriitura; (...) Limba i stilul sunt obiecte; scriitura este o funcie: ea e raportul dintre
creaie i societate, este limbaj literar transformat de destinaia sa social. Dat fiind aceast
realitate dezarmant, nu ne propunem s tratm exhaustiv, n lucrarea de fa, astfel de
concepte. O sintez de acest fel rmne apanajul dicionarelor de specialitate. Pornim, n
demersul nostru, de la premisa c scriitura se poate nva. Exist nite legi nescrise, nite pai
de urmat, nite repere de neocolit. Vom pune, din start, semnul egalitii ntre scriere i
scriitur, asumndu-ne totodat acest risc.
Legea constrngerii
Renunarea la unii termeni, care nu prezint un grad adecvat de lizibilitate, ia forma unei
adevrate mize n cazul unui scriitor care se respect. E drept, sunt i nenumrai scriitori care-i
asum ininteligibilitatea, spun c stilul o cere, c altfel nu e posibil. Alii, n numele simplitii,
acurateei textuale, nltur dintru nceput termenii neologici strideni, regionalismele,
arhaismele, cuvintele de argou etc.
Evitarea superlativelor. Spre exemplu, un scriitor i propune s nu foloseasc extrem
de multe superlative. Sau chiar s renune definitiv la ele. Ce nseamn, de fapt, s foloseti
superlative? E o modalitate adesea uzitat, pentru c ine de o tendin binecunoscut a fiinei
umane, aceea de a exagera, de a exprima ct mai intens, ct mai colorat cu putin, un gnd, o
12
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
stare, de a descrie ct mai participativ un obiect, o fiin, o stare. Renunarea la superlative
recreeaz textul. l remotiveaz.
n prelungire, un scriitor, n urma criticilor primite ntr-un cadru instituionalizat, cerc
literar, cenaclu, atelier, universitate, crede c ar fi mai nimerit s estompeze suita
determinanilor, care uneori funcioneaz n regim de redundan absolut. Nu toi determinanii
vor fi exclui. tiina lui rezid acum n putina i voina de a selecta acei termeni pertineni
ntr-un anumit context, fr de care sensul ar avea de suferit. Cu ajutorul computerului se trece
la sublinierea tuturor determinanilor din text. Urmeaz etapa seleciei, care comport
msurarea acestora din punctul de vedere al coninutului, formei i uneori este analizat chiar
dimensiunea sau poziionarea lor n (con)text (postpunerea, antepunerea, intercalarea altor
lexeme ntre determinat i determinant).
Punei vocabularul n compartimentul de sus al trusei cu unelte i nu depunei niciun
efort contient de a-l mbunti. (O vei face n timp ce citii, desigur... dar la asta ajungem mai
trziu.) Unul dintre lucrurile cu adevrat rele pe care le putei face cnd scriei este s
mpopoonai vocabularul (subl. n.), cutnd cuvinte lungi pentru c v simii poate puin
ruinat de cele scurte pe care le tii. Asta e ca i cum ai mbrca un animal de cas n haine de
sear. Animalul e stnjenit, iar persoana care a comis acest act de nfrumuseare premeditat ar
trebui s fie i mai stnjenit. [...] inei minte c regula de baz a vocabularului este: folosete
primul cuvnt care-i vine n minte, dac e potrivit i colorat. [2]
Sigur c aceasta este situaia ideal: scriitorul contient de ceea ce trebuie s fac,
impulsionat, uneori n chip magic, de raiune. Fiecare scriitor are o teorie proprie relativ la
mecanismul de declanare a frazei, la procedeele de susinere a unei construcii romaneti.
Teoria se consolideaz pe msur ce textele sunt scrise. i fiindc textele sunt confecionate
din cuvinte, vor putea fi decelate, de bun seam, unele puncte comune n toate aceste teorii. La
nceput, scriitorul tatoneaz n cmpul vast al literaturii poteniale, ncearc tehnici noi sau
revine la cele vechi, reia teme, obsesii, personaje, taie pasaje ntregi, adaug, la cele scrise,
fragmente care pot sau nu s adere perfect la forma iniial a textului. [...] Flaubert avea, n
legtur cu stilul, o teorie: aceea a cuvntului potrivit (le mot juste). Iar cuvntul nimerit era
acela unicul care putea exprima perfect ideea. Obligaia scriitorului era de a-l gsi. Dar cum
tia c l-a nimerit? Asta i-o spunea auzul: cuvntul era juste cnd suna bine. Ajustarea aceea
perfect dintre fond i form dintre cuvnt i idee se traducea n armonie muzical. n
consecin, Flaubert i supunea toate frazele probei de la gueulade (a strigtului n gura mare, a
vociferrii). Ieea afar ca s citeasc rcnind cele scrise, pe o scurt alee mrginit de tei care
exist i acum acolo unde a fost csua lui de la Croisset: l'alle des gueulades (aleea
strigatului). Acolo citea aproape zbiernd cele scrise, i urechea i spunea dac nimerise, ori
dac trebuia s mai caute cuvinte i fraze pn la aflarea acelei perfeciuni artistice pe care a
urmrit-o cu o tenacitate fanatic, pn a atins-o. [3]
Scriitura i tehnica sunt aspectele de cpti ale formei literare. E de la sine neles c,
pentru a scrie, s zicem, o proz bun, cuvintele nu sunt suficiente. Observm lesne, i n cazul
n care vrem s scriem o poezie bun, cum cuvintele devin neputincioase. Cuvntului i mai
trebuie ceva pentru a se ntregi, pentru a se transforma n poezie, acea, probabil, fr vrst
intenie de bulversare a cadrului poetic tradiional. [4] O dimensiune aparte pe spaiul creia
s se manifeste liber. Un exemplu de cum se face poezie este George Bacovia. n Stane
burgheze (1946), Bacovia utilizeaz, n poeme textualizate pe vertical, din lexeme
13
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
predominant nominale (care haureaz cmpuri semantice proprii ntregii sale lirici), tehnica
atonalismului sau dodecafonismului. Tehnica dodecafonismului poate fi folosit uneori,
parial, pentru exprimarea strilor emoionale depresive, de groaz, a unor halucinaii, pentru
evocarea unor imagini fantastice, ca metod subordonat unei concepii generale realiste. [5] i
punctuaia forte contribuie la marcarea acestei deviaii a muzicalitii poetice.
Dac ar fi s dm un exemplu de constrngere extrem la care se poate nhma un
scriitor, am apela fr ezitare tot la Georges Prec, scriitorul francez care a conceput un roman,
La Disparition, publicat n 1969, fr s foloseasc mcar o dat litera e, despre care se tie c e
cea mai frecvent n francez. Constrngerile cele mai arbitrare pot fi de bun seam fixate, dar
scopul este cel care, pn la urm, face legea. Acel mare nzdrvan care a fost Georges Perec,
la un anumit moment din viaa lui a cultivat cu nostalgie ideea de a scrie o carte tot att de vast
ct i lumea. Apoi a neles c nu o putea face, i s-a mulumit, ntr-o carte ce se intituleaz,
ntocmai, Tentative d'puisement d'un lieu parisien, s descrie n direct tot ce se petrecuse n
place Saint-Suplice de la 18 la 20 octombrie 1974. Perec tie foarte bine c despre piaa aceea s-
au scris multe lucruri, dar i propune s descrie restul, ceea ce nici o carte n-a povestit,
totalitatea vieii cotidiene. Se aeaz pe o bncu, ntr-unul dintre cele dou baruri ale pieii, i
timp de dou zile noteaz tot ce vede, diferitele autobuze care trec, un japonez care-l
fotografiaz, un domn cu impermeabil verde; observ c toi trectorii au cel puin o mn
ocupat, cu o geant, o valijoar, sau cu mna unui copil, cu zgarda unui cine; nregistreaz
pn i trecerea unui domn care seamn cu Peter Sellers. La 2 p.m. ale lui 20 octombrie, se
oprete imposibil s epuizeze tot ce se ntmpl n oricare loc din lume i, la urma urmei,
crulia lui este de 60 de pagini i poate fi citit ntr-o jumtate de or. Afar de cazul n care
cititorul nu o degust lent timp de dou zile, ncercnd s-i imagineze fiece scen descris. Dar
n sensul sta n-am mai vorbi de lectur, ci de un timp al halucinrii. n acelai mod, putem s
folosim o hart geografic pentru a ne nchipui cltorii i aventuri extraordinare, dar n acest
caz harta a devenit pur stimulent, iar cititorul s-a transformat n narator. [6] De la desenul timid
al personajului kunderian, cruia cuvintele i sunt insuficiente n actul descrierii unei realiti, la
excentricitatea scriitorului francez, care vrea s se transforme n demiurg atoatetiutor, nu e
dect un spaiu cu o singur dimensiune, relativ uor de parcurs cnd se cere s explici n ce
rezid dificultatea de a-i nelege pe scriitori.
Atta chin, atta cenzur, pentru a obine un text care-i etaleaz lizibilitatea ntr-o form
bizar! tii ce este o lipogram? E un text n care se evit, cu bun tiin, folosirea unei anumite
litere lucru greu de realizat atunci cnd textul respectiv umple o carte ntreag. [7] i la noi,
avangarditii de factur suprarealist, Saa Pan i Moldov, spre exemplu, scriu mpreun un
roman [8] purtnd titlul Alfabet, n care toate cuvintele ncep cu aceeai liter, iar discursul se
coaguleaz dup principiul aliteraiei, ntr-o adevrat cascad de paronomasii. [9]
Herta Mller este i ea exersat n arta ineditului lexical i stilistic. Scriitoarea de etnie
german, nobelizat, tie s fac art din repetarea unui cuvnt. Cercul sau rotundul, prin
simbolistica lui, e ilimitat sau, mai bine zis, permite interpretarea sensului ca un parcurs
interminabil. n vrtejul lui rotund intr, pe milimetru ptrat, realiti divergente, multe (n
aparen?) incompatibile: mas, soare, tav, catarame, brar, ceas, nasturi, pupile, ziu,
ngheat, cup, unghii, monede, femei gravide, bastoane etc. M-am gndit i la zilele cnd
formele obiectelor din jur devin un supliciu pentru mine: m aez la masa din strad a unei
cafenele; masa e rotund. Deasupra mea strlucete un soare rotund. Vine chelneria cu o crp
14
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
umed i terge masa. Tava chelneriei e rotund, la fel i cataramele de la pantofii ei, brara,
ceasul de la mn. Nasturii de la bluz rotunzi; pupilele cprui din albul ochilor ei la fel. Pe
jumtate amuzat de rotunjimile unei zile, comand o ngheat, i-mi trece prin cap c forma ei
sferic va fi, desigur, n ton cu ziua. Cnd chelneria sosete cu ngheata, iat c i cupa n care
mi-o aduce e rotund, la fel i paharul cu ap, rotocoalele umede pe care le las pe mas.
Unghiile mi sunt rotunde. i, pn la urm, chiar i monedele cu care pltesc consumaia.
Astfel de aglomerri s-au produs i cu femei gravide, cu bastoane sau cu indivizi crora le lipsea
un deget. [10]
Aceste modaliti de a scoate din comun romanul sunt bizare numai dac mental nu
vrem s admitem c arta de a scrie i cea de a desena nu se exclud, ba chiar se suprapun n unele
aspecte. Cnd spunem despre un individ c are ochii migdalai, n prim instan ne vine n
minte imaginea migdalei. Avem tendina de a merge mai departe i de a desena aceast realitate.
De a glosa, n fond, n limitele unei realiti cunoscute. Cnd spunem are nasul coroiat ne
gndim la forma acestuia, care aduce cu a unui crlig. Aadar, figura geometric de referin ar
fi, n acest caz, un semicerc. Trupul uman, aa cum l descoper copiii, spre pild, e format, la
nceput, dintr-o serie de figuri geometrice de diferite mrimi: cercuri, ptrate, dreptunghiuri,
triunghiuri etc. Prin figuri geometrice ei povestesc precum ar face-o cu ajutorul cuvintelor.
Pentru cei dispui s treac dincolo de utilizarea spontan a cuvintelor n viaa de fiecare zi, s
mediteze, s-l urmreasc pe fiecare n parte, iar, apoi, n mbinri (sintagme, propoziii, fraze),
aa cum apare de obicei, ntrebrile i refleciile vor ntrece cu mult ateptrile. [11]
Romanele-colaj ale artistului plastic Max Ernst pot vorbi o limb mult mai accesibil
dect romanele formate din cuvinte. Desenele cuprinse ntre coperile unei cri vorbesc aa
cum numai cuvintele ar putea s-o fac. Cu meniunea: nu orice aranjare de cuvinte prinde
glas. Colajul este un procedeu de compunere folosit n pictur, muzic, literatur, constnd n
introducerea de elemente eterogene, de sine stttoare, cu scopul de a crea contraste
imprevizibile. [12] n literatura francez, scriitori precum Alain Robbe-Grillet, Claude Simon,
Michel Butor etc., catalogai la ceea ce s-a numit, n istoria literaturii, nouveau nouveau roman,
sunt creatori de cri-colaj, de texte-bricolaj, un fel de structuri verbale disparate aflate ntr-o
permanent cutare a unitii (primordiale). Micarea postmodernist i revendic i ea acest
procedeu inedit, mereu n goana dup semnificaii suplimentare.
Evitarea frazelor lungi. Puini scriitori reuesc s mblnzeasc frazele lungi (Marcel
Proust, Milan Kundera, Camil Petrescu, George Clinescu, Mircea Horia Simionescu,
Gheorghe Crciun, Mircea Crtrescu, Daniel Vighi). De obicei, acestea sunt caracterizate prin
coeren sczut, repetiii inutile, subordonate multiple introduse prin pronume relative,
intercalri i paranteze explicative care ambiguizeaz semantismul.
A arta cum se poate scinda o fraz lung n propoziii mai scurte, lund ca suport
fragmente din romanul clinescian, spre exemplu, e o lecie de reinventare a limbii romne.
Textul se va remodela din punct de vedere gramatical, semantic i stilistic, dar nu va fi, n aceste
condiii, niciodat, identic cu primul. E un alt text. Forma lui e alta, chiar dac, n linii mari,
rescrierea a ncercat s nu denatureze sematismul iniial. n romanele lui Daniel Vighi exist,
adesea, perioade impresionante, fraze ntinse i pe dou pagini, amintind de arta povestitului la
cronicarii romni. Un adevrat arsenal de procedee narative trebuie scos, n acest caz, la atac.
Logica se poate oricnd destrma dac un ochi treaz nu vegheaz permanent asupra ei. Iat un
exemplu n acest sens:
15
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Frumoase locuri, zice singurtatea mea, eu la voi m uit i sunt furnic, i m plimb
peste piatra din iarba de sub arborele cel btrn i din apropierea bncii pe care st Ucunu,
protagonistul, i sunt furnic, i el, protagonistul meu, este nfiarea mea pentru ceilali, n
timp ce eu sunt acum psruic mrunt i caut prin crengile arborelui stuia btrn, nu departe
de ferma agricol de producie Rappenhof, din statul Baden-Wrtemberg, i ciugulesc de pe
mugurii desfcui cojile cele dulci, m plimb iute-iute pe crengi i ciugulesc cojile mugurilor
celor descojii, umflai, rmai n urm cu mbobocirea, rmai foarte n urm, c acuica e luna
mai, eu stau pe banc, alturi st protagonistul i n deprtare, pe cmp, se vd nite cai cu doi
oameni, caii pasc i cei doi oameni se uit la ei, este departe i nu se vede dac oamenii aceia
sunt tineri, sunt btrni, sunt brbai, sunt femei, se vd doar siluetele lor de oameni lng
siluetele cailor, i sunt dealuri pe aici, localitatea sau ferma se numete Rappenhof, aa se
numete localitatea unde st domnul Ucunu pe o banc sub un arbore btrn, i Nathalie,
colega lui de la Akademie, mult se mir c adic de ce, c adic de unde Rappenhof, c aa ceva
nu exist prin mprejurimi, mult se mir i pe bun dreptate, din cauz c ea tie, c merge zilnic
cu maina ca s duc fetele la coal, pe Lise i pe Zoe, i tie c nu exist niciun fel de
Rappenhof; unde-i fi ajuns dumneata, domnule Ucunu, n ce realitate paralel ai stat pe o banc
sub un arbore btrn cu mugurii umflai trziu, acum, la sfrit de aprilie, cnd mprejurimile
sunt deja din belug parfumate de flori de soc, de flori de liliac, de alte flori albe i roz-bonbon
ale unor arbuti banali, att de banali nct nu le tii numele, sunt alturi de tine de o via, i tu
eti n alt realitate, ai intrat altundeva, ntr-o alt dimensiune, eti n inutul de dincolo i stai la
margine de ferm, acolo, pe lumea cealalt, i-i pare c eti acas, acolo, pe banc, i e aa ca i
cnd ai fi pe dealurile de la Baraca, unde e podgoria Aradului, sus pe deal, acolo sunt ceva
ferme, acolo sunt i cai i siluetele unor oameni-nici-copii-nici-femei-nici-brbai, te uii la tine,
stai pe banca de la marginea dealului unde este localitatea Rappenhof i te vezi, te uii la tine, la
faa ta n lume, la aspectul tu, la masca i dimensiunea Ucunu a existenei tale, i aluneci, iei
din ea ca dintr-o goace, redevii, cazi n subiectivitatea persoanei nti. [13] Aezat confortabil
ntr-un prezent inedit, n spaiul-paradis al creaiei la care scriitorii i artitii rvnesc de cnd
lumea, dar i ntr-un trecut cu mai multe straturi, Daniel Vighi se decripteaz n pagin fr
menajamente, mnat de sentimentul acut al nedesvririi de sine. Autorul are o viziune aproape
animist asupra lumii. Oscilarea ntre dou lumi, una vie, cealalt moart, alctuit din chipuri
defilnd uor pe firul amintirii, se petrece permanent sub prezena protectoare i mobilizatoare a
naturii.
Cum dm putere unui cuvnt? La aceast ntrebare doar scriitorii mari pot rspunde.
Iat ce scrie Kundera despre folosirea cuvntului mnstire ntr-una din creaiile lui Stendhal:
Dac nu-i este dat omului s triasc mpreun cu fiina iubit i s subordoneze totul
dragostei, i rmne a doua posibilitate de a-i scpa Creatorului: s mearg la mnstire. i
Agnes i amintete de-o fraz din romanul Mnstirea din Parma de Stendhal: se va retrage la
mnstirea din Parma. Fabrice a plecat; s-a retras la mnstirea din Parma. Nicieri, pe tot
parcursul romanului, nu apare nicio mnstire; i totui, aceast unic fraz din ultima pagin a
crii e att de important, nct dup ea i-a intitulat Stendhal celebrul su roman; cci elul
final al tuturor aventurilor lui Fabrice era mnstirea; un loc ascuns de lume i de oameni.
Cndva, la mnstire se duceau oamenii aflai n dezacord cu lumea, oameni care nu-i
asumau nici necazurile, nici bucuriile ei. Dar ntruct secolul nostru refuz s recunoasc
dreptul oamenilor de a fi n dezacord cu lumea, mnstirile n care putea s se refugieze Fabrice
16
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
nu mai exist. Au disprut locurile ascunse de lume i de oameni. N-a rmas dup ele dect
amintirea, idealul mnstirii, visul mnstirii. Mnstirea. Se va retrage la mnstirea din
Parma. Mirajul mnstirii. [14] Iat cum, un cuvnt aparent fr greutate numete, de fapt,
calea cltoriei textuale. Cuvntul mnstire ese fir cu fir, discret, n umbra marilor ntrebri
existeniale, ntregul roman stendhalian.
n literatura romn, Dicionarul onomastic al lui Mircea Horia Simionescu explic,
poate cel mai bine, cum se construiesc, pornind de la i din cuvinte, romanele, cum e posibil ca
un text s reziste prin muzicalitatea i consistena unor vocabule. Acest dicionar atipic este, de
fapt, un roman al preparativelor pentru scrierea unui roman, dar i un roman al pulverizrii
romanului (genul ca atare). Sub cupola alfabetic extrem de fragil a acestui ansamblu, autorul
face de toate: i ncearc mina, copiaz pagini de excelen, teoretizeaz, construiete mici
piese epice ncheiate la toi nasturii, face liste i fie de personaje, unele posibile, altele absurde
sau fantasmagorice, imagineaz cri, titluri, autori, radiografiaz persoane din imediata sa
apropiere, pune n funciune prin cele mai neateptate jocuri de cuvinte mecanismele intime
ale limbajului, construiete identiti heteronime, inventeaz familii, neamuri, ri, gloseaz pe
marginea unor titluri i idei, ia n rspr temele mari i trateaz n registru grav subiecte minore,
i dezvluie condiia de muritor, cu neajunsurile, temerile, plcerile i aprehensiunile ei. El e un
scrib, un grefier, un reporter, un diarist, un degusttor de art, un poetician, un parodist, un
meloman, un filolog, un istoriograf, un colportor de tiri, un copist, n cele din urm un scriitor.
mbrac toate identitile celui care scrie, toate identitile celui care citete (cri i scene de
via), toate identitile celui care aude i vede, pipie i miroase, schimbnd mereu
perspectivele, distanele, atitudinile, mijloacele i instrumentele.
E un fel de om-orchestr, un decatlonist al culturii, un Bouvard i un Pcuchet ai lumii
postmoderne, reunii ntr-un perspicace cabotin al discursului, dar nainte de toate un aman al
onomasticii i al imaginaiei caracterologice. El tie c n spaiul literaturii oamenii se fac cu
cuvinte, pentru c oamenii sunt sau ajung s fie expresia propriilor lor nume. Dicionarul lui
Mircea Horia Simionescu reprezint o lovitur de graie dat personajului clasic, gndit ca un
om n carne i oase, cu cap, mini i picioare, care se nate, triete i moare. Personajele pot s
fie n cazul su i cri, creioane, fluturi, tunuri, insecte, mecanisme, medicamente, pentru c
n realitatea numelor pe care le poart ele pot s semene cu toate acestea. Suntem nevoii s
recunoatem c, dup Balzac, Rebreanu, Dostoievski, personajele nu mai pot semna cu
realitatea uman, ci cel mult cu substana lor antroponimic. Un specialist n lingvistic sau n
filozofia limbajului ne-ar putea probabil convinge c de la onomastic la ontologie drumul se
desfoar ntr-un singur sens, cel al arbitrarietii. [15]
Sunt binevenite parantezele?
Ce nu mai ncape n fraz, surplusul informaional, e adesea pus de scriitori, romantici,
realiti, existenialiti, avangarditi, postmoderni sau de alt factur, n parantez. Sau, ntr-o
alt formul, sub ambalajul pretenios al notelor de subsol. Gramaticile sugereaz, aproape n
unanimitate, c semantismul mesajului nu se diminueaz prin renunarea la paranteze. Acestea
funcioneaz n regim de inciden la nivel frastic, sunt, de obicei, lesne de decodat.
Parantezele nchid: a. un cuvnt, b. un grup de cuvinte, c. o propoziie, d. o fraz. [16] n
retoric, figur de construcie cu implicaii semantice, form de hiperbat, care se realizeaz prin
intercalarea n enun a unei propoziii/ unui cuvnt strine de construcia iniial a frazei; de
17
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
obicei, aceast ntrerupere a fluxului sintactic normal cuprinde o reflecie, o sentin sau o
reacie emoional i posed intonaie independent: Mais un fripon d'enfant (cet ge est sans
piti)/ Prit la fronde, et d'un coup tua plus d' moiti/ La volatille malheureuse Dar un
trengar de copil (vrsta aceasta e fr mil)/ Lu pratia i, dintr-o lovitur, aproape ucise/
nefericita zburtoare (La Fontaine). [17]
Editorii numesc parantezele, cu un termen aparinnd jargonului profesional, buri,
adic materie aluvionar, adus firesc n fluxul gndirii i la care se poate cu uurin renuna.
Pentru binele textului, desigur.
Ct despre opinia scriitorilor, vizavi de acest element constitutiv al textului, ei vor
ncerca, fr ndoial, s-i apere produsul, apelnd la noima noilor tehnici de construcie a
romanului. Paranteza nu este nicidecum o nfloritur, ea e aezat n text pentru a prelungi sau
fortifica o idee, pentru a modela mai bine o descriere. Pentru a arta, pe alocuri, superioritatea
autorului n raport cu legile textului. El e decis s stpneasc o lume infinit uznd de toate
nsemnele scrisului, orict de bizare ar prea unele dintre ele. Dintotdeauna scriitorii au fost
tentai s rup echilibrul frazei prin intruziunea unor paranteze. n actul lecturii, ele pot trece
neobservate (se sare voit peste pasajul care conine o parantez), nu ntotdeauna cu ctig de
cauz asupra cititorului. Exist, inevitabil, momente de neatenie sau de atenie slbit fa de
text, ca atunci cnd lecturi inadecvate rezult din anumite obsesii. nsi starea de implicare
poate fi rspunztoare pentru unele lecturi greite: cititorul profund implicat poate neglija unele
poriuni de text sau anumite nuane (care i se pare c-i distrag atenia), cum se ntmpl cnd te
lai purtat de aciunea unui roman i sari peste un pasaj aparent mai puin semnificativ, o
descriere, s zicem, care totui, poate conine informaii eseniale. Asemenea accidente sunt
ntodeauna posibile pe parcursul lecturii, mai ales n timpul lecturii implicate. [18] Accidentul
care const n omiterea, premeditat, de cele mai multe ori, a parantezelor din actul lecturii,
privit ca o eroare, ar putea fi corectat la o recitire a textului.
n romanul lui Milan Kundera: Gestul acela nu a dezvluit nicio esen a farmecului
doamnei s-ar putea spune, mai degrab, c doamna m-a fcut s cunosc farmecul unui gest.
Cci gestul nu poate fi considerat proprietatea unui individ, nici creaia acestuia (omul nefiind
n stare s-i creeze un gest propriu, absolut original, ce-i aparine numai lui), nici mcar
instrumentul acestuia; adevrul e tocmai pe dos: gesturile sunt cele ce se servesc de noi, iar noi
suntem instrumentele, marionetele i ntruchiprile lor. [19]
Fiecare timp al enumerrii, care se declaneaz dup semnul grafic dou puncte, poate fi
punct de plecare pentru un alt episod al naraiei. Concentrarea acestora n enumerare sau,
alteori, n limitele ambarasante ale unei paranteze, d seama despre insignifiana sau,
dimpotriv, importana lor la nivelul textului n ansamblul su. Semnul grafic dou puncte, care
apare cu frecven mare n textul romanesc al lui Kundera, devine amprent, o caracteristic a
stilului su. Paranteza, de asemenea.
Inconveniente de ordin tehnic n elaborarea frazelor lungi, unele insesizabile nici mcar
de autor: nesincronizarea perfect a timpilor frazei; greeli involuntare de acord; ambiguizarea
sensului prin aa-zisul fenomen al disoluiei textuale. Ce inculc la cititorul lene acest demers?
Mai mult ca sigur, abandonul frazelor lungi. De aici, lectura n salturi, incomplet,
nedesvrit.
La Marcel Proust, perioadele i dezvluie muzicalitatea i vibraia interioar n varianta
original. Traducerea lor nu poate fi perfect, aadar se vor pierde, cu siguran, nuane,
18
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
modulaii, timpi etc. Interesant ar fi s se pun ntr-un tabel comparativ fraza proustian n
francez, limba n care a fost scris, i varianta romneasc, adic traducerea, pentru a constata,
ntr-un final, inerentele diferene de melodicitate, de tensiune a cuvntului scris, a cuvntului
trit, de arborescen a imaginilor. Umberto Eco susine o idee, reluat n litera i spiritul ei de
H.-R. Patapievici, ntr-una din conferinele [20] sale, anume c numai dup apariia scrisului a
fost posibil iscarea unui monument de memorie spontan, cum este romanul de mari
dimensiuni n cutarea timpului pierdut de Marcel Proust. Sensibilitatea infinitezimal de tip
proustian i-a gsit n exprimarea scris un suport propice de afirmare. Proust, un artist
incontestabil al literelor, a reuit s fixeze prin scris ceea ce scap esenialmente doar
scrisului. [21] Inconfundabila muzic a memoriei spontane survoleaz actul scrisului, asemeni
psrilor de prad ale nlimilor, n grava ncercare de a reface ct mai fidel, n pagini de
literatur autentic, trirea i gndirea autorului.
Impresionant rmne experiena unui deinut politic, Aleksander Wat, care l-a
redescoperit pe Proust n anii petrecui ntr-o nchisoare sovietic (Lubianka din Moscova), la
nceputul celui de-al doilea rzboi mondial (1940-1941). Memoriile sale postume conin pagini
profunde despre actul lecturii i crile vitale, care au capacitatea de a reda npstuitului, n
condiii existeniale degradante, sperana, fantezia, libertatea interioar. [22]
Cioran scria n eseurile sale, la un moment dat, despre Proust i a sa scriitur: Eliminai
funciile memoriei prin care el se trudete s ne ofere triumful asupra devenirii i nu mai rmne
n noi dect ritmul ce marcheaz etapele delicvecenei noastre. Prin urmare, a te mpotrivi
nimicirii este o impolitee fa de sine. Starea de creatur nu mai mulumete. O tim la fel de
bine att prin Proust ct i prin Magistrul Eckhart; cu cel dinti, ne este dat voluptatea vidului
prin timp, cu cel de-al doilea, prin eternitate. Vid psihologic; vid metafizic. Unul, ncununare a
introspeciei; cellalt, a meditaiei. [23] Ca ntodeauna, frazele aproape ultimative ale eseistului
romn nu fac dect s incite mai tare la reflecie i chiar la negare. De orice baricad a
interpretrii ne-am afla, un lucru e cert: modalitatea proustian de expresie triete i azi, fiind
unic i irepetabil.
Regula eliminrii. Merge mn-n mn cu legea constrngerii. Constrngere nseamn
s-i impui ceva, s nu te lai manipulat de tentaii. Eliminare nseamn a scoate din text un
cuvnt, o fraz, chiar paragrafe ntregi dup ce textul i-a creat o coeren a lui, dup ce s-a
structurat ntr-un anumit fel. Constrngere i eliminare nu sunt sinonime totale. Acesta poate fi
un act dureros, frustrant pentru creator. Bisturiul intuiiei lui va trebui s acioneze milimetric,
excerptnd materia moart sau nesemnificativ pentru ntreg. Nu tot ce am scris e demn de a fi
publicat n form brut. Urmeaz, n actul conceperii unui text, relurile, uneori nenumrate,
istovitoare. La captul acestui drum, ceea ce prea la nceput important, se poate estompa, pn
la dispariie total chiar. Textul se construiete din mers, i impune propriile reguli. De
asemenea, nu toat avalana de idei care ne asediaz la un moment dat se va plia pe forma final
a textului.
Pertinena folosirii unor termeni (exotici) n text. Spre exemplu, cuvntul ofran este
susceptibil de apariii ntr-un anumit tip de discurs. Din start i limitm aria de utilizare. De la
acest cuvnt, romna a nscocit, din cte tim, doar o expresie, doar o unitate frazeologic: Ce
tie ranul la ce-i bun ofranul?, cu folosire puin frecvent i nemenionat adesea n
dicionarele romnei. Cum lesne se observ, frazeologismul e construit dup legile unei
sonoriti interioare. Cultivat n unele ri arabe, printre care Iranul, ofranul se obine anevoios
19
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
dintr-o plant cu aparena florilor mov ale brnduelor din pdurile rii noastre. Din pistilul
acestor flori delicate se extrage manual ofranul, o delicates n cmrile occidentalilor, scump
i foarte rvnit pe pieele din toat lumea. Are culoarea roie. E un praf rou asemntor cu
boiaua noastr. Dac ne referim la poezia arghezian, vom constata c poetul de la Mrior l
folosete o singur dat, n urmtoarele versuri: Fetele, albinele/ Au furat sulfinele,/ rna de
soare,/ De pe flori uoare,/ Pulberea de lun,/ De pe mtrgun,/ Scrumul de ofran,/ Nea de
mrghiran,/ De pe izma-crea/ Broboane de cea,/ Ln de tmie/ i smirn, molie / Soiuri
de lumin/ Fcut fin. (ciclul Crticic de sear, poemul Miere i cear, II, 17). n
compania unui alt ingredient cu sonoritate exotic: mrghiran. Prin urmare, l consider inapt
de a satisface contexte poetice multiple. Un cuvnt nepoetic sau cu potenial sczut de
poeticitate?
Deconstrucia textului literar presupune i excerptarea unor termeni asemntori lui
ofran. Spre exemplu, ingredientele pot oferi o palet vast de studiu aplicat. Aproape c nu
exist text poetic sau romanesc care s nu apeleze la puterile stilistice, semantice, culturale,
antropologice (i de alt natur, probabil) ale acestor vocabule. ofran ne introduce ntr-o alt
lume, ntr-o alt cultur. Posibil ca turcii s-l fi adus la noi. ofran se preteaz mai cu seam la
secvene descriptive. Lectura unor traduceri din autori arabi ar fi util n acest sens.
Atunci cnd ne documentm asiduu asupra unui anumit subiect, cum e, spre pild, cel
ce ine de gastronomie, n crile uitate ale literaturii romne vom gsi, cu siguran, fapte
lingvistice sau detalii, mai multe dect speram s aflm sau dect ne-ar putea oferi textele
prezentului, orict de generoase ar fi ele. Iat mrturisirea Sandei Niescu, relativ la acest
adevr: Dup cteva decenii, redescopr cu bucurie Pe drumuri de munte de Calistrat Hoga,
n ediia modest din 1988. Gndul m duce la un text al lui Mircea Zaciu fin cunosctor n
ale gastronomiei n care pomenea de ceva esenial, acel lucru fr de care o mas nu e cu
adevrat mas: ...plcerea zace n ceremonial, mai mult dect n faptul n sine al mncrii. Cel
mai simplu fel de bucate precum hribii pregtii de printele Ghermnu spre deliciul n
primul rnd vizual i olfactiv al lui Hoga se mprtete din acest secret sim ritualic. [24]
Am descoperit de curnd o autoare interesant, Elif Shafak [25], tradus la noi, care
cultiv acest gen de detaliu textual, s-i zicem ingredientul narativ ideal. Spre exemplu, cele 18
capitole ale crii au ca titluri mirodenii i semine, plante i fructe, cu excepia ultimului,
desemnnd o otrav ucigtoare. [26] A scrie un text de literatur nseamn, metaforic vorbind,
a-l impregna, de la prima pn la ultima liter, cu zeci i sute de arome. Laboratorul creaiei
ascunde ingrediente de un veritabil exotism. n vrful peniei, care haureaz pagina alb, st
puterea aromelor. n actul alegerii lor, talentul scriitorului.
Referine bibliografice
[1] ***, Dicionar de tiine ale limbii, Bucureti, Editura Nemira & Co, 2005, p. 455.
[2] Stephen King, Misterul regelui. Despre scris, Editura Nemira, 2007, p. 114.
[3] Mario Vargas Llosa, Scrisori ctre un tnr romancier, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas,
2003, p. 43-44.
[4] Sperana Sofia Milancovici, De la Benjamin Fundoianu la Benjamin Fondane, Arad,
Vasile Goldi University Press, 2011, p. 161.
20
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
[5] ***, Dicionar enciclopedic romn, vol. II, D-J, Bucureti, Editura Pedagogic, 1964, p.
144.
[6] Umberto Eco, ase plimbri prin pdurea narativ, Constana, Editura Pontica, 2006. p.
81-82.
[7] Altfel despre altceva, n Dilemateca, anul II, nr. 16, septembrie 2007, p. 13.
[8] Saa Pan, Prozopoeme, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1971.
[9] Ovidiu Morar, Avangardismul romnesc, Bucureti, Editura Fundaiei Culturale Ideea
European, 2005, p. 169.
[10] Herta Mller, Regele se-nclin i ucide, traducere i note de Alexandru Al. ahighian,
Iai, Editura Polirom, 2005, p. 168.
[11] Florina-Maria Bcil, Omonimia n limba romn. Privire monografic, Timioara,
Editura Excelsior Art, 2007, p. 11.
[12] Sorin Prvu (coord.), Dicionar de postmodernism. Monografii i corespondene
tematice, Iai, Institutul European, 2005, p. 49.
[13] Daniel Vighi, Misterele Castelului Solitude sau despre singurtate la vreme de iarn,
Prefa de Adriana Babei, Iai, Editura Polirom, 2004, p. 202-203.
[14] Milan Kundera, Nemurirea, traducere din ceh de Jean Grosu, Bucureti, Humanitas,
2003, p. 297-298.
[15]http://209.85.135.104/search?q=cache:cqymCMTNTfQJ:www.observatorcultural.ro/informatiiarticol
. phtml %3Fxid%3D5603%26print%3Dtrue+onomastica+literar%C4%83&hl=ro&ct=clnk&cd=4&gl=ro
[16] Corneliu Crciun, Gramatica limbii romne, Oradea, Editura GrafNet, 2004, p. 387.
[17] ***, Dicionar de tiine ale limbii, p. 373.
[18] Matei Clinescu, Locuri: un condamnat politic recitete Proust, n A citi, a reciti. Ctre
o poetic a (re)lecturii, Iai, Polirom, 2003, p.181.
[19] Milan Kundera, op. cit., p.10.
[20] Horia-Roman Patapievici, Argumentul mpotriva lui Platon, n Despre scris, ascultare i
imaginaie, n lectura autorului, Bucureti, Humanitas, 2007.
[21] Ibidem.
[22] Matei Clinescu, lucr. cit., p. 116.
[23] E.M. Cioran, Eseuri, antologie, traducere i cuvnt nainte de Modest Morariu, Cartea
Romneasc, 1988, p. 84.
[24] Sanda Niescu, Hribii printelui Ghermnu, n Dilemateca, anul II, nr. 16,
septembrie 2007, p. 44.
[25] Elif Shafak, Bastarda Istanbulului, trad. de Ada Tnas, Polirom, 2007.
[26] Elisabeta Lsconi, mpria femeilor, n Adevrul literar & artistic, anul XVI, nr. 882,
miercuri, 1 august 2007, p. 13.
21
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE EMITTER-RECEIVER RELATIONSHIP IN THE BIBLICAL DISCOURSE
Felicia Raluca TOMA, Associate Professor, PhD, Valahia University of Trgovite
Abstract: The parables of Solomon stand as a didactic text, which displays visible
argumentative strategies and a persuasively coherent discourse.
Keywords: biblical proverb, didactic text, argumentative techniques, discourse
Pildele lui Solomon reprezint un text didactic mai mult dect oricare altul din Biblie,
cu strategii argumentative vizibile 1, cci fac parte din arsenalul obinuit al nvturilor de
tip popular. Singura excepie este reprezentat, prin inseria referentului divin n ordinea laic,
obinuit, a nvturilor despre lume i via. Dac, ns, n enunurile reprezentate de diverse
versete care au caracter de proverb n nelesul actual i uzual al termenului, precum este cazul
lui 10, 19, nlocuirea tacit a unui termen laic cu unul din dogma cretin (greeal cu pcat)
constituie o mostr de persuasiune, n preambulul ntregii cri, nu este vorba despre nici un
fel de subtilitate, cci trecerea de la un plan la altul se face n mod direct, declarat, sub forma
unei definiii formulate dup toate canoanele logicii aristotelice: A este X genul proxim,
caracterizat prin Y diferena specific. n felul acesta, fondul vechi de nvtur oral,
popular, cu caracter general uman, este adjudecat de ctre nvturi care propovduiesc
cuvntul nvtorului Suprem, Iisus Hristos. ncadrarea n noua ordine este reluat i
amplificat, detaliat, astfel nct discursul persuasiv i afl coerena prin nlnuirea
diferitelor secvene presrate de-a lungul celor 31 de capitole. La precizarea definitorie din P
1, 7 (Frica de Dumnezeu este nceputul nelepciunii) se adaug explicaia reluat i mult
amplificat, detaliat din 2, 2-8:
Plecndu-i urechea la nelepciune i nclinnd inima spre buna chibzuial,
Atunci vei pricepe temerea de Domnul i vei dobndi cunotinele de Dumnezeu
Cci Domnul d nelepciune; din gura lui izvorte tiina i prevederea; El
pstreaz mntuirea pentru oamenii cei drepi; El este scut pentru cei ce umbl n
calea desvririi;
El pzete cile dreptii i pe crarea celor cuvioi st de veghe.
n stilul redundant cu care suntem obinuii din ambele tipuri de texte populare laice,
pe de o parte, i biblice, pe de alt parte cu ateptatele imagini metaforice, secvena cotat
reprezint textul tipic pentru operaia de construcie a dogmei din materialul brut al
nvturilor impersonale, general umane. Dup conectarea referentului (numit mai sus Fiul
meu 2, 1 i reluat prin pronumele personale i prin desinenele verbale corespunztoare), se
trece la explicitarea ideii de nelepciune, n general, n 2, 2 (i n 2, 3-4, pe care nu le-am
1
n termeni pragmatici, asemenea enunuri se caracterizeaz prin distanare mare ntre subiectul enuntor i
enunul produs, cci subiectul i propune s devin emitor universal, obiectiv, generalizat. Cf. C. Dragomir,
2006, p. 242.
22
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
mai citat aici). Procedeul este acela al utilizrii unei serii sinonimice n contextualizare, prin
apelul la comparaii, totul fiind ncadrat n imagistica specific locului i timpului respectiv.
n aceste trei versete, nelepciunea este reluat prin (cvasi) sinonimele : buna-chibzuin,
prevederea, buna-cugetare, iar imaginile bazate pe comparativ-standard sunt acelea din sfera
dinamic:
Vei cuta [nelepciunea] ntocmai ca pe argint i o vei spa ca i pe o comoar
(2, 4).
Urmeaz atribuirea ideii de nelepciune, cu o continuare a seriei sinonimice a acesteia
tiin, bun judecat, desvrire i cu un spor de rigoare argumentativ. Dou perspective
cea temporal i cea spaial confer for persuasiv acestei plasri n centru a persoanei
divine ab quo. Ele se materializeaz din conectorii care stabilesc specificul sintactic al
frazelor-suport din ntregul context argumentativ. Prima secven aceea care viza aducerea
fiului sub ascultarea Domnului - este una eminamente condiional:
.de vei primi
Dac vei chema
Dac o vei cuta
Urmtoarea secven mbin perspectiva temporal cu cea spaial. Temporalitatea
domin nivelul larg sintactic, cci introduce fraze ntregi printr-un subtil joc ntre cnd i
atunci, care conduc, logic, spre un enun conclusiv. n 2, 9-12, cele dou serii de conectori se
succed, n versiunea B, ntr-un adevrat chiasm:
ABBA:
Atunci tu vei nelege...
Cnd nelepciunea se va sui...
Cnd buna chibzuial va veghea...
Atunci tu vei fi izbvit...
Rspunsul conclusiv, dedus deja din nlnuirea acestor tipuri de fraz, este formulat
prin insistena retoric i cu explicaii redundante, dar obinuite n stilul oratoric la orice nivel
i variant a limbii, introduse prin conectorul cel mai potrivit cu esena mesajului, n 2, 21-22:
Cci cei drepi vor locui pmntul...
Perspectiva spaial este realizat prin termeni, expresii, structuri care asigur
coeziunea lexico-morfologic i sintactic n interiorul enunurilor largi temporale (cu nuane
condiionale i cu finalitate subliminal conclusiv). Practic, este vorba despre utilizarea unui
alt ir de imagini care definesc ideea de nelepciune, neleas ca fric/iubire de Dumnezeu:
- calea desvririi
- cile dreptii
- crarea celor cuvioi
- calea cea dreapt
- potecile binelui .a.m.d.
n versetele urmtoare (2, 12-22) aceste imagini, construite toate pe metafora
23
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
drumului continu s fie folosite, n contexte mai mult sau mai puin similare celor din centrul
secvenei argumentative analizate aici. Exist, mai nti, ca de obicei, imaginea negativ a
cilor binelui:
Calea celui ru
Cei ce prsesc cile cele drepte
Drumuri ntunecoase
Poteci ntortocheate
Crri strmbe.
Apoi, ntre cele dou tipuri de ci se afl raportul cu divinitatea: cei ce se apropie de El
tiu calea dreapt, cei ce se ndeprteaz, rtcesc. Cci El este izvorul:
...din gura Lui izvorsc tiina i prevederea (2, 6).
Acest enun constituie focusul ntregului capitol i el ne sun cunoscut, cci nseamn
nceputul i sfritul, alfa i omega, al ntregii dogme cretine. Dac este adevrat, ceea ce
spun exegeii cei vechi (nvtorii, doctorii etc.) i cei moderni, n Vechiul Testmanet i Noul
Testament corespund (i rspund) peste timp, peste spaii i, mai ales, peste dogme, atunci
gsim aici corespondentul nceputului Evangheliei dup Ioan care trateaz aceeai tem a
nceputului nceputurilor, adic a identificrii Cuvntului, Raiunii, Existenei cu ideea de
Dumnezeu.
La nceput a fost Cuvntul i cuvntul era la Dumnezeu i Cuvntul Dumnezeu era
(Ioan 1, 1).
Astfel de aplicaii ale tehnicii contextulizrii n scopul canalizrii fondului de
nelepciune popular spre dogma cretin ntlnim mereu de-a lungul ntregii cri a Pildelor.
n unele, trimiterile la divinitate sunt mai clare i reiau, n general, imagistica obinuit a cii
drepte. Este cazul capitolului al 3-lea, care pare o prelungire a celui de-al 2-lea, n acest sens:
Pe toate cile tale gndete la Dnsul i El i va netezi toate crrile tale (3, 6)*.
n altele, referina este mai vag, cci nu se tie dac tatl dttor de bune nvturi
este cel biologic, pmntesc, ori cel ceresc. Dezvoltarea enunului din 4.1 n 3, 3-4 pare a
confirma mai degrab prima ipotez:
Ascultai, fiilor, nvtura tatlui... (4, 1).
Cci i eu am fost fecior la tatl meu, singur, i cu duioie iubit de mama mea i el m
nva i zicea... (4, 3-4).
n acest caz, originea nvturii pare una pmnteasc, iar identitatea tatlui pare
plasat n ordine uman:
Iat nceputul nelepciunii: agonisete nelepciunea i cu preul a tot ce ai, capt
priceperea (4, 7).
n tot acest capitol, imaginea divinitii care pzete drumul drept al fiilor ei de pe
Avem din nou o figur stilistic din clasa chiasmului, bazat pe topica de tip AB/BA: ci, Dnsul, El, crri.
*
24
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
pmnt apare o singur dat, n final:
Cci crrile drepte le pzete Domnul, iar cele strmbe sunt ci rele.
El va face drepte cile tale i mergerea ta o va face s fie n pace (4, 28-29).
Procesul referinelor duble Tatl pmnesc/Tatl ceresc re repet aproape aidoma
n cap. al. 5-lea:
Fiul meu, ia aminte la nelepciunea mea... (5, 1).
vs.
Cci crrile omului sunt naintea Domnului i El ia seama la toate cile lui (5, 21).
n urmtoarele dou capitole, 6 i 7, ca i n 133, 26, 27, referinele divine lipsesc,
practic. Capitolele din prima treime a crii sunt dominate de acelai incipit: Fiul meu/Fiilor
etc., fr corespondentul divin din final. Totui, n cele mai multe capitole, exist aceast
echilibrare a termenilor de referin, cu obinuita ambiguitate creat de trecerea de la vorbirea
direct la cea indirect. n urmtoarele dou treimi ale crii, incipitul n vocativ dispare, iar
trimiterea la instana divin poate fi mai bogat sau mai puin bogat, discursul fiind axat mai
degrab pe coninutul pildelor, dect pe actanii lor.
Putem concluziona din aceast trecere n revist a relaiei dintre Emitor i Destinatar
c ambii fac parte din sfera canalului, n principiu.
Concluzia noastr se bazeaz pe atestrile din incipitul capitolelor 1, 25, 30 i 31. n
primele dintre acestea se spune, textual, c nvturile aparin lui Solomon, fiul lui David
(P. 1, 1). Se nelege de aici fie c David este Emitorul i Solomon este Receptorul, fie c
Solomon reia pildele tatlui su i le adreseaz fiului su, dup cum rezult din 4, 3 (Cci i
eu am fost fecior la tatl meu...). Din 25, 1 nelegem c Solomon a regrupat ceea ce au cules
din popor supuii i naintaii si:
i acestea sunt pildele lui Solomon, pe care le-au adunat oamenii lui Iezechia, regele
Iuda
n sfrit, capitolele 30-31 reprezint clar relaia Printe-emitor-copil-receptor, cel
din urm devenind, la rndul su, Emitor pentru generaiile urmtoare. n cap. 30 este vorba
despre relaia Tat-Fiu (Cuvintele lui Agur, fiul lui Iache din Massa, 30, 1), iar n cap. 31
despre relaia Mam-Fiu (Cuvintele lui Samuel, regele din Massa, cu care mama sa l
nva, 31, 1).
n toate cazurile, Fiul i multiplic Destinatarul, cci n calitatea sa de rege, el se
adreseaz att fiului su biologic direct, ct i supuilor lui, care trebuie s-l socoteasc
Printe pmntesc, a crui nelepciune se constituie din relaia privilegiat cu Divinitatea.
Procedeele lexico-semantice i sintactico-stilistice sunt dublate de strategii argumentative
uzuale: repetiii, simetrii, metaforizri, figuri ale gndirii etc.
nelegem din cele analizate pn acum c proverbul biblic este o nvtur care
vizeaz comportamentul uman, dar care faciliteaz relaia omului cu divinitatea. Aceasta din
urm se identific cu coninutul mesajului, cci ideea de Bine, pe care o presupune
nelepciunea, coincide cu ideea de Dumnezeire. Altfel spus, proverbul este o nvtur
omeneasc, atins de aripa divin, dac nu chiar impregnat total de harul divin.
Ct privete relaia fundamental a omului proverb, aceasta ar putea fi reprezentat
astfel:
25
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Emitor
Tatl pmntesc Coninut Receptor
Uman i divin Fiul pmntesc
n msura n care Coninutul se poate identifica total cu harul divin i Emitorul poate
fi identificat cu Tatl ceresc. n principiu, ns, coninutul este transmis de ctre printele
pmntesc (tat sau mam), ctre fiul su pmntesc sau ctre fiii si spirituali, poporul
condus (n calitate de rege), cu scopul de a netezi calea spre protecia asigurat de ctre Tatl
Ceresc. Cele mai multe capitole nu susin o asemenea schem a enunului biblic, n Cartea
pildelor lui Solomon.
Bibliografie
Biblia 1688 (Biblia de la Bucureti) ( BB1), vol. 1-6, Volume coordonate de Alexandru
Andriescu, Vasile Arvinte, Ioan Caprou, Elsa Lder, Paul Miron, Mircea Roian, Marieta
Ujic. Universitatea Al. I. Cuza Iai/Albert Ludwigs Universitt Freiburg, Editura
Universitii, Iai, 1988-1989.
BOWMAN, Franck-Paul, 1980, Discours sur lloquence sacre, Genve: Droz.
COPI, Irving M.; COHEN, Carl, 200311, Introduction to Logic, London: Pearson Education.
CRISTEA, Teodora, STOEAN, Carmen S., 2004, Elments de pragmatique linguistique,
Bucureti: Editura A.S.E.
EGGS, Ekkehard, 1994, Grammaire du discours argumentatif. Le topique, le gnrique, le
figur, Paris: Kim.
HABERMAS, J., 1992, De lthique de la discussion, Paris: P.U.F.
26
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
TOPONYMIA URBANA MEDIEVALIA EUROPEA. OBSERVATIONS ON THE
TRANSLATION OF EUROPEAN TOWN NAMES IN TEODOR CORBEAS
DICTIONARY DICTIONES LATINAE CUM VALACHICA INTERPRETATION
Adrian CHIRCU, Assistant Professor, Hab. Dr., Babe-Bolyai University of Cluj-
Napoca
Abstract: The article focuses on Dictiones latinae cum valachica interpretatione, one of the
oldest Romanian dictionaries by Teodor Corbea, a scholar who lived in Ardeal at the end of
the 17th century and the beginning of the 18th century.
Teodor Corbeas lexicon is far more comprehensive than other similar works due to its large
number of entries but also to their heterogeneity, as the terms belong to various fields such as
arts, history, mythology, pedagogy, linguistics, daily life, etc.
The unique encyclopaedic character of Teodor Corbea stands out in the Romanian cultural
space although he owes this work to his contemporary Albert Szenci Molnar whose
Dictionarium latinovngaricvm Corbea adapted to the particularities of the Romanian
language.
The large number of german names of urban settlements determined us to carry out a
linguistic analysis of how Teodor Corbea created the dictionary entries by translating town
names from Latin into Romanian. Throughout the dictionary, we also noticed the authors
desire to share his knowledge of European encyclopaedism with his readers.
The inclusion of place name particularities in the dictionary helps us to better understand the
endeavour of this Transylvanian writer as well as his broad cultural horizon and extensive
linguistic knowledge.
Keywords: Romanian Language, Teodor Corbea, dictionary, encyclopaedism, diachrony,
European Germanic Toponymy
toat enchiclopediia mv, adec toat mvtura cri din lume, ca alt nime ca dnsul.
(Dosoftei 2002: 243)
0. Parcurgerea cu atenie a unora dintre scrierile noastre vechi ne poate ajuta s
nelegem modul n care s-a petrecut, de-a lungul timpului, apropierea cultural de lumea
occidental, dar i s ne dm seama cum era aceasta privit de ctre crturarii notri din
epocile respective. Este ndeobte cunoscut c romnii s-au aflat o perioad important de
timp sub influena limbii slavone care s-a impus n diferite domenii ale vieii, fapt care a dus
la o ndreptare spre partea rsritean a Europei, ns, n Ardeal, n acelai timp,
ntrebuinarea limbii latine, pe lng limbile romn sau maghiar, era un fapt obinuit.
1. Informaiile referitoare la lumea occidental parveneau prin intermediul scrierilor n
limbile latin i maghiar i proveneau din enciclopedii, geografii ori istorii, i mai puin din
27
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
alte scrieri. Rarele excursiuni n partea vestic a Europei permiteau, fr ndoial, i ele o
informare rapid, la faa locului2, ns nu ntotdeauna suficient.
1.1. Detandu-se ntru ctva de slavon, nvaii ardeleni au reuit s asimilieze ct
mai multe informaii din lumea occidental, care s le permit lrgirea orizontului cultural i
s pregteasc propirea ntregii naiuni, n veacurile ulterioare.
Doru Radosav (2007 II: 312) observ, pe bun dreptate, c marile teme i direcii
culturale i intelectuale ale umanismului trziu din secolele XVI-XVII, corelate cu cele ale
barocului din a doua jumtate a secolului al XVII-lea sunt recognoscibile n spaiul cultural
romnesc transilvnean. Acest fapt determin, n consecin, conectarea i recentrarea unui
spaiu i unei geografii culturale la marea Europ, care devine n secolul al XVII-lea o
adevrat republic de spirit cultural ce asum tipologii culturale regionale.
2. ntocmai se ntmpl i cu Teodor Corbea, crturar ardelean, care, urmnd calea
aleas de ali contemporani ai si, reuete s redacteze la finele secolului al XVII-lea, cea
mai important lucrare lexicografic romneasc a epocii, Dictiones latinae cum valachica
interpretatione3, dicionar care va facilita nelegerea unora dintre termenii care erau difuzai
n lumea apusean i care se rspndeau tot mai mult n vocabularul aa-ziselor mici naiuni.
Astfel, Teodor Corbea se numr printre primii promotori ai ntrebuinrii latinismelor n
limba romn.
2.1. Chiar dac este dator unor modele care au circulat n epoca sa, cum ar fi Albert
Szenci Molnar, al crui dicionar Dictionarium latinovngaricvm4 l prelucreaz i l adapteaz
la firea limbii romne, Corbea rmne unul dintre nvaii notri reprezentativi, care ne-a
lsat o lucrare lexicografic ce se deosebete, radical, de altele similare (DVL, LCLV, LM),
att prin numrul mare de cuvinte nregistrate, ct i prin inventarul eterogen (termenii provin
din diverse domenii: art, istorie, religie, lingvistic, mitologie, pedagogie, lingvistic, via
cotidian etc.).
Acest aspect evideniaz att enciclopedismul al autorului, ct i vastelele sale
cunotine de limb romn, n special simul desvrit al limbii, cci Teodor Corbea, n
demersul su, ntrebuineaz, pe de o parte, cuvinte din toate prile locuite de romni, iar, pe
de alt parte, le creeaz, exploatnd posibilitile oferite de sistem. n acest sens, Gr. Creu
(1905: 5) observ c, n dicionar, se afl un numr destul de mare de vorbe i forme vechi i
dialectale ardelene, multe firete de origine ungureasc, unele ns i de dincoace de
Carpai.
2.2. Originar din zona Braovului, eruditul transilvan s-a strduit s tlmceasc, nu
fr mari eforturi, pre limb romneasc, o serie ntreag de termeni latineti, care circulau n
latina ntrebuinat n partea de vest a Europei, dar nu numai. n pofida faptului c lista de
cuvinte nu-i aparine ntru totul, se vdete la tot pasul efortul su de a face ct mai uor de
neles cuvintele glosate. Pentru aceasta, autorul folosete o limb romn curat i
2
Cum, de altfel, bnuim c s-a ntmplat cu Nurenbergul care este evocat n termeni familiari. Vezi infra
Noriberga.
3
Editat de ctre Mihai-Alin Gherman, la Editura Clusium, n 2001.
4
Pentru unele concordane sau clarificri, am consultat ediia din 1604. Din prefaa unui alt dicionar, publicat de
Ppai (1767: *3), reiese c acesta a folosit i el dicionarul lui Albert Szenci Molnar, dar credem c i pe Corbea.
Afirmaia noastr se susine prin titlul pe care acesta l alege pentru prima parte a lexiconului care seamn cu
cel al tlmcitorului braovean, i anume Dictiones et locutiones latinae cun ungarica earum interpretatione.
28
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
lmuritoare, fr explicaii stufoase. De asemenea, am remarcat n permanen plcerea
autorului de a mprti celor care consult dicionarul cunotinele sale, adnc ancorate n
enciclopedismul european.
2.3. Exegeii lexiconului au apreciat, n primul rnd, deschiderea cultural, dar i
importana acestuia n spaiul romnesc (Seche: 1966, Gherman 2000-2001, 2004a, 2004b,
2010, Creu: 1905), dicionarul lui Teodor Corbea fiind prima noastr lucrare enciclopedic ce
se constituie ntr-o punte de acces spre cunoaterea civilizaiei europene, datorit informaiei
din paginile volumului, n ciuda articolelor de dicionar condensate i, cteodat, incomplete.
2.3.1. Dac termenii inserai n dicionar asigur nelegerea unor aspecte de ordin
cultural ori social, pentru lingviti, este interesant modul n care Teodor Corbea reuete s-i
traduc, s-i echivaleze i s-i explice, pentru a-i face ct mai accesibili. Ceea ce aduce un
plus acestui dicionar, n comparaie cu alte lexicoane ori glosare romneti din epoc, este
numrul mare de substantive proprii provenind din varii domenii: mitologie, lingvistic,
literatur, istorie, cretinism, geografie etc.
Alin-Mihai Gherman (2004b: 54) consider c trsturi eseniale, precum caracterul
enciclopedic (cam o cincime dintre cuvintele latine sunt nume geografice, de persoane sau
derivate latineti de la aceste nume proprii), ca i caracterul tiinific (se fac observaii
asupra categoriilor gramaticale ale cuvintelor latine i romne) fac din acest dicionar prima
lucrare lexicografic tiinific din cultura noastr.
2.3.2. Numele proprii (antroponime, hidronime, toponime, oronime etc.), prezente n
dicionar, sunt, aa cum s-a subliniat, bine reprezentate, iar, dintre acestea, se detaeaz
urbanonimele5 (denumirile de orae), al cror numr este net superior celorlalte i ne ajut s
nelegem mai bine Evul Mediu european.
2.3.2.1. Nu este vorba doar despre toponime de pe btrnul continent, ci i de pe altele,
cum ar fi, de pild, Asia ori Africa, majoritatea dintre acestea fiind locuri importante ale
cretinismului sau evoc ceti vestite din perioada Antichitii. De altfel, din punct de
vedere toponimic, oraul [] a preluat numele de locuri originare din cadrul vechii vetre
construite precum i din zonele ncorporate, le-a adaptat noilor realiti ntr-o proporie
condiionat istoric i administrativ. (Rezeanu 2009: 1)
2.3.2.2. nc de la primele file, ne-a reinut atenia numrul mare de toponime urbane
nemeti nregistrate, aspect care ne-a determinat s realizm un studiu lingvistic, ncercnd s
urmrim felul n care Teodor Corbea reuete s ntocmeasc definiiile de dicionar ale
numelor de locuri germanice, traducnd termenul latinesc n limba romn, fcnd echivalri
sau doar nregistrndu-l.
2.3.2.3. Dup cum s-a subliniat (Rdvan 2011: 15), pe lng funciile sale economice
ori politice, oraul deine i o important funcie cultural. Alturi de biseric, oraul devine
un loc al scrisului, cci locuitorii au fost repede nevoii s nvee s citeasc, scrie i
socoteasc, activiti necesare n ocupaiile lor. Multe dintre meteugurile urbane au fost
puse n slujb cultural, de vreme ce meterii ridicau biserici, pentru ca apoi s ajung s
tipreasc cri.
5
Acestea sunt nsoite, ca, de altfel, i ceilali termeni glosai, de informaii de ordin gramatical. n cazul
urbanonimelor, este vorba despre gen (m., f., n) i, n anumite situaii, numr (pl.). Din motive obiective, nu le-
am reinut n acest studiu.
29
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
n timpul lui Corbea, Europa se afla n plin progres cultural, iar cltoriile nuntrul i
afara ei erau din ce n ce mai numeroase. Btrnul continent este socotit de Corbea ca a
treaea sau a patra parte a cetii lumi, n care este ara Nemasc, ara Ungureasc i ara
Italiei, de la Nemasca Mare pn la marea-din-Mijlocul-Pmntului i pn la apa
Tanaisului. (p.189)
2.4. Selectarea multora dintre toponimele urbane nemeti se justific, probabil, prin
faptul c, din ce n ce mai mult, rile Romne se ntorc cu faa spre Occident i, astfel, se
stabilesc trainice contacte cu importante centre de cultur care vor duce la o deschidere i mai
mare n veacul ce va urma.6 Unele dintre acestea lipsesc n principala surs consultat de
Corbea7, ceea ce ilustreaz detaarea de modelul urmat.
2.4.1. Pentru realizarea inventarului nostru toponimic urban nemesc, am inut cont, n
mare msur, de meniunea ora, pe care o poart definiiile de dicionar, acest din urm
termen fiind i el glosat (urbs, -bis: ora ngrdit, cetate, p.549), alturi de familia sa lexical
(urbanatim: iscust, p.549; urbane: iscust, p.549; urbanicus, -a, -um: ornsc, -,
cetsc, -, de omenie, cinste la vorb, iscust, -, p.549; urbicula: orl, cetuie, p.549;
urbicus, -a, -um: cetenesc, orenesc, -, p.549).
2.5. Din Germania: ara Nemasc8 (p.218), sunt menionate orae reprezentative, a
cror importan n peisajul istoric i cultural european s-a pstrat, chiar dac unele dintre
acestea nu mai sunt sub dominaie nemeasc ori germanic, n zilele noastre: Abudiacum9:
ora n ara Nemasc, nu dparte de la Avgust, p.7 (sau Abacum, Abuzanum, Abodiacum,
azi Epfach, Abbach, Denklingen, Bavaria, Germania) 10; Alistus: ora al Saxoniei lng mare,
p.31 (azi Leipzig); Alisum: ora au fost al rei Nemeti, p.31 (Civitas Alisinensium, azi
Wimpfen, lng Heilbronn); Altorsium: orl n nutul domnilor norimbergheani n care
acest noriberghean svat cinste bogat academie au zidit n numrul anilor 1575 11, unde acest
lixicon12 l-au scris Albertus Molnar n numrul anilor 1603, p.33 (Aldorfium, azi Aldorf,
Altorf, n cantonul Uri13, n cmpia lacului Lucerna); Aquaeburgum: ora nemsc n
Bavariia, p.49 (azi Wasserburg); Aquispranum14: ora mare, vestit al rei Nemeti, locul
de ngropat al lui Carolus Magnus, unde au obiceai a coroni mprat, p.50 (Aquisgrani,
Granum palatinum, Granis aqua, Aquasgranum, Aquensis urbs, Aquense palatium, Aquis,
azi Aachen, n francez Aix-la-Chapelle); Araflavi: ora nemsc lng Dan, p.50 (de fapt,
Arflavi, n Germania Superior, azi Rottweil); Arctaunum: ora al rei Nemeti, p.52
(azi Wrzburg15); Argentina16 et Argentoratum: tare ora al rei Nemeti lng apa
6
A se vedea i Radosav 2007: 312-316.
7
Vezi supra 2.1.
8
Trimite fr ndoial la magh. nemet.
9
Sufixul -iacum este de origine celtic (n Frana, Aubigny, Aubign, Aubignac).
10
Informaiile dintre paranteze ne aparin.
11
La Albert Szenci Molnar, e menionat anul 1573 !
12
Probabil c avem o prim atestare a termenului lexicon, n limba romn, din gr. . La Szenci Molnar,
este termenul lat. medieval (dictionarium): Holot ez Dictionariomot rta Albertus Molnr, 1603, esztendben
(se pare c sztr a fost creat mai trziu, n perioada reformei limbii maghiare). Menionm i termenul
academie, care apare frecvent n glosarea toponimelor germanice. Vezi infra. n Dictiones.., Academia: un loc
mai mic lng Athina, n care Plato au nvat ; iar o coal mare, p.7.
13
Unul dintre primele cantoane care au semnat scrisoarea de alian (Bundesbrief, 1291).
14
De fapt, este vorba despre Aquisgranum, care figureaz i la Albert Szenci Molnar.
15
La Szenci, e precizat Wirtzburg.
16
Cel mai amplu articol de dicionar. Toponimul este descris ntocmai i la Albert Szenci Molnar.
30
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Rhenus17, n nutul Alsaiei. Acolo ca acela nalt turn iaste i bisearic mfrmeat, ct n
Europa alt bisearic sau turn aseamine acestora nu iaste. Iaste iar acolo o academie vestit,
n care de demult muli nelepi s-au nvat, unde i eu, care aceast carte am scris (adec
Albertus Molnaru) trei ani i jumtate am lcuit n vreamea copilriei, p.53 (celt. *arganto
argint + -rate ridictur, cetate, Argentum, Argentoria, Argentonia, Strateburgis,
Stradburgo, Strasburgensis, Straceburgensis, Strate Burgum, azi Strasbourg, compus din
germ. Strae strad, drum+ burg ora, trg; prin urmare, oraul de la drum); Ariscina:
ora al rei Nemeti, p.56 (apare la Ptolemeu18); Arsonium: ora nemsc, p.56; Augusta
Trevirorum: Treveris, ora nemsc, p.65 (azi Trier, n francez Trves); Augusta Tiberii:
Ratisbona, p.65 (Ratisbon, Celtic Ratisbona, Castra Regina, azi Regensburg, n francez
Ratisbonne); Augusta Vindelicorum: ora nemsc, p.65 (i Augusta Vindelicum, Augusta
Vindelica, Vindelicia, Rtorum, Augustidunum, azi Augsburg); Basilea: ora vestit lng
Rhenus, p.70 (azi Basel, n francez Ble); Belgium: ora al rei Nemeti de Jos, iar
nsi ara Nemasc cea Dinluntru i cea de Jos, p.71; Berolinum: ora de la Marchiia n
ara Nemasc, p.72 (azi Berlin); Bonna: ora lng Rhenus, p.76 (Bonna aqua, azi Bonn);
Budoris: nume de demult a lui Heaidelberg, p.78 (azi Heidelberg); Chremsa: ora nemsc
din sus de Beci, lng Dunre, p.100 (Cremesia, Cremisium, Chrema, Chremisa, Cremsa,
Chrems, Chremsensis, azi Krems); Claudonium: ora al Bavariei, p.107 (Claudivjum,
Enfcheda, Ens); Colamria19: ora nemscu aproape de Basilea, p.113 (Colmaria,
Columbaria, Columbarium, Coloburgum, Columbrae, Colombra, Cholonpurgum, odinioar,
Kolmar, azi Colmar); Colonia Agrippina: ora mare al rei Nemeti, lng apa Rhenus,
p.113 (Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium, Ubiopolis, azi Kln, n francez Cologne);
Confluentia: ora nemscu, unde Mosella20 cur n Rhenus, p.123 (Confluentes, Confluens,
Cophelenci, azi Koblenz); Constantia: ora nemscu, ctr Helveiia, p.127 (Augustia
Turgoiorum, Valeria, azi Konstanz); Elcebus: ora au fost lng Rhenus, p.177 (sau Helcebus,
ntemeiat de triboci, tribocii, azi Slestat, n german Schelstatt ori Schlettstadt, n Alsacia 21);
Francfordia: ora nemsc lng Menus22, altul lng Odera, p.210 (Frankefordia,
Francofurtum23 ad Menum, Franconovurdum, Franconofurtum, Franconofurdum,
Franconum vadus, Francmfurtum, Franchonofurtum, Franconovada, Helenopolis,
Franconofurd Nida, ntemeiat de franci, azi Frankfurt pe Main, Frankfurt pe Oder - Odra);
Ganodurum: ora nemsc, Constaniia24, p.216 (azi Konstanz25); Gaunodurum: ora
nemsc, p.216 (idem); Gravionarium: ora nemsc, Pamberga [sic !], p.223 (azi Bamberg);
Hannovia: ora al rii Nemeti lng apa Mnus, unde lng oraul cel vechiu, frumos ora
17
Rhenus: grl frnceasc au fost dinceput, acum de amndoao prile vecinimile neamii biruiescu i lcuiesc;
orauri mari lng aceasta snt: Basilea, Arghentina, Spira, Vormaiia, Moguniia, Conflueniia, Coloniia
Agripina, p.440.
18
Vezi Lemprire.
19
E vorba despre Colmaria.
20
Mosella: grl a rei Nemeti, care la Conflueniia cur n Rhenus, p.317.
21
Alsatia: nutul rei Nemeti lnga apa Rhen, cruia i iaste ora mare Arghentina, p.33.
22
n dicionar, e glosat i Mnus: ap curgtoare a rei Nemeti care desparte n doao pri Francofurtumul,
apoi la Moguniia curge n Renus, p.313.
23
n structura urbanonimului, avem v. germ. Frank liber i -furt (alteori, -vurd) vad, loc de trecere pe cursul
unui ru (vezi i Erfurt, Klagenfurt, Ochsenfurt). Prin urmare, Frankfurt s-ar putea traduce fie prin Vadul
francilor, fie prin Vadul liber.
24
Att Corbea, ct i Szenci, se nal. E vorba, de fapt, despre Stein, Stein am Rhein.
25
Vezi i supra Constantia.
31
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
nou au zidit frncii i limbile de la Belghium, carii pentru adevrata credin casele i-au lsat,
p.227 (Hannovera, Hanovera, azi Hanovra, n german Hannnover); Heidelberga: ora al
rei Nemeti ceii de Sus, lng apa Nicarus, care ap nu departe de la ora s rupe n
Rhenus, p.229 (Heidelberga, Heydelberga, Edelberga, Myrtilletum, Myrtillorum mons, azi
Heidelberg. Denumirea latineasc trimite la lat. myrtillus afin, fr. myrtille. A se vedea i
numele german al afinei Heidelbeere); Herbipolis26: ora n nutul Nasoviei n ara
Nemasc, n care iaste coal vestit, care s priceate cu academiile i pre care leii nvince
[sic !], p.231 (Wirceburgum, Vurceburgum, Macropolis, Wrtzburch, azi Wrzburg); Iena:
ora nemsc n Thuringhiia, p.242 (Ihen, Athen ad Salam, azi Jena); Ingolstadium: ora
nemsc lng Dunre, p.258 (Angelostadium, Aripolis, de la Ingold, azi Ingolstadt);
Juvanium: ora nemsc n numele cel de acum Salisburgum, p.275 (Juvavum, Juvavia,
Juvavensis civitas, Jopia, Salzeburga, Salzburgiensis, urbs Petena, azi Salzburg); Laureacum:
ora n ara Nemeasc au fost, p.282 (Lauriacum, Laureancensis civitas, Laurisamum, azi
Lorch, Enns); Lugdunum: doao orae vestite, unul n ara Frnceasc, altul n Belghium,
p.292 (Colonia Copia Felix Munatia Lugdunum (Lugdunensis), Lyon; respectiv Lugdunum
Batavorum, Katwijk); Lupfurdum: oraul Misna n ara Nemeasc, p.293 (Marcodurum,
Dura, Duria, azi Dresda, pe rul Elba, posibil Meien); Magdeburgum: ora mare n
Vitiberga nluntru din Sacsonia, p.297 (probabil de la magado mare + burga cetate,
Magadoburg, ntemeiat de Charlemagne, Partenopolis, Partinopolis, Virginum civitas,
Palladis Castrum, Magdeburgum, Magedoburgum, azi Magdeburg, n Saxonia-Anhalt);
Marcodurum: ora nemsc din jos de Coloniia, p.301 (-durum este un sufix celtic27 u,
cas, sat, azi Dren, ntre Kln i Aachen); Marpurgum: ora al rei Nemeti n nutul
Hassiei n care este academie vestit, p.301 (Marburgum, Amasia Cattorum, Metteloburgum,
Mattiacorum, Mattiacum, azi Marburg); Menium: Magdeburgumul Saxonienesc, p.307;
Messonum: Magdeburgumul, ora n ara Nemasc, p.308; Moguntia: ora nemsc lng
apa Renus, p.313 (Mogancia, Mogantia, Magontia, Mogontiacensis civitas, Maguntia,
Maguntianus, Magentiatum, Castrum Mogontiacum, azi Mainz); Monachum28: ora nemsc
n Bavariia, p.315 (Monachium, azi Mnchen loc al clugrilor); Monasterium: un ora n
Vestfalia, p.315 (Mimigardefordum, Mimigardum, Minigardum, Miningroda,
Mimmogerneferda, Mimigartovurti, Mymmegardevordensis, Monasteriensis,
Mimigarfordensis, azi Mnster); Neoburgum, ora nemsc lng Dunre, p.326
(Noviburgum, Novicastrum, Nova Castella, azi Neuburg oraul nou); Neomagus: numele
unui ora nemsc, p.326 (Neodunum, Nevidunum, Noviodunum, Nividunum, Equestris
Colonia, Equestris civitas, azi Nyon); Noriberga29: ora mare al rei Nemeti, care cu
frumoasa zidire, cu bogiia, cu negutori, cu fealuri de fealuri de lucruri scumpe i cu
oameni meateri iate vestit i nu o mint. Acesta, n toat Evropa, n ara Nemeasc alte
orauri biruind, cu Vineiia frnceasc [sic !]30 s priceate. Acest ora nu numai rei
26
Pentru rspndirea actual a compuselor cu polis ora, vezi i Graur 1972: 74.
27
Adesea ntlnit n toponimia francez (Divodurum, numele vechi al Metzului sau Autessiodurum: Auxerre),
dar nu numai. Alte toponime n durum, n Raetia Sorviodurum: Straubing; n Gallia Lugdunensis:
Augustodurum: Bayeux, Noviodunum: Isaccea, Romnia, Singidunum: Belgrad, Serbia.
28
Monachum i Monasterium evoc aezminte monahale.
29
Aa cum afirmam la nota 1, se pare c Teodor Corbea cunoatea foarte bine acest ora pe care, probabil, l-a i
vizitat.
30
Remarca editorului.
32
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Nemeti, ci i toii Evrope n mijloc iaste, p.330 (prima atestare Norenberc, n 1050. Prezena
afixului berg, -berc, sugereaz prezena unui munte ori deal n zon, care justific
toponimul, Noremberga, Norimberga, Noricorum mons, Noricum castrum, azi Nurenberg);
Novessium: ora belghienesc dincolo de Coloniia, p.331 (azi Neuss); Noviomagum: ora
belghienesc, p.331 (Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum, azi Nimega, germ. Nimwegen, fr.
Nimgue, flam. Nijmegen); Phabrianum31: ora nemsc, Brema, p.379 (sau Fabrianum,
Brema Premensis, Brem Pregmensis civitas, Bemia Fabrianum, Bremensis Fabriana
Saxonum, Heberanum, azi Bremen); Phniana: ora nemsc, vulgo Bebenhusium, p.379
(vezi i Phbiana, Febiana, Castra Phbiana, azi Bebenhausen, lng Tbingen);
Pheugarum: Marpurgum, ora nemsc, p.380 (probabil Paderborn n Renania, n nordul
Westfaliei); Pdium: ora nemsc, Passavia, p.390 (Castra Batava, azi Passau);
Ratisbona32: ora nemsc lng Dunre, unde iaste peste Dunre podul cel mare de piiatr,
p.428 (toponimul e alctuit din celt. rate, ratis33 zid, cetate i celt. bona fundaie, ora34,
azi Regensburg); Reginoburgum35: Ratibona (ora), p.432 (Reginopolis, Castra Regina,
Radasbona, Hiastopolis, Colonia Tiberia Augusta, Imbripolis, Radasponensis,
Reginoburgium, Rhaetopolis, Radixpona, Ratesponensis etc.); Saltzburgum: ora nemsc,
p.449 (Salzburg); Scurgum: ora al rei Nemeti, de ctre criv, p.459 (astzi n Polonia,
Koszalin, n regiunea Pomerani, sau Kslin); Segedonum36: numele de demult al
Noribergi37, p.460 (celt. -dunum deal, fortrea, oppidum); Stereontium: ora nemsc,
p.483 (Warendorf sau Stromberg, Steinfort, Steveren, n Westfalia); Surgum: ora nemsc,
p.499; Taurodunum: ora nemsc, p.506 (Tauretunum, lng Simplon, cantonul Valais,
Elveia); Taxagenium38: ora al rii Nemeti, p.506; Trajectum: ora holandienesc, p.521
(Trajectum ad Rhenum, Anthonina civitas, Ultrajectum, Trectis, Wiltenis, Ultratrajectensis,
Utrensis, Vultrajectensis, Winterburgensis, azi Utrecht), Treva: oraul nemsc Hambrug39,
p.523 (la Ptolemeu apare Treva, azi Hamburg); Tridentum: ora nemsc i italienesc, lng
apa Atesis, p.525 (Trento, lng rul Adige, nu departe de Bolzano); Tuliphordum: nume de
ora, p.529 (Tuliphordium, azi Gottingen, n Germania Inferioar); Tulisurgium: oraul
Braunsiuga40 n ara Nemasc, p.529 (Teutiburgium, azi Brunschweig, n Saxonia
Inferioar); Vindibonoa vel Juliobona: numele cel de demult al oraului nemsc Beciul,
p.543 (gal. windo alb + -bona cetate, Vendobona, Vindomana, Flaviana castra, Vienna
Austri, Fluviorum Vieni, Wieni, Winna, Byenna, Wienensis, azi Viena) 41: Virunum: nume
de ora, p.544 (Claudium Virunum, n Noricum, azi Zollfeld, Maria Saal, Klagenfurt,
Carinthia, Austria).
31
La Albert Szenci Molnar, Phabiranum.
32
Vesi supra Augusta Tiberii.
33
A se vedea, n Frana, Argentorate: Strasbourg sau Carbantorate (Civita Carpentoratensium): Carpentras (<
*carbanto car + *rate fortrea, cetate).
34
n Frana, Lillebonne, n Seine Maritime, i Serbonnes, n Burgundia.
35
Pentru detalii, a se vedea informaia supra Augusta Tiberii i Ratibona.
36
Alte nume de orae cu acest afix, n Frana: Noviodunum: Neung-sur-Beuvron, Virodunum: Verdun sau, n
Elveia: Noviodunum: Nyon.
37
Vezi supra Noriberga.
38
Nu figureaz la Graesse (1909), Litera T.
39
La Szenci, az Nemet Hamburg varos.
40
La Albert Szenci Molnar, Brunsviga.
41
Vezi i Ratisbonne.
33
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Din punctul de vedere al importanei oraelor nemeti, acestea sunt chibzuit alese, cu
meniunea c multe dintre acestea provin din zonele intens romanizate: Germania Inferior 42,
Germania Superior43, Raetia44, Noricum45. Toponimele se gsesc n numeroase lucrri
enciclopedice din epoc, iar glosarea lor a depins, n principal, de aceste surse.
2.6. Avnd n vedere c dicionarul lui Corbea este unul bilingv, latin-romn,
toponimele sunt nregistrate, n primul rnd, cu etimonul 46 latinesc (Colonia Agrippina), apoi
celtic (preluat sau latinizat: Vindibonoa vel Juliobona) i mai rar germanic (care e trziu),
mai greu de strecurat printre celelalte cuvinte latineti (Francfordia, Magdeburgum,
Noriberga47). Astfel se i explic de ce, uneori, avem multipl glosare n lexicon: de
exemplu, Ratisbona, Augusta Tiberii i Reginoburgum; Segedonum: numele de demult al
Noribergi, p.460; Phabrianum: ora nemsc, Brema, p.379; Phniana: ora nemsc,
vulgo Bebenhusium, p.379.
2.6.1. Cu timpul, denumirea mixt latino-german a fost abandonat, cum este cazul
oraului Augusta Trevirorum, dezvoltat iniial, pe vatra unei ceti a trevirilor (Treviri:
nroade nemeti dincolo [de] Rhenus mpregiurul apei Mosella, ora mare al acestora iaste
Treviris, care i nanintea [sic!] Romei s-au zidit cu o mie i trei sute de ani, p.524), ns
denumirea latineasc s-a pierdut, n negura vremurilor, i a rmas doar termenul germanic
(Treverensis, Treveri, Treviris, Treberi, Treberis, Trier).
2.7. Analiza glosrii toponimelor urbane germanice din dicionarul lui Teodor Corbea
a permis identificarea unor particulariti de limb romn, n structurarea coninutului, la
care se adaug, adesea, oscilaii de ordin morfologic (alegerea unor desinene: substantivul
propriu ara Nemeasc prezint oscilaii desineniale, la G-D, fireti n epoc: Taxagenium:
ora al rii Nemeti, p.506, dar Alisum: ora au fost al rei Nemeti, p.31), dar i
sintactic (selectarea cazurilor, utilizarea unor prepoziii, ntrebuinarea articolului).
De asemenea, se pot face remarci asupra ezitrilor autorului, privitoare la
ntrebuinarea substantivului ora, la plural. Acesta apare cnd cu desinena uri (mult mai
frecvent n text): Noriberga: ora mare al rei Nemeti, [...] n ara Nemeasc alte
orauri biruind, cu Vineiia frnceasc [sic !]48 s priceate. Acest ora nu numai rei
Nemeti, ci i toii Evrope n mijloc iaste, p.330, cnd cu desinena e (cu rare ocurene):
Lugdunum: doao orae vestite, unul n ara Frnceasc, altul n Belghium, p.292.
42
Alte orae din Germania Inferior necuprinse n dicionar: Albaniana: Alphen aan den Rijn, Atuatuca:
Tungrorum: Tongeren, Castra Vetera: Xanten, Coriovallum: Heerlen,
43
Alte orae omise de Corbea: Aqu: Baden-Baden, Auderiensium: Dieburg, Aqua Mattic: Wiesbaden,
Borbetomagus: Worms, Noviomagus: Speyer, Sumelocenna: Rottenburg am Neckar, Vesontio: Besanon,
Vindonissa: Windisch.
44
Din Raetia, mai putem meniona Abusina: Eining, Ad Fines: Pfyn, ni Pons: Innsbruck, Al: Aalen, Arbor
Felix: Arbon, Aquilea: Heidenheim an der Brenz, Bilitio: Belinzona, Biriciana: Weissenburg, Bivium: Bivio,
Brigantium: Bregenz, Cambodunum: Kempten in Allgu, Clunia: Feldkirch e Balzers, Curia: Coria, Ftes:
Fssen, Guntia: Gnzburg, Gamundia Romana: Schwbisch Gmnd, Parthanum: Parten Kirchen,
Sorviodurum: Straubing.
45
Din Noricum, nu sunt nregistrate, n dicionar, alte orae, precum: Ad Anisum: Radstadt, Celeia: Celje,
Lapidaria: Andeer, Lincium: Linz, Ovilavis: Wels, Tergolape: Msendorf.
46
Pentru mai multe detalii, a se vedea notele de subsol i cele intratextuale.
47
Se observ c sunt foarte bine reprezentate toponimele urbane care conin elemente de compunere germanice
(berg, burg, furd). Vezi i Graur 1972: 55, 75, 53.
48
Remarca editorului.
34
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Apar, n text, variante fonetice (la unele cuvinte de origine slav, grupul consonantic
[sv] nu trecuse nc la [sf]: Altorsium: ...acest noriberghean svat cinste bogat academie au
zidit ...; la substantivele care conin hiatul [i] [a] sau diftongul [ja], apare un i epentetic
(evitator de hiat), care duce la crearea unui nou diftong [ij], indiferent de proveniena
termenului: Ratisbona:.. podul cel mare de piiatr....; Noriberga: ... cu bogiia, cu
negutori...; Aquaeburgum: ora nemsc n Bavariia; Coloniia, Constaniia, Helveiia,
Marchiia, Thuringiia, Vineiia), dar i variante ( dialectale) ale unor cuvinte mai apropiate,
uneori, de etimon, cu larg circulaie n epoc care atest c norma epocii nc nu se
stabilizase (aseamine, ctr, dparte, doao, dinluntru, iar, mfrmeat, mpregiur,
nemsc, pre, nut, vechiu) ori forme pronominale specifice epocii, n care a aprut
dicionarul (carii: Hannovia: ... carii pentru adevrata credin casele...; toii (cazul dativ), n
loc de a toatei, a toat, mult mai frecvente: Noriberga: ... nu numai rei Nemeti, ci i toii
Evrope n mijloc iaste; ceii, n loc de celei: Heidelberga: ora al rei Nemeti ceii de
Sus).
Pe lng formele verbale caracteristice perioadei (cur, iaste, iate, am lcuit),
amintim ntrebuinarea verbului a nva la diateza reflexiv (calc slav49: Argentina et
Argentoratum: ... aste iar acolo o academie vestit, n care de demult muli nelepi s-au
nvat...) ori folosirea infinitivului, atribut verbal, fr prepoziie (Aquispranum: ora
mare..., unde au obiceai a coroni mprat).
2.7.1. n general, substantivul ora apare nsoit de determinani adjectivali (ntr-o
proporie semnificativ, apare nemsc50: Arsonium: ora nemsc, p.56; Iena: ora nemsc
n Thuringhiia, p.242; Surgum: ora nemsc, p.499; Basilea: ora vestit lng Rhenus, p.70;
Magdeburgum: ora mare n Vitiberga nluntru din Sacsonia, p.297; Argentina et
Argentoratum: tare ora al rei Nemeti lng apa Rhenus...) sau adverbiali (Chremsa:
ora nemsc din sus de Beci, lng Dunre, p.100; Colamria: ora nemscu aproape de
Basilea, p.113; Marcodurum: ora nemsc din jos de Coloniia, p.301), dar i substantivali,
n acuzativ (Berolinum: ora de la Marchiia n ara Nemasc, p.72; Monasterium: un ora
n Vestfalia, p.315) sau n genitiv (Marpurgum: ora al rei Nemeti n nutul Hassiei n
care este academie vestit, p.301; Taxagenium51: ora al rii Nemeti, p.506).
2.7.2. Adesea, sintagma ora nemsc apare fr ali determinani (Arsonium: ora
nemsc; Saltzburgum: ora nemsc, p.449), dar sunt i unele cazuri n care urmeaz apoziii
nsoite (Phniana: ora nemsc, vulgo Bebenhusium, p.379) sau nu (Ganodurum: ora
nemsc, Constaniia, p.216; Phabrianum: ora nemsc, Brema, p.379) de lmuriri
complementare. Substantivul ora e ntrebuinat i apoziional (Pheugarum: Marpurgum,
ora nemsc, p.380; Messonum: Magdeburgumul, ora n ara Nemasc, p.308). Alteori,
pentru explicaii, apeleaz la subordonate atributive care completeaz informaia anterioar
(Confluentia: ora nemscu, unde Mosella cur n Rhenus, p.123; Ratisbona: ora nemsc
lng Dunre, unde iaste peste Dunre podul cel mare de piiatr, p.428).
49
Cf. rus. [uchit'sa], ucr. [uchytys'a], srb. (na)uiti se, slovac. ui sa, ceh. uit se i pol.
uczy si.
50
Pentru unele nume de orae din Germania Inferior, avem meniunea ora belgienesc (2 ocurene) sau
holandienesc (1 ocuren).
51
Nu figureaz la Graesse (1909), Litera T.
35
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
2.7.3. Sintagma ora nemsc cu sau fr determinri adjectivale e urmat de
prepoziii locative cu acuzativul (n, lng, de la, ctre), care au rol de precizare, aducnd o
informaie suplimentar, necesar unei ct mai bune localizri (Berolinum: ora de la
Marchiia n ara Nemasc, p.72; Ingolstadium: ora nemsc lng Dunre, p.258;
Marpurgum: ora al rei Nemeti n nutul Hassiei n care este academie vestit, p.301
Moguntia: ora nemsc lng apa Renus, p.313; Ratisbona52: ora nemsc lng Dunre,
unde iaste peste Dunre podul cel mare de piiatr, p.428; Constantia: ora nemscu, ctr
Helveiia, p.127).
2.7.4. Sporadic, substantivul ora lipsete n glosarea termenului (Augusta Tiberii:
Ratisbona, p.65). Uneori, Corbea ofer explicaii, apelnd la substantivul nume, nsoit sau nu
de morfemul determinrii definite (Budoris: nume de demult a lui Heaidelberg, p.78;
Segedonum: numele de demult al Noribergi, p.460; Vindibonoa vel Juliobona: numele cel
de demult al oraului nemsc Beciul, p.543). Exist i situaii n care ora apare alturi de
nume, rolul celui din urm fiind unul lmuritor (Juvanium: ora nemsc n numele cel de
acum Salisburgum, p.275).
2.7.5. n general, substantivul ora este nedeterminat, dar sunt i situaii, puine la
numr, n care este determinat definit (Lupfurdum: oraul Misna n ara Nemeasc, p.293;
Tulisurgium: oraul Braunsiuga n ara Nemasc, p.529) sau indefinit (Monasterium: un
ora n Vestfalia, p.315). O singur form este diminutivat orl (Altorsium: orl n
nutul domnilor norimbergheani..., p.33).
2.7.6. Am constatat c autorul i nuaneaz frecvent definiiile de dicionar, evitnd
repetiiile i folosind, n situaiile n care s-a putut, urbanonime sinonime, ceea ce este
reprezint un avantaj al unui om de carte din veacul al XVII-lea i ilustreaz bogia
cunotinelor pe care le stpnete (Menium: Magdeburgumul Saxonienesc, p.307;
Messonum: Magdeburgumul, ora n ara Nemasc, p.308; Reginoburgum: Ratibona
(ora), p.432).
3. Faptele de limb abordate n studiul nostru vor permite o nelegere adecvat nu
numai a toponimiei urbane nemeti din secolul al XVII-lea, ci i a valorilor culturale
europene pe care nvaii romni ncercau s le asimileze. La aceste principale aspecte, se
adaug i observarea limbii ntrebuinate de Teodor Corbea, unul dintre primii notri
lexicografi care folosete, n definirea termenilor inclui n paginile dicionarului, cuvinte
adecvate, ilustrnd rigoarea tiinific. Structurile sintactice alese pentru glosarea toponimelor
sunt caracteristice epocii sale i nu am remarcat abateri semnificative de la normele limbii
romne literare vechi.
3.1. Prin valorosul su lexicon, Teodor Corbea confirm nu numai enciclopedismul
su, ci i reorientarea culturii romne spre cea occidental, care i va asigura accesul la
valorile unei civilizaii de mult afirmate. Urbanonimele nemeti glosate se constituie, astfel,
n puncte de reper pentru nvaii romni transilvneni care i ei vor face un pas important,
odat cu ntoarcerea cu faa spre Occident, n veacul al XVIII-lea.
52
Vesi supra Augusta Tiberii.
36
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Bibliografie
a) studii i articole:
Creu, Gr. (1905), Cel mai vechiu dicionar latino-romnesc de Todor Corbea (Manuscript de
pe la 1700), extras, Bucuresci, Tipografia Voina Naional.
Dosoftei (2002), Viaa i petreacerea svinilor (Iai 1862-1686), text ngrijit, not asupra
ediiei i glosar de Rodica Freniu, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Echinox.
Frncu, Constantin (2009), Gramatica limbii romne vechi (1521-1780), indice general de
Alexandrina Ioni, Iai, Casa Editorial Demiurg.
Gherman, A. M. (2010), Un umanist romn: Teodor Corbea, Cluj-Napoca, Casa Crii de
tiin.
Gherman, Alin Mihai (2004a), Aspecte umaniste n cultura romneasc veche, Bucureti,
Editura Enciclopedic.
Gherman, Alin-Mihai (2004b), Literatur romn din Transilvania ntre preluminism i
preromantism, Cluj-Napoca, Casa Crii de tiin.
Gherman, Mihai (2000-2001), Lexicografie i gramatic n dicionarul lui Teodor Corbea, n
Dacoromania, V-VI, p.161-164.
Gheie, Ion (coord.) (1997), Istoria limbii romne literare. Epoca veche, Bucureti, Editura
Academiei Romne. (ILRV)
Graesse, Johann Georg Theodor (1909), Orbis Latinus, Berlin, Richard Carl Schmidt & Co,
http://www.columbia.edu/acis/ets/Graesse/orblatc.html
Graur, Al. (1972), Nume de locuri, Bucureti, Editura tiinific.
Kruta, Venceslas (1993), Les Celtes, sixime dition corrige, Paris, Presses Universitaires de
France.
Jaccard, Henri (1906), Essai de toponymie. Origine des noms de lieux habits et des lieux dits
de la Suisse romande, Lausanne, Georges Bridel & Cie diteurs.
Radosav, Doru (2007), Cultura romneasc din Transilvania n secolul al XVII-lea, n Ioan-
Aurel Pop et ali (coord.), Istoria Transilvaniei, vol. II (de la 1541 pn la 1711), Cluj-Napoca,
Academia Romn & Centrul de Studii Transilvane, p.311-328.
Rdvan, Laureniu, (2012), Oraele din rile Romne n Evul Mediu: sfritul secolului al
XIII-lea - nceputul secolului al XVI-lea, Iai, Editura Universitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza.
Rezeanu, Adrian (2009), Studii de toponimie urban. Viziune diacronic, Baia-Mare, Editura
Universitii de Nord.
Rigobert, Bonne (1783), Recueil de cartes sur la gographie ancienne, Paris, ditions Lattr.
Rostaing, Charles (1965), Les noms de lieux, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France.
Seche, Mircea (1966), Schi de istorie a lexicografiei romne, vol. I (de la origini pn la
1880), Bucureti, Editura tiinific.
Thevenot, mile (1972), Les Gallo-Romains, quatrime dition mise jour, Paris, Presses
Universitaires de France.
b) dicionare:
Corbea, Teodor (2001), Dictiones latinae cum valachica interpretatione, ed. Alin-Mihai
Gherman, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Clusium. [DLVI]
37
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Dasypodius, Petrus (1653), Dictionarvm latino-germanicum et germanico-latinum, editia
nova, Francofvrti, Typis Matthaei Kempferi. [DLG]
*** (2008), Dictionarium valachico-latinum. Primul dicionar al limbii romne, ed. Gh.
Chivu, Bucureti, Editura Academiei Romne. [DVL]
Gaffiot, Flix (1967), Dictionnaire illustr latin-franais, Paris, ditions Hachette. [DILR]
Guu, G. (1983), Dicionar latin-romn, Bucureti, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic. [DL-
R]
Lemprire, John (1820), A Classical Dictionary; Containing a Copious Account of All the
Proper Names mentioned in Ancient Authors, the Eleventh Edition, Corrected, London, T.
Cadell and W. Davies. [LCD]
*** (1930), Il Lexicon Marsilianum, dizionario latino-romeno-ungherese del sec. XVII, ed.
Carlo Tagliavini, Bucureti, Cultura Naional. [LM]
Maior, Grigore (2001): Institutiones Linguae Valachicae - Lexicon Compendiarium Latino-
Valachicum, ed. Alin-Mihai Gherman, vol. I-II, Alba Iulia: Universitatea 1 Decembrie 1918
din Alba Iulia. [LCLV]
Ppai, Francisco Prisz (1767), Dictionarium latino-hungaricum et hungarico-latinum,
Cibinii, Samuelis Srdi Typographi. [DLH]
Szenci Molnar, Albert (1604), (Dictionarvm latinovngaricvm opus novum et hactenvus
nvsqvam editvum; Item vice versa: dictionarivm vngaricolatinvm, in quo prter dictionvm
vngaricvm interpretationem latinam, Noribergae, Procurante Elia Hvterro Germano (ediie
anastatic ulterioar, Budapest, Akadmiai Kiad, 1990),
https://www.google.ro/#q=albert+molnar+dictionarium+latinoungaricum+on+line&tbm=bks
[DLU]
38
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
FROM SHAKESPEARE TO SITCOMS: TRANSLATING THE BAWDY
WORDPLAY
Oana TATU, Associate Professor, PhD and Raluca SINU, Assistant Professor, PhD,
Transilvania University of Braov
Abstract: The present paper attempts to override the classical synchronic vs. diachronic
approach to the idea of cultural bumps in translation, and approaches the issue from a
novel perspective. The underlying idea is that source culture wordplay and allusions (as
instances of culture-bound issues) will be a challenge both to SL readers/viewers and (or
particularly) to translators. In order to prove this idea, we have chosen texts that illustrate
temporal, geographical and typological extremes: excerpts from Shakespeares plays and
sequences from an American sitcom, along with their translations. The common denominator
of these texts is the fact that they contain bawdy wordplay. The reason behind our choice is
related to the idea of perpetuity and universality that the notions of wordplay and allusion
display, and it supports the logical demonstration of the fact that these textual phenomena
transcend all sorts of barriers, and their translation encounters similar sorts of obstacles, no
matter the time, place or genre the source texts pertain to.
Keywords: translation, wordplay, bawdy, sitcom, Shakespeare
1. Introduction
Starting from the assumption that the translators approach to wordplay is universal, in
this paper we intend to apply this idea to bawdy wordplay through the analysis of examples
extracted from texts that illustrate temporal, geographical and typological extremes: excerpts
from Shakespeares plays and sequences from the American sitcom The Nanny, along with
their translations. The choice of such a topic was motivated by the fact that the translator is
faced with the actual linguistic problem of translating the wordplay and, at the same time,
with the challenge of rendering the bawdy in an indirect way, most often in a cultural-bound
context.
In the first part of our paper, we will attempt to delimit the object of our interest,
namely the field of wordplay and that of proper name allusions, and to highlight the functions
and treatment of the bawdy wordplay in the two types of texts mentioned above. Then, we
will refer to various factors which might influence their translation, such as the linguistic
component, the translators training and his/her attitude to untranslatability or the constraints
operating in the audiovisual medium, and we shall tackle the treatment of bawdy wordplay in
the translation from English into Romanian of the selected examples, namely the strategies
and solutions translators resort to when faced with such instances of text.
2. The wordplay: a textual phenomenon
As far as the concept of wordplay or pun is concerned, Delabastita (1993, 57)
describes it as the general name indicating the various textual phenomena (i.e. on the level of
performance or parole) in which certain features inherent in the structure of the language used
(level of competence or langue) are exploited in such a way as to establish a communicatively
39
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
significant, (near)-simultaneous confrontation of at least two linguistic structures with more or
less dissimilar meanings (signifieds) and more or less similar forms (signifiers). We will be
using the terms wordplay and pun interchangeably in this paper, as they refer to the same
linguistic phenomenon.
The above definition underlines important features of wordplay such as the fact that it
is contextually-bound, which means that the different interpretations of the same element
cannot be triggered outside a context; or that it is intentional, which differentiates it from the
misuse of a word, from unintentional ambiguities or unplanned repetitions; or that it must
have a communicative function. In addition to emphasis or humour, which are regularly
quoted, the author identifies several other functions of wordplay such as animating characters
the presence or absence of wordplay, its frequency can act as markers of character or can
help to bring to life the character (Delabastita 1993, 139); supporting witty dialogue;
supporting rhetorical monologue or manipulating audience response. Delabastita also quotes
tricking the censor as a wordplay function in the case of taboos encountered in different
areas of human experience, the main ones being aggression and sexuality (1993, 150). When
talking about sexual taboos, the author notes that wordplay affords the speaker to transgress
the social decorum in an indirect manner, which is more acceptable, and most of the time
produces a comical effect.
Some of the examples of bawdy wordplay that we intend to examine can also be
classified as allusive, which is not surprising considering Leppihalmes (1997, 6) view that
the category of wordplay and that of allusions are related, although precisely in what
relationship such terms stand to one another is seldom made clear.
Most definitions of allusion refer to it as a literary phenomenon: an indirect or
passing reference to some event, person, place or artistic work, the nature and relevance of
which is not explained by the writer but relies on the readers familiarity with what is thus
mentioned (Baldick 2001, 7). However, from the more general perspective adopted by
Leppihalme, the term can refer to a variety of uses of preformed linguistic material (Meyer,
1968) in either its original or a modified form, and of proper names, to convey often implicit
meaning (1997, 3). In our corpus the allusive bawdy wordplay includes the category of
proper-name allusions, in other words, we are dealing with indirect references to the bawdy
achieved through the mechanisms of wordplay, which may occasionally involve the use of a
proper name. It is also worth mentioning that in the examples discussed below, we have
approached instances of bawdy wordplay as translation problems requiring problem-solving
and the use of appropriate strategies (ibid. 1997, 3), in an attempt to explain the way they
function and the role they play in both the ST and the TT.
3. Bawdy wordplay: Shakespeare vs. sitcoms
In what follows, we will be considering the role of bawdy puns, in two very different
sorts of texts: a literary, classical text type, and a subtitled, modern text type, along with their
respective translations. The underlying assumption is that no matter how different the text
types, the translators options will always be shaped by the linguistic/cultural potential of the
TT as well as by the extent to which (s)he takes this task in his/her own stride.
As far as Shakespeare is concerned, there is no wonder that the playwright made
(sometimes) excessive use of wordplay since this linguistic device suddenly emerged during
40
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
the Elizabethan period and rapidly declined before the middle of the succeeding century, due
to the fact that, by then, appropriateness of expression started to be valued to the expense of
the ornate vocabulary.
As far as the bawdy allusions are concerned, Shakespeare worked out an outstanding
number of 3000 such allusions in his plays, among which 700 on sex and more than 400 on
genitals (Kiernan, 2007). From mere innuendoes to blatant phrasings, Shakespeares
wordplays make up a vivid image bearing precise functions: to clarify the conflict of
incompatible truths and help establish the final equipoise (Mahood 1956, 56). While his
kings, queens and aristocrats are as foul-mouthed as his clowns, and his women are expert
dealers in the raciest double-entendre (Kiernan 2007), the bawdy wordplay serves as a means
of entertainment, characterization and unification of the entire play.
In modern times, as opposed to Shakespeares epoch, the sexual allusion tends to be
rather concealed, even though claims are continuously being made of the necessity to preserve
language transparency and to honestly speak of everything that pertains to our indecent
reality. Instead, our instinctive reaction is to frown upon anyone who dares speak bluntly
about such topics. Therefore, concepts of the sort beget the quality of allusions, and emerge
particularly in highly humorous discourse instances, wherever they might be somehow
excused for appearing, such as in sitcoms.
The ultimate function of bawdy wordplay in sitcoms is, just like in Shakespeares
plays, to stir laughter, but, unlike in Shakespeares case, allusions in the sitcoms produced in
the 1990s (such as The Nanny) seem very carefully controlled, sometimes even censored,
because of their immediate impact on the target audience, on the background of a false sense
of prudishness that modern cultures exhibit. Although in many sitcoms, relationships, love
and sex are constant themes, explicit or overt references to taboo issues are usually avoided,
the screen players resorting to bawdy wordplay and allusions.
4. Translating the bawdy wordplay
In what follows, we will be considering a few instances of puns in both Shakespeares
plays and in sitcoms, and we will attempt to make several notes on the translators manner of
approaching such instances, which, we hypothesize, will lead us to the conclusion that, in
translation, bawdy wordplay and allusions tend to be leveled out, they tend to incur a lesser
degree of intensity than that in the SL, and will sometimes function as effaced replicas of their
originals. We will start with a general discussion of the factors which have to be taken into
account by translators when rendering bawdy wordplay.
4.1 Translatability constraints
From a strictly linguistic point of view, a pun is an expression that overtly or covertly
derives its effect from a contrast between its form and its range of meanings, being a
characteristic combination of differences of meaning and likenesses of form (Delabastita
1993, 57). But then, the pun is also one of the most culture-bound instances of language
manifestation. The language in wordplays seems to be the instrument for conveying a higher,
profoundly cultural message. Hence, the first challenge that a translator faces is recognizing
the pun for what it is. As Delia Chiaro aptly asserted, the pun has to play on knowledge
which is shared between sender and recipient (1992, 11). Whenever the sender and the
41
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
recipient happen to find a mutual ground for relishing in the witty atmosphere created by the
wordplay, we might assume that the pun has been recognized as such, and the entire credit is
given to the competence assumed by the translator as intercultural mediator.
Even though the TL is built on totally different structures than the SL, what the
translator can and should do is to depart from source text structures for the sake of recreating
certain effects (Delabastita 1994, 229). In other words, the translator must be skilled enough
to be able to divorce textual means from textual function. Once he has established the textual
function of the pun in the SL, the translator should pursue what is called functional
equivalence between ST and TT. As seeker of equivalence, the translator should then be
striving to produce in the target audience the same effect that the original text produced in the
source audience.
Therefore, the structural asymmetry between languages should by no means be a
constraint in translating the allusive pun. Since it is essentially rooted in extralingual reality,
the first concern that the translator should have is to accurately decode the culture-bound
function of the pun, and to re-encode it as closely as possible in the TL with a view to
achieving the same effect on the TL audience. Therefore, as far as the translation of allusive
puns is concerned, we clearly favour a target text-oriented approach, with functional
equivalence as the principal aim. In Gottliebs words, translation means being aware of the
intent of the original as well as of the target audiences common pool of allusions (2009, 22-
23). It is only then that the pun actually starts being a pleasure and not an ordeal.
Along with the limitations imposed by language and culture, in the case of audio-
visual translation, there emerges a whole new set of media-related constraints, that add to the
translators responsibility towards the languages and cultures (s)he deals with. Given the
polysemiotic nature of the audio-visual product, the challenges of translating puns increase.
The strategy that underlies all subtitling products, condensation, is the one that often runs
counter to an accurate translation of the allusion. Thus, the translator needs to confine himself
to a limited number of characters and a limited amount of time during which the translation is
available for the readers on the screen, consequently fewer words might mean fewer chances
to obtain equivalent effect. Secondly, there is this tension between the image on screen and
the uttered dialogue. The subtitler will need to correlate the two, and preserve the same
amount of congruity or lack thereof as in the original. Thirdly, whenever the TL audience
happens to be in the least familiar with the SL, the pressure upon the translator increases, as
(s)he is forced to find translation versions that comply with the TL audience expectations.
Compared to translations that are printed products, audiovisual translations will not
cover the entire range of translation strategies available to translations in printed form. For
instance, omissions of wordplay are more often then not excluded from among the allowed
subtitling strategies in the case of sitcoms, given the fact that the background laughter of the
original audience in the soundtrack compels the subtitler to preserve the humorous hints and
make them matter in the TT.
4.2 Strategies and solutions
When it comes to translating allusions, either in Shakespeare or in sitcoms, things get
rather complicated. The translator needs to avoid being engulfed into the ideological
framework of the time, place, and culture he lives in. As Lefevere points out, whenever
42
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
linguistic considerations enter into conflict with ideological considerations, the latter will
certainly prevail. The result will be euphemistic translations which are to no small extent
indicative of the ideology dominant at a certain time in a certain society (Lefevere 1980, 56),
and which seem to be stealing the entire original suggestions, while depriving the TL
audience of simply enjoying the pun. Fact is that both in the SL and in the TL, the wordplay
in general, and the bawdy wordplay in particular could and should be a tool for seriously
exploring the discrepancy between surface and substance and for supplying the audience with
a special kind of intellectual pleasure.
The examples of bawdy wordplay discussed in this section are grouped into wordplay
based on polysemy, on homonymy and on homophony, according to the linguistic mechanism
that triggers them. Moreover, for the written texts, there is also wordplay based on
homography, category which was not included because it does not apply to sitcoms where the
information is conveyed through the oral code. As previously mentioned, we have
additionally identified instances in which the wordplay based on the above mentioned
mechanisms can also be classified as proper name allusions. These allusive puns will be
highlighted in the analysis.
As for the available translation strategies, we have opted for Delabastitas (1993: 192-
220) classification which includes: pun > pun (rendering the ST pun through a TT one, which
may be formally or semantically different); pun > non-pun (explaining the ST pun in the TT);
pun > punoid (translating the ST pun through other stylistic means in the TT); pun > zero
(completely eliminating the wordplay in the TT); direct copy: pun ST = pun TT (copying the
ST pun in the TT without translating it); transference: pun ST = pun TT (copying the
meaning, not the form of the ST pun in the TT); non-pun > pun or zero > pun (compensating
the deletion of a pun by inserting one somewhere else in the text); and editorial techniques
(using footnotes, endnotes, translators comments etc., to explain the pun or the translation
strategy). The last strategy cannot be used in the case of audiovisual products because of the
medium-specific constraints.
4.2.1 Bawdy wordplay based on polysemy. In this case, the pun is built on words which are
pronounced and spelt in the same way and have related meanings. This is the case of the
following examples. The first makes reference to sexual behaviour by means of the adjective
fast which, in addition to its regular meaning of involving high speed, can also refer to a
promiscuous woman, who has sexual relationships with a lot of people, when used to modify
the noun woman.
(1) Context English dialogue Romanian translation
(The Nanny, season 3, ep. 1) (Mihaela Cristea)
Fran is talking about the lies she Fran: You wouldnt believe Im Fran: Nu m-ai crede c sunt cea mai
told her pen pal. Among them, the fastest woman on earth? rapid femeie din lume?//
the fact that she presented Maxwell (looking at her short and Maxwell: n costumul la, te-a crede.
herself as the fastest runner in tight dress): In that outfit, I would. //
the world and an Olympic gold
medallist.
43
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The comment is triggered by the context, Fran is about to meet her pen pal, a convict
to whom she had presented herself in letters over the years as being an athlete, an astronaut, a
billionaire and Miss America. In expressing his disapproval of her conduct, Maxwell resorts
to a pun, thus avoiding a direct confrontation with Fran or a possible offense. Unfortunately,
the Romanian translation preserves only the first meaning, as no Romanian adjective that
could cover both meanings is available, thus the wordplay is lost. However, the translator
exploits the image (Max looking at Frans dress), and moves the accent to another
interpretation: dressed like that, Fran is so sexy that she would manage to convince anyone of
anything. In other words, the sexual connotation is preserved even if the wordplay is not.
The second example refers to sexual intercourse, employing the taboo and slang
meaning of the transitive verb to do, i.e. (of a male) to have sexual intercourse with. The
wordplay is triggered by the reply to Frans perfectly innocent question. Frans mother is
known for her racy comments, so her reaction comes as no surprise to the audience.
(2) Context English dialogue Romanian translation
(The Nanny, season 3, ep. 16) (Mihaela Cristea)
After she learns that her parents want Fran: Daddy, come out of there! Fran: Iei de acolo, tat. Ce
to get a divorce, Fran tries to bring What are you doing in there? faci? //
them together. She goes to talk to her Sylvia (coming out of the Sylvia: Ce facem //
father and finds him in the bathroom. bathroom): Me.
In the subtitles, the wordplay is replaced by an indirect reference to sex, which means
that the translator manages to convey the bawdy dimension of the reply to the target audience,
and thus, just like in the previous case, the effect is preserved, although the wordplay is lost.
On the other hand, quite noticeable in Shakespeares plays would be the occurrence of
entire scenes permeated with polysemic puns. A case in point is the scene in progress within
the brothel depicted in Pericles. Here follow several illustrative instances:
(3) Pericles Tacu Gheorghiu, 1990
Bawd: When she should do for clients her fitment Codoaa: n loc s-i fac datoria fa de muterii
(IV,6,6)
Bawd: never plucked yet (IV,6,43) nc neculeas
Bawd: My lord, shes not paced yet (IV,6,63) Stpne, nu-i nc dat pe brazd
Lysimachus: If shed do the deed of darkness Dac-ar voi s fac fapte pe-ntuneric
(IV,6,31)
All translations above are circumscribed within the same euphemistic borders
designed by the English text, fact which might be indicative of the richness of polysemic
terms in specific areas, in both languages. It may also be that the puns are so well-decoded
because of the actual place where all these exchange of retorts takes place the brothel.
Another play which actually competes with Pericles in the number of euphemistic
puns referring this time to the idea of a morally decayed woman is Henry IV, Part 2:
44
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
(4) Henry IV, Part 2 L. Levichi, 1985
Prince Henry: What pagan may that be? (II,2,154) Ce podoab o mai fi i asta?
Prince Henry: This Doll Tear-sheet should be some Doll Tear-sheet asta pesemne e un fel de strad mare?
road (II,2,168)
Falstaff:and sung those tunes to the le cnta fleoarelor cntece pe care le nva de la
overscutched huswives that he heard the carmen surugii
whistle (III,2,340)
Our translator has the chance here to exploit the polysemic potential of the Romanian
language, and provides versions that both structurally and semantically relate back to the
original version.
Interesting enough, as far as polysemic puns are concerned, we notice in subtitling a
certain detachment that the translator adopts, while s/he is no longer forced to rely on words
exclusively - having the image at his/her disposal. On the contrary, all translations from
Shakespeare are highly elaborated, as the translator searches equivocal terms to recuperate as
much as possible from the original semantic load. As for the TL audience, the humorous hints
seem to be more readily available in the Shakespearean translations, while in subtitling extra
effort is required to associate the image with the less suggestive puns.
4.2.2 Bawdy wordplay based on homonymy. The wordplays in this category exploit the
relationship between words pronounced and spelt the same, but with unrelated meanings. In
example (5) the pun makes reference to sexual orientation and it involves two meanings of the
same form: the first one of the five boroughs of New York City, and the second
homosexuals, the plural form of the common noun queen, used depreciatively and
pejoratively. This is also an example of a proper name allusion, since it includes a reference to
a famous location, which is preserved in translation, at the expense of the wordplay and,
unfortunately, of the humorous effect.
(5) Context English dialogue Romanian translation
(The Nanny, season 2, ep. 23) (Mihaela Cristea)
Mr. Anthony is talking to the young Actress (to Mr. Anthony): I dont Actress (ctre dl. Anthony):
woman he has just hired. The latter asks really know Queens. Nu prea cunosc Queens.
him if he knows a hotel or shelter Claude: Well, I know one! (shaking Claude: Te ajut eu! //
nearby where she could spend the night. has with the actress)
Mr. Anthonys assistant, Claude,
presented to the public as being
homosexual, intervenes.
Although it would have been difficult to preserve the wordplay, given that there is no
one Romanian homonymic noun in this semantic area, the subtitler could have attempted to
convey at least some of the effect to the target language audience, which might be puzzled by
the laughter they hear. A possible comical solution might be obtained by insisting on the
sexual orientation of Mr. Anthonys assistant, and thus exploiting the visual feedback:
Actress: I dont really know Queens. Actress: Nu cunosc pe nimeni n zon. (I dont know anybody in this area.)
Claude: Well, I know one! Claude: Eu cunosc (doar) brbaii. (I know (only) the men.)
45
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
We believe that this might have been a valid translation solution even if it eliminates the form
Queens, because, in this case, the impact of the image on the audience is stronger than that of
the original dialogue.
Still in the same sphere of allusive homonymic puns based on proper names, there is
in Shakespeare, the phrase Dead Mens Fingers, a proper noun which apparently bears no
tinge of wordplay; however, viewed in context namely Queen Gertrudes words addressed
to Ophelia, already passed away the secondary meaning of this homonymic phrase
becomes obvious:
(6) Hamlet D.R. Economu, A. Stern, 1922 L. Levichi and D. Vl. Streinu,
1855 Duescu, 1964 1970
(IV,7,170)
long Purples, Acolo mpletind ea i floarea roie i ciucuri purpurii pstie roii,
That liberal nite cunune visare crora pstorii pe cari pstorii Tulpini cu nume
shepherds give a (sic), vru s se i d un nume Cu nume de ruine de ruine, cror,
grosser name; atrne de crcile ruinos, dar fete i numesc, Copile le spun
rsfrnte
But our cold maids Curate, degete de Dar fetele mai degete-de-mort;
do Dead Mens mort i zic sfiicioase spun
Fingers call them C-s degete de
mort.
Dead Mens Fingers seems to be a herb associated with chastity (Crystal &
Crystal, 2002, 331) or the purple orchid, which in Latin appears as orchis mascula. All
Romanian translations choose to operate the substitution of the SL phrase with a
superordinate term, thus a highly general one, which actually back-translates as shameful
name. There is however a popular name for this flower in Romanian too, poroinic, the use of
which would have probably resulted in the complete effacement of the original suggestion,
since the TL readers would not have deciphered the intended meaning at first sight.
Then a much debated upon instance of homonymic pun is the term tailor
frequently used to mean [bottom] as in the indecent retort belonging to Puck:
(7) A Midsummer Nights t. O. Iosif, 1913 D. Grigorescu, 1984
Dream (II,1,51-57)
The wisest aunt telling the Ades, cea mai sftoas din bunici, Alt dat,
saddest tale, Cnd e rugat de nepoii mici Cnd deapn-o poveste-nfricoat,
Sometime for three-foot stoole, S spuie-un basm, m ia drept scunel Mtua crede c-s un scunel,
mistaketh me,
Cu trei picioare: vrea s stea pe el, i cat s se-aeze-ncet pe el;
Then slip I from her bum, down
Atunci alunec, baba se trezete Eu fug, ea pe podea se prvlete,
topples she,
Jos pe podele, blastm, tuete, urloaiele i salt i tuete.
And tailor cries, and falls into a
coffe Iar toi ceilali fac haz, se in de ale Ceilali, nveselii de-aa npaste
And then the whole quire hold De rs, pufnesc, strnut n basmale Icnesc de rs, inndu-se de coaste,
their hips, and loffe, i jur c de cnd snt ei pe lume i jur c nicicnd n-au petrecut
And waxen in their mirth, and N-au pomenit aa poznae glume. Un ceas att de vesel i plcut
neeze, and sweare
A merrier hour was never
wasted there.
46
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The translations conceal to a larger extent the original suggestions, particularly the earlier
translation, where the sexual hints are almost erased, and thus, what results, strictly at pun
level, is a complete neutralization of the SL meaning (in the first translation) and a
decrease in intensity (in the second translation). Nevertheless, the overall impact of the pun
on the entire phrasing is made up for with the help of the humouristic tinge that both
translations benefit from.
However, most frequently, in Elizabethan English, the meaning of this same tailor
used to be [male sexual organ]. This specific sense is apparent in the following instances:
(8) The Tempest (II,2,55) Stephano: Yet a tailor might scratch Dar pe-un croitor vezi c-l lsa
her where-ere she did itch S o scarpine unde-o mnca (L.
Levichi, 1990)
Henry IV, Part Falstaff: But if he had been a mans Dar dac ar fi fost croitor de haine
2,(III,2,165) tailor, he would have pricked you brbteti, i-ar fi pus el semne cu
creta. (L. Levichi, 1985)
King Lear, (II,2,56) Kent to Oswald: A tailor made thee Te-a meterit un croitor (M.
Gheorghiu, 1988)
Although the meaning of tailor is taken over by the letter in all three instances,
without any symbolical allusive transfiguration, the enlarged context contributes to the
semantic recovery of the entire original textual area. As compared to the English version, the
Romanian translations prove to camouflage sexual references to such an extent that only a
previously informed reader might be able to identify them.
What comes out clearly from the examples above is that puns based on homonymy
are rather challenging in both situations; what Shakespeares translators or the subtitlers can
best do is to preserve one meaning (thus effacing the pun), replace the SL term with a more
general one in the TL, or remove the pun altogether and rely on a larger context - be it the
entire retort or the image to make up for the loss.
4.2.3 Bawdy wordplay based on homophony. This category includes wordplay built on
words pronounced the same way, but spelt differently and having no meaning relationship.
The two following examples are built on the homophones abroad a broad, and silicon
silicone.
(9) Context English dialogue Romanian translation
(The Nanny, season 3, ep. (Mihaela Cristea)
12)
Max wants to send his Max (to Fran): I dont want Maggie Max: Nu vreau ca Maggie s-i petreac
daughter Maggie to spending her holiday with that boy. So vacana cu biatul la. //
Switzerland for the holidays Im sending her abroad. Aa c o trimit n strintate. //
to keep her away from boys. Fran: Are you sure you want to swing Fran: Suntei sigur c vrei s o apucai
that way? n direcia asta? //
47
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
In example (9), the formal resemblance between abroad and a broad determines Fran
to choose the second interpretation: Max would like his daughter to stay away from boys and
to spend her holidays with a woman. In addition to her intonation and mimics, the audience is
aware of the sexual connotation she gives to Maxwells words because she uses the
expression swing that way which resembles swing both ways, refering to sexual orientation.
The Romanian translator opts for a neutral interpretation, preserving only the meaning of
abroad and completely eliminating Frans (mis)interpretation and, thus, the humorous effect.
The next example of wordplay based on homophony is, at the same time, a proper
name allusion, as in example (5).
(10) Context English dialogue Romanian translation
(The Nanny, season 2, ep. 23) (Mihaela Cristea)
Fran returns home with the Fran: Fasten your seatbelts, kids! Fran: Legai-v centurile de
children to find the house full of We are about to enter Silicone siguran, copii! //
young actresses waiting for Valley. Intrm n Valea Siliconului. //
their audition with Max.
The source wordplay is built on the homophones silicon and silicone, used in the
context of Silicon Valley, the southern region of the San Francisco Bay Area in Northern
California, where several important technology corporations are located. The name originally
referred to the large number of inventors and producers of silicon chips working in the region.
Fran modifies the name, turning it into Silicone Valley in the context of a house full of
actresses, suggesting that she suspects they underwent cosmetic surgery, including silicon
implants. Silicon Valley can be considered an accessible cultural reference, although there is
no way of knowing whether the Romanian audience makes the connection between the
translated form Valea Siliconului and the original Silicon Valley (which normally is not
translated into Romanian). Even in this case, the form is humorous as it is supported by the
image.
By exploiting the same idea of similarity between words, Shakespeares text provides
a wonderful instance of homophonic wordplay:
(11) The Merchant of Venice (V,1,237) P. Solomon, 1984
Gratiano: Well, do you so; let not me take him, De l-a prinde,
then; / For if I do, Ill mar the young clerks pen.
I-a frnge pana, s se-nvee minte!
Gratiano uses a double entendre based on the similarity of pronunciation between pen
(the writing instrument) and penis (the genital organ). Clerks write with pens, but Gratiano
also means that he will hurt the clerks genitals if he has intercourse with Nerissa. The TL
audience will certainly be able to correctly decode the double meaning of pana, given their
familiarity with the secondary, indecent meaning evident in several slang set-phrases
involving the term.
Even though the challenges of translating homophonic puns are certainly at least that
many as in the case of homonymic puns, in the examples (purposely selected to show that
48
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
rendition is possible), the translators have quite remarkably resorted to strategies that are
filled with (double) meaning, humour and bawdy innuendoes.
5. Conclusions
The analysis above led us to several findings. Firstly, as far as bawdy wordplays in the
SL are concerned, they are highly transparent and upfront in Shakespeares case whereas in
film scripts they are quite opaque and elusive. The reasons most likely pertain to the real thrill
theatre audiences used to get while listening to such sort of speech in the Elizabethan time,
and, on the contrary, the exaggerated care to avoid public offensive formulations in modern
scripts.
Secondly, for a listener or reader, it is often difficult to grasp that a pun is involved at
all, because of pronunciation changes (in Shakespeares case) or because hints are well-
dissembled (in sitcoms), particularly if the pun is confined to one rather than two or more
words.
Thirdly, if the pun is successfully detected, the translation may raise certain problems:
the Romanian language, much less homophonic and polysemic than the English language,
decreases the number of translational options and, more often than not, records significant
loss in humour and emphasis.
Fourthly, the temporal gap between the original and the translations does not result in
toning down the intensity of the original Shakespearean phrasing, while in subtitling it is
exactly the immediacy of translation that appears to neutralize more than expected from the
original wordplay or racy comments. The reasons may in part be related to the difference
between the two translation types: while the literary translator is a writer himself, he feels
compelled to elaborate a translation, not just to issue it; the subtitler, on the other hand, is a
professional translator subjected to media constraints (related to time and space), and,
sometimes relying more than s/he probably should on the image to speak louder than his/her
words.
All in all, our analysis highlighted the perpetuity of wordplay occurrences, and, at the
same time, of wordplay translation strategies with a view to achieving functional equivalence,
which suggests that, in general, translation issues seem to transgress any barriers, not just
linguistic ones.
References
Baldick, Chris. 2001. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. Oxford: OUP.
Chiaro, Delia. 1992. The Language of Jokes. Analyzing Verbal Play. London and New York:
Routledge.
Crystal, David & Ben Crystal. 2002. Shakespeares Words. A Glossary and Language
Companion. Penguin Books.
Delabastita, Dirk. 1993. There's a Double Tongue: An Investigation into the Translation of
Shakespeare's Wordplay. Amsterdam & Atlanta: Rodopi.
Delabastita, Dirk. 1994. Focus on the Pun: Wordplay as a Special Problem in Translation
Studies. Target 6:2, pp. 222-243.
49
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Gottlieb, Henrik. 2009. Subtitling Against the Current: Danish Concepts, English Minds. In
Daz Cintas, Jorge (ed.): New Trends in Audiovisual Translation. Briston, UK & Tonawanda,
NY: Multilingual Matters, pp. 21-43.
Kiernan, Pauline. 2007. Filthy Shakespeare: Shakespeares Most Outrageous Sexual Puns.
London: Quercus.
Lefevere, Andre. 1980. Translating Literature/Translated Literature: The State of the Art. In
Ortrun Zuber (ed.): The Languages of Theatre. London: Pergamon Press, pp. 153-161.
Leppihalme, Ritva. 1997. Culture Bumps. An Empirical Approach to the Translation of
Allusions, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Mahood, Molly. 1956. Shakespeares Wordplay. London: Methuen.
50
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
OBSERVATIONS REGARDING THE LOCUTIONAL NOUN
Cecilia CPN, Professor, PhD and Anamaria PREDA, Assistant Professor, PhD,
University of Craiova
Abstract: We have tried to highlight that the noun takes precedence over the other phrasal
elements and the characteristics of its behaviour. We have drawn attention to the
lexicographical registering of phrases in general, and to noun phrases in particular.
Keywords: noun, compound, phrase, statute, lexicography
1. Pe baza DILR, am stabilit ponderea substantivului ntre clasele lexico-gramaticale.
Din inventarul de 98.083 de cuvinte al dicionarului, 65.999 sunt substantive, circa 67 % (pe
locurile urmtoare, la mare distan, se plaseaz adjectivele: 23.390 de adjective, adic 28% i
verbele: 7203 verbe, 7,34%).
2. n ce privete ipostaza de element locuional a substantivului, am constatat c este
prezent n toate tipurile de locuiuni. O statistic a componentelor morfologice cu statut de
elemente locuionale va indica frecvena superioar a substantivului.
2.1. n locuiunile substantivale, provenite cum se tie din locuiuni verbale,
substantivul este element obligatoriu. Toate substantivele componente sunt comune, simple
sau derivate, flexibile i aparin clasei inanimatelor. Primul substantiv component e un derivat
al verbului din locuiunea verbal, cu sufixul (a, e, i, )re, iar al doilea substantiv are
aceeai form ca n locuiunea-baz derivativ: aducere aminte, ncetarea din via, darea n
vileag, luarea la rost, luarea n seam, inducerea n eroare, luarea peste picior, trecerea cu
vederea, stingerea din via, trecerea n nefiin; btaie de joc, nvare / nvtur de minte,
inere de minte, dare de seam .a.
Majoritatea locuiunilor substantivale conin dou substantive, aflate n poziie
iniial i final: btaie de joc, inere de minte, nvtur de minte, (ne)bgare de seam,
punere la cale .a. Mai puine conin doar un substantiv aflat n poziie iniial, urmat de un
adverb: aducere aminte, luare aminte, prere de ru, prere de bine.
Cele mai multe substantive aflate pe primul loc n structura locuional sunt derivate
postverbale, fie infinitive lungi, cu sufixul (a, e, i, )re: luare, aducere, bgare, nvare,
prere, inere, punere .a., fie supine substantivizate: datul, luatul, adusul, pusul, statul (pe
gnduri), trasul (pe sfoar) .a., fie derivate cu alte sufixe substantivale: btaie (de joc, de
cap), arunctur (de ochi), nvtur (de minte). n multe cazuri, locuiunea substantival are
dou variante, datorit substantivizrii infinitivului i a supinului: aducerea aminte / adusul
aminte, punerea la cale / pusul la cale, luarea aminte / luatul aminte, punerea la punct / pusul
la punct, tragerea pe sfoar / trasul pe sfoar, tragerea la rspundere / trasul la rspundere,
darea n vileag / datul n vileag .a.
Cteva substantive componente, aflate pe poziia secund n structura locuional i-au
pierdut autonomia lexico-gramatical: seam, iveal, vileag, tifl, hac. Prin urmare, n romna
actual, statutul lor este acela de component locuional, nu de substantiv. Altele sunt n uzul
51
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
romnei actuale, fcnd parte fie din lexicul fundamental: cale, picior, minte, joc, gnd, rost,
vorb, cuvnt, fie din cel neologic: eroare, revist, tapet.
2.2. Cu foarte puine excepii, locuiunile adjectivale conin un substantiv precedat sau
urmat de prepoziii, fr sau cu determinani: de batin, de com, cu / fr folos, cu / fr
noim, n etate, la ntmplare, la toart, din natere, din oficiu, de toat isprava, n toat
firea, sub orice critic; tot felul de, tot soiul de. Ca determinante substantivale, participiile
unor locuiuni verbale sunt locuiuni adjectivale. Conin un substantiv n poziie final: pus n
aplicare, pus la punct, pus la cale, tras la rspundere, tras pe sfoar, avut n vedere .a.
Exist cteva locuiuni adjectivale cu semnificaie cantitativ-superlativ, care au o
structur deosebit, incluznd un substantiv articulat nehotrt i o prepoziie postpoziionat
acestuia: o groaz de, un morman de, o sumedenie de, o puzderie de, o droaie de, o crc de,
un vraf de; o mn de un pic de, o umbr de, o frm de, o brum de.
Cteva locuiuni adjectivale au dou substantive, primul precedat de o prepoziie,
cellalt n genitiv sau n acuzativ prepoziional: n floarea vrstei, de mama focului, de
amorul artei, n puterea vrstei, de ochii lumii, de rsul lumii, la ordinea zilei, la lumina zilei;
la voia ntmplrii, la mintea cocoului, fiul ploii; cu stea n frunte, cu scaun la cap, cu capul
pe umeri, cu dare de mn .a.
2.3. Ca i n locuiunile adjectivale, n locuiunile adverbiale, cu excepia ctorva
tipare, substantivul precedat de prepoziie, fr sau cu determinant, e component de baz: cu
dificultate, cu predilecie, n anasmblu, cu niciun pre, n fa, n gura mare, de poman, n
ultim instan, din pcate, la un moment dat, pe picior greit, peste ateptri, prin viu grai,
n caz contrar.
Deloc neglijabile statistic i cu un tipar productiv sunt construciile adverbiale cu
repetiie, n care un substantiv la singular nearticulat se repet: an de an; cap la / n cap; de la
caz la caz; ceas de ceas; din col n col; cuvnt cu cuvnt; fa n fa; gnd la gnd; (din)
gur n gur; iarn de iarn; liter cu liter; din loc n loc; lun de lun; mn de la mn;
(din) mn n mn; din minut n minut; din moment n moment; noapte de noapte; ochi n
ochi; din om n om; din or n or; or de or; pas cu pas; picior peste picior; punct cu punct;
rnd pe rnd; sptmn de sptmn; sear de sear; din timp n timp; umr la umr; n
veci de veci; din vorb-n vorb .a.
2.4. i n locuiunile verbale, cu excepia a dou tipare (unul cu adjectiv: a o face lat,
cellalt, cu adverbe: a da napoi,a-i aduce aminte, a lua aminte .a.), substantivul e
component obligatoriu: a lua loc, a avea parte, a o lua la fug, a bate cmpii, a avea de gnd,
a ine minte, a-i bate joc, a pune la punct, a face fa .a.
2.5. Cel mai frecvent component al locuiunilor prepoziionale e tot substantivul.
Acesta apare precedat de prepoziie: sub aspectul, pe / n baza, pe calea, n ciuda, n / din
faa, n favoarea, n / de-a latul, n locul, n privina, pe spezele, n / pe urma, n vederea .a.,
demarcat de dou prepoziii: n acord cu, pe baz de, n calitate de, n / la caz de, n
conformitate cu, n curs de, n loc de, la un loc cu, n funcie de, n urm cu, cu privire la, n
raport cu / de, cu referire la, n timp de sau urmat de prepoziie: fa de, fa cu, vreme de,
timp de;
2.6. n locuiunile conjuncionale, substantivul ocup fie un loc median, ntre
componente (prepoziie + substantiv + conjuncie / relativ): din cauz c, din pricin c, n
caz c, n loc s, pe motiv c; de vreme ce, din moment ce, n timp ce, n vreme ce, pe dat ce,
52
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
pe msur ce, fie locul final: n schimb, n concluzie, n consecin, cu alte cuvinte, prin
urmare; n ce fel, n ce chip, ct timp, ct vreme, de cte ori, pe ct vreme .a.
2.7. Substantivul e component i al locuiunilor interjecionale: ce / pe / la dracu!,
Doamne Dumnezeule!, drag Doamne!, drgli Doamne!, Doamne ferete!, Doamne iart-
m!, la / pe / ce naiba!, Maic sfnt / precist!, miculia mea!, pentru Dumnezeu!, slav
Domnului!, pcatele mele!,vezi Doamne!
3. 1. Comportamentul substantivului locuional este, de cele mai multe ori, diferit de
cel al unui substantiv nelocuional. Forma substantivului locuional nu variaz n raport cu
categoriile gramaticale de numr, caz i determinare, aa cum se ntmpl n cazul
substantivului nelocuional: Are de gnd s plece., *Are de un gnd s plece., *Are de gndul
..., *Are de gnduri s ... vs Ce gnd are?, Ce gnduri are?, Are un gnd., Are nite gnduri
ascunse.; A lua-o la picior., *A luat-o la picioare. vs l doare piciorul / un picior.; Stau de
vorb., *Stau de vorbe., *Stau de o vorb. vs. Te-a durut vorba lui / te-au durut vorbele lui.;
I-a tiat macaroana., *I-a tiat macaroanele. vs Fierbe macaroanele., A luat o macaroan s
vad dac a fiert.; Au strigat ntr-un glas., *Au strigat n multe glasuri., *Au strigat n glas.;
Era scos din mini., *Era scos din minte.; L-a pus pe gnduri plecarea ta., *L-a pus pe gnd
plecarea ta.; A fost un incendiu de proporii.,*A fost un incendiu de proporie.; Tehnologiile
de ultim or., *tehnologii de ultime ore; E un om cu scaun la cap., *Sunt oameni cu scaun la
capete., *Sunt oameni cu scaune la capete.
3.2. n unele locuiuni se pstreaz forme flexionare nvechite sau ieite din uz: cmpi
a bate cmpii, a-i lua cmpii; roate a pune pe roate, a bga bee n roate, a da roate, a fi
pe roate, a merge ca pe roate; fugua a da fugua, fuga-fugua; biniorul cu biniorul, a
lua cu biniorul, ezi binior!
3.3. n cvsilocuiuni, formate dintr-un verb-suport i un substantiv, componentul
verbal poart morfemele predicativitii, iar cel substantival imprim semnificaie grupului
respectiv. Verbul-suport a face este prezent n numeroase cvasilocuiuni. Le numim astfel,
deoarece construcia e unitar din punct de vedere semantic, dar substantivul-component are
autonomie lexico-gramatical: a face greeli / o greeal / aceeai greeal / greeli
copilreti. Exist semne de locuionalizare a grupului care constau n restrngerea capacitii
de dominare a substantivului n anumite contexte: v fac legtura cu, au fcut schimb de
adrese, mi-am fcut socoteala c..., a fcut abstracie de..., face umbr pmntului, f pai!,
face multe / puine concesii / complimente / cumprturi / fasoane / glume / mofturi /
nzdrvnii; face mult / oarecare / puin avere / bclie / linite / lumin / concuren /
treab / pagub / risip.
3.4. Ca element locuional, substantivul apare n urmtoarele ipostaze:
- la singular nearticulat: n loc de, n loc s, a pune la cale, a ine minte, a lua loc, cu
cap, la ntmplare;
- la singular articulat hotrt: a face plinul, a da onorul, de-a rndul, la anul, cu
amnuntul, cu preul, cu carul, pe naiba, n ciuda;
- la singular articulat nehotrt: ntr-un final, ntr-o veselie, ntr-o frenezie, o
sumedenie de, o groaz de, ntr-o vreme, ntr-o rn, de-o seam;
- la singular articulat hotrt, cu determinant adjectival (inclusiv numeral cu valoare
adjectival): de toat jena, de mai mare dragul, de tot rahatul, la mna a doua, cu braele
ntinse, cu tot dragul;
53
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
- la singular nearticulat, cu determinant adjectival: de ultim or, n aa hal, de vi
nobil, cu snge rece, pe picior mare, de prim mn, de neam prost;
- la plural nearticulat: n draci, a sta pe gnduri, de proporii, din pcate, pe capete,
sub ateptri, de milioane;
- la plural articulat hotrt: cu lunile, a-i lua cmpii, a bate cmpii;
- la plural articulat nehotrt: btut n cuie, a lua la ntrebri, naintat n zile, a pune
pe butuci, a pune pe roate, ieit din mini;
- la plural nearticulat, cu determinant: n doi peri, la bani mruni, ntre dou vrste,
n doi timpi .a.
3.5. Cel mai important criteriu n acordarea statutului locuional este pierderea total
sau parial a autonomiei morfosintactice a substantivului component. n oricare dintre
combinaiile libere ale unui substantiv, acesta i menine intact capacitatea de funcionare: A
gsit un loc de munc n strintate.; Gsete locuri de...; A gsit locul de munc potrivit...;
A gsit nite locuri de munc....a.m.d. n schimb, n locuiune, substantivul are o unic
form, fiind invariabil: A luat loc lng tine. *A luat locul lng tine. *Au luat locuri...
Disponibilitile combinatorii ale unui substantiv sunt reale ntr-o mbinare liber: Au jucat un
joc / jocul numit.../ acest joc / nite jocuri / jocurile preferate., n vreme ce, n locuiuni, ori se
anuleaz: btaie de joc /*btaie de un joc / *btaie de jocul preferat, ori se restrng ntr-un
mod evident pn la anulare: are nevoie / are mare / puin nevoie de...; (animal) de povar /
* de mare povar; (e cam) din topor / *din acest topor; (este) dintr-o bucat / *din aceast
bucat .a.m.d.
3.6. Statutul locuional se datoreaz i sensului unitar lexico-gramatical pe care o
mbinare de cuvinte l-a dobndit i l-a fixat ntr-un anumit context. Aceeai combinaie de
cuvinte este cnd locuional, cnd nelocuional, n funcie de context. Iat, de pild, cum
semantica aceleiai secvene lexicale e diferit n raport de funcionarea ei de ansamblu sau nu
ntr-un anume context: Am fost de fa. cf. spun de fa; E n stare de orice. cf. n stare
lichid; A dat cu piciorul a ratat unei anse unice. cf. A dat cu piciorul n u;
Spectacolul are loc n salacf. Ea are loc la mas lng tine; S nu faci asta, Doamne
ferete! cf. Doamne, ferete-mi copilul de necazuri!; Documentul ar putea face lumin
elucida, clarifica n acest scandal cf. i o lumnare face lumin, dar slab; Filmul a fcut
valuri a produs o impresie puternic la festival cf. Orice vapor face valuri; A pus mna a
luat, furat, dobndit pe avere cf. A pus mna pe calorifer; Din pcate din nenorocire, din
nefericire, spre regretul..., a nvins orgoliul cf. i-a mai splat unele din pcate, nu pe toate;
Din ntmplare pe neateptate, pe nepregtite, surprinztor, s-a trezit erou cf. N-a reinut
nimic din ntmplare; Cnt dup ureche fr partitur cf. i-a dat prul dup ureche; L-a
fcut praf a distrus pe preedinte cf. Pe drumuri neasfaltate, mainile fac praf; S nu pleci
cu maina la ore de vrf cnd traficul e aglomerat cf. Urcase mult i se apropiase de vrf
.a.
3.7. Din punctul de vedere al funcionrii sintactice, cele mai multe substantive
locuionale nu admit niciun determinant: a pune la cale, a sta pe gnduri, a ine minte, a lua
loc, a lua parte la, a lua la btaie etc. Exist ns substantive cu o anume determinare
obligatorie: pe cont propriu, pe termen scurt, pe nepus mas, n alt ordine de idei, ultimul
rcnet, a dat n mintea copiilor, n scurt timp, de rsul lumii, cu tragere de inim, nvtur
de minte.
54
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
3.8. Dei dicionarele explicative romneti acord nc statut substantival cuvintelor:
vileag, dodii, ghiotura, iveal, hac, furori, seam, pomeneal, pripas, rn, berbeleacul,
ghes, binee, batin, ananghie, pomin, rspr, tgad, tifl, valm .a., am constatat c
utilizarea lor e realmente dependent de termenii colocani, cu care formeaz locuiuni: a da
n vileag, n dodii, cu ghiotura, a scoate la iveal, a da la iveal, a-i veni de hac, de-o seam,
a lua seama, pe seama, a bga de seam, a bga seama la, a ine seama de, a lua n seam,
nici pomeneal, de pripas, ntr-o rn .a.
La unele dintre acestea, DOOM-ul precizeaz corect c apar n locuiuni: ghiotura,
lturi, seamn, berbeleacul, batin, pomin, rspr, van .a., la altele ns, incorect, n
expresii: seam, vileag, binee, valma .a.
n virtutea ineriei, DOOM-ul nregistreaz nc, la unele dintre acestea, forme
flexionare de genitiv i dativ articulat, adugnd uneori precizarea referitoare la uzul rar:
iveal, ivelii; izbelite, izbelitii; precdere, precderii; privin, privinei; netire, netirii; de
singular i plural: pripas, pripasuri; sponc, sponci; toi, toiuri; de singular, plural i genitiv-
dativ articulat: ananghie, ananghii, ananghiei; furoare, furori, furorii; tgad, tgade,
tgadei; tifl, tifle, tiflei.
Concluzii
1. Substantivul e prezent n toate tipurile de locuiuni.
2. Comportamentul substantivului locuional se caracterizeaz prin flexiune incomplet n
raport cu categoriile sale gramaticale i se deosebete astfel de cel al unui substantiv
nelocuional.
3. Dicionarele continu s acorde statut substantival unor cuvinte care apar doar n
locuiuni, deci sunt componente locuionale.
4. Cnd statutul locuional e cert, substantivul component este element locuional.
5. Dac un asemenea substantiv i-a pierdut autonomia lexico-gramatical (v seam, vileag,
iveal, toi, hac .a.), este doar element locuional.
6. Dicionarele explicative romneti includ n inventar un numr mic de uniti
frazeologice, adesea nvechite, ieite de mult vreme din uz, n detrimentul celor cu frecven
ridicat n comunicare (n DEX 2012 e nregistrat a da n und, dar nu apar a da drumul, a
da voie).
7. Tratarea lexicografic a unor asemenea substantive locuionale trebuie s fie unitar.
Propunem statutul de formant locuional sau component locuional pentru substantivele de
sub 5, iar, la celelalte, nregistrarea locuiunilor n care apar.
Bibliografie
Boroianu, Ioana, Conceptul de unitate frazeologic; tipuri de uniti frazeologice I i II, n LL
1 i nr. 3, 1974.
Buc, Marin, Marele dicionar de expresii romneti, Bucureti, Meteor Press, 2012.
Cpn, Cecilia (coordonator), Dicionar invers al limbii romne, Bucureti, Editura
Niculescu, 2007.
Cpn, Cecilia, Elemente de frazeologie, Craiova, editura Universitaria, 2007.
55
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Cpn, Cecilia, Instantanee lingvistice, Craiova, Editura Scrisul Romnesc, 2009.
DELR = Dicionar de expresii i locuiuni romneti, Iai, Mydo Center, 1997.
DEX = Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne, ediia a II-a revzut i adugit, Bucureti,
Univers Enciclopedic, 2012.
DSL = Dicionar de tiine ale limbii, Bucureti, Editura Nemira, 2001.
DOOM2= Dicionarul ortografic, ortoepic i morfologic al limbii romne, ediia a II-a,
Bucureti, EA, 2005.
Dimitrescu, Florica, Locuiunile verbale n limba romn, Bucureti, EA, 1958.
GA = Gramatica limbii romne, Vol. I, II, ediia a II-a revzut i adugit. Tiraj nou,
Bucureti, EA, 1966.
GALR = Gramatica limbii romne, Vol. I Cuvntul, II, Enunul, Tiraj nou, revizuit,
Bucureti, EAR, 2008.
Hristea, Theodor, Frazeologia i importana ei pentru studiul limbii romne, n LL 1/1984.
Mrnduc, Ctlina, Dicionar de expresii, locuiuni i sintagme ale limbii romne, Bucureti,
Editura Corint, 2010.
Mrnduc, Ctlina, Consemnarea n dicionare a unutilor frazeologice, n Lucrrile celui
de-al treilea simpozion internaional de lingvistic, Bucureti, Editura Universitii din
Bucureti, 2010, p. 257-267.
Pan Dindelegan, Gabriela, Locuiuni sau grupuri sintactice libere (analizabile) ?, n LL
1/1991.
ovar, Andreea, Construcii cu verbe-suport n limba romn, n Limba romn. Dinamica
limbii, dinamica interpretrii, Bucureti, Editura Universitii din Bucureti, 2008, p. 155-
161.
Tomici, Mile, Dicionar frazeologic al limbii romne, Bucureti, Editura Saeculum Vizual,
2009.
56
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
CONSIDERATIONS UPON THE LEXICO-GRAMMATICAL CLASS OF THE
NUMERAL
tefan GITNARU, Professor, PhD, University of Piteti
Abstract: The problems regarding the numeral have begun along with the establishment and
the setting of the bounds to the class and its constituent subclasses.
Some landmarks: the denial of the class (Luiza Seche, 1960), the consideration of the cardinal
and the ordinal only (Sanda Golopenia Eretescu, 1965, GBLR, 2011), the classical
configuration (GALR, 2005/2008).
The present study tries to bring in some edifications on the individualizing features of the
class and its subclasses; and to reconsider the problems that the recent studies have released.
In reaching the new arguments, there is a need for using a combination between both modern
and traditional methods.
Keywords: quantifier, diagnostic context, gradation, substitute, +exactness
1. Toate cele trei direcii importante n care s-a desfurat de-a lungul timpului
cercetarea gramatical a numeralului se regsesc n faza actual. Este vorba de: descrierea
claselor prin supralicitarea zonelor de interferen; desfiinarea numeralului ca parte de
vorbire cu distribuirea n alte clase prin diversificarea acestora; restrngerea numrului de
subclase la dou (cardinal i ordinal).
Studiul de fa i propune s edifice clasa prin evidenierea trsturii semantice
specifice, a trsturilor morfologice individualizatoare i prin apelul la contextul diagnostic.
2. Prima direcie, cea a acceptrii clasei, n ciuda zonelor extinse de interferen, este
urmat de lucrrile normative: GLR, 1954 /Limba romn, 1956; GLR, 1963/1966 i GALR,
2005/2008.
2.1. n prima faz (GLR, 1954), n sfera cardinalelor sunt incluse i colectivele,
fracionarele distributivele i adverbialele.
Ordinalele formeaz o a doua clas. n plus, pronumele nehotrte cantitative (muli,
puini, civa...) sunt considerate numerale nehotrte; n minus, nu se observ c adverbialul
este de dou feluri: adverbialul cardinal (de trei ori) i adverbialul ordinal (a treia oar).
Interferena este afirmat tranant: Numeralele cardinale hotrte au valoare de
adjectiv sau de substantiv 1; Numeralele ordinale au rol de adjective, de substantive sau de
adverbe2; Numeralele adverbiale au rol de adverb3...
2.2. Un deceniu mai trziu, GLR (1963/1966), exclude cardinalele nehotrte, dar nu
identific distincia cardinal-ordinal n sfera adverbialului.
Interferena este subliniat n acelai fel. Numeralele care exprim un numr concret
pot fi: a) Adverbiale (...); b) Substantivale 4 (...) Numeralele colective pot avea valoare
adjectival (...) sau substantival 5...
1
LR 1956: 115
2
Ibidem: 120
3
Ibidem
57
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
2.3. n faza actual, GALR, 2005/2008, continu un studiu anterior al Gabrielei Pan
Dindelegan, Despre valorile numeralului, n care, n zona de interferen, este inclus i
valoarea pronominal. Un pas nainte este fcut de gramatica normativ actual prin scoaterea
numeralelor operaionale din sfera cardinalului.
3. n cea de-a doua direcie, n care cercettorii nu au inut cont de specificrile
anterioare, a susinut cu diferite argumente, cele mai multe din zona de interferen,
desfiinarea numeralului ca parte de vorbire.
3.1. n 1960, Luiza Seche, n urma unui studiu cu argumente neadecvate din textele
vechi, a concluzionat: Credem c faptele de limb ne ndreptesc s considerm c
numeralul nu exist ca parte de vorbire independent. n realitate avem de-a face cu adjective
(respectiv substantive, rar adverbe) de tip special cu sens cantitativ sau ordinal care trebuie
repartizate la cele trei categorii morfologice, prin desfiinarea celei de-a patra, cu totul
hibrid6.
3.2. n 1971, Barbu B. Berceanu arat c Numeralul nu este o parte de vorbire n
sensul n care este adjectivul, substantivul sau pronumnele. El nu are o form proprie, formele
lui fiind fie de adjectiv, fie de substantiv, fie rezultate dintr-un amestec de forme adjectivale
cu forme substantivale7.
Dac ar fi substantive, numeralele ar satisface contextul diagnostic de tip substantival 8.
Dac ar fi adjective, ar trebui, cu excepia primelor dou, care au flexiune sintetic, s fie
caracterizate prin invariabilitate sub aspectul formei, dar nu sub cel al gradaiei. Este adevrat
c sunt puine adjective care au categoria gradaiei, dar nici un numeral nu o posed.
n demonstraiile lui Barbu B. Berceanu multiplicativele sunt verbe, iar adverbialele -
adverbe.
3.3. n GLR, 2008, Dumitru Irimia scrie despre pronumele de cuantificare, expresie
prin care definete substitutele cantitative, cele pe care Iorgu Iordan le numea, cu o jumtate
de secol nainte, numerale.
n regres fa de cercetarea actual, sunt admise lng numerale pronumele de
cuantificare nedeterminat (muli, puini, civa...); sunt descrise pronumele ordinale,
adverbialele sunt excluse, iar multiplicativele sunt trecute la adverbe 9.
4.1. Limitarea clasei la cardinale i ordinale a fost operat de Sanda Golopenia
Eretescu, n 1965, celelalte fiind distribuite, cu destul uurin, la alte pri de vorbire. De
fapt, este vorba de un singur numeral, cel cardinal, ordinalul fiind considerat o form
flexionar a acestuia. La aceast concluzie se ajunge prin instituirea unui context diagnostic
pentru cardinal, fr s se observe c n aceeai manier se poate construi cte un context
diagnostic pentru fiecare tip de numeral, cu aceiai formani cu care aceste numerale se
formeaz de la cardinal: de cte ori anume a venit? de trei ori; a cta oar anumea venit?
a treia oar...
4
GLR,1963: 186
5
Ibidem: 191
6
Seche, 1960: 70
7
Berceanu, 1971: 155
8
Diaconescu, 1970: 71-72
9
Irimia, 2008: 144, 150
58
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
4.2. n acelai fel opereaz i GBLR, 2010, reinnd cardinalul i ordinalul i
incluzndu-le pe celelalte, aa cum se fcuse i pn acum, n diversitatea altor pri de
vorbire10.
Surprinde un defect major de distribuie: dac gramaticienii au reuit de-a lungul
timpului s exclud pronumele nedefinite din sfera numeralului, considernd trstura
+exactitate ca definitorie, acum se petrece fenomenul invers: Colectivele
amndoi/amndou, tustrei/tustrele, cteitrei/cteitrele (care se comport ca toi/toate) i
ambii/ambele ... figureaz n aceast lucrare la pronumele (i adjectivele) nedefinite 11. Se
ignor, ceea ce este absurd, c numeralele colective, ca numerale operaionale, desemneaz
formarea de mulimi finite, avnd, n consecin, trstura specific numeralului + exactitate.
5. Urmrind demonstraiile din cele trei direcii importante de cercetare, se constat c
invocarea unor trsturi i ignorarea altora ad opportunitatem nu au condus la o poziie ferm
n privina delimitrii subclaselor de numerale i nici la o definire a acestora n conformitate
cu faptele de limb.
5.1. O trstur comun a studiilor normative este aceea, destul de ciudat: se insist
de fiecare dat asupra celorlalte valori ale numeralului, specificndu-se c acest lucru
explic de ce i se contest calitatea de parte de vorbire 12; n schimb, nu exist pasaje n
textele lucrrilor respective care s explice cnd anumite cuvinte pot fi considerate chiar
numerale, dincolo de alteritile specificate.
5.2. Pentru a clarifica problemele numeralului, trebuie plecat de la definiia acestuia:
Numeralul estimeaz i ordoneaz obiectele i aciunile (numerale fundamentale) i exprim
anumite operaii care se fac cu numerele (numerale operaionale).
De asemenea, trebuie specificat c numeralele intr n clasa substitutelor: ele sunt
substitute cantitative, n timp ce pronumele sunt substitute calitative. Se realizeaz astfel, la
nivelul limbajului natural, opoziia semnalat de semantica logic, ntre numr i concept.
Valoarea de substitut o presupune i pe cea de determinare, pe cea adjectival: aa
cum exist adjective pronominale, exist i adjective numerale. Acest lucru nu constituie un
argument n a include la adjectiv nici pronumele nici numeralul.
Cnd este utilizat singur, nu are valoare substantival. Aa cum adjectivul pronominal,
cnd este singur, este pronume, tot astfel, adjectivul numeral, singur, este numeral. El este
numeral i n virtutea calitii lui de substitut, ceea ce nu caracterizeaz, n mod normal,
substantivul.
n GALR, se fac specificri importante: cu valoare de substitut, numeralul cardinal,
asemenea pronumelui (...) Ca i pronumele, numeralul funcioneaz anaforic sau cataforic 13.
ns acestea nu conduc, la concluzia fireasc, aceea c valoarea de substitut cantitativ este cea
care se identific cu numeralul. Aadar, ori de cte ori numeralele se folosesc singure (n
formulele numerice irul numerelor i operaii aritmetice sunt deictice numerice) sunt
substitute cantitative, deci numerale.
10
GBLR, 2010: 180, 181
11
Ibidem: 181
12
GALR, I, 2008: 290
13
Ibidem: 291
59
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
5.3. Nu s-a observat ns, nici n textele normative, c numeralele cuantific i aciuni,
nu numai obiecte. Pe cale de consecin, despre ele nu se mai poate spune c sunt adjectivale,
ci adverbiale.
i n cazul cuantificrii verbale, ca i n cazul celei nominale, funcioneaz opoziia
cardinal-ordinal. Exist aadar, numeralul adverbial cardinal (de trei ori) i numeralul
adverbial ordinal (a treia oar).
Adverbialul cardinal, spre deosebire de cardinalul nominal, nu poate fi utilizat fr
regentul su verbal, ntruct acesta este, de regul, predicat. Totui: Citind de trei ori am
neles; Venirea de trei ori l-a edificat. Subnelegerile sunt foarte rare: De trei ori la Iai, e
prea mult.
Deosebirea numeralului adverbial de adverbul cu care a fost identificat de multe ori se
verific prin cele trei exigene ce caracterizeaz toate numeralele.
n primul rnd, are trstura semantic + exactitate.
n al doilea rnd, exprim opoziii de numr, ca toate numeralele i nu o opoziie
cantitativ ca celelalte pri de vorbire.
Opoziia singular plural nu este o opoziie de numr, ci una cantitativ: : singularul
corespunde cu numrul unu, dar pluralul arat o cantitate nedefinit. n schimb, numeralul
angajeaz tot attea raporturi cantitative cte numere exist.
S-a artat c Sub aspectul numrului, numeralul conine lexical informaia de numr
(fiind inclus n informaia lui lexical), nedistignd prin forme flexionare valorile de
numr14.
Nu s-a observat c opoziiile cantitative se exprim la numeral prin algoritmii
structurali: formule combinatorii ntre numele de uniti i numele de clase, dispuse ntr-o
ierarhie determinat (numeralele primare i componenii substantivali15).
O analiz amnunit a algoritmilor structurali ai numeralului cardinal este fcut de
Sanda Golopenia Eretescu, n studiul Analiza structural a numeralului romnesc16.
Aceste dou trsturi se ntlnesc la toate tipurile de numerale.
n al treilea rnd, numeralul adverbial se distinge de adverbe i prin contextul su
diagnostic, ce presupune o valen liber, cerut, aa cum a prevzut Sanda Golopenia
Eretescu, de o structur interogativ: de cte ori anume V? A cta oar anume V?
n acest context nu pot aprea nici adverbele nici expresiile adverbiale cu structuri
similare cu ale numeralului: de cte ori anume ai venit? - de trei ori - *de multe ori.
5.4. n privina determinrii adjectivale, GALR reconsider, dintr-un alt punct de
vedere, o problem mai veche, aceea a legturilor sintactice de la stnga la dreapta17.
Este vorba de identificarea raportului de determinare n expresii cu numerale ce
depesc clasa superunitilor: douzeci de studeni.
Studiile tradiionaliste traneaz problema: Numeralul de la douzeci nainte... se
leag prin prepoziia de de substantivul pe care l nsoete (...) de la douzeci nainte se
comport ca un substantiv 18.
14
Pan Dindelegan, 2003: 77
15
Golopenia Eretescu, 1965: 385
16
Ibidem
17
Cf. Draoveanu, 1997: 53
18
Draoveanu, 1997: 53
60
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Analiznd comportamentul componentelor din expresii de tipul douzeci de oameni,
D.D. Draoveanu concluzioneaz: Suntem, prin urmare, de fapt, n prezena legturii de la
dreapta la stnga, subst. + (de) subst, att la nivelul coninutului unui atribut
prepoziional substantival (...) ct i la nivelul expresiei: n faa alternativei c un N se
subordoneaz unui Ac sau viceversa, o considerm ca unic acceptabil pe ultima19.
Studii mai noi, ntr-o demonstraie invers, introduc n demonstraie fenomenul
acordului, fiind luate n calcul expresii de tipul douzeci i doi de elevi douzeci i dou de
eleve. Se arat c prezena prepoziiei de nu influeneaz acordul n gen al grupului numeral
+ substantiv, acordul funcionnd peste limita prepoziiei20.
n cele din urm se reine c fenomenul acordului este singurul care conteaz n
demonstraie: Singur acordul n gen cu direcia substantiv-numeral este un semn clar de
subordonare21.
n felul acesta, construciile cu prepoziie sunt tratate ca i cele fr prepoziie, ce
angajeaz unitile i superunitile.
Acordul peste prepoziie se ntmpl i n expresii ca douzeci i unu dintre elevi
douzeci i una dintre eleve, n care numeralele nu sunt considerate adjective, ci funcioneaz
ca centru de grup. Se ntlnete n multe alte situaii n condiii de normalitate: unii dintre
elevi - unele dintre eleve; multi dintre biei - multe dintre fete...
Recursul la analogia cu exemple de tipul astfel de oameni nu funcioneaz din dou
puncte de vedere: astfel de este locuiune adjectival (=asemenea), iar numeralul, urmat de
propoziie, nu.
n al doilea rnd, proba substituiei le angajeaz diferit: Au venit douzeci de oameni
Au venit douzeci; Au venit astfel de oameni - *Au venit astfel22.
Teoria uniformizrii adjectivale compar n plus expresiile douzeci i doi de elevi cu
douzeci i doi dintre elevi i se concluzioneaz fr alt demonstraie: : n prima
construcie, central grupului l constituie substantivul (i numai substantivul! Orice alt clas
morfologic este exclus), iar numeralul (grupat cu prepoziia) ndeplinete funcia de atribut
adjectival. n a doua construcie, centrul de grup l formeaz numeralul cu valoare
pronominal23. Dar, dup cum se poate observa, i n al doilea exemplu se produce acordul
peste prepoziie.
Din toate aceste argumente se deduce c simplificarea interpretativ promis este
grevat de contradicii evidente.
6. Studiile despre numeral, mai ales cele care au mizat pe zonele de interferen n-au
depit analogia ca metod interpretativ. Conceperea numeralului ca un substitut cantitativ,
cu exigenele specifice clasei (trstura semantic + exactitate; ordonarea ierarhic a
constituenilor clasei, ceea ce exclude comparaia; existena pentru fiecare subtip de numeral a
unui context diagnostic n care nu pot aprea elemente ale altor pri de vorbire i exprimarea
19
Ibidem: 55
20
Pan Dindelegan, 2003: 79
21
Ibidem: 80
22
Neamu, 2007: 131
23
Pan Dindelegan, 2003: 81
61
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
algoritmic a opoziiilor cantitative) este n msur s propun o descriere n acord cu faptele
de limb.
Bibliografie
Berceanu, 1971 B.B. Berceanu
Diaconescu, 1970 P. Diaconescu, Structur i evoluie n morfologia substantivului
romnesc,
Bucureti, Editura Academiei.
Draoveanu, 1997 D.D. Draoveanu, Teze i antiteze n sintaxa limbii romne, Cluj-Napoca,
Editura Clusium.
GALR, I, 2008 V. Guu Romalo (coordonator), Gramatica limbii romne, I, Cuvntul,
Bucureti,
Editura Academiei.
GBLR, 2010 G. Pan Dindelegan (coordonator), Gramatica de baz a limbii romne,
Bucureti,
Editura Univers Enciclopedic Gold.
GLR,1963 Al. Graur, M. Avram, L. Vasiliu (coordonatori), Gramatica limbii romne, I,
Bucureti, Editura Academiei.
Golopenia Eretescu, 1965 S. Golopenia Eretescu, Analiza structural a numeralului
romnesc,
n SCL, 3.
Irimia, 2008 D. Irimia, Gramatica limbii romne, Iai, Editura Polirom.
LR 1956 Al. Graur .a. Limba romn. Fonetic-Vocabular-Gramatic, Bucureti, Editura
Academiei.
Neamu, 2007 G.G. Neamu, Teoria i practica analizei gramaticale. Distincii i
...distincii,
Piteti, Editura Paralela 45.
Pan Dindelegan, 2003 G. Pan Dindelegan, Elemente de gramatic.Dificulti,
controverse, noi
interpretri, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas.
Seche, 1960 L. Seche, n jurul categoriei numeralului, n LR, nr. 3.
62
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
DAS NARRENSCHIF EINE MODERNE PROJEKTION DER REISEN IM
WESTEN
Diana CMPAN, Associate Professor, PhD, 1 Decembrie 1918 University of Alba-
Iulia
Abstract: This paper is an essay about the rules and the satisfactions / dissatisfactions of
discovering the misfortunes of the Western world by A. E. Baconsky, a traveler with a certain
system of ethic and aesthetic values. According to his travel journal, written during the
Romanian communist system, the Western doesnt seem to be anymore the place of the whole
happiness, a desired and forbidden world for a Romanian, but it becomes a consumerist
society, with perverted values. That is why the traveler can no longer be fascinated by the
major art and becomes, in the backstage, a witness of the fallen man trapped in materialism.
Therefore, the idea of civilization receives new meanings in Baconskys literary works and the
West itself has other symbolical values than usual.
Keywords: The West, journey, consumerism, values
Nicht zufllig in einem Postscriptum zum Remember. Fals jurnal de cltorie zhlt
A.E. Baconsky einige der intim wahrnehmenden Degradierungen des Geistes mit ihren
gegenseitige Einwirkung und Reflex am Niveau des Bewusstseins: Kleidungs-, literarische
und knstlerische Modelle haben sich gendert und nicht nur einmal mit egalen Frivolitt
es strzten von ihren umstndlichen Fugestell Bibliothek- oder Boulevardidole runter und
andere noch mehr schonungslose, prchtigere, starrere erhoben sich an einem Morgen den
Saal einer prsumtiven knstlerischen Ausstellung betretend stellst du fest, dass das einzige
Exponat der Knstler selbst ist, langgestreckt auf einem langen Tisch, das voll mit Gesteine,
mit Kartoffeln und Meeressterne ist die Plakate melden, dass das Konzert des
Komponisten vertagt wurde, weil kein Wind weht oder dass morgen im Radio wir das erste
Drehbuch hren werden, dass ohne Wrter geschrieben wurde in der modernsten
Buchhandlung der Stadt wird der Dichter Autogramme seines vor kurzem verffentlichen
Buch unterschreiben, das nichts anderes ist als ein kleines Stck Holz das Umkippen des
Prinzips der mechanischen Bewusstseins und die Intrusion der experimentallen Monoschte
in den Strukturen der Metasprache () Wie lange bedeutet heute noch ein Jahrzehnt das
vergangen ist oder wie wenig! Ich werde das selbst erleben, wobei ich berall, wo ich
gewesen bin zurck komme, wobei ich mich mit denjenigen konfrontieren werde, der ich
damals war und auch mit den Leuten, die auch auf ihren Schultern das gleiche Jahrzehnt
tragen, das sogar im Leben einiger Stdte nicht unbemerkt vorber ging, in Gutem oder im
Schlechten, je nachdem wie ihnen das vorgeschrieben wurde 1 (Post scriptum). Diese
Konfession hat uns an einer lteren spenglerischen Verwarnung betreffend den Niedergang
des Westens erinnert: Die Zivilisationen sind die oberflchigsten und knstlichsten Phasen,
die eine obere menschliche Gemeinschaft erreichen kann sagte Spengler. Sie bezeichnen ein
1
A.E. Baconsky, Remember, I. Fals jurnal de cltorie, Bukarest, Verlag Cartea Romneasc, 1977, S. 342.
63
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Ende; sie befolgen das Werden als geworden, folgen dem Leben als Tod, der Evolution als
Erstarrung, die Landschaft und Erstarrung des Geistes, sichtbar im Dorischen und in der
Gotik, als eine Veralterung des Geistes und als eine versteinerte Metropole. Sie bilden eine
unwiderrufliche Frist, die man immer aus einer tiefen Notwendigkeit erreicht 2.
Wir fragen uns also was fr Rumlichkeiten / Gesellschaften bengstigt das Ich
Bakonski`s so, dass er den Rcktritt in sich bevorzugt? Was vereitelt seine Kommunikation
und annulliert seinen Wunsch auf Veruerung?
Paradoxaler Weise insinuiert sich die Antwort gerade durch ein absurdes Gesprch: in
einer historischen und kulturell unterdrckten Zeit als fr die Rumnen das Westen mit seiner
grossen Zivilisation eine unerreichbare Utopie bildete, hat A.E. Baconsky die Chance das
Westen ohne Vermittlern zu experimentieren und ihn auf Schritt zu nehmen. Den Westen
gemchlich kennend erlebt er auf verhngnisvoller Weise vor den hypertechnizisierten
Westen stehend den absoluten spenglerischen kulturellen Choc: das bertriebene
Pragmatismus beraubt das Individuum an seiner Seele und fhrt ihn zum Verfall. Das was
man durch die berschtzung des Materiellen gewinnt geht durch die Unterschtzung der
Seele verloren. Daher das Entsetzen, die Unsicherheit, das emotionelle Missverhltnis und die
metaphysische Unruhe, die den reisenden Knstler spezifisch sind. Das Bewusstsein wird zu
einer Sperre und Filter, die Welt existiert weil es gedacht ist, weil sie die Meditation um sich
herum zulsst ohne aber sie zu bernehmen. A.E. Bakonski geht aber nur das andere Gebiet
ein, das Gebiet zu den er flieht ohne aber sich davon ab zu sondern: das Gebiet der Kunst.
Im Sebastian`s Schiff und in vielen Abschnitte aus Remember. Fals jurnal de cltorie
zeigt A.E. Baconsky viele verspiegelten Abbildungen des Ich`s, die die Notwendigkeit des
Zurckziehens in kleine ersetzende Universen rechtfertigen und die das Sein, durch
Vereinsamung von der Sinnlosigkeit der Welt schtzen. Der Raum vereinsamt einem gleich
wie die Menschen selbst. Westberlin, das Baconsky im Jahre 1967 und dann im Jahre 1970
besucht und wo er sich 1972 fr ein Jahr lang als Folge der Einladung der deutschen
Akademie niederlsst ist ein Gemenge von Gemeinschaften, das ihm ein exzellentes Untersatz
fr die umfassenden Komparationen zwischen den Wunsch-Westen und der Illusion-Westen
bietet.
Nicht zufllig, in einem Raum, das den Vereinsamungssyndrom generieren wird tritt
man atypisch, wie in einem schwarzen Ritual, der Erde: Ich bin unter der Erde im Westberlin
eingegangen. Schleichgalerien, heftig beleuchtete Galerien und lebendig ambulante
Klemmen haben mich zum Deck des wunderbaren Schiffes gefhrt. Es ist Nacht. Ich glaube
auch, dass jemand auf mich gewartet hat. Ich weiss nicht, ob das ein Mensch oder ein Prinzip
der Gastfreundschaft war. Ich bewohne ein Zimmer in einem dsteren Hotel. Ich bin allein.
Groe und alte Mbelstcke sind unfreundlich still. Ich gehe in die Stadt um herum zu
spazieren. Ich wurde zu eine der Gestalten Sebastian`s Brant. Noch habe ich das Schiff noch
nicht gesehen auf dem ich mich lange Zeit auftreiben werde 3 (Corabia lui Sebastian, I). Die
2
Oswald Spengler, Declinul Occidentului. Schi de morfologie a istoriei, Teil I, bersetzt von Ioan Lascu,
Craiova, BELADI - Verlag, 1996, S. 54.
3
A.E. Baconsky, Corabia lui Sebastian, im Band A.E. Baconsky, Scrieri. I. Poezii. Auflage, Noten, Chronolgie
und Bibliographie von Pavel ugui. Einleitung von Mircea Martin, Bukarest, Verlag Cartea Romneasc, 1990,
S. 356.
64
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ironische Ungewissheit der Existenz des anderen in einer falschen oder, zumindest
oberflchigen Wartezustand, die Option fr die allegorische Neusemantisierung der Zitadelle
in der urbildlichen Narrenschiff, das vom Graveur Sebastian Brant als Sitz der dsteren
Mngel der Menschheit und aller mglichen Verirrungen (des Bewusstseins und der Aktion
zugleich) erdenkt wurde geben die unerschttliche Suggestion der Nicht Ankleben an dem
Alltag. Den Widerspruch und das Drama der Nichtbegegnung auch nicht in der Ordnung des
Ethischen auch nicht in die des sthetischen berbietet schon in dieser Phase das Gefhl der
Falschheit. Strukturell, durch Matrix das Ich ist traditionell aufgebaut, getrnkt von denen an
Altvordern angehrigen Werten der Herkunftskultur. Fr ihn ist die Gastfreundschaft nicht
ein kaltes Prinzip, sondern ein innerer Zustand; ihr Fehlen in diesen angeliehenen Raum
bringt ihn zur Panik.
Die Einsamkeit scheint eine Kurfunktion zu haben; nicht nur das Buchzeichen sondern
auch das Lesen wird gesund: nicht nur die Rezeptionsmechanismen werden unverstmmelt,
einsam von den Grotuereien und Stolz des Bewusstseins gerettet sondern auch das Prinzip
der Einfachheit und der Tradition: Ich sehe die Autos und den Wind auf der Budensallee und
lese ein Essai von Marcuse. Zuhause ist es mir niemals gelungen es zu lesen. Mich erfassten
eine ungeheure Langeweile und ein mit Blei Vergiftungsekel. An einem Herbst habe ich
absichtlich eins seiner Bcher auf der Terrasse gelassen. Als es Frhjahr wurde und der
Schnee zu schmelzen begann habe ich das Buch aufgeschwollen und kahl wieder gefunden.
Aus seinen Seiten wuchs nichts. Hier aber bin ich alleine, ich ffne das Buch und lese 4. Eine
hnliche Szene wird ein bisschen insinuiert und zwar in ein hnliches Milieu: diesmal sind die
Geste umgekehrt, veruert, der Aktant sucht die symbolvollen Ausfahrten aus den Limits
und dasselbe Akt des Lesens wird als obere Form der Grndung der Menschheit berufen. Die
zentripetale Bewegung in Richtung des vergessenem Wesen des Lesens als wichtige
kulturelle Handlung ist nur mit Hilfe der Menschen mglich, die alle Entziehungen
ermglicht haben: das Verlassen bis zur Selbstverlassenheit in dem Schriftzeichen ermglicht
das Lesen des Fensters, die Durchschaubarkeit, also des Verhltnisses zwischen ich und der
Verderbtheit der Welt durch den maximalen Ausbau der Rezeptionskode bis zu dem Punkt,
dass der Andere zu einem Buch oder zumindest ein Zeitungsblatt, das stndig zu vielseitigen
Lektren offen steht wird: Den ganzen Morgen habe ich das axiomatische Wochenblatt
gelesen. () Seit einer Zeit, ohne zu spren begann ich das Fenster zu lesen. Und der Wind
wendet die Seiten eine nach dem anderen. Und ich habe das 485 Gramm schwere
axiomatische Wochenblatt vollkommen vergessen5.
Fr Baconsky hat das Stillschweigen der anderen nicht unbedingt die Bedeutung der
Absage, sondern die der Gleichgltigkeit, was viel ernster ist. Es gibt nicht wenige Momente
in der die Stille Konfusion verursacht und auch ein unbestimmtes Gefhl der Tauglichkeit
zugleich aber auch einen tiefen Zustand der Entfremdung. Alle mglichen Identifizierungen
mssen ohne den Zeugenqualitt des anderen/ der anderen geschehen fr die das
fundamentale Individualismus die Akzeptanz annulliert. Ein solches Gefhl, das dem Gefhl
der Unexistenz sehr nahe steht wird dem Reisenden eingeflossen und zwar in einem Bahnhof
in der Schweiz, wo die Bewunderung nur in eine Richtung geht: Der Bahnhof ist so sauber,
4
A.E. Baconsky, Corabia lui Sebastian, zit. Auflage, S. 357.
5
A.E. Baconsky, Corabia lui Sebastian, zit. Auflage, S. 357.
65
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
dass man Skrupel hat aus dem Waggon auszusteigen. Die Leute schauen zu dir aber scheinen
dich nicht gesehen zu haben. Sie haben einen konkreten Blick und eine exakte Seele. Unter
ihnen kannst du so alleine sein gleich wie in einem wunderbaren Wald und auch so in
Sicherheit wie in einem ausgezeichneten Hotel, obwohl du dich eigentlich irgendwo im
Walde befindest. Dieses Gefhl hatte ich am ersten Bahnhof wo der Zug lnger stehen
geblieben ist und ich habe dieses Gefhl fr immer aufbewahrt6 (Schweiz). Seine Reaktion
ist die einer lngerer Akzeptierung, eines Reaktionsausfalls als ein neues Mythos der
sogenannten zivilisierten Welt. Invariabel, aber, umfasst eine mosaikartige Traurigkeit
denjenigen der ber das primre Wesen der Bedeutungen nachdenkt: die Wrter werden auch
abgenutzt. Die Fahnen mssen stndig gewechselt werden. All dies hat mich sehr betrbt 7.
Das Nichtanknpfen zu einer solchen Welt wird ohne Reserven behauptet und die
Lsung fr die man eine Option macht hngt vom Bestand der rumnischen Geistlichkeit:
Was fr ein einwandfreies Auto diese Zivilisation ist! Warum gibt uns die Vollkommenheit
ein Vorgefhl des Todes? Aber ich fhle mich nicht solidarisch mit eurem Untergang. Ich bin
zwei Jahrtausend alt aber ich habe mein Leben noch nicht gelebt. Ich hatte noch nicht die Zeit
dafr.. Ich stamme aus einem falschen Narragonien musste ich meinen Kameraden sagen.
Niemals schien mir aber die Einsamkeit so gemtlich.8. Die Einsamkeit wird also zur Option
und Rettung, aber sie ist auch unsolidarisch, also auch eine Verankerung in der persnlichen
Moral, echt, unverflscht und das fhrt dazu, dass keine identitre Mutilation nicht zu
akzeptieren ist. Die Nachbarschaft mit einem in seinem sakralen Zyklus von dem
leidenschaftlichen Konsumismus gestrten Cosmopolis sollte nur auf der Retina Spuren
hinterlassen. Die hier oben wiedergegebene Szene hat eine doppelte Bedeutung: sie fhrt
Regie fr eine falsche Bewunderung aus dem Inneren, eine narzisstische Bewunderung und
anderseits macht sie den bergang zu dem anderen Topos, der als Ort der Zurckziehung
gesucht wird. Auch wenn die Stadt aus Orte eines jeden aus kleine Universen, die nicht
miteinander kommunizieren gebildet zu sein scheint, so ist die stndige bung fr die Suche
der Formen, die ethisch und sthetisch ausgleichen fr das Ich Bakonskis bestimmt.
Die Logik des Vereinsamten fhrt niemals zur Frustrierung und Emprungen, sondern
sie wird eher eine Art hheres Mitgefhl generieren, die dem westlichen Bewohner
aufgetragen wird und das von den Gelenken der Tradition gebrochen ist. Die Baconskysche
Ironie ist die Ironie des Historikers, nicht raffiniert in seiner kontemplativer Eleganz: ich
glaube, dass ich an den Tagen den klaren Bewusstsein eines fundamentalen und
schmerzvollen Paradoxes erhalten habe: alles was ich in den Stdten des Westens beneide und
bewundere selbstverstndlich als zeitgenssische Realitt ist nicht von dem Wesen der
Menschen sondern von ihren Taten bestimmt hier wird der Mensch von seinen eigenen
Produkte unter dessen Tyrannei und Obsessionsich sein Leben sich entwickelt immer mehr
berholt bis zum Betrben jedes Wonnegefhls und sogar bis zur Schwchung des
Bewutseins seiner Kondition die Folgen sind einerseits die Gleichgltigkeit, anderseits ein
politisch-soziale Bouvarismus, das die Tendenz hat die Armut seines geistlichen Lebens
auszugleichen, das immer ernster von der Aggression der Zivilisation angegriffen wird und
seine auf schimrischen Art und Weise die konfus approximierten Unbefriedigungen zu
6
A.E. Baconsky, Remember, I, zit. Auflage., S. 84.
7
A.E. Baconsky, Remember, I, zit. Auflage., S. 84.
8
Ebd., S. 359.
66
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
bestrafen und ich habe verstanden, dass die Gleichgltigkeit, die mir mein abendlndische
Bruder zeigt und seine Aufgeblasenheit, die sehr oft einfltig ist, Folgen eines Gebrechen
sind, die eher ein Mitgefhl als eine Entrstung verursachen sollte 9 (Hamburg).
Aus dem Inneren des Systems (Ich bin geworden [s.n., D.C.] eine der Gestalten von
Sebastian Btant. Noch habe ich das Schiff auf dem ich mich lange Zeit auftreiben werde noch
nicht gesehen) und nach langen Spaziergnge im Kreise durch das Labyrinth der
Konsumgesellschaft kann der Schriftsteller sich den Luxus der ethischen und sthetischen
Distanzierung leisten, wobei die vorgebrachte Landstreicherei hinter der Parabel eine streng
innere ist. Also, es ist die Rede ber einen Verlauf in Richtung der Besitzaufnahme des nicht
beschdigten Ich`s mit einem krank und aberrant aufgebauten Topos: Seit einigen Nchte
kommen mir die spten Stunden auf den breiten Treppen der ruinierten Kirche entgegen.
Dort, nach endlosen Landstreichereien ruhe ich mich aus bevor ich nach Hause gehe 10
Dieser A.E.Baconsky mit seinen berlappenden Einsamkeiten bringt in der
rumnischen Literatur einige persnlichen Mythos, obsessionsvolle Metapher, die er einsetzt
und denen er ermglicht funktionell auf allen Gebiete der Schpfung zu wirken. Es wurde viel
ber das Baconsky`s Werk geschrieben, die Ausleger sind sehr nahe der Evolution und
Migration der schpfenden Imagistikelementen im Verhltnis mit der berquerung der
historischen Zeit nachgegangen mit all den Gewohnheitsrechte, die von den Ideologiegrenzen
und von dem Anstieg und Abstieg des Niveaus der freiheitlichen Schpfung durchgesetzt
wurden. Trotzdem, vielleicht mehr als jeder andere seiner Zeitgenossen bleibt A.E. Baconsky
ein Schriftsteller mit all seinen Sinne auf die Lauer, wenn ber einen Westen, der dem Gesetz
und Norm entwischt, technologisiert und von seinen geistlichen Werte entleert die Rede ist.
Im Grunde genommen ist das eine moderne Projektion des berhmten Werkes Sebastians
Brant Das Narrenschiff .
Bibliography
A.E. Baconsky, Scrieri. I. Poezii. Auflage, Noten, Chronolgie und Bibliographie von Pavel
ugui. Einleitung von Mircea Martin, Bukarest, Verlag Cartea Romneasc, 1990
A.E. Baconsky, Remember, I. Fals jurnal de cltorie, Bukarest, Verlag Cartea Romneasc,
1977
Oswald Spengler, Declinul Occidentului. Schi de morfologie a istoriei, Teil I, bersetzt von
Ioan Lascu, Craiova, BELADI - Verlag, 1996
9
Ebd., S. 102-103.
10
A.E. Baconsky, Corabia lui Sebastian, S. 359.
67
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
DISCOURSES ON VIOLENCE IN CONTEMPORARY EUROPEAN MUSEUMS
Florina CODREANU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: The interdisciplinary approach of contemporary violence through the medium of
different artistic events hosted in the last two decades by renowned European museums
proves to be in full expansion. Despite the eclecticism dominating the socio-historical
research into the discourse of violence, there is a specific relation between museum art and
violence that has to be addressed on an individualized basis of research. Along the present
study questions about the aesthetics of violence, horror and pain openly favoured by
contemporary art and the impact of various theories (violence within systems of thought)
upon the recent artistic production (violence within the context of creation) are to be
discussed at length. At the same time, the nature of violence employed by the museum
exhibitions at question takes a lead role in defining the discourses on violence, from gender
violence to war violence.
Keywords: violent art, theory, aestheticization, museum, discourse
1. Institutionalised Violence
Beginning with the controversial exhibition entitled Sensation (1997) at Royal
Academy of Art from London the publics perception on art has drastically changed. Art was
no more a source of delight and wonder, but a disturbing incentive for reflection on social and
political issues. The implied violence was acknowledged by both the organisers and the media
as such: There will be works of art on display in the Sensation exhibition which some people
may find distasteful. Parents should exercise their judgment in bringing their children to the
exhibition. One gallery will not be open to those under the age of 18 (Royal Academy),
gory images of dismembered limbs and explicit pornography (BBC) or artworks on show
may cause shock, vomiting, confusion, panic, euphoria and anxiety (Brooklyn Museum,
New York). With the exception of Berlin Hamburger Bahnhof museum, all the intended
museums for the exhibition on tour have confronted with the publics criticism and vandalism
turned against the dissatisfying exhibits. However, if we look back on art history the
phenomenon of artistic expression of violence received with violence is not a novelty in the
field. The novelty consists in displaying these forms of art in renowned and honoured
institutions, which enjoy partial funding from the state.
Getting beyond this key-exhibition that was inaugurated in the UK at the end of the
nineties, there have been other related exhibitions with reference to violence in Germany on
Blood: Perspectives on Art, Power, Politics and Pathology at Mak Frankfurt and Schirn
Kunsthalle (2001-2002) and in France on death and vanity such as Crime and Punishment at
Muse dOrsay (2010) or Vanitas from Caravaggio to Damien Hirst at Muse Maillol (2010).
Even though the latter exhibitions traced back the history of blood and death, without having
an exclusive contemporary core or encountering violent resistance from the public, their
68
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
realisation has been gradually extending the publics expectations and sense of receptivity to
contemporary matters.
Along with collective or thematic exhibitions, which are symptomatic of an increased
interest in violence from an artistic standpoint, there are solo exhibitions that draw attention to
provocative questions of our times. For instance, the German artist Johannes Wohnseifer
explores the politics, history and time, within the exhibition Emptiness and Violence (2003)
from Sprengel Museum Hanover and continues with another exhibition having a homonym
title on the American land at New York (2008). In the meantime, the Yugoslav artist Sanja
Ivekovi launches the exhibition Sweet Violence at MoMA, New York from a feminist
activist position. In fact, the American and Canadian territories are very open to any European
feminist exercise. The art militating against genre violence finds itself within two
representative exhibitions, namely Off the Beaten Path: Violence, Women and Art (SUA) at
New York and Transformation by Fire: Women Overcoming Violence through Clay (Canada)
at Gardiner Museum from Toronto.
Contemporary art also does not neglect the violence promoted by the war state, old-
established by the historical art from the end of eighteenth century in the spirit of French
Revolution. War beauty and violence attractiveness are exploited in plenty of shock and
identification images to such an extent that Wolfgang Muchitsch, the scientific director of
Universalmuseum Joanneum, the oldest museum in Austria, was questioning the place of war
in museums in a book edited by himself1 and the museum power to avoid the transformation
of violence, injury, death and trauma, into touristic objectives. Furthermore, by analysing the
art on display from the last decades and its effect upon the public, the trivialisation of violence
through aestheticization is no longer a danger as in the nineties, but rather an accomplished
fact. In addition, the violent art goes through a period of creative and conceptual exhaustion
that narrows down its chances of causing noticeable changes in the daily planning of life.
Conformed to repetition and stereotypy, this art would no longer know the scandalous impact
that used to ensure its notorious success.
2. New Aesthetics
After more than two millennia of preoccupations with the aesthetics of beauty, in
which aesthetics was considered synonymous with a heighten sensitivity to beauty and good
taste, during the nineteen century this philosophical status quo is going to be shaken up by the
work of Karl Rosenkrantz, Aesthetic of Ugliness (1853) and brought to perfection later on by
Umberto Ecos On Ugliness (2007). It is a matter of obviousness that the state of art is not
going to be the same after the violation of the classical canons and the introduction of the
category of the ugly in its field of interest.
Representing an epistemological milestone in the understanding of contemporary
aesthetics, Tobin Siebers contribution to art philosophy would clarify the intricate relation
between the artist and the artistic production of the second part of the twentieth century and
the beginning of the twenty-first century. Without being perceived anymore as an artist in the
traditional sense, the contemporary artist is merely a janitor at the scene of action or a
1
W. Muchitsch (ed.): Does War Belong in Museums? The Representation of Violence in Exhibitions. Verlag,
Bielefeld, 2013
69
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
reporter of the ongoing event: send to the scene of a crime to record the violence and
confusion and beauty of human effort2. Always based on human conflict, Siebers concept of
new art makes human involvement mandatory and problematic at the same time. Since the
main art elements originated in the human body3, the violence within cannot escape art
practice.
Once the praise for absolute beauty (both in its physical and spiritual form) had
stopped, the broken beauty took over and disability became a key source of aesthetic
appreciation, especially in reference to Nazi art that used to promote bombastically the human
perfection and bodily integrity. Consequently, self-defacement4 and self-amputation are acts
discussed in detail by the aesthetics of disability or the aesthetics of human disqualification,
wherein aesthetics itself represents an exchange between different bodies: Aesthetics studies
the way that some bodies make other bodies feel5. From this point on the aesthetics of
violence is not only implied, but also reliable to theorisation.
Even though the first trace of violence is to be found explicitly in medieval
representations of Christic sacrifice and suffering, the aesthetic thought of the time does not
accept it as such, but in the light of religious education performed by the anonymous artist
that is paid either by a prominent secular patron, or by a powerful clerical figure. Experienced
by means of the sense (Baumgarten) or the judgement (Kant) or both (Schiller), the category
of beauty underwent a very long process of transformations until it gave way to its gainsayer,
the ugly. After 1800, philosophy of art the way aesthetics had been named brought
together the philosophical inquiries of Schelling, Schlegel brothers, Hegel and Schopenhauer.
The latter showed that the intrusion of utility or politics should ruin the state of beauty,
exactly what happened with the modern and mainly contemporary aesthetics.
At the dawn of the twentieth century, a dramatic shift in art and aesthetics deflected
the entire field from the unilateral category of beauty towards a broadened scope and new
aesthetics. From aesthetic realism that turned reality itself into an aesthetic projection to
postmodern aesthetics that failed to define themselves coherently, many new aesthetic
tendencies emerged on a continuous basis. Art and society became directly related, same as
art and psychoanalysis, not to mention the anti-aesthetics or kalliphobia. However, the field of
experimental aesthetics is not a realisation of the twentieth century, as it may seem, but of the
ninetieth century through the work of the psychologist and philosopher Gustav Theodor
Fechner. Undeniably, human aesthetic preferences have evolved along with the surroundings,
the landscapes and the living conditions; that is why applied aesthetics are nowadays possible.
The aesthetic applications are disciplinary as well as thematic, and in the second, the
category of violence conquered a privileged place given its full exposure not only in the work
of art, but also in the events of daily life (death, destruction, terror, injustice, natural
catastrophes, bomb attacks, arsons and so on), which affect and influence the artistic creation.
Thus, contemporary art is in a great measure the result of exterior agency and the artistic
2
Tobin Siebers, The New Art, in The Body Aesthetic. From Fine Art to Body Modification. Edited by Tobin
Siebers. The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, p. 217
3
Ibidem, p. 239: Human blood is the first paint, human skin, the first canvas, human skeleton, the first sculpture,
human lament, the first poetry, human cadaver, our first and only object.
4
See the performance Hollywood Halloween (1977) by Paul McCarthy
5
Tobin Siebers: Disability Aesthetics. The University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 2010, p. 25
70
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
vision has internalised slowly and forcefully that exterior. The emotional impact on the artist
is self-evident and only the direct or indirect transcription of the real events can relate to
artistic value. The main question that arises is whether the artist is a prisoner of his own
present and whether the contemporary anti-artist promotes creation or destruction. Moreover,
the violent art is susceptible to describe an artistic movement in the absence of a certain
similitude between violent representations and in the absence of a coherent formalism.
The aestheticization of violence by printed media during militancy in sensational
reports or by television in tableaux vivants challenge art autonomy and the art work
function as momentary threads. The ancient contradiction between the dangers of
aestheticization leading to the assimilation of art with the ordinary life (Plato) and the benefits
of aestheticization through catharsis leading to cure and redemption (Aristotle) holds good
still in the present day.
3. From Theory to Art Practice
As far as the theoretical approach is concerned, the state of research into violence
studies is fundamentally eclectic, namely methods, ideas and even personal beliefs or credos
coexist in an inoperative manner for the fluent study of violence within art history, liable to
persist along the next decades. Nevertheless, there are yet two important questions to address,
firstly why the aesthetics of violence enjoys a privileged position in the field and secondly if
there is any weight of these theories upon the artistic production. In fact, exactly the
proliferation of violence puts the theory in difficulty or makes it more impossible than ever.
If we were to draw the picture of these theories within the socio-humanistic milieu,
three main categories would come forth. The first theoretical attitude is owed to monocausal
theories in which theory precedes violence with a Structuralist frame of mind (R. Girard, W.
Burkert, M. Maffesoli). The second one is based on reflective theories that approach violence
in an analytical, dialectical and discursive manner (H. Arendt, W. Benjamin, R. Aron, E.
Fromm). Last but not least, the theoretical resistance and detheorisation of violence from the
contemporary mainstream is caused by the prevalence of case studies.
Language, art, cinematography, music, sport and dance, they are all contaminated or
imbued with violence. Between aestheticization and intellectualization, violent art in Frasers
own terms is conditioned by one remaining principle that guarantees its quality: violence that
stays disturbing however often one returns to it6. This shock value brings into discussion the
distinction operated between art as protest (reactionary) and art as manifesto (within), both
having a revolutionary and daring colour in connection to violence. Either active or passive,
violence in art is not easy and never fun, not even when its value is hyperbolised or especially
because of that. After art has conquered its physicality, it would be inexplicable not to make
use of it in its forms of expression. Furthermore, the imminent conflicts between society and
human being, between politics and the same human being etc. have to find a way out of the
elusiveness into discourse since the humankind cannot survive doubtfulness and ambiguity to
all eternity.
6
John Fraser: Violence in the Arts. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge London New York Melbourne,
p. 50
71
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Institutionalised violence is not pure violence that can escape the tyranny of
intellectualization. In addition, there is not any mark of equality, as one might believe,
between violent art and reality, between artistic production and daily life, each of them being
endowed with a different time of realisation and with different stake and purpose. Though, in
Baudrillards radical interpretation the image (be it artistic image) substitutes for the real
event by use of discourse and the whole world is turned into a chain of images by complete
aestheticization and cosmopolitan spectacularization. In his view, nothing can escape the
tyranny of the image, but from a more balanced perspective the image, and more precisely
artistic image, takes time and effort to emerge and the engaged violence functions as an alarm
signal for the untold.
Although Sadeanism (discussion of Sade) and Freudianism made a fabulous career
along modernity by contracting a fruitful collaboration with the surrealists, all eager to
explore the unconscious dimension of reality and interpret its signs, the contemporary art is
rather reluctant to show any direct affiliation to theory. Probably, that is because most parties
consider theory itself obsolete whereas art plays the role of living human expression. Taking
into account genre, forms, conventions and patterns, violent art as such acknowledges not
only the value of violence, but also the value and emergency of its discourses: violence is
usually the cutting edge of ideas and ideologies ideas connect with the physical world, the
world in which violences occur7. As sharpener of judgement, violence in art evens up the
violence from the real life and unsettles the hypocrisy that provokes violence, as Hannah
Arendt would say.
In point of future, the approaches that are more liable to offer answers nowadays seem
to be those driven up from art practice towards theory and in this respect the book of Anthony
Julius Transgressions8 is illustrative of that matter. The author managed to build up the
theory and history of transgressive art from Manet to contemporary artists such as Marcel
Duchamp, the Chapman brothers, Andres Serrano, Damien Hirst, Gilbert & George, Paul
McCarthy, Jeff Koons, Hans Haacke, and Anselm Kiefer. The journey is full of anxiety as any
exhibition tour of a kind.
4. Conclusions
Why do we need violent art in the first place would ask any ordinary visitor of a
contemporary museum. It is not comfortable, and by no means comforting, it is just nose
rubbing in a world of tremendous competition for attention. We see horror and pain
everywhere, in the hospitals, on the streets, in the war theatres across the globe, in our day-to-
day life and on the news, so why should we see them at the museum, too. Any answer to such
a dilemma does not come easy. All these are true with one exception: art does not borrow or
imitate the ubiquitous violence available in reality, but embraces it in its own way in order to
explain its occurrence, debunk its mechanism and reveal its limits.
What the public still fails to acknowledge is that contemporary art is more preoccupied
with the moral/ity than ever, and even the self-proclaimed consumerism attached to it is just a
cynical indirect way of showing the lack of standards and interest in morality of the public.
7
Ibidem, p. 162
8
Anthony Julius: Transgresiuni. Ofensele artei. Traducere de Tania Siperco. Vellant, Bucureti, 2008
72
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The question is then if undesirable images can turn a public upside-down and change its moral
barometer without trivializing the same images by showing them repetitively. The field of
creation, needless to say, like any other field of work, is not exempted from the risk factor and
arts main risk is not to send its message across.
If violent art continues to be interpreted as a mere receptacle for stringent historical
and social realities, it is not only arts fault, but also the interpreters fault. Above all, the
publics role has diversified from humble witness to moral creditor of a given piece of art,
being entitled the power to dismiss what he considers art for violences sake and not art for
arts sake as one does not cease to expect even within the multiple frames of contemporary
aesthetics.
Bibliography
Aftershock: conflict, violence, and resolution in contemporary art. Sainsbury Centre for
Visual Arts, 2007
Beauty, Violence, Representation. Lisa Dickson (Editor), Maryna Romanets (Editor).
Routledge, 2013
Biesenbach, Klaus: Into Me/ Out of Me. Hatje Cantz Verlag, Germany, 2007
Body Parts. Critical Exploration in Corporeality. Edited by Christopher E. Forth and Ivan
Crozier. Lexington Books, Lanham Boulder New York Toronto Oxford, 2005
DAlleva, Anne: Mthodes & Thories de lHistoire de lArt. Traduction par Aude Cirier.
Thalia dition, Paris, 2006
Elkins, James: Pictures of the Body. Pain and Metamorphosis. Stanford University Press,
Stanford California, 1999
Fraser, John: Violence in the Arts (Illustrated edition). Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge London New York Melbourne, 1976
Gevers, Ine/ the authors: Difference on display. Diversity in Art, Science and Society. NAi
Publishers, Niet Normaal Foundation, Rotterdam, 2009
Gordon, Mark: Contemporary Europe. Art Guide to Europe. Hatje Cantz Verlag, 2009/2010
http://www.artcyclopedia.com/museums-int.html
Julius, Anthony: Transgresiuni. Ofensele artei. Traducere de Tania Siperco. Vellant,
Bucureti, 2008
Kuppers, Petra: The Scar of Visibility. Medical Performances and Contemporary Art.
University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis London, 2007
Langston, Richard: Visions of Violence German Avant-Gardes After Fascism. Northwestern
University Press, 2007
Muchitsch, Wolfgang (ed.): Does War Belong in Museums? The Representation of Violence
in Exhibitions. Verlag, Bielefeld, 2013
Schwrer, Eva-Catharina: Violence in the arts. GRIN Verlag, 2010
Siebers, Tobin: The Return to Ritual Violence and Art in the Media Age. University of
Michigan. Journal for Cultural and Religious Theory. Volume 5. No. 1 December 2003, p. 9-
33 (PURL: http://www.jcrt.org/archives/05.1/siebers.pdf)
73
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The Body Aesthetic. From Fine Art to Body Modification. Edited by Tobin Siebers. The
University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor, 2000
The Culture of Violence. By James M Cain, Dr. Henry Jenkins, Helaine Posner. University
Gallery/University of Massachusetts, Amherst, 2002
World of Wonder: Is Bad Art for Bad People? [Videorecording] UK TX Master, 2006
74
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE ASSOCIATIVE DICTIONARY OF LANGUAGE
Ala SAINENCO, Associate Professor, PhD, Alecu Russo State University of Bli,
Moldova
Abstract: One of the fundamental functions of the culture is the function of matrix through
which various objects and phenomen, placed within a cultural micro cosmos, are given
names. The names are the result of certain knowledge activities and compresses potential
energy (potential models of cultural actions). Through name there is created a linguistic
image which contains the totality of perceptive, conceptual and procedural knowledge of the
native language speaker on the real world. The elements from the worlds continuum,
received by the human in the period of his activities and communication, are reflected in the
human consciousness in such a way that this reflection settles the causal and special links
among the realia and the conditioned emotions of this. Because the study of the lingual
consciousness mainly in its process of realization is impossible, the unique solution of the
research could be found in its result state, which is materialized through language. And one
of these materializations is the associative dictionary of the language.
Keyword: associative dictionary of the language, the association, a linguistic image.
1. n accepie uzual, termenul dicionar trimite la oper lexicografic cuprinznd
cuvintele unei limbi, ale unui dialect, ale unui domeniu de activitate, ale unui scriitor etc.,
organizate ntr-o anumit ordine (de obicei alfabetic) i explicate n aceeai limb sau
traduse ntr-o limb strin. Tipologia lexicografic contureaz interesul pentru domeniul
dicionarelor i, implicit, direciile demersurilor lexicografice, reflexe ale unor necesiti i
interese de cercetare sau de comunicare. Monolingve sau bilingve, dicionarele reprezint n
sine un nomenclator al cuvintelor dintr-o limb. O analiz orientat a intrrilor de dicionar i
a definiiilor acestora pune n relief relaiile sistemice existente n limba/limbile respective.
Dintre tipurile de raporturi pe care se bazeaz o stare de limb, evideniate de Ferdinand de
Saussure (Saussure, 135), dicionarele rein explicit raporturile sintagmatice n situaiile de
exemplificare a funcionrii unui sau altui cuvnt. Exist ns, dup Ferdinand de Saussure,
dou forme ale activitii mentale, indispensabile vieii limbii, care se reflect n dou tipuri
de relaii: sintagmatice i asociative. Relaiile sintagmatice in de activitatea de discurs, n
care cuvintele contracteaz ntre ele, n virtutea nlnuirii lor, raporturi bazate pe caracterul
linear al limbii, care exclude posibilitatea de a pronuna dou elemente n acelai timp
(Idem, 135). n afara discursului, arat Ferdinand de Saussure n continuare, cuvintele ce au
ceva n comun se asociaz n memorie; n acest fel ele formeaz grupuri n snul crora
domnesc raporturi foarte diferite. Raportul sintagmatic este, n opinia lingvistului genevez,
in praesentia i se bazeaz pe doi sau mai muli termeni prezeni ntr-o serie efectiv, iar
raportul asociativ este in absentia ntr-o serie mnemonic virtual. Asocierile reprezint un
anume fel de definiii ale cuvintelor, explicaii ale entitilor, fapt care poate fi pus n eviden
prin compararea definiiei de dicionar i a relaiilor asociative stabilite de vorbitori:
75
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne EA94
OM: 1. Fiin superioar, social, care se om: fiin (27); persoan (11); bun (8); via
caracterizeaz prin gndire, inteligen i (7); animal (6);
limbaj articulat, iar din punct de vedere lume (4); suflet (4); individ (3); familie (3); eu (
morfologic prin poziia vertical a corpului i 3); nebun(2); gospodar (2);
structura piciorului adaptat la aceasta, minile copil (2); plcut (2); viu (2); detept (2); cinstit
libere i apte de a efectua micri fine i (2);frumos (2); omenie (2); creatur (2);
creierul deosebit de dezvoltat. buntate (2);
2. Persoan care se afl n slujba cuiva;
persoan de ncredere.
3. Persoan de vaz, de seam.
4. Brbat. personalitate (5);
5. Persoan oarecare, cineva, oricine. femeie (6); brbat (2);
2. Memoria lingvistic individual reflect asociaiile individuale ale omului ca fiin
vorbitoare. Analiza unui numr relevant de asocieri ale unui cuvnt poate reliefa schema lui
asociativ n cadrul unei comuniti de vorbitori, iar stocarea acestor reele asociative ntr-un
dicionar asociativ al limbii ar oferi tabloul general a ceea ce Ferdinand de Saussure numete
serii mnemonice virtuale.
Prin urmare, caracterul supraindividual al limbajului, pe de o parte, i continuitatea
unor asociaii n cadrul unei comuniti lingvistice justific calificarea lor drept asociaii,
comune caracteristice vorbitorilor unei limbi, reprezentanilor unei culturi. n limitele unei
culturi, trsturile se coreleaz conturnd atitudini generale specifice mediului respectiv.
Reliefabile mai cu seam prin comparare, aceste atitudini contureaz dominanta cultural a
tabloului lumii unei etnii. Or diferenele majore constante continu a fi cele naionale, iar
forma culturii n care aceste trsturi pot fi identificate este limbajul ca reflectare a viziunii
despre lume. Dicionarul asociativ ofer, din aceast perspectiv, un instrument la ndemna
unor cercetri orientate spre reliefarea specificului lingvo-cultural.
3. Prin comparare, se poate observa c reprezentanii unor culture diferite, vorbitori de
limbi diferite, au asociaii distincte chiar i n cazul cuvintelor care trimit la necesiti vitale,
cum ar fi necesitatea de a bea i de a mnca. Astfel, stimulul foame se asociaz pentru
vorbitorii limbilor romn i rus cu alte fenomene negative: sete (9) n cazul limbii romne
i (106) n cazul limbii ruse. Prima reacie, n cazul vorbitorilor de romn, este soluia:
mncare (31), iar n cazul vorbitorilor de rus o intemperie: (106). Pentru ultimii,
foamea se asociaz accentuat cu rzboiul: (10), , (7),
(5). Determinativele pe care le confer vorbitorii de rus sunt dezagreabile: (99),
(24), (23), (10), , (7), (6),
(5).
94
Baza de date pentru limba romn obinut n rezultatul unor experimente asociative (EA) de un grup de
cercettori de la Universitatea de Stat Alecu Russo din Bli n cadrul proiectului instituional de cercetare
fundamental 11.817.07.35F. Cercetarea structurilor asociative ale limbii romne i elaborarea Dicionarului
asociativ
76
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Drept cauze ale acesteia snt considerate de vorbitorii de romn: secet (5), srcie
(4), nevoie (3), rzboi (3), criz (2). Determinativele foamei n romn indic perceperi mai
puin dure: mare (7), de lup (6), grea (3), fa de rus. Produsele prin care foamea poate fi
potolit denot, de asemenea, o concepere diferit a fenomenului, parte explicabil i prin
polisemia n romn a cuvntului foame, neles i drept poft. Avem, astfel, n romn:
mncare (31), hran (6), shaorma (2), plcinte (2), pine (2), iar n rus: (13), (11).
EA DALR95
foame: mncare (31), sete (9), mare (7), : (106), (99),
hran (6), durere (5), secet (5), stomac (24), (23), (13),
(4), de lup (6), srcie (4), nevoie (3), (11), , (10), (8),
flmnd (3), rzboi (3), stul (3), grea (3), , , , , ,
moarte (3), chin (2), shaorma (2), (7), (6), ,
plcinte (2), criz (2), greutate (2), , , , (5)
pine(2) greu(2)
Vorbitorii celor dou limbi asociaz setea cu apa, elementul a crui absen provoac
starea respectiv. A doua asociere pe care o fac vorbitorii de limb romn este corelativ cu
cea de la stimulul foame: aa cum foamea se asociaz cu setea; respectiv i setea se asociaz
cu foamea. Setea n mentalul romnesc configureaz o totalitate de stri, care poate precizat
prin setea de ap; ea poate fi puternic i reprezint o necesitate; absena apei i, respectiv,
starea de sete este asociat cu lipsa acesteia n anumite zone climaterice pustiu. n limba
rus, stimulul are o pronunat utilizare metaforic, nsemnnd frecvent dorin:
(49), (45), (29), (13).
EA DALR
sete: ap (83), foame (9), mare (6), de : (64), (49), (47),
ap (5), pustiu (3), puternic (2), (45), (29), (20),
necesitate (2), pahar (2) (14), , (13)
4. Creativitatea individual n limbaj i perceperea acesteia de ctre o comunitate
cultural se construiete, de asemenea, pe un suport supraindividual, chiar dac acesta, ca i
regulile limbajului snt, de obicei, interiorizate i incontiente. Elementele de limbaj a atepta,
toamn, cer, lun, frunz creeaz anumite serii asociative n psihicul vorbitorilor de limb
romn:
atepta: rbdare (11); sta (8); timp (7); tren (6); autobuz (4); mult (4); ntlnire (3);mama (3);
rbda (3); pe cineva (2); vara (2); a sta (2); troilebuz (2); nerbdare (2);
toamn: frunze (25); aurie (15); anotimp (13); frunz (8); galben (5); tristee (5);primvar (
4); iarn (4); ploaie (4); bogat (4); trist (3); auriu (3); trzie (3); ploi (3);nostalgie (2); cald
(2); sumbru (2); bogie (2); ploioas (2); trziu (2); road (2);aur (2); frumoas (2); melanco
lie (2); coal (2); posomort (2); frig (2); vara (2);rece (2); galben (2);
95
Dicionarul asociativ al limbii ruse ( n continuare DALR)
77
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
cer: albastru (30); senin (19); nori (12); soare (10); libertate (7); nor (7); stele (6);bolt
(4); senintate (4); linite (3); curat (3); stea (3); pmnt (3); dumnezeu (3);Dumnezeu (3); na
lt (2); nlime (2); ngeri (2); plcut (2); nour (2);
lun: plin (28); noapte (21); soare (15); cer (11); stele (7); stea (5); romantic (5);mare
(5); zile (5); nou (4); sear (4); romantism (4); satelit (3); frumoas (3); astru(3); an (2); lum
in (2); februarie (2); mai (2); timp (2);
frunz: verde (59); copac (47); toamn (9); pom (7); creang (4); via (4); galben(4);
toamna (3); uscat (3); natur (3); primvar (2); petal (2); floare (2); cade (2);
loc: spaiu (19); frumos (6); mare (6); gol (4); cas (4); acas (4); aezare (3);scaun (3); com
od (3); aici (2); pmnt (2); ascuns (2); parc (2); foc (2); biseric(2); ocupat (2); teritoriu (2);
sfnt (2); teren (2); verde (2); munc (2); mic (2); curat(2); ntlnire (2); ncpere (2); veci (2;
aparte (2).
Acestea (i alte elemente care nu au fost prinse n baza de date EA) constituie
configuraia lexical a poemului Stare de septembrie de Vasile Iftime:
Este toamn,
i m ncearc o cdere de frunz,
in cu mna de lun
ca un cltor fr loc n tramvai,
nicio improvizaie,
ntre dou staii,
cerul este mereu
locul unde m atepi.
Se observ c si alte cuvinte care nu se regsesc n lista de cuvinte stimul intr n
cmpul acelorai asocieri ca rspuns la cuvintele-reacii: cdere a cdea frunz; tramvai,
perceput ca lexem poetic n comparaie cu autobuz, troleibuz, tren a atepta.
Prin relaii sintagmatice, explicite, dar i prin relaii asociative, latente, relevabile i
din EA se construiete mesajul poemului. Dei, aparent, starea eului liric se circumscrie unui
timp (septembrie, toamn) i spaiu (cerul) concret, semnele snt ale atemporalitii i ale
aspaialitii marcate de mereu ca temporalitate nedeterminat i cerul ca ntindere
nelimitat, senintate, locuit, n viziunea lingval asupra lumii, de ngeri i de Dumnezeu (a
se vedea asocierile). Starea eului liric este definit printr-un nceput de toamn (septembrie),
marcat de bipolarism, cci i toamna se asociaz, pe de o parte, cu bogia i plintatea, iar,
pe de alt parte, cu tristeea i nostalgia. Toamna aduce cu sine cderea de frunze, termeni ce
in i de acelai cmp lexical. Ateptarea, care n mentalul colectiv se asociaz cu rbdarea, cu
ateptarea cuiva drag, cu timpul, se leag sintagmatic de termenul mereu, subliniind i durata
temporal a verbului.
5. Aceste i alte posibiliti de utilizare a Dicionarului asociativ argumenteaz
necesitatea i justific efortul cercetrii structurilor asociative ale unei limbi i redactarea unui
asemenea dicionar pentru limba romn.
78
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Referine bibliografice
Ferdinand de Saussure, Curs de lingvistic general, Iai, Polirom, 1998.
. 2 . / .., .. , ..
, .. , .. . . I. : . 7000 .
.: -, 2002. 784 .
79
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ON THE NECESSITY OF COMPILING AN ASSOCIATIVE DICTIONARY OF THE
ROMANIAN LANGUAGE
Gheorghe POPA, Professor PhD, Alecu Russo State University of Bli
Abstract: The compilation of associative dictionaries is one of the main directions in
contemporary linguistic, psycholinguistic and sociolinguistic studies. The great interest
towards this type of dictionaries is explained by their main role in radiographing current
speech. Unlike other types of dictionaries (especially analogical ones), which are based on
the lexical units supplied by the existent dictionaries (explanatory, or of synonyms),
regardless of whether these units are used or are not used by speakers at a certain period of
time, the associative dictionary operates with units that are used at a certain period of time,
regardless of whether these units are or are not registered in dictionaries. In other words, an
associative dictionary is presented as a "mirror" not only of the "physiognomy of language"
as a whole, but also as a "mirror" of the speakers mental and emotional state.
Keywords: contemporary linguistic; associative dictionaries; Romanian language
1. It is an axiom that the process of interpersonal communication is possible due to the
word. In reality, we do not speak using separate words, but using communicative units, which
are superior to the word simple sentences, complex and compound sentences, etc. Being the
main language unit from a static perspective, in the relation world-thought-language the word
names and means something in isolation and passive. To put it differently, in the process of
human communication the word becomes an active element only by being placed in a
syntactic structure. From a dynamic perspective, the main unit of language in action (or
speech unit, in F. de Saussures terms) is the utterance (the linguistic unit of communication,
the discursive unit): based on the denominative and meaningful character of the words and on
the meanings that derive from their syntagmatic organization, the utterance communicates
something (see [Irimia, 327]). "We usually, do not speak using isolated signs, wrote F. de
Saussure, but using groups of signs, using organized masses that are themselves signs"
[Saussure, 139]. As a rule, the process of combining "isolated signs" in "groups of signs"
takes place without much difficulty, because "the word never comes to mind isolated, but
always accompanied by a rich cortege of relatives" [Philippide 1894: 88].
2. We consider it worth pointing out here that in the process of human communication
some lexical units which in language may be incompatible in terms of their semantics, may
become tolerable or even normative in speech. It is known that language, which "exists only
in speech, as a dimension of speech" is always "a system open to future, a system of
possibilities, partly achieved and partly achievable" [Coeriu 1996: 139].
2.1. In this context, we should mention one of Coseriu's precepts which refers to the
above-mentioned future dimension of any language. Romanian, for example, "is not only
what was said before, but it is everything that was said and what can be said from now on
(emphasis - Gh.P.,)" [Coeriu 1994: 26]. Things become clear if we consider that on the one
hand, language is constantly subject to some persistent and multifaceted pressures, depending
on a variety of factors, and on the other hand, language, in its turn, has a great influence on its
80
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
speakers through the new words and meanings that appear, through new mobile relations of
meaning between words, through new relationships, established between the language and the
extralingual area. Therefore, we must take into consideration the fact that a word is presented
as a "hermit", as a "foreigner" only in a lexicographical work (i.e. in language), but in reality
(i.e. in speech) it tends, in every way, to establish "family" links ("blood" links, "alliance"
links, "adoption" links) with the most diverse words, whether they belong to the same
semantic, derivational, associative field, or whether they belong to different fields. It is easy
to understand, if we think that language, by virtue of its natural tendency to be a "mirror of
reality" cannot reflect the surrounding reality continuum in a distorted way: the lack of the
world discontinuity justifies and determines, undoubtedly, the continuity or the interference,
or the overlap of lexical units.
2.2. Regarding the combinatory possibilities of words, we should mention
that due to their " sociability" and "generosity", the words ma risk of erring with the
"relatives", as it generally happens in everyday life. This detail must be taken into
consideration especially when referring to Romanian, which is "full of meanings and nuances
of meaning, tasty and playful, deep and serious, alive and up-to-date, yet, friendly with her
sisters from other realms. In brief, a language like no other in the world [Dumitrescu, 5].
These very features of the Romanian language give its speakers multiple opportunities to use
various combinations of words in interpersonal communication. Naturally, any speaker can
enjoy this luxury, yet, at the same time we must not forget that these possibilities should be
operated with caution and thrift, for, referring just to one "temptation" - " the daily
bombardment of press, radio and television with various modern language weapons, led many
to capitulate to the attacks and to side with the enemy. So nowadays, few are those who try to
resist this "assault" [ibidem]. In short, the danger of an "assault" of arbitrary, bizarre, illogical,
loud combinations, etc. should not be excluded.
3. The things that have been mentioned so far point clearly to the necessity of
compiling a lexicographical work that would include word combinations which have the
highest frequency in speech. An eventual Associative Dictionary of the Romanian Language
(hereinafter ADRL) would represent the Romanian language in a somewhat unusual form,
since it will be presented not as a finite text, but as a combination of words or groups of words
which in turn can serve as building material for communicative units. For example, the
reactions to the word-stimulus student could be diligent, to read, examinations, scholarship
etc. If these words were analyzed as entries in classical dictionaries, they could only be
interpreted as virtual signs, and only within the communicative units they function as real
signs, since they are able to communicate information: A diligent student reads a lot during
the examination period in order to have a scholarship. Thus, the ADRL records the words-
reactions, i.e. word pairs that are easily reproducible. These words-reactions were provided by
speakers' testing.
3.1. The word combinations included in the ADRL are not only easily reproducible,
but also easy to understand. Starting from the idea that speakers know the meanings of the
words included in the dictionary, we must admit that any individual combination of words
used by the speaker is usually understood by the receiver (we say "usually" because, as
already noted, one cannot exclude combinations that are built artificially and strangely, etc.).
Their intelligibility is explained by two reasons which cannot be separated.
81
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
3.1.1. The first reason: the sender we admit he is a Romanian language speaker
speaks like the other one, i.e. like his interlocutor (who speaks Romanian, too). In other
words, both participants in the communication process have the same adverbial perception of
the used language, i.e. they speak Romanian1. E. Coeriu mentioned that "language consists in
speaking like the others, the most important here being like the, being always historically
determined and determinable.
In a somewhat paradoxical way, it can be said that conceptually, language is a
substantivized adverb, the Latin latine [loqui] turned into lingua latina, as [the fact of
walking] rapidly can be transformed into rapidity [of walking] " [Coeriu 1997: 44].
3.1.2. The second reason: the semantic transparency of possible combinations is
determined by the fact that these combinations (according to the linguistic vision of E.
Coeriu) exist both concretely, i.e. as real combinations, and virtually, i.e. as potential
combinations (in speakers' consciousness): the combination from the speakers consciousness
exists in the receiver's consciousness, too. Moreover, in the receiver's consciousness there are
not only the signified (designated "things"), but also the associated nuances of these signified
which are updated by the speaker. Thus, if someone uses the combination oimul Patriei with
the meaning of "octombrel " (from the communist regime ), then the value of the same
combination exists in the conscience of the reader or listener, too. The alterity, which is "one
of the few universal language features " is manifested in this way. This being- with-the-
other the fact of recognizing oneself in others, the fact of recognizing in you another
me , mentions E. Coeriu, is namely what is called human "social" dimension (or
political-social dimension) and coincides with the original intersubjectivity of
consciousness, with the fact that human consciousness is open to other consciousnesses with
which it establishes communication, i.e. it recognizes in them the same abilities of feeling,
thinking, signifying and interpreting" [Coeriu 2002: 26-27].
3.2. Undoubtedly, each pair of words (stimulus-reaction) included in ADRL does not
represent a complete sentence, but only a necessary component of it, i.e. a part of the
communicative unit that is going to get a perfect shape. Thus, the ADRL does not represent
speech, but language on its way to becoming speech; such a dictionary illustrates both the
way language is "stored" in the social and historical memory of the Romanian speaker, and
the level of his/her linguistic competence.
4. As we know, language can be characterized from different points of view (social,
physiological, semiotic, cultural, philosophical, logical, etc.), but in reality it includes four
distinct components: physical, because language manifests itself in sound and/or graphic
format; biological, since language is related to specific organs that are involved in the speech
activity; psychic, because language is kept in the human psyche in the form of a system and
due to this fact it ensures the speech activity of the speaker and of the receiver; cultural,
because, according to E. Coeriu, language is "on the one hand, the basis of the whole culture
and, on the other hand, [...] a form of culture " [ibidem, 102].
1
By the way, due to this adverbial perception, a Romanian native will say that his interlocutor speaks Romanian
even in the situation when he hardlydiscerns the meaning of words, or French, even in the situation when French
is superficially "familiar" to him.
82
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
4.1. With reference to the last component, we would like to point out that language is
"a c r e a t i n g activity, so we have this universal dimension of creativity and, in this
dimension of creativity, language shows an unlimited variety" [Coeriu 1996: 38]. In this
context, it should be noted that "culture is, no doubt, an objectified creativity, but at the same
time, it is the objectification of the creativity of the historical person, which means it is done
in a certain community and at a period of time determined by a determined situation"[ibidem,
178]. Starting from these premises, it is easy to understand why "culture cannot be national
and should not be national as o b j e c t" [ibidem, 176].
4.2. Obviously, the hierarchical dominance of language components is based on the
methodological and epistemological vision of the researcher, on the scientific orientation of
the linguistic trend, on the aims of the given school etc., but no one would dare to contest the
dominant and privileged position of the cultural side of the language in the hierarchy of the
mentioned issues. For these reasons, linguistics reclaims legitimately its right to be considered
a culturological science: ethics, art, methodology, sapientology (sapientia "science"), etc.
being its closer "relatives" and philosophy, psychology, biology, logics, etc. its more distant
"relatives".
4.2.1. The dominant and privileged role of the cultural aspect of the language is
determined by the fact that linguistic signs are a natural product of culture, a creation of the
cultural activity of the individual. There is no doubt that the reasons as well as the technology
of creating the multitude of cultural products are different, however one thing is certain:
beginning with the bow and the first carved objects and ending with the spaceship or the
computer all this is a result of the manifestation of the same type of human activity and
namely of the creative and cultural activity, due to which our ancestors walked the path of
"humanisation" (personification).
4.2.2. The idea that has to be reiterated in connection with the issue under discussion
relates to the fact that the system of lingual signs, in relation to other cultural products,
definitely detaches itself from other systems in terms of their complexity, importance and
implication. Language is the primary condition and the essential means that helps culture to
perform without difficulty its basic functions: a) of cognition and transformation of the
surrounding reality; b) of communicating social important information; c) of lingual
modeling (by signs) of the world picture; d) of collecting and storing information; f) of
influencing; g) of adaptation, i.e. of ensuring harmony between the "collective I"
(ethnolingual community) and the surrounding environment [, 270].
4.3. The examination of the relation language-culture requires elucidation of the
concept of culture. For E. Coeriu culture "is the historical objectification of spirit in forms
that last, in forms that become traditions, in forms that become historical forms which
describe an individuals own world and the individuals own universe . What do we call
spirit? It is the creative activity, it is creativity itself, it is not something that creates, but
creative activity itself, enrgeia, it is the activity which comes before any learned or
experienced technique. And man creates culture, he is creative, he has energeia to the extent
that goes beyond what has been learned, what has been gained through experience through the
two sources of learning, namely through study and experience, by mathesis and by empeiria.
These forms of activity [...] are language, art, religion and myth, science and philosophy.
83
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
These forms are what we call culture, to the extent that these forms are realized in history, as
products of man's creative activity" [Coeriu 1994: 173] .
In this sense, culture is presented as a means by which an ethnic group adapts itself to the real
world. It mediates the relationship between man and the world, representing a similar
coordinate system in which the bearers of culture exist and act. Each representative of a
culture bears in his/her conscience fragments of the common picture, having at the same time,
a strong feeling that he/she knows just parts of the whole picture. In the process of evolution
of ethnicity some aspects of the world picture may change, but the fundamental structural
elements of the ethnic collective unconscious remain intact. It is through this prism that man
sees the world (for further details, see also [].
5. Having the association as a foundation, an ADRL includes words-stimuli and words-
reactions which return in the speaker's consciousness the realia that have previously acted on
his senses. The source of the image of these realia is the information provided by the
sensations and perceptions, but its objective basis is the memory capacity of the brain.
For example, in the former Soviet area everything that refers to Europe and to the
derivatives of this word (European, europeanize, europeanisation, europeanized etc.) denotes
a positive content, meaning all that is modern, fair, good, beautiful, valuable , democratic,
sustainable , perfect etc. In short, European represents today "the linguistic expression of a
national ideal" [Dru , 83]. Asia and the derivatives of this word ( Asian, for example), on the
contrary, denote an opposite content, i.e. a negative one, meaning everything that is outdated,
anachronistic, ephemeral, repulsive, etc. (by the way, the word combination Eurasian
consciousness which appeared in contemporary scientific vocabulary, refers to the
consciousness that is open to different languages and cultural values). This example allows us
to conclude without hesitation that mentality, consciousness, national culture are determined
by the geographical position of the country, by the climate, by the flora and the fauna, etc. of
the place where people live.
6. From the perspective of dictionary classification into (a) dictionaries oriented to the
language system and (b) dictionaries oriented to anthropology, the associative dictionary falls
in the latter category. This type of dictionaries reflects best of all "the lexical diapason" of the
simple speaker and is oriented to what is referred to in linguistics as "the man and his
language". In other words, this type of dictionaries is oriented to the active acquiring of a
language.
6.1. We are aware of the fact that the compilation of an associative dictionary entails
various difficulties and risks, determined by the heterogeneity of the material to be included
in it, by the perspectives from which this material is analyzed, by the objective affinities
between an associative dictionary and other lexicographical works such as, for example,
analogical and ideographical ones, by the "open" character of any dictionaries, and especially
of the associative ones etc.
6.2.The existing associative dictionaries can be characterized and classified according
to several criteria: a) the number of languages in which the associative experiment was done;
b) the number of words-stimuli on which the experiment was done; c) the field the selected
words-stimuli belong to; d) the structure of the lexicographical article; e) the number of
entries in the dictionary; f) the form of the dictionary; g) the social-biographical data of the
informers.
84
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
6.2.1. As we noted, among the difficulties related to the compilation of the ADRL are
those which refer to the affinities between the dictionary in question and the analogical
dictionary. Undoubtedly, these two types of dictionaries are similar in many ways and,
certainly, it is not easy to draw a clear demarcation line between the "analogical" and the
"associative" interpretation of one or another lexicographical article. The confusion of these
two types of dictionaries is, in a way, imminent because both have the similarity as a
foundation point.
However, the subtleties regarding this concept relate to the fact that in an "analogical"
interpretation the similarity refers to the appearance of a word with a certain form and with a
specific content under the influence of a form or of a content of another word, and when
speaking about the "associative" interpretation, the similarity concerns the emergence of a
similar (verbalized) representation under the influence of another representation (which is also
verbalized).
6.2.2. Without getting into polemics with the authors of analogical dictionaries, we
consider, however, that the so-called "analogical group" which consists of words related
through the ontic and semantic relations between author and action (such as pupil to learn),
between action and object (such as to build building), between action and tool (such as to
plough - plough), between action and place of action (to learn - school) refers, mainly, to
association realities and not to analogy relations. Moreover, if an analogical dictionary is
indeed a dictionary of synonyms, as some experts say, (of course, with a different structure
from that of traditional dictionaries of synonyms), an associative dictionary has nothing to do
with the phenomenon of synonymy (we abstract from the fact that in reality, beginning with
the systemic character of the language, we can identify intimate or discreet links between all
language units, regardless of their importance in the language system, of their functional,
stylistic "habits " etc.).
In addition, analogical dictionaries, as they are currently designed, use the linguistic material
from the existing dictionaries (explanatory, of synonyms, etc.), but the associative dictionaries
use the linguistic material taken directly from the language users. In other words, in the case
of analogical dictionaries, we operate with facts, registered by dictionaries, regardless of
whether they are used by speakers or not, but in the case of associative dictionaries, we
operate with facts that are used by speakers, regardless of whether they are registered or not
by dictionaries (analogical, of synonyms etc.).The purpose of an associative dictionary is,
therefore, to radiography the current speech of native speakers, without taking into
consideration what was or what may be in language. In a word, unlike other types of
dictionaries (including analogical and of synonyms), which claim to be an "impartial" mirror
of the language state, the associative dictionary is, on the contrary, "biased" at most: it also
presents itself as a kind of a "mirror", but already not of the " language state " in general, but
of the mental and emotional state of the common speaker a state which is characteristic of a
particular moment or a period of his life (and, implicitly, of the society life) and it has been
reflected in his language, i.e. in his associative and verbal network [, 775-776].
We do not contest the possibility of compiling some really "analogical" dictionaries of
the Romanian language, however starting from the described reality, we ascertain that the
existing analogical dictionaries of Romanian fall into the category of associative dictionaries
85
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
rather than in the category of analogical ones. The authors of such dictionaries were
compelled not to stop at the field of analogies, but to "overfly" the field of synonyms.
7. The need and the relevance of compiling and of publishing an ADRL is based on
certain reasons:
a) investigational: such a dictionary would diversify the types of dictionaries (such a
diversification implies the involvement of new perspectives of examining the lexical system
of the Romanian language); it would serve as an effective source of linguistic and
paralinguistic information (on the basis of such information some mathematical calculations
or verification of statistical hypotheses can be made), it would illustrate not only "the way we
speak now, but also "what we prefer to speak about and to think about" [].
b) didactic: such a dictionary would facilitate learning Romanian as a mother
tongue and as a foreign language; it would optimize the verbal communication with both the
man and the computer (nobody contests the verbal influence in intracultural and intercultural
communication); it would provide instructive data on the "speaking" experience of native
speakers; it would facilitate the study of national and cultural specific of lingual
consciousness.
Bibliography
Coeriu, Eugeniu, Prelegeri i conferine (1992-1993), n Anuar de lingvistic i istorie
literar. T. XXXIII, 1992-1993). Seria A. Lingvistic, Iai, 1994.
Coeriu, Eugeniu, Lingvistica integral. Interviu cu Eugeniu Coeriu realizat de Nicolae
Saramandu, Bucureti, Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne, 1996.
Coeriu, Eugeniu, Sincronie, diacronie i istorie. Problema schimbrii lingvistice, Bucureti,
Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1997.
Coeriu, Eugeniu, Limbaj i politic, n Identitatea limbii i literaturii romne n perspectiva
globalizrii, Iai, Editura Trinitas, 2002.
Dru, Inga, Tot mai ... europeni?, n Limba romn azi. Lucrrile Conferinei Naionale de
Filologie Limba romn azi. Ediia a X-a, Iai-Chiinu, 3-7 noiembrie 2006, Iai, Editura
Universitii Al. Ioan Cuza, 2007.
Dumitrescu, Dumitru, Dicionar analogic i de sinonime al limbii romne, Bucureti, Editura
Sanda, 2009.
Irimia, Dumitru, Gramatica limbii romne, Iai, Editura Polirom, 2000.
Philippide, Alexandru, Istoria limbii romne. Vol. I: Principii de istoria limbii, Iai,
Tipografia naional, 1894.
Saussure, Ferdinand de, Curs de lingvistic general. Traducere i cuvnt nainte de Irina
Izverna Tarabac, Iai, Editura Polirom, 1998.
, . ., . , ,
- , 2009.
,. .,
,n .
1. : .
. I / . . , . . , . ., , . .,
, . ., ,, - , 2011., T.
86
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
., , , -
, 2009.
87
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE ROLE OF TRANSLATIONS IN THE STRUCTURING OF ROMANIAN
SCIENTIFIC LANGUAGE
Mariana FLAIER, Professor, PhD, Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and
Pharmacy
Abstract: In the evolution of the Romanian scientific language, the translations were,
especially in the beginning of the formation of scientific terminologies in various areas, on
the one hand, a way of discovering scientific truths contained in the original texts, on the
other hand, an important source for new scientific terms that were naming various concepts,
facts, processes. The natural tendency of the first translators of scientific texts has been to
find the most appropriate Romanian lexical correspondences so that the translated text
contains, in whole, a language that does not alter, betray the original text.
Thus, the translations of scientific books, and not only, were burdensome undertaking that
had a huge role in structuring the terminologies in religion, philosophy, music, law, medicine,
chemistry, pharmacy, etc.. The translation into Romanian language of some literary writings
were very numerous that at a certain moment it took a strong cry to stem the flood of these
translations that were not making [are not making] a literature. Today we are witnessing a
huge surge of translations of Romanian literary and scientific works in different languages,
particularly English, having the natural desire of the men of letters land Romanian
researchers to make their works known to the world.
It is a profitable action for Romanian culture as a whole, but less important if we consider the
process of cultivating the Romanian literary language and the role of language in national
identity assertion. These aspects of the advantages of translations into Romanian language
and from Romanian, but also other aspects, are subject to the comments of our work.
Keywords: translation, scientific language, neologisms, terminology
Traducerile au avut, ntr-o prim etap a evoluiei vieii culturale romneti, un rol
benefic. Prin intermediul traducerilor unor scrieri religioase, juridice, muzicale, filozofice,
medicale sau literare au fost rspndite i fcute cunoscute romnilor cunotine din diferite
domenii tiinifice i de art, urmrindu-se dezvoltarea gustului pentru frumos i pentru
adevrul tiinific. n note care aveau ca intenie captatio benevoluntiae cititorului, primii
traductori mrturiseau c la originea actului anevoios al tlmcirii se afl dorina de a
ilumina neamul romnesc i de a spori, sraca limb romneasc 1.
n acelai timp erau amintite dificultile pe care traductorii le ntmpinau att din
punct de vedere fonetic ct i n plan semantic sau gramatical n actul translrii dintr-o limb
strin, iniial din slavon, latin, greac, iar mai trziu, n secolele XVIII-XIX, din rus,
francez, german, italian, n limba romn: crticic ndemnatic adunat din cri
galiceti i scoas pe limba noastr de smeritul Veniamin epitrop, spre folosul neamului
1
Citatul este dintr-o nsemnare a Mitropolitului Moldovei Veniamin Costachi, pe o Funie ntreit, ms. cota 913
de la Fondul de carte veche al Mnstirii Teodoreni, Suceava (1822), Apud. I. Caprou, E. Chiaburu, nsemnri
de pe manuscrise i cri vechi din ara Moldovei, vol. III (1796 1828), Casa Editorial Demiurg, Iai, 2009,
p. 517
88
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
romnesc2, cartea prea interesitoare tlmcit din limba franozeasc de un pravoslavnic
moldovean, iubitoriu de neam i rvnitoriu slvii i pirii neamului su ntru tiin3, de
vei gsi o greeal n fonesuri (s.n.) ori n cuvinte, au n puterea gramaticii s ndreptai cu
blnd minte nct mi-au fost cu putin, m-am silit ca s nu smintesc haractirii limbii
aceia, nici s ies din canoanele, adic din pravelile gramaticeti4. Traducerile scrierilor
religioase, n special ale cntrilor psaltice, puneau la ncercare pe traductor, care trebuia s
pstreze att frazarea melodiei ct i versurile potrivite5. Traductorii operelor literare i
filozofice, sau din alte domenii tiinifice, au ntmpinat iniial aceleai greuti6. ncepnd cu
secolul al XIX-lea, traductorii, din ce n ce mai numeroi, contientizeaz faptul c tiina
bine tlcuit nu este altceva numai limb bine fcut7, idee preluat de la Condillac care
spusese une science nest quune langue bien faite8. Faptul c limbajul tiinific are un
aspect artificial, fiind un cod lexical construit din piese diferite, n funcie de evoluia
culturii, a limbii n particular, este o idee care se regsete n teoretizrile multor lingviti care
au analizat terminologiile tiinifice9.
Astfel, n structura limbajului tiinific, a terminologiilor, un rol fundamental l au
neologismele. n funcie de epoca istoric a culturii romneti, de influenele externe
exercitate asupra limbii romne, de numeroi ali factori lingvistici i extralingvistici, n
limbajul tiinific se pot afla neologisme de diferite origini. n amplul studiu referitor la
terminologia filozofic romneasc, analiznd sursele externe care au contribuit la
structurarea limbajului tiinific, I. Oprea menioneaz printre izvoarele care au alimentat
ptrunderea masiv a neologismelor latineti, greceti, franceze, italiene, germane, etc.
traducerile unor opere reprezentative din filozofia occidental, traduceri realizate de ctre
Dinicu Golescu, Grigori Rmniceanu, Vasile Vrnav, Eufrosin Poteca, Laurian Brnuiu, T.
Cipariu, etc.10 I. Oprea consider c se exacerbeaz influena francezei cnd n tiin, mai
ales n filozofie, rolul culturii franceze este destul de redus 11. Dac n filozofie influena
francez este, poate, mai puin semnificativ, n schimb n domeniul medical, inventarul
termenilor de specialitate se afl nendoielnic, sub nrurirea francezei. Traducerile unor
2
I. Caprou, op. cit., vol. III, p. 445
3
I. Caprou, op. cit., vol. IV, p. 28
4
I. Caprou, op. cit., vol. III, p. 64
5
Referitor la dificultatea traducerilor cntrilor de factur bizantin, psalii notau: ns tiut fie i aceasta c ori
i cine va vrea a-l scrie trebuie s se nevoiasc ca ntocma i asemenea s urmeze cu scrisoare, cum se veade
izvodul pentru c syntaxi, este foarte mpletit i nct i cuvintele sunt prefcute i schimbate pre la locurea
pentru ca s vie la cntare precum i cele greceti. (cf. I. Caprou, op. cit., p. 273)
6
Cercettoarea G. Haja, inventariind n diacronie termenii teatrali din limba romn, menioneaz printre
traductorii nsemnai ai timpului pe A. Beldiman care scria nenumrate greuti ce am ntmpinat [pentru]
a scrie ntr-o limb necanonisit i lipsit de tot meteugul gramaticesc (cf. G. Haja, Terminologia teatral
romneasc, Editura T, 2005, p. 77)
7
Lazr Asachi, Loghica sau cele dinti temeiuri meteugului gndirii n volumul Antonie Plmdeal, Lazr
Leon Asachi n cultura romn, Sibiu, 1985, p. 302 (Apud. Ioan Oprea, Terminologia filozofic romneasc
modern, Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1996, p. 78)
8
I. Oprea, op. cit., p. 86
9
Limbajul tiinific fiind preponderent designativ i informativ este n ntregime construit afirm A. J.
Greimas n Despre Sens, Eseuri semiotice, Bucureti, 1975, p. 39. Aceeai idee o ntlnim i la G. Bachelard care
opineaz c Limbajul special al tiinei, limbajul creat pe msura descoperirilor tiinei, nu este natural (cf.
G. Bachelard, Didactica spiritului tiinific modern, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1986, vol. II,
p. 243)
10
I. Oprea, op. cit., p. 78 137
11
I. Oprea, op. cit., p. 256
89
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
tratate franuzeti din domeniul anatomiei, al chimiei, al dieteticii, al farmaciei etc. 12 pun n
circulaie termeni medicali noi de origine francez: compres, infirmier, injecie (atunci cu
sensul de clism), pastil, abdomen, facial, pulmon, pulmonar, saliv (salivar)13.
n domeniul chimiei, traducerea pe care Alexie Marin o face dup F. Pelouze i E.
Fremy, Prescurtare de himie, Bucureti, 1852, pune n eviden puternica influen a
modelului lexical francez, muli dintre termeni fiind preluai fr modificri de ordin fonetic
sau morfologic. n ansamblu, terminologia chimic din prima jumtate a sec. al XIX-lea este
o terminologie modern, apropiat de cea din zilele noastre n care ntlnim lexeme de tipul:
fluiditate, latent, transparen, opacitate, condensaie, alcalin, insolubil, etc.14.
Nu trebuie uitate nici sursele clasice ale terminologiei medicale, limbile latin i greac.
Traducerea primei Pharmacopei din latin n limba romn (1862) dovedete rolul pe care
limba latin l-a avut n structurarea limbajului de specialitate din farmacie. Transpunerea
textului din latin n romn relev preluarea latinismelor, cu fidelitate, traductorul
neintervenind n sensul adaptrii termenilor ca n exemplele urmtoare: breviter pedicelati
=> scurtu pediculate, siccatus et epidermide liberatus => uscat i liberatu de epiderm
(pellioar), sal n frustis crystallinis octoedrici subpellucidis => sare n bucele cristaline
octoedre subpellucide, substantia corbonacea nigra friabilis odoris ingrati, empyreumatici
=> substan crbunoas, neagr, friabil, dodoare neplcut, empyreumaticu, solve in
aquae communis cum solutione laevigentus => s se solve n ap comun, s se levige cu
soluiunea15. Numeroi termeni latineti adoptai, folosii de traductorii Pharmacopeei de la
1862, dar i de ali specialiti din epoc s-au impus i circul i astzi n limbajul de
specialitate: pubescent, inodor, narcotic, locuri ruderale, frunze glabre, tulpin erect etc.
Majoritatea termenilor menionai au n limba romn etimologie francez ntruct se
presupune c prin filiera limbii franceze au fost pui n circulaie n limba romn, astfel
atribuindu-i-se filierei rolul de marc etimologic16.
Analiza terminologiei muzicale ne-a demonstrat c n acest domeniu influenele pe care
traducerile le-au executat asupra corpusului de termeni difer n funcie de vecintatea
stilistic analizat. Astfel, n muzica religioas, de factur bizantin, predominant este
influena neogreac, n timp ce la terminologia muzicii profesioniste termenii latino romanici
sunt frecveni, cu predilecie termeni italieni, francezi, germani17.
n terminologia juridic, n secolele XVII XVIII predomin influena latin i
neogreac iar ncepnd cu secolul al XIX-lea sursele neologice sunt cele occidentale, n
particular din limba francez. Trebuie subliniat c, indiferent de ponderea unor neologisme
de-o anume provenien sau a altora, n inventarul terminologiilor tiinifice din domeniile
amintite, dar i din alte domenii se afl i termeni creai pe terenul limbii romne prin
12
ntre lucrrile din domeniul medicinii traduse din limba francez amintim N. Creulescu, Manual pentru
ngrijitori i ngrijitoarele de bolnavi, 1842 (dup Francois Fadere), Manual de anatomie descriptiv (1843)
dup F. A. Louthi, I. Brezoianu, Manualul sntii sau medicina i farmacia domestice (1850) dup B. Raspail,
Alexie Marin, Prescurtare de himie, Bucureti, 1852 (dup. F. Pelouze i E. Fremy)
13
Dup N. A. Ursu, Formarea terminologiei tiinifice romneti, Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1962, p. 75
14
Vezi lucrarea M. Flaier i Elena Iliescu, Rolul lui Alexie Marin la formarea terminologiei chimice romneti,
Anuarul Universitii P. Andrei, Limb i literatur, Tom IV, Casa Editorial Venus, Iai, 2005, p. 141 145
15
Pharmacopeea romn, Bucureti, 1862, p. 6, 7, 11, 80, 357
16
Vezi I. Oprea, op. cit., p. 257 262
17
Vezi Mariana Flaier, Terminologia muzicii n limba romn, Casa Editorial Demiurg, Iai, 1997, p. 204
205
90
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
procedeele lexicale cunoscute: derivare, perifrazare, resemantizare i calchiere18. Traducerile
termenilor tiinifici sunt frecvente i nu se rezum doar la a gsi echivalentul corect n limba
romn ci i de a transfera liste ntregi de termeni abreviai dintr-un cod lingvistic ntr-un
altul. De pild, unele abrevieri medicale ca: HES (sindromul hipereozonofilic), SMP (sindrom
mieloproliferativ) etc. pot crea dificulti n momentul decodificrii dac se ia n considerare
discordana ntre traducerea termenului englezesc care st la baza abrevierii mprumutate i
topica originar a elementelor abreviate.
n exemplul sindrom hipereozonofilic, abrevierea HES reproduce ntocmai sintagma din
limba englez: hypereozenofilic syndrome. La fel i n cazul urmtor: indice de rigiditate STIF
ilustreaz termenul englezesc stiffnes index. n structurarea limbajului tiinific romnesc,
un rol semnificativ n arta traducerii din diferite limbi n limba romn l-au avut lexicoanele,
dicionarele care au nsemnat ntotdeauna un reper, o oper de standardizare a
corespondenelor lexicale. n structura terminologiilor, indiferent de domeniu, dicionarele
sunt dovada de netgduit a preocuprilor specialitilor de a afla cele mai apropriate valori
semantice ale termenilor din diferite limbi i limba romn. Relaia stabilit de dicionare, pe
de o parte, n spaiul restrns al terminologiilor, i, pe de alt parte, ntre lexicul special i
limba comun a fost nc din perioada veche a culturii romneti una extrem de complex.
Printre cele mai vechi dicionare care au avut un rol important n dezvoltarea limbajului
tiinific romnesc sunt: Dictiones latinae cum valachica interpretatione a lui Teodor
Corbea19, Vocabularium pertinens ad tria Regna Naturae al lui Gh. incai20 i numeroase alte
lucrri lexicografice care aveau rolul de a introduce n limba romn a vremii cuvintele
nvate, termenii tehnici21. Nu trebuie omis din lista lucrrilor lexicografice Lexicomul de
la Buda (1823) care dei se ncadreaz n categoria dicionarelor generale, nglobeaz un
numr destul de mare de termeni tiinifici care pot fi revendicai de terminologiile unor
diferite domenii tiinifice. Alte dicionare speciale sunt cele de muzic ale lui Titus Cerne i
Inela sau dicionarul de termeni al lui Th. Stamati22. n lucrarea Angelei Bidu Vrncescu,
Lexicul specializat n micare23, autoarea noteaz c n cazul lexicului specializat lectura
definiiilor lexicografice [stabilete] o relaie ntre sensul obiectiv riguros n cazul lexicului
specializat i uzajul termenului n diverse domenii sau n limba comun. Vorbitorul obinuit
trebuie s fac efortul de a consulta un dicionar i s selecteze datele relevante ale definiiei
la nivelul unei laturi mai mult sau mai puin generale. O lectur special, variabil n funcie
de vorbitor i de diverse alte criterii poate s adauge i alte date24.
18
I. Oprea, op. cit., p. 223 noteaz referitor la terminologia filozofic romneasc i la structurarea limbajului
tiinific romnesc, n general, urmtoarele: vechi[lor] cuvinte romneti (de diferite origini) li se confer
semnificaii noi Calcurile lingvistice pot deveni elemente de metalimbaj n glose, cci glosele i definiiile fac
parte din metalimbaj.
19
Cf. Marian Cotru, Medicamentul de-a lungul vremii, Editura Apollonia, Iai, 1995, p. 103
20
N. A. Ursu, op. cit., p. 31 32
21
Vezi Coman Lupu, Lexicografia romneasc n procesul de occidentalizare latino romanic a limbii romne
moderne (1780 1860), Bucureti, 1999, p. 42 47, 173 200, passim.
22
Facem referire la Dicionarul de muzic al lui Titus Cerne, Stablimentul Grafic Miron Costin, Iai, 1898, vol. I
i II; Dicionar muzical ilustrat, A. I. Ivela, Editura Librriei Universale, Alcalay, Bucureti, 1927, Th. Stamati
23
Angela Bidu Vrnceanu, Lexicul specializat n micare, De la dicionare la texte, Editura Universitii din
Bucureti, 2007
24
Angela Bidu Vrnceanu, op. cit., p. 72
91
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Menionm c n cazul unor lecturi ale definiiilor lexicografice, ori urmrind
interpretarea nuanat a corespondenelor semantice n cazul dicionarelor bilingve sau
plurilingve, n funcie de cultura traductorului se poate stabili aprecieri privind exactitatea
traducerii, plasticitatea, fidelitatea fa de textul originar alegnd, n funcie de context, cea
mai potrivit formulare n traducerea pentru care consult dicionarul. Dac acum dou secole
idealul crturarilor din diferite domenii tiinifice era ca textul traducerilor n limba romn al
diferitelor scrieri tiinifice, ulterior i al scrierilor originale s ating prin acuratee i
proprietatea termenilor, aceeai elegan ca i textul francez. n momentul actual, dorina de a
ne face cunoscui n lume prin operele literare i tiinifice a determinat un proces invers de
traducere, n mod predilect a scrierilor romneti literare i tiinifice n limba englez. Fr
ndoial c traducerile operelor literare, a unor tratate tiinifice, ale unor articole din romn
n englez au ca prim consecin deschiderea spre cunoaterea culturii romneti n occident.
ntr-un articol asupra relevanei factorilor de impact n evaluarea cercetrii tiinifice se
menioneaz c: bibliografia unei publicaii (tiinifice s.n.) este incomplet: autorii cunosc
doar parial literatura asupra subiectului (cea n englez s.n.) pentru c alte limbi doar de
circulaie sunt ignorate aproape total se observ favorizarea englezei i a cercetrilor
americane25.
Traducerea este o aciune profitabil pentru cultura romneasc n ansamblul ei, dar mai
puin important dac ne gndim la procesul de cultivare a limbii romne literare i a rolului
limbii n afirmarea identitii naionale.
Bibliografie
Bachelard, 1986, G. Bachelard, Dialectica spiritului tiinific modern, Editura tiinific i
enciclopedic, Bucureti, vol. II
Bidu-Vrnceanu, 2007, Angela Bidu-Vrnceanu, Lexicul specializat n micare. De la
dicionare la texte, Editura Universitii Bucureti,
Caprou, Chiaburu, 2009, I. Caprou, E. Chiaburu, nsemnri de pe manuscrise i cri vechi
din ara Moldovei (1796 - 1828), Casa Editorial Demiurg, Iai, vol. III
Cerne, 1898, Titus Cerne, Dicionarul de muzic, Stabilimentul grafic Miron Costin, Iai, vol.
I i II
Cotru, 1995, Marian Cotru, Medicamentul de-a lungul vremii, Editura Apollonia, Iai
Flaier, 1997, Mariana Flaier, Terminologia muzical n limba romn, Casa Editorial
Demiurg, Iai, 1997
Flaier, Iliescu, 2005, Mariana Flaier i Elena Iliescu, Rolul lui Alexie Marin la formarea
terminologiei chimice romneti, n Anuarul Universitii Petre Andrei, Limb i literatur
Tom IV, Iai
Greimas, 1975, A. J. Greimas, Despre Sens, Eseuri semiotice, Bucureti
Haja, 2005, Gabriela Haja, Terminologia teatral romneasc, Editura T, Iai
25
V. Rusu, Indici asupra relevanei factorului de impact n evaluarea cercetrii, n Revista medico-chirurgical,
vol. 107, aprilie iunie, 2001, nr. 2, p. 226 227
92
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Ivela, 1927, A. L. Ivela, Dicionar muzical ilustrat, Editura Librriei universale, Alcalay,
Bucureti
Lupu, 1999, Conan Lupu, Lexicografia romneasc n procesul de occidentalizare latino
romanic a limbii moderne (1780 1860), Bucureti
Marin, 1852, Alexie Marin, Prescurtare de himie, Bucureti
Oprea, 1996, I. Oprea, Terminologia filozofic romneasc modern, Editura tiinific,
Bucureti
Pharmacopeea romn, Bucureti, 1862
Rusu, 2001, Valeriu Rusu, ndici asupra relevanei factorului de impact n evaluarea
cercetrii, n Revista medico-chirurgical, vol. 107, aprilie iunie, 2001, nr. 2
Ursu, 1962, V. A. Ursu, Formarea terminologiei tiinifice romneti, Editura tiinific,
Bucureti
93
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
LHERMNEUTIQUE DE LOBJET, VECTEUR DE DILOGUE MULTICULTUREL
CONSIDRATIONS SUR BRANCUSI VS. BACHELARD
Matei STIRCEA-CRCIUN, PhD, Institut danthropologie Francisc Rainer, Acadmie
Roumaine
Abstract: An innovative method in object hermeneutics endogene hermeneutics designed
to allow for intensive explorations of visual language in abstract art creations has been used
to spot, alongside symbolic meanings underlying sculptural motifs in Brancusis work, the
main streams in the masters aesthetic program (monograph published in 2010). While it is
well known how Brancusio would often prompt fellow artists to comply with stone, or wood,
or metal languages, it is by now possible to establish the way several notorious motifs in the
sculptors work such as, for instance, The Table of the Silence in the Targu Jiu Ensemble,
Romania, convey an allegoric discourse imbued with material symbolism.
Such findings open up prospects for Gaston Bachelards theses on material imagination
underlying literary texts to be developed and refined using data associated to the creation and
ideation of one of the main founders of modern abstract sculpture.
This has of course little to do with engaging into a straitforward comparison of two widely
different works. On the contrary, at stake is an unexpected chance to pair what Vincent
Therrien called Gaston Bachelards revolution in literary criticism with Brancusis
revolution in sculpture which amounted to a radical shift in principles and goals of sculpture
making.
It ultimately turns conspicous that conceiving of the arts in terms of material languages grows
tantamount to postulating human imagination to hold a global culture foundation while
shape languages are only born and built within ethnic frontiers.
Final considerations are provided about endogene hermeneutics which explain the operation
of the method as well as about goals and strategies with what seems promissed to turn into a
self contained discipline of huge scope object hermeneutics.
Keywords: modern sculpture, art history, material symbolism, hermeneutics, symbolic
anthropology
Prambule
Limpratif que la langue des matires soit respecte dans la composition plastique
revient pour Brancusi saluer en sculpteur dans la matire tout fait linstar de
Bachelard, bien que lgrement avant lui1 la source dinspiration par excellence..
Mais, si Bachelard peut tre lu livre ouvert encore que les subtilits de ses
rflexions sont parfois difficiles atteindre , alors que Brancusi demeure inabordable2,
comment rendre compte de la convergence de leurs vues ?
1
Par rapport Brancusi, n en 1876, Bachelard tait de huit annes plus jeune.
2
Margit Rowell, le curateur de la retrospective Brancusi ouverte Paris en 1995, peut tre la plus importante
avoir t montes jusquici, prvenait le visiteur que luvre de Brancusi reste ambivalente , quelle
chappe lanalyse , quelle demeure inclassable, Margit Rowell, Une oeuvre moderne et intemporelle, in
Friedrich Teja Bach, Margit Rowell, Ann Temkin, Constantin Brancusi, 1876-1957, Gallimard/Centre Georges
Pompidou, 1995, p. 40 et p. 51.
94
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Quil nous soit permis de suggrer une voie de dpasser cette impasse. Cest pour
avoir consacr prs de vingt annes explorer les sculptures de Brancusi avec, comme but
explicite disoler sur chacune delles les dtails susceptibles dtre porteurs de significations
culturelles, quil nous a t possible de monter une exgse hermneutique de lensemble de
luvre brancusienne3 - laquelle, il convient de le prciser, se nourrit principalement des
techniques analytiques mises au point par les coles franaises danthropologie de
limaginaire.
Ds que la banque de donnes dobservation atteint la masse critique on relve
jusqu quarante indices hermneutiques par composition loeuvre brancusienne dvoile une
cohrence insouponne de discours, o il ny a plus de motifs autonomes, o la trame sous-
jacente aux motifs se prolonge dune composition lautre, accumule des essors et slance
pour atteindre des cimes dune beaut qui coupe le souffle.
Cest bien ce niveau celui des cimes quil convient de situer la rencontre entre
Bachelard et Brancusi. Car lenjeu nen vise plus le dtail de leurs vues respectives, mais bien
le poids de leurs visions gniales et limpratif de les faire fusionner.
Dans une contribution antrieure sur ce thme, lanalyse hermneutique des six motifs
sculpturaux qui ouvrent loeuvre mre du matre rendait compte de la gense de la vision
matiriste chez Brancusi4.
Lintervention prsente complte cette dmarche en sarrtant, en guise dillustration,
sur la Table du Silence, (FIG. 1) la pice apparemment la plus quivoque 5 du chef-doeuvre
de Brancusi, lEnsemble de Targu Jiu (ETJ), rig en 1938 pour commmorer les combattants
roumains tombs au cours de la Grande Guerre en dfendant la ville.
Cest le lit sempiternel de le rivire du Jiu, dress du Nord au Sud, que Brancusi
choisit, Targu Jiu, comme point de dpart pour laxe de lEnsemble de monuments quil
rigea la mmoire des soldats roumains tombs au cours de la Grande Guerre: la Table du
Silence entoure des douze chaises rondes, puis lalle borde des chaises quarrs dbouchant
sur la Porte du Baiser et, tout lautre bout de la ville, la Colonne sans fin.
Le projet du sculpteur faisait inclure la ville, titre dlment fonctionnel, au sein de
lEnsemble. La couronne des rues et des ruelles de Targu Jiu se vit, grce lintervention de
lartiste, enrichie dune voie nouvelle, parfaitement rectiligne, La Voie des hros, dresse vers
la flche de la Colonne sans fin, faisant virtuellement partie intgrante de lEnsemble et ayant
pour but implicite non seulement dordonner la ville, mais en fait de subordonner le contigent,
le circonstanciel, le vcu un ordre ou un horizon suprieur, celui dont lart devait se
rclamer. Il ny a point dexagration dans lassertion qu Targu Jiu, Brancusi bouleverse les
3
Matei Stircea-Craciun, Brancusi Le langage des matires, Symbolisme hylsique, tude hermneutique de la
sculpture abstraite (monographie en langue roumaine), ditions Anima, Bucarest, 2010, 488 p., 90 ill., 36
schmas hermneutiques, carte de limaginaire brancusien. La monographie couvre par chapitre distincts les
quelques quarantes motifs de loeuvre.
4
Nous venons de reprendre ici quelques paragraphes dune premire tude traitant des confluences de vision
entre Brancusi et Bachelard et que le texte prsent se charge de dvelopper. Les propos sur Brancusi y sont
illustrs par lanalyse de six motifs dimportance cardinale dans lconomie de loeuvre : La Sagesse de la Terre,
le Baiser, la Prire, Mademoiselle Pogany, la Muse endormie, Maistra. Cf. Matei Stircea-Craciun, Brancusi et
Gaston Bachelard : une approche hermneutique de la sculpture abstraite, in Jean-Jacques Wunenburger (d.),
Gaston Bachelard, Science et potique, une nouvelle thique ?, HERMANN, 2013, pp. 469-490.
5
Sans doute, laustrit presque gomtrique de La Table du Silence autant que sa confection confille de
simples tailleurs de pierre, la rendent-elles la pice probablement la plus quivoque de lEnsemble de Targu Jiu.
95
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
conventions de lart public. Au lieu de placer le monument dans la ville, cest bien la ville
quil place au cur du monument
Ds 1907, alors quil travaillait des motifs dune importance capitale pour le devenir
de son oeuvre, tels Le Baiser ou La Prire, le sculpteur avait galement en chantier le
modelage en pltre du groupe colossal La traverse de la Mer Rouge, inspir des lgendes de
lAncien Testament. Cette composition, Brancusi allait bientt la dtruire, mais il sen sert des
morceaux pour couler en pltre sa premire Table une pice lapparence strictement
utilitaire, constamment maintenue dans lespace de latelier, comme une prsence ncessaire.
Trois dcennies plus tard, en 1938, la reprise du motif de la Table comme intgr
lETJ nest pas sans acqurir une dimension spectaculaire. Au fait, cest bien la Traverse de
la Mer Rouge, travestie en un nouveau avatar, la Table du Silence, qui vient faire surface
nouveau au sein de luvre de Brancusi pour se voir intgre rien de moins qu son chef
duvre.
Il est probable quavec La Traverse de la Mer Rouge, Brancusi aura eu lesprit de
dvelopper une forme-clef , comme il le fit pour maints autres motifs de son oeuvre, puise
cette fois explicitement la source biblique, comme lindiquait le titre de cette composition.
Or, la brivet relative du texte de la lgende sur la fuite des Hbreux de lgypte laisse peu
de doutes subsister sur le contenu effectif de son choix. Brancusi en aura retenu lpisode
central o Mose lve la verge et fait fendre les eaux de la Mer Rouge pour permettre aux
Israelites de senfuir de lgypte.
Et les enfants dIsral entrrent au milieu de la mer sec ; et les eaux leurs servaient
de mur droite et gauche. (Exode, 14.22).
Mais, lorsque le texte biblique affirme qu un plan deau il se substitue une voie
sche, il est bien permis de conclure que le thme dont il question a trait la mtamorphose
de leau en pierre autrement dit un thme matiriste qui ne pouvait manquer dintresser
Brancusi, ne serait-ce quen raison de ses maints tmoignages sur limpratif pour les
sculpteurs de respecter ce quil appelait la langue des matires .
Toutefois, force de relire ces textes, le sculpteur aura vite fait de sapercevoir que
les lgendes de lExode font mention dun autre pisode ayant trait des mtamorphoses
matrielles, lequel a pour objet non pas leau mue en pierre, mais la pierre mue en eau.
Il sagit, en effet, de lpisode o les Hbreux, en arrivant proximit de la montagne
de Horeb, lendroit connu sous le nom de Mriba ou de Massa, manquent deau et
sapprtent se rvolter contre Mose. (Nombres 20,13 et Deuteronome 33.8) Rappelons que
lorsque Yahv ordonne Mose de frapper un rocher de la verge pour en tirer de leau et
abreuver les tribus dIsral (soit une population dun demi million dindividus), celui-ci doute
pour la premire fois des pouvoirs du Crateur.
Il convient de souligner que, pour ce qui de son dramatisme, cet pisode na pas dgal
dans lAncien Testament. Or, si Massa, pour un long moment, Mose est soumis lpreuve,
cest bien pour donner la postrit, au del du fantastique parfois exorbitant des miracles
prcdents, la vraie mesure des pouvoirs illimits de la foi.
Il y a raison de croire que le sculpteur dcide dabandonner le projet de la Traverse
au profit dun nouveau projet consacr lpisode de la Massa. Car, au fait, dans la
transformation de la pierre en eau, qui y a lieu, se contiennent comme dans une somme toutes
96
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
les transgressions miraculeuses de la nature voques par les mythes et sur lesquelles les
humains difient leurs espoirs.
Il se trouve que le penchant de Brancusi comprimer lexpression plastique en des
formes minimales tait singulirement bien servi, en loccurrence, par le dtail fortuit quen
langue roumaine le nom de Massa tait lhomonyme parfait du mot roumain pour table: masa
(en roumain masa se lit massa). Le sculpteur pouvait demeurer lapidaire l o ses
devanciers se seraient gars dans les mandres de la figuration plastique.
Dans sa vision, la Masa du Silence, hypostase mtaphorique du divin, entoure des
douze chaises (renvoi subtil aux douze tribus dIsral) se voulait simplement voquer, par
antonomase, une tape sur un certain parcours initiatique.
On peut en conclure, quau visiteur qui se rend Targu Jiu, la Masa du Silence voque
une fontaine leau magique, dont celui qui en boit parvient entendre les voix du Silence.
La Masa du Silence nonce le plus clairement lessence solaire de lesthtique de
Brancusi. Lartiste y fait lloge la mmoire des hros tombs au combat par le truchement
dune allgorie lgendaire sur une guerre o il nexiste notamment point dennemis. Car, en
effet, les Hbreux errant dans le dsert du Sina ny auront-ils pas combattre que contre eux-
mmes. (FIG. 2)
Courte synthse
En perspective structurale, la Table du Silence, par son renvoi tacite au motif de la
Massa du rocher bris do il coule de leau se veut une rplique polmique au thme des
autels en pierre, foyers sacrs dune flamme, un motif couramment associ aux mmoriaux de
guerre, quon retrouve le plus souvent figur sous la forme de la flamme au soldat inconnu. Il
convient alors dobserver comment, pour consacrer un mmorial de guerre, Brancusi par la
Table du Silence, produit une formule originale afin de dloger un clich quil rcuse leau
plutt que le feu cest pour lui llment adquat invoquer la paix de lme pour les hros
tombs.
Il est en effet significatif que ni la Table du Silence, ni la Porte du Baiser pas plus,
dailleurs que la Colonne sans fin nvoquent gure dhypostases dhrosme combattant.
Brancusi se refuse fermement dassocier son hommage aux hros quelque rfrence que ce
soit au thme du carnage guerrier. Au motif de la flamme qui brle il substitue le motif de
leau qui coule savoir la rivire du Jiu qui frle presque le monument.
Voici donc la dichotomie radicale mise en exergue par le discours du matre. En
purant lide dhrosme de toute contingence avec les actions sanguinaires dont les
chroniques des guerres sont macules, la Table du Silence aussi bien que La Voie des hros,
lartiste les ddie tout individu dsireux de se surpasser soi-mme et qui, pour y parvenir,
difie sa conscience au contact de repres fiables dmulation.
La monographie fournit la premire ample conceptualisation des dimensions
esthtique et philosophique de la vision artistique lance par Brancusi une somme de
principes de composition assums et dvelopps par plusieurs gnrations de sculpteurs tout
au long du XXe sicle, dont il est temps dvaluer la cohrence programmatique au sein de ce
quil conviendrait de saluer comme un courant artistique part symbolisme matriel ou
symbolisme hylsique sur la carte du modernisme. (FIG. 3)
97
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Conclusions
1. Le projet de recherches, lHermneutique de lobjet, droul partir de 1985 par
lInstitut dAnthropologie Francisc Rainer de lAcadmie roumaine est parvenu
conceptualiser fond ce quil convient dappeler le courant artistique lanc par Brancusi
laube du XXe sicle - le symbolisme hylsique ou symbolisme matiriste , lequel, tel quil
peut tre tabli, se retrouve illustr ce jour, travers le monde, par les contributions de
quatre gnrations dartistes.
Suivant une tradition dextraction principalement urbaine, tale sur deux millnaires
et demi tout au moins, la sculpture avait t dfinie comme langages des formes. La redfinir,
tel que Brancusi sengage le faire, en termes de langages des matires reconduit
limagination vers le dnominateur commun universel des valeurs culturelles, plus
prcisment vers la matrice primordiale des savoirs, et des vouloirs, et des pouvoirs, et des
devoirs humains la cause matrielle selon Aristote. Avec comme corollaire,
lenclenchement dune rvolution radicale dans les moyens dexpression artistique et les
vises de lart.
En effet, pour Brancusi, la sculpture est langage des matires plutt que langage des
formes, une cration engage soutenir des causes thiques plutt que des vises esthtiques,
apte de gurir des conflits ataviques entre sexes, entre rural et urbain, entre cultures, jouant
plein le potentiel du vocabulaire minimal sadresser lespce humaine lchelle
plantaire. Limpact de ce renouveau de la sculpture y compris de la sculpture
monumentale, mais aussi de larchitecture et du design fut norme puisquil contribua
grandement instaurer un nouveau got pour les formes simples et franches la place
notamment de lexubrance morphologique de lart acadmique.
Brancusi construisit patiemment, prs de trois dcennies une uvre quil voua la
postrit comme un loge la matire, pure dans sa vision de toutes connotations ngatives
et promue en tant que source cardinale de spiritualisation de ltre humain. Autrement dit,
lantithse traditionnelle esprit/matire se retrouve mtamorphose dans la sculpture de
Brancusi o elle devient foyer dinspiration sous lhypostase de la conjonction matireesprit.
A ce titre, le crdo artistique du matre se laisse rsumer comme un appel la rhabilitation
du statut pistmique des matires aussi bien qu une r-reprsentation des archtypes
autrement dit dune prise de conscience des valeurs prennes dont les matires et les
archtypes se font les porteurs pour les humains travers le temps et lespace.
Gaston Bachelard ne confessait-il pas avoir t frapp, au commencement des
recherches quil consacra au grand thme de limagination matrielle, par labsence de la
cause matrielle dans la philosophie esthtique ? La confluence implicite des thses
bachelardiennes et de la vision de Brancusi sur le potentiel de symbolisation des matires est
dautant plus significative que le philosophe ayant manqu de croiser le sculpteur, dbucha
sur des rsultats parfaitement analogues aux siens bien quau terme de rflexions centres sur
la littrature.
On ne saurait, ce point, manquer dobserver que la France au XXe sicle fut le sige
de deux grandes rvolutions de lesprit taxes de paradoxale 6 et respectivement
6
Jean-Jacques Wunenburger, Gaston Bachelard, Potique des images, Mimesis, 2012, 14.
98
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
dinclassable 7, lesquelles, puisquelles savrent avoir t confluentes de par leur nature,
invitent tre expliques lune travers lautre.
Et si lart pour Brancusi se devait dtre une institution premirement responsable de
la gestion des structures axiologiques de la socit et si, pour ce faire il enjoint ses confrres
de sabreuver lintelligence des matires afin de dpasser ainsi limpasse dun art o
lexubrance des formes en vient parfois dissimuler une perte de contenu, ce message, il
convient de le reconnatre, il le puise tout fait dans la sagesse immmoriale des communauts
rurales, dont il se proclame lambassadeur.
Il importe de bien saisir que le contact avec la nature, le grand don de ce que lon
appelle en termes gnriques le mode de vie rural, dveloppe dabord le savoir des qualits
immuables des matires bien plus que celui des formes. Or, la rflexion qui se penche sur les
qualits de la matire en tant quobjet est invitablement conduite sinterroger sur les
qualits quil convient celui qui la contemple dacqurir en tant que sujet.
Faire la paix entre les deux cerveaux de lhumanit, plus prcisment entre les univers
de savoirs centrs sur lapprhension du sujet et lapprhension de lobjet, ou encore entre les
univers de savoirs lgus la civilisation par la pense symbolique et, respectivement, par la
pens rationnelle, ou enfin par le mode de vie rural et le mode de vie urbain. Faire la paix en
prouvant que, dans le temps, les deux modes de penser avaient subi un semblable degr de
maturation qui les rendaient compatibles dans leurs complmentarits, tel fut lenjeu des
qutes de Brancusi . Une Colonne sans fin de la hauteur des gratte-ciels (projet non-ralis)
un face face virtuel de fates respectifs de lart et de la technique, mais aussi, dans un certain
sens, demblmes se revendiquant foncirement dune part des campagnes et dautre part des
villes aurait bien mis en vidence la mise de cette qute dune suprme audace pour ce qui
est des aventures de lesprit humain.
Il convient dajouter ce propos que la Roumanie des annes 30 stait fait
reconnatre en Europe pour un pays prospre conomiquement et fier surtout de la richesse de
sa civilisation rurale, et que partant le prince-paysan, comme Brancusi stait fait appeler, en
tait bien crdit de se faire le porte parole du savoir vivre campagnard.
La vision matiriste de Brancusi en tant quillustre au titre de manifeste artistique par
lEnsemble de Targu Jiu sest voulue amorcer un grand projet collectif de longue haleine
ayant pour finalit ultime combien opportune, combien audacieuse dharmoniser les
paradigmes axiologiques des diffrentes cultures en les rapportant un tronc commun
universellement accept celui des matires , afin explicitement den en estomper les
adversits historiques sans nullement en affecter la diversit culturelle.
2. Les donnes de cette recherche sont le fruit dune nouvelle mthode critique
lhermneutique endogne qui approche la sculpture abstraite au moyen de techniques et
dinstruments analytiques dvelopps par les grandes coles franaises danthropologie
symbolique (Gaston Bachelard, Claude Lvi-Strauss, Gilbert Durand, Ren Girard).
Lhermneutique endogne exige que lacte dinterprtation du discours plastique
utilise comme oprateur les principes de composition inhrents luvre examine. Elle se
pose par l en complment polaire aux hermneutiques exognes o la grille de lecture est
7
Cf. Margit Rowell, note 1
99
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
prconstitue partir de thories autonomes comme la psychanalyse, le fminisme, la
phnomnologie, le marxisme etc. et devrait en principe les prcder.
2.1. Synthse des rsultats obtenus par lexploration hermneutique de la sculpture de
Constantin Brancusi8:
- dfinition des indices hermneutiques affrant chaque motif;
- dfinition du lexique sculptural sur la base des indices hermneutiques;
- reconstitution du discours symbolique/mtaphorique/allgorique affrant
chaque motif sur la base du lexique sculptural ;
- identification des sources dinspiration (deux sources cardinales identifies et
commentes en premire);
- les axes de continuit de discours entre les diffrents motifs explicits en
premire (voir la Carte de limaginaire brancusien, BLM, pp. 487-488.);
- les principes de compositions expliqus de faon systmique;
- inventaire pondr des innovations esthtiques ;
- conceptualisation du programme esthtique de Brancusi dsign par le
concept de symbolisme hylsique ;
- positionnement de luvre au sein de lhistoire de lart ;
- la rvolution brancusienne en sculpture positionne en regard la philosophie
de la culture.
3. A ce titre, il convient dobserver que la russite de lhermneutique endogne
surmonter les grands dilemmes de la brancusiologie 9 retentit directement sur les politiques de
la recherche ayant pour objet la gestion critique et philosophique de lnorme patrimoine de
lart abstrait moderne et contemporain. Il sagit en effet dun problme institutionnel qui
appelle une solution institutionnelle.
3.1. Appel la cration de lInstitut International dHermneutique de lObjet
Dans notre civilisation qui se veut de limage, une hermneutique de limage devient
une institution indispensable de la connaissance de soi. Il convient de bien raliser que la
rvolution des langages plastiques au commencement du XXe sicle imposait imprativement
la critique dadapter les procds dvaluation de luvre dart en les fondant sur des tudes
intensives du lexique et de la grammaire des idiolectes visuels. Et puisque la critique sest
pratiquement dpartie de cette tche, une faille na cess de saccrotre entre dune part les
artistes et dautre part le public, avec comme consquence une perturbation (crise) des circuits
de valeurs quil choit lart de grer.
Le projet droul par lInstitut dAnthropologie Francisc Rainer offre la preuve
tangible que lart abstrait peu se lire la faon dun texte10. Lenjeu dinstitutionnaliser cette
8
Cf. note 3.
9
Cf. note 2. Au fait, un demi sicle aprs la mort de lartiste, presque toutes les grandes questions souleves par
linterprtation de son uvre sont restes sans rponse. Il nya pas daccord ce jour entre les spcialistes ni sur
la signification symbolique de ses motifs sculpturaux, ni sur ses principes de composition, ni sur ses sources
dinspiration, ou sur la nature de ses dcouvertes esthtiques et encore moins sur le programme artistique dont
allait hriter les grands sculpteurs du XXe sicle qui se rclament de lui.
10
Pour ce qui est de lefficacit de lhermneutique endogne, il convient encore de citer une dtude qui trate
dun artiste apparemment encore plus hermtique que Brancusi et en rend le discours plastique parfaitement
limpide au regard. Il sagit de Paul Neagu, probablement le plus important sculpteur roumain aprs Brancusi. Cf.
Matei Stircea-Craciun, Paul Neagu Nine Catalytic Stations, A Study in Hylesic Symbolism, Anastasia
Publishing House, 2003(versions en roumain et en anglais).
100
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
action est norme. Il semble alors impratif de trouver les moyens et de former les spcialistes
pour que lhermneutique de lobjet acquire le statut dune discipline en tant que telle,
charge de fournir des informations essentielles sur la structure axiologique de chaque
gnration et de chaque espace, tout comme sur la dynamique des valeurs culturelles.
Il nous parat ncessaire de tirer partie de cette Confrence spcifiquement adresse au
thme du dialogue multiculturel pour lancer un appel aux critiques et aux historiens dart, aux
philologues, aux philosophes de la culture aussi bien quaux anthropologues sur la ncessit
de joindre leurs efforts pour cerner nouveau la porte et les enjeux des rvolutions
axiologiques sous-jacentes aux uvres de Brancusi et respectivement de Bachelard.
Il convient en effet de reconnatre que le XXIe sicle se devra de reconnatre dans le
matirisme une assise axiologique inestimable pour toutes thories et programmes visant
grer le mutliculturilsme sur une plante comptant sept milliard dhabitants ne serait-ce que
puisque les matires en tant que matrices de valeurs culturelles demeurent inexorablement le
dnominateur commun par excellence de toutes les civilisations humaines.
Sur le fond, lintervention prsente signale un problme institutionnel qui appelle une
solution institutionnelle. A ce titre notre appel a pour but de provoquer une prise de
conscience sur le besoin denvisager la cration dun Institut dHermneutique de lObjet,
vocation internationale, charg de grer la recherche hermneutique de lart abstrait moderne
et contemporain et de faciliter par l une meilleure articulation des savoirs manant des
recherches sur les arts plastiques, sur la cration littraire ou sur tout autre domaine
susceptible de favoriser le progrs des connaissances sur les dimensions culturelles des
paradigmes matrielles.
Liste des images
1. Constantin Brancusi, La Table du Silence, 1937-38, pierre, photo arch. Iosef Kovacs
2. Constantin Brancusi, La Porte du Baiser, 1937, pierre, photo arch. Iosef Kovacs
3. Constantin Brancusi, La Colonne sans fin, 1937, fonte laiton, photo Mihai Oroveanu
101
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE DEBATES REGARDING TO THE WRITING OF ROMANIAN LANGUAGE
DICTIONARY IN FAMILIA PERIODICAL (1865-1906)
Anca-Elena DAVID, Assistant Professor, PhD, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu
Abstract: The urgent editing of a Romanian literary language dictionary under the aegis of
the Romanian Academic Society has been imperative required by all linguists, reporters and
the collaborators of Transilvanian periodicals since the end of XIX-th century. The magazine
Familia from Oradea presents, in detail, the works of the academic forum regarding the
decisions and arguments that were discussed there. From this point of view, both the ideas
that A. T. Laurian had in mind for the publishing of his dictionary and those that were
fundamental The Great Ethimologic of Romanian language by B. P. Hasdeu have been
presented.
Familia remarks as well the opinion of most member of the academic forum regarding the
changing of approach in editing the dictionary by Laurian and Massim. It will be decided that
the lexical stuff be provided particularly from real people speech as well as from old
important documents belonging to Romanian literature. A lot of articles refer to the slow
process for the elaboration of the Hasdeu' dictionary.During the meetings it is suggested and
accepted to replace Hasdeu with A. Philippide and some criteria for making up this
lexicographic work are established. Due to a permanent activity of publishing the exchange of
ideas among the contemporary scholars regarding the editing of the dictionary, Familia
manifested a special interest for the up-dating of the literary Romanian language.
Keywords: dictionary, principles, elaboration, disputes, Academy
Elaborarea urgent a unui Dicionar al limbii romne literare, sub egida Societii
Academice Romne, este imperios solicitat de toi lingvitii, redactorii i colaboratorii
periodicelor transilvnene de la sfritul secolului al XIX-lea. Sunt prezentate, n detaliu,
lucrrile forului academic privitoare la deciziile i discuiile din cadrul acestuia. Revista
ordean Familia public ntrunirea membrilor Comisiei filologice n vederea ntocmirii
Dicionarului, n cadrul creia A. T. Laurian prezint principiile urmate: corpul cuvintelor
remane intreg; derivatele nu causdia modificare in corpul cuvintelor; tipul verbului se pune
in infinitiv; la verbele neregularie, precum si la cele de a II. si III. Conjugatiune, se insmna
timpurile primitive; la verbele de I. si IV. conjugatiune, cari formdia presentele in ediu su
escu, se insmna acsta forma; si altele cari se voru specific in prefatiunea dictiunarului 1.
n articolul Lupta filologiloru, Iosif Vulcan prezint dezbaterile din cadrul Societii
Academice Romne, referitoare la revisiunea proiectului de dictionar lucrat de comissiunea
lesiografica, compusa din dnii Laurian si Massim 2. Printre cei care s-au opus aprobrii
proiectului se numr i Al. Odobescu, acesta calificndu-l pr latinisat, voind s fa mai
curat romanesc. Odobescu este de prere c: opiniunile majorittii Socettii nu sunt
conforme cu ale redactorilor proiectului de dictionar. Nefinalizarea disputelor literailor este,
1
Feder., Societatea academica romana, n Familia, XVI, 1870, nr. 34, p. 405.
2
Iosif Vulcan, Lupta filologiloru, n Familia, X, 1874, nr. 36, p. 428.
102
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
totui, de bun augur pentru starea limbii, consider Vulcan, care i exprim dorina de a se
ajunge la un rezultat ct mai practicabil3.
Familia public i acordul membrilor Academiei, din cadrul Sesiunii generale din
1885, privind tiprirea Marelui Ethimologic al limbei Romne4. n articolul Marele etimologic
al Romniei5 se anun, cu entuziasm, publicarea dicionarului i se expun principiile care au
stat la baza elaborrii acestei lucrri fundamentale pentru lingvistica noastr. Autorul, B. P.
Hasdeu, recunoate greutile pe care le-a ntmpinat i prezint etapele parcurse. Astfel,
trebuia s despoi, dup putin, tte tecsurile vechi tiprite su manuscripte, trebui s despoi
pe cei mai muli autori pn la 1840, i chiar dintre cei moderni pe autorii cei mai poporani,
ca Grigori Alecsandrescu, Costache Negruzzi, Alecsandri, Anton Pann etc. 6, demers la care a
fost ajutat de mai muli tineri. Prin chestionarul ntocmit de el (care cuprindea ntrebri legate
de fonetic, forme gramaticale, istorie natural, via industrial, relaii sociale), filologul
ieean a reuit s strng sute de cuvinte, de locuiuni proverbiale, de idiotisme etc. pe cari
nu le gsim in nici un dicionar al limbei romne. Cu bucurie, Hasdeu aduce la cunotin
finalizarea volumului, de 500 de pagini, care conine toate cuvintele ce ncep cu litera A, liter
care, n concepia sa, este un brevet de latinitate a limbei romne 7. El observ c ntr-o
limb se resfrnge intrg via unui popor; dc dar dicionarul este repertoriul limbei,
atunci el trebue s fie in acelai timp i o enciclopedie a vieei naionale i adaug faptul c
la prezentarea fiecrui cuvnt a ncercat s dea sensurile acelui cuvnt, s dau pentru fie-care
sens citaiuni din tecsele vechi, din scriitorii mai noi, din literatura poporului, i s inchei fie-
care cuvnt prin comparaiuni istorico-filologice, prin o etimologie adevrat scienific.
n prelegerea inut cu ocazia srbtoririi a 25 de ani de existen a Societii
Academice, D. A. Sturdza prezint activitatea acestui for n elaborarea Dicionarului: incetul
cu incetul intrga lucrare a dicionarului a remas in sarcina lui A. T. Laurian i a lui I. C.
Massim, cari aveau s esamineze i s coordoneze materialele strnse de membrii insrcinai
cu elaborarea de anumite litere 8. S-a stabilit c acest dicionar trebuia s cuprind o limb
romnesc curit de strinisme, de parasii, de gunie, de vnti, adic nu limba romnsc
cum este, ci o limb romanic fcut dintrnsa, din cea latin i din celelalte limbi romanice,
pe care apoi romnii trebuiau s o adopte, s o invee ca s se servsc cu dnsa in esprimarea
cugetrilor lor, in formarea unei literaturi naionale9. n anul 1870, s-a publicat Dicionarul-
proiect, n 4000 de exemplare i n trei volume, dintre care, primele dou conin cuvintele de
origine romanic, iar al treilea, sub titlul de Glosar, cuvintele strine prin originea seu forma
lor, cum i cele de origine indois.
ncepnd cu anul 1874, problema redactrii Dicionarului a intrat ntr-o nou etap,
majoritatea membrilor considernd c marea lucrare lexicografic a lui Laurian i a lui
Massim er greit in nsa concepiunea ei, i c este necesitate a se face un dicionar al
limbei reale, a cum se gsece in vechii i bunii scriitori, precum i in gura poporului10. S-a
3
Ibidem.
4
Academia Romn, n Familia, XXI, 1885, nr. 11, p.131-132.
5
B. P. Hasdeu, Marele etimologic al Romniei, n Familia, XXI, 1885, nr. 44, p. 519-520.
6
Ibidem, p. 519.
7
Ibidem, p. 520.
8
D. A. Sturdza, Academia Romn, n Familia, XXVII, 1891, nr. 26, p. 308.
9
Ibidem, p.309.
10
Ibidem.
103
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
hotrt, n acest sens, ca s se adune materialul lexical din vechile monumente ale literaturei
romne i din graiul viu al poporului. Dintre textele vechi, propuse pentru a fi studiate s-au
specificat: Codicele Voroneian, Psaltirea Scheian, Psaltirea lui Coresi, Pravila dela
Govora, catechismul Calvinesc i Psaltirea n versuri a mitropolitului Dosoftei.
n articolul Publicaiunile istorice ale literaturei romne in 1882-1889, T. Roiu
menioneaz efortul lui Hasdeu n elaborarea unui nou dicionar naional, Magnum
Etymologicum Romaniae, care va reda limba istoric (adec vechie) i limba poporal de
astdi cu tte ramificaiunile i dialectele ei11. El trece n revist dicionarele etimologice
romneti aprute pn la acea vreme. Cel mai vechi dicionar etimologic romn a fost
elaborat de o societate de erudii romni pe la inceputul acestui secul i edat de filologul
romn Maior in anul 1825 i cuprinde explicarea cuvintelor singuratice din limba latin,
german i maghiar, fiind ntrebuinat des de crturarii romni i strini. S-a alctuit, sub
form de proiect, de ctre Laurian i Massim, un nou dicionar, care nu a ctigat, ns,
adeziunea membrilor Academiei Romne. n 1870/9 a aprut dicionarul lui Cihac, care
cuprinde inse esplicaiuni cu totul neesacte i etimologii fantastice, o lucrare ce duce de sigur
in rtcire pe ori-ce invat strin, cum sa constatat in diferite rnduri in sinul Academiei
romne12. T. Roiu elogiaz, n final, lucrrile profesorului Pompiliu, Graiul romnesc din
Biharea in Ungaria, ale lui Frncu i Candrea, Rotacismul la Moi i Istrieni.
Articolul Sesiunea gen. a Academiei Romne13 consemneaz ncheierea tomului II
(literele A i ) din Etymologicum magnum Romaniae, al lui B. P. Hasdeu, i nceperea
tomului III (pn la cuvntul Ban).
n raportul cu privire la stadiul elaborrii dicionarului etimologic, pe care Hasdeu l-a
prezentat n faa membrilor Academiei Romne, filologul ieean precizeaz c: Intre litera A
i B a dicionarului este o mare legtur. Cuvintele romne care incep cu litera B snt de doue
ori mai multe dect cele care ncep cu A. Cuvintele inceptore cu litera A au un element latin
mai mare dect cele cu B. A este mai important dect B, de i e mai mic dect acesta. In
vorbele cu iniiala B elementele turanice ocup un loc mare; dar i fondul latin e de mare
insemntate14.
n edina din 9/21 aprilie a sesiunii forului academic din 1894, B. P. Hasdeu prezint,
din nou, stadiul n care se afl redactarea dicionarului: Prin volumul de fa Etymologicul a
ajuns la pagina 2766. Cuvintele studiate in acest volum snt dela silaba Ban pn la silaba
Baz. Intre aceste cuvinte figurz un mare numer de termeni in parte necunoscui pn acum
lexicografilor notri, in parte remai enigme din punctul de vedere al originei 15.
Revista Familia public apariia, n 1896, a unui fascicul din tomul al III-lea al
Marelui Dicionar Etimologic, acesta cuprinznd cuvintele ncepnd cu Blesc pn la
Brbat. Se precizeaz c o mare parte a brourii se refer la Banat, pe care l studiz din
punct de vedere istoric, topografic; apoi i esaminz individualitatea dialectal, elementul
11
Roiu, Publicaiunile istorice ale literaturei romne in 1882-1889, n Familia, XXVII, 1891, nr. 49, p. 582.
12
Ibidem.
13
Red., Sesiunea gen. a Academiei Romne, n Familia, XXIX, 1893, nr. 9, p.105-107.
14
B. P. Hasdeu, Etymologicum Magnum Romaniae, n Familia, XXIX, 1893, nr. 21, p.240-241.
15
Red., Academia Romn, n Familia, XXX, 1894, nr. 16, p. 190.
104
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
lexic i cel fonetico-morfologic; trecnd la individualitatea teritorial, se ocup de Troian,
Auoniu i Tilma16.
Stadiul, deloc avansat, al dicionarului lui Hasdeu a impus discutarea acestei probleme
n cadrul edinelor din 27-29 martie 1897. n discursul de nceput, preedintele Academiei,
N. Kretzulescu, declar c: De la 1884 pn acum snt 13 ani i lucrarea abi se afl la litera
B. (...) Noi toi cunoacem munca i silinele ce a depus i depune nvatul nostru coleg dl.
Hadu n aceasta lucrare; (...) este timp ca Instituiunea noastr s se ocupe de aceasta
afacere i s ia disposiiuni pentru viitor, astfel nct Etymologicum Magnum Romaniae s
poat fi terminat mai curnd 17. T. Maiorescu este de prere c lucrarea sar fi i putut
execut, dar cu ndecite ncordri. Acum se vede nse c lucrarea nu sa putut face n ese ani;
este numai la nceput i a cum a fost nceput, nu se poate termin. Din an n an sa fcut
prea puin. Toate fasciculele aprute snt foarte interesante, unele snt precedate de prefee,
(...) Cestinea este delicat. (...) Pstrnd toat ateniunea pentru dl Hadu, Academia ar trebui
s examineze dac nu sar put asoci dlui Had i alii, ca s duc lucrarea ct mai grabnic
la sfrit. D. Sturdza consider c dl. Hasdeu sa deprtat prea mult de programul iniial,
dnd lucrrii o desvoltare mult prea mare, astfel este cu neputin ca ea s fie terminat.
Trebue s se pun o msur i s se reduc lucrarea la proporiuni n cari s poat fi terminat,
iar dl Hadu s dea tot concursul seu18.
La sfritul discuiilor s-a hotrt ntreruperea elaborrii dicionarului de ctre Hasdeu,
iar o comisie, compus din cinci membri, din care va face parte i Hasdeu, va intocmi
programul nouei lucrri, innd seam strict de dorinele exprimate de Augustul Fondator n
cuvntarea Sa din 189419.
n octombrie 1897, redactorii Familiei anun c dl. Al. Philippide, din Iai, cruia i s-
au dat ulterior patru colaboratori, a fost nsrcinat cu ntocmirea Dicionarului nceput de
Hasdeu. Se precizeaz i faptul c Hasdeu, ntr-o scrisoare adresat Academiei, i-a exprimat
dorina de a onora contractul ncheiat cu forul academic, astfel nct va continua s lucreze la
dicionar pn n aprilie 1898 20.
Cu scopul de a nlesni finalizarea dicionarului, Comisia filologic a specificat c
acesta va cuprinde cuvintele limbei comune romneci, cum se gsece ea n scriitorii cei
mai nsemnai de la XVI ncoace. Fiecare cuvnt va fi nsoit de artarea formelor, a
nelesului principal i a diferitelor sale accepiuni n diceri, locuiuni, proverbe etc. La fiecare
cuvnt se va art ntru ct se va put, asemenea i explicarea lui etimologic 21. n privina
sistematizrii activitii, s-a decis s se organiseze o adunare de material lexicografic, adica
cuvinte cu frasele n cari snt ntrebuinate, din toate scrierile romneci de oare-care valoare,
avnd cuprinsul din toate ramurile activitii intelectuale care sau desvoltat n limba noastr.
n cadrul discuiilor, se preconizeaz terminarea colectrii materialului lexical n octombrie
1899. Ultima informaie, din Familia, legat de alctuirea dicionarului, se refer la stadiul
elaborrii acestuia, anunndu-se nceperea redactrii lui, n noiembrie 1899.
16
Red., Literatur i arte, n Familia, XXXII, 1896, nr. 17, p. 203.
17
Red., Magnum Etymologicum Romaniae naintea Academiei Romne, n Familia, XXXIII, 1897, p. 162.
18
Ibidem, p.176.
19
Ibidem.
20
Red., Literatur i arte, n Familia, XXXIII, 1897, nr. 40, p. 479.
21
Red., Marele Etymologic al Romniei, n Familia, XXXIV, 1898, nr. 14, p. 165.
105
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Putem concluziona c prin permanenta preocuparea de a publica schimbul de idei
dintre literaii vremii n privina alctuirii Dicionarului, Familia a manifestat un interes
deosebit fa de modernizarea lexicului limbii romne literare.
Bibliografie selectiv
Coteanu, Ion, Structura i evoluia limbii romne, Bucureti, Editura Academiei, 1981.
Gheie, Ion, Introducere n studiul limbii romne literare, Bucureti, Editura tiinific i
Enciclopedic, 1982.
Hasdeu, B. P., Marele etimologic al Romniei, n Familia, XXI, 1885, nr. 44, p. 519-520.
Red., Magnum Etymologicum Romaniae naintea Academiei Romne, n Familia, XXXIII,
1897, p. 162.
Vulcan, Iosif, Lupta filologiloru, n Familia, X, 1874, nr. 36, p. 428.
106
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
LANGUES MINORITAIRES EN ROUMANIE : PRESERVATION, AFFIRMATION
ET DEVELOPPEMENT DE LIDENTITE LINGUISTIQUE PAR DES POLITIQUES
AFFIRMATIVES
Marilena MILCU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu
Abstract: Linguistic diversity is a daily reality of the European Union and each of us agrees
on the benefits of multilingualism: contribution to the competitiveness of the economy,
promotion of lifelong learning and intercultural dialog, creating a space for political dialog
and for multilingual communication. But what are the policies of Romania toward its minority
languages and what is our attitude toward the problems of linguistic minorities? We support
the inter-ethnic and intercultural dialog but do we promote tolerance and an anti-
discrimination of any language? The affirmation of the linguistic identity of each minority in
Romania by affirmative policies is a priority objective in a society that promotes respect for
the integration of the others and mutual understanding.
Keywords: Linguistic diversity, multilingualism, linguistic minorities, affirmative policies.
I. Le multilinguisme : dfinition et classification.
LEurope se caractrise par une extraordinaire diversit linguistique exprime par les
langues officielles des Etats, les langues co-officielles, les langues minoritaires et rgionales
et les langues parles par les communauts de migrants. Le multilinguisme se dfinit donc
comme lutilisation alternative de plusieurs langues et systmes linguistiques, quel que soit
leur statut de langues distinctes, dialectes de la mme langue et varits du mme idiome.
Le multilinguisme est une consquence du contact linguistique et il inclut le bilinguisme et le
trilinguisme. Il se diversifie en fonction des critres de nature sociologique, psychologique et
linguistique. Si on devrait constituer une classification du multilinguisme, on pourrait faire
plusieurs distinctions :
1. En fonction du niveau social du phnomne, on a le multilinguisme social qui est
celui de toute une communaut, le multilinguisme de groupe et le multilinguisme individuel.
2. En fonction de la gense, on reconnait le multilinguisme successif au cadre duquel
la deuxime langue est apprise aprs la fixation de la premire et le multilinguisme tardif qui
permet lidentification des sous-types, en fonction de l'ge auquel on apprend la deuxime
langue. Les enfants qui apprennent une deuxime langue ds leur naissance bnficient du
multilinguisme simultan, situation assez rare, car dhabitude lune des deux langues
prdomine.
3. En fonction de la relation entre les langues on distingue le multilinguisme compos
les langues sont similaires et correspondantes du point de vue fonctionnel et le
multilinguisme coordonn- les langues sont spares du point de vue fonctionnel en
considrant que leurs units expriment des significations partiellement ou totalement
distinctes (par exemple on utilise une langue dans le milieu familial et une autre dans
ladministration, lcole, etc.). Pour chacune de ces langues on utilise un accent et une
prononciation diffrentes, similaires des comportements sociaux diffrents.
107
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
4. En fonction du degr de connaissance des langues on reconnait le multilinguisme
symtrique toutes les langues sont connues au mme niveau; le multilinguisme asymtrique
il y a des diffrences de connaissance des langues; le multilinguisme rcepteur une des
langues est connue mais on ne la parle pas; le multilinguisme crit dfini par le fait que lune
des langues est comprise la lecture mais non pas laudition ; le multilinguisme technique
qui implique une connaissance restreinte dune autre langue, dans la mesure ou les ncessits
professionnelles limposent ;
5. En fonction de la situation politique dun Etat ou dune communaut on distingue
un multilinguisme impersonnel, caractristique au gouvernement dun Etat dont les citoyens
sont monolingues, le multilinguisme personnel qui est a) naturel (reprsent par des mariages
mixtes), b) volontaire (reprsent par le dsir dun individu de se dvelopper dans une socit
transnationale multilingue), c) dcrt par lEtat;
Ltude du multilinguisme permet lidentification et la description des consquences
structurales du contact entre les langues. Le multilinguisme dtermine lapparition des
phnomnes dinterfrence tous les niveaux des idiomes en contact, ce qui dclenche des
processus de rorganisation des repres structuraux. Bien que, dhabitude, le multilinguisme
compos soit associ la permabilit aux interfrences, tandis que celui coordonne soit
considre tanche, les interfrences se produisent dans les deux cas. Dans le processus de
constitution des langues le multilinguisme et les phnomnes dinterfrence dtermins par
celui-ci ont eu un rle trs important.
II. Le multilinguisme en Europe
Le multilinguisme est une valeur de lEurope et un engagement commun. LUnion
Europenne est compose de 28 Etats, peupls par 500 millions de citoyens, qui ont 3 types
dalphabets et 23 langues officielles. Autres 60 langues font partie du patrimoine de
lUNESCO et sont parles dans diverses rgions, par diverses minorits. De plus, les
immigrants parlent leurs propres langues. Voil pourquoi on estime environ 175 nationalits
dans le large cadre de LUnion Europenne.
Beaucoup dEtats membres utilisent la notion de langues rgionales et minoritaires,
conformment la dfinition donne par la Charte europenne des langues minoritaires et
rgionales , un trait international adopt par le Conseil de LEurope. Conformment la
Charte, les langues minoritaires ou rgionales reprsentent les langues qui sont utilises
traditionnellement dans une certaine rgion dun Etat, par des citoyens dudit Etat, se
constituant en groupe infrieur du point de vue numrique et par rapport au reste de la
population. Les langues minoritaires ou rgionales nincluent pas les dialectes des langues
officielles de lEtat, ni les langues des migrants. De mme, la dfinition donne par la Charte
englobe les langues sans territoire, comme le yiddish, le romani et le sinti. Les langues
minoritaires ou rgionales peuvent avoir le statut de langues officielles, comme cest le cas de
lirlandais, du luxembourgeois, de lallemand, du hongrois, car pour certaines langues
minoritaires il ny a pas de frontires, elles se constituants comme des liens entre des
communauts culturelles.
Presque toutes les communauts linguistiques minoritaires ou rgionales partagent des
proccupations relles concernant la conservation et le dveloppement des langues et des
cultures leur appartenant, tout en insistant sur la valorisation de leur potentiel dans lUnion
108
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Europenne. La prise des dcisions sur les meilleures modalits de soutien des langues
rgionales et minoritaires ncessite une bonne comprhension de leur statut et des
provocations auxquelles elles doivent se confronter. Voil pourquoi, en 1992, la Commission
Europenne a initi Euromosaque, une tude sur les groupes linguistiques minoritaires de
lUnion Europenne. Cette tude marque la dcision de la Commission danalyser le potentiel
dune plus large utilisation des langues minoritaires et rgionales, tout en tant conscients des
difficults auxquels ces langues se confrontent. Ltude a identifi les facteurs sociaux et
institutionnels qui peuvent faciliter la continuit de lutilisation dune langue une chelle
plus large. Les principaux facteurs identifis ont t la famille, lducation et la communaut,
tout comme le cadre institutionnel et lgal dans lequel la langue est utilise. Le prestige dune
langue et son utilit dans la mobilit sociale et la reproduction culturelle reprsentent des
lments mobilisateurs.
LUnion Europenne reconnait ltroite liaison entre la langue et lidentit, tout
comme le fait que la langue reprsente lexpression directe de la culture. Cest pourquoi les
politiques linguistiques ont t labores de manire respecter la diversit linguistique et
promouvoir le multilinguisme tout en accordant de la protection aux langues se trouvant en
danger. Le portfolio europen du multilinguisme a t cr le 1 er janvier 2007, comme un
portfolio part entire, justement pour souligner sa dimension politique au cadre de LUnion
Europenne, tout en tenant compte de son importance pour lducation initiale,
lapprentissage tout au long de la vie, loccupation, lemploi, la justice, la libert et la scurit.
Le commissaire Leonard Orban prcisait : le respect pour la diversit est au centre du projet
europen ; les diffrences linguistiques et culturelles sont une source de richesse et un
avantage pour lEurope. Chacun dentre nous a le droit de parler et dtre compris dans sa
langue maternelle; la diversit linguistique constitue une richesse de lEurope .
La diversit linguistique et le multilinguisme sont une ralit quotidienne de lUnion
Europenne et prsentent de nombreux avantages : la contribution la comptitivit de
lconomie; la promotion de lapprentissage tout au long de la vie et du dialogue interculturel;
la cration dun espace du dialogue politique et de la communication multilingue;
III. Politique de la Roumanie envers les minorits linguistiques.
En Roumanie, les langues modernes ont toujours t reconnues et encourages
officiellement, par ltude institutionnalis et la connaissance de plusieurs langues, au niveau
individuel, a toujours t reprsent un facteur de prestige et de reconnaissance, lments qui
sexpliquent aussi par lutilisation zonale du roumain. Dans lenseignement primaire on a
depuis longtemps introduit langlais, le franais, le russe, litalien, lespagnol, lallemand. Les
politiques roumaines concernant les langues trangres ont vis la diversification et le respect
des connaissances des langues. Quant aux langues minoritaires, la Roumanie a soutenu les
principes de la prservation, laffirmation et le dveloppement de lidentit ethnique,
linguistique, culturelle, religieuse par des politiques affirmatives, a encourag le dialogue
inter-ethnique et interculturel, a encourag la tolrance et de lanti-discrimination, a limin
lextrmisme, le chauvinisme et lantismitisme, a rduit les dcalages entre les minorits et la
population majoritaire, a impos lutilisation de la langue maternelle dans diffrents
domaines. La Roumanie a ratifi en 2007 la Charte europenne des langues minoritaires et
rgionales et stimule leffort commun et le dialogue avec les minorits nationales afin
109
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
damliorer lacte dcisionnaire et laffirmation de lidentit culturelle. Le principe de base
dans les relations inter ethniques est lgalit des droits et des chances gales daffirmation de
lidentit.
En Roumanie on a 10 langues qui bnficient de protection gnrale et 10 langues qui
bnficient de protection renforce. Les langues qui bnficient de protection gnrale sont
les suivantes :
3.1. LAlbanais. La langue albanaise est parle sur le territoire de la Roumanie par 520
personnes, cest une langue indo-europenne parle en Albanie, en Serbie et Macdoine. Les
albanais sont venus en Roumanie au dbut du XVII- sicle; la moiti dentre eux vivent
Bucarest, mais aussi Timisoara, Iassy, Constanta et Cluj Napoca. Ils sont reprsents dans la
Chambre des Dputs (avec 1 reprsentant) par la Ligue des Albanais de Roumanie.
3.2. LArmnien est une langue indo-europenne parle dans le Haut Karabakh et dans
la rgion Javakhq en Gorgie. Les armniens constituent sur le territoire de la Roumanie une
communaut ethnique vieille dun millnaire. A prsent, en Roumanie vivent environ 1780
armniens dans des familles mixtes, dont 721 de langue maternelle armnienne. Ils sont
reprsents dans la Chambre des Dputs (1 reprsentant) par lUnion des Armniens de
Roumanie.
3.3. Le Grec, est une langue indo-europenne parle en Grce partir du XVII av.JC.
Les grecs sont venus sur le territoire de la Roumanie au VII- sicle avant J.C. et prsent ils
dnombrent environ 6500 personnes en 2002; en 1992 il y avait 19.594 grecs en Roumanie,
mais ils ont quitt le pays aprs 1989 pour immigrer en Grce, comme homogeneis, personne
ayant origine grecque. Ils sont reprsents dans la Chambre des Dputs (1 reprsentant) par
lUnion Hellnique de Roumanie;
3.4. LItalien. Cest une langue romane, parle par environ 62 millions de personnes
vivant dans leur majorit en Italie. Les italiens de Roumanie sont disperss uniformment sur
le territoire du pays, dans des zones urbaines. A prsent on a environ 3331 italiens en
Roumanie, majoritairement citadins. Ils sont reprsents dans la Chambre des Dputs (1
reprsentant) par lAssociation des Italiens de Roumanie, sige Bucarest.
3.5. Le Yiddish a quatre composantes: la composante allemande: 80% du lexique et de
la syntaxe; la composante hbraique-aramenne: 20% du lexique; la composante romane: des
communauts juives tablies sur le territoire de la France; la composante slave: lexique de la
maison et de la famille. Les premires communauts juives se sont tablies en Roumanie au
XVI- s, Bucarest. A prsent on a environ 5800 personnes de minorit juive en Roumanie.
Ils sont reprsents dans la Chambre des Dputs (1 reprsentant) par la Fdration de la
Communaut Juive de Roumanie.
3.6. Le Macdonien est une langue parraine avec le bulgare. Conformment aux
donnes du dernier recensement en Roumanie vivent environ 731 macdoniens, dont 588 de
langue maternelle macdonienne. Ils sont rpandus sur tout le territoire de la Roumanie, mais
surtout dans lEst du pays et sont reprsents au Parlement (1 reprsentant) par lAssociation
de Macdoniens de Roumanie;
3.7. Le Polonais est une langue slave de louest, parle par environ 42 million de
personnes dont la majorit se trouve en Pologne. En Roumanie la communaut polonaise est
prpondrante au Nord du pays. Conformment aux donnes du dernier recensement en
110
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Roumanie vivent environ 3.559 polonais, dont 2609 Suceava. Ils sont reprsents au
Parlement (1 reprsentant) par LUnion des Polonais de Roumanie qui runit 14 filiales.
3.8. Le Romani ou Le Tzigane est la langue parle par le groupe ethnique des tziganes
ou des rromes. Les tziganes constituent le deuxime groupe minoritaire de Roumanie,
environ535.140 personnes, 2,5 % du total de la population; les sociologues roumains estiment
la population un million et les associations tsiganes lvent leur nombre 2,5 millions, voire
trois millions, soit 10 % de la population totale. Il y a des divergences destimations
provenant du fait que de nombreux Tsiganes se seraient, lors du recensement, dclars
roumains, hongrois ou turcs et que plusieurs dentre eux ne possderaient aucun papier
didentit. Ils sont reprsents dans la socit civile par de nombreuses organisations non-
gouvernementales et au Parlement (par 1 reprsentant) par le Parti des Rromes. A prsent il y
a 12.650 lves de langue maternelle romani, rpandus en 120 coles et on a repr trois
catgories de Tziganes en Roumanie : les assimils, les non-assimils et les plus ou
moins assimils. Aprs 1989 a eu lieu en Roumanie une vraie explosion du mouvement des
rromes et de la langue rromani. Si, au dbut, peu de rromes parlaient encore le rromani,
maintenant cest une langue tudie dans les universits, dans la culture et les mdias, tout
comme les autres langues des minorits nationales.
3.9. Le Tatare dnombre environ 24.469 personnes en Roumanie. Ils sont reprsents
dans la vie publique par LUnion Dmocrate des Tatares Turco-Musulmans. En parlant des
tatares, on parle dune minorit trs proccupe par la culture et la langue, cest une
communaut qui a contribu llaboration dun Dictionnaire tatare-turco-roumain, riche de
10.500 mots, et publient des journaux hebdomadaires tels Karadeniz (La Mer Noire) et
Cas ( Les jeunes ), tout en participant la vie artistique par des groupes folkloriques.
3.10. Le Rutne est une langue slave influence par le vocabulaire polonais, slovaque
et hongrois. La minorit rutne est la moins nombreuse de Roumanie, mais elle est
reprsente par lUnion Culturelle des Rutnes ayant le sige Deva. LUnion a un dput au
Parlement de la Roumanie.
IV. Les 10 langues qui bnficient de protection renforce.
4.1. Le Bulgare, la langue majoritaire en Bulgarie, est une langue indo-europenne
ayant de fortes ressemblances avec le macdonien. En Roumanie elle est parle par environ
8025 personnes rpandues en Banat, en Oltnie o ils sont nomms serbes , en Dobroudja
et en Transylvanie. La prsence des bulgares sur le territoire de la Roumanie date du VII-
sicle; la minorit est reprsente dans le Parlement par lUnion Bulgare de Roumanie;
4.2. Le Tchque est parl par environ 3938 personnes; la grande majorit des tchques
de Roumanie vivent dans le Sud-Ouest du pays; ils sont reprsents dans la Chambre des
Dputs par lintermdiaire de lUnion Dmocrate des Slovaques et des Tchques de
Roumanie; environ 100 lves apprennent le tchque langue maternelle, en 4 coles ddies;
4.3. Le Croate est parl par environ 6786 personnes dans quelques localits du S-
Ouest du pays; ils disposent dune place rserve dans la Chambre des Dputs; prsent, il y
a en Roumanie 49 lves apprenant en langue maternelle croate, dans 1 cole avec 6
professeurs;
4.4. LAllemand est parl comme langue maternelle en Allemagne, en Autriche, en
Suisse, au Luxembourg, lest de la Belgique, au sud du Dannemark, en rgion Tirol de
111
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
lItalie, etc. En Roumanie elle est parle par plus de 60.000 personnes, tant la troisime
langue minoritaire de Roumanie et langue denseignement dans presque toutes les Universits
du pays. Aprs 1989 les allemands de Roumanie ont quitt le pays pour rejoindre lOuest.
Dans les coles, les lyces, les Universits, les thtres, par des publications, on a une vie
culturelle de langue Allemande qui sest depuis longtemps impose en Roumanie. Ils sont
reprsents par le Forum Dmocrate des Allemands de Roumanie, ayant des filiales dans
presque toutes les rgions du pays et le sige Sibiu, ils ont 1 dput au Parlement et de
nombreux reprsentants dans dautres partis politiques. Les coles de langue maternelle
allemande sont trs bien reprsentes dans le pays, on a 262 coles de langue maternelle
allemande, 19 800 lves, 585 professeurs, 2650 tudiants, beaucoup dlves/tudiants
roumains qui tudient lallemand en tant que langue maternelle.
4.5. Les Hongrois reprsentent la minorit ethnique la plus importante du pays:
1.500.000, 6,6% de la population; ils sont trs nombreux en Transylvanie, dans 2
dpartements: Harghita - (84,61%) et Covasna - (73,81%). Cest une minorit qui fait preuve
dgrande vitalit artistique, culturelle, linguistique, politique : on a le Thtre Magyare dEtat
de Cluj, des crivains hongrois de langue magyare et roumaine, des publications diverses, des
coles et des Universits de langue maternelle magyare. A prsent il y a dans le pays 2 384
coles de langue maternelle hongroise/magyare, 187 150 lves, 15 537 professeurs, 24 598
tudiants.
4.6. Le Russe les lipovnes connaissent une grande concentration dans lEst et le N-
E du pays (les rgions de Dobroudja et Moldavie), cest une grande majorit rurale
dnombrant environ 35.791 personnes, dont 28.334 de langue maternelle russe, avec 1810
lves, rpartis en 20 coles. Ils sont reprsents dans le parlement par la Communaut des
russes-lipovnes de Roumanie.
4.7. Le Serbe. Les serbes de Roumanie sont une minorit qui a environ 22.518
personnes, soit 0,1% de la population du pays. Ils sont reprsents dans le Parlement par
lUnion des Serbes de Roumanie et bnficient de 800 lves, rpartis en 33 coles, situes
surtout dans lOuest du pays (Timisoara, Arad).
4.8. Le Slovaque est une langue parle en Roumanie par environ 17.199 personnes,
0,1% du total de la population roumaine. Ils connaissent une grande concentration dans
lOuest du pays dans les dpartements de Bihor et Arad. Ils sont reprsents dans la Chambre
des Dputs par lintermdiaire de lUnion Dmocrate des Slovaques et des Tchques de
Roumanie. A prsent il y a en Roumanie 1240 lves de langue maternelle slovaque, rpandus
en 33 coles.
4.9. Le Turc est une langue parle en Roumanie par environ 32.596 personnes,
concentres majoritairement dans la rgion historique de Dobroudja; ils sont reprsents dans
la Chambre des Dputs par lUnion Dmocrate Turque de Roumanie; A prsent il y a en
Roumanie 490 lves, 3 coles de langue maternelle turque, dont 2 lyces de prestige: Lyce
thologique musulman, Lyce pdagogique Kemal Atatrk de Constantza.
4.10. LUkrainien est une langue parle en Roumanie qui reprsente le quatrime
groupe ethnique minoritaire de Roumanie ; ils sont concentrs au N du pays, dans le
dpartement de Maramures, o ils constituent 6,67% du total de la population; reprsents
aussi dans dautres rgions (Tulcea, Suceava). Ils reprsentent 61.350 personnes, soit 0,3% de
la population, ils sont reprsents dans la Chambre des Dputs par lUnion des Ukrainiens de
112
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Roumanie, on a en Roumanie 660 lves de langue maternelle ukrainienne, rpandus en 13
coles, dont le lyce Taras evcenko trs bon reprsentant de lenseignement en langue
maternelle ukrainienne, avec de trs bons rsultats.
Quant lenseignement dans les langues minoritaires en Roumanie, il faut prciser
que les articles 118 et 121 de la Constitution instituent la droit des minorits nationales
dtudier dans leur langue maternelle. Article 118 : Les membres appartenant des
minorits nationales ont le droit d'tudier et de recevoir leur instruction dans leur langue
maternelle, tous les niveaux et dans toutes les formes d'enseignement . Article 121 : Les
lves appartenant des minorits nationales qui frquentent des coles dispensant des cours
en roumain recevront, sur demande et en conformit avec la prsente loi, l'enseignement de la
langue et de la littrature dans leur langue maternelle, ainsi que l'histoire et les traditions de la
minorit nationale concerne .
V. Des politiques affirmatives pour soutenir les langues minoritaires
En Roumanie on soutient le dveloppement et laffirmation des langues minoritaires
par des politiques affirmatives qui visent lEnseignement, la Justice, lAdministration. Les
principaux objectifs de la Direction Gnrale dEnseignement des Langues Minoritaires
faisant partie du Ministre de lEducation Nationale ont tabli pour lintervalle 2009 2012
les articles suivants : laccs gal lducation tous les niveaux denseignement ; ducation
dans les langues minoritaires ; laccs aux manuels scolaires ; laccs lapprentissage de la
langue maternelle et de la langue roumaine ; la promotion de linterculturalit ; la formation
gale des ressources humaines ; la mise jour des programmes scolaires et leur adaptation
aux besoins des bnficiaires ; la formation des comptences de base pour le soutien des
langues et de cultures minoritaires ; cration dune qualit de lenseignement aux standards
europens ; la formation des comptences dvaluation formative ; laboration de projets ou
programmes de protection et soutien ducationnel pour les lves provenant des groupes de
population dfavorise ; dveloppement de programmes universitaires dans les langues
minoritaires ;
Pour la Justice, la situation est pareille. En Roumanie, les tribunaux ralisent leurs
procdures dans les langues minoritaires, la demande des parties impliques. On garantit le
droit de laccus de sexprimer dans sa langue rgionale ou minoritaire ; au cas dun litige, les
parties impliques peuvent comparaitre devant le tribunal et sexprimer dans une langue
minoritaire ou rgionale sans payer des taxes additionnels ; on permet la production de textes
ou document juridiques en langues minoritaires ou rgionales, avec lutilisation, au besoin, de
linterprte ou du traducteur, sans que cela produise des dpenses additionnels pour les parties
impliques ; on na pas le droit de contester les actes juridiques rdigs en langues
minoritaires ou rgionales ;
Les autorits administratives et les services publics se chargent de veiller ce
quon utilise, dans ladministration, les langues minoritaires et rgionales ; les fonctionnaires
des autorits administratives qui travaillent avec le public sont obligs dutiliser les langues
minoritaires et rgionales dans leurs rapports avec les personnes qui parlent ces langues ; les
personnes qui parlent des langues minoritaires et rgionales ont le droit dadresser des papiers
administratifs/requtes/ptitions, aux autorits, rdigs dans leur langue maternelle et quon
leur donne la rponse dans la mme langue minoritaire ou rgionale utilise ;
113
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Les langues minoritaires et rgionales et leurs locuteurs ont le droit davoir accs la
radio ou la tl, par des missions ddies ; lEtat encourage et soutient la cration dau
moins une chaine tlvise dans les langues minoritaires et rgionales et prend des mesures
dencouragement, de facilitation et de diffusion des missions radio ou tlvises dans les
langues minoritaires et rgionales ; En ce qui concerne les activits culturelles reprsentes
par les bibliothques, les vidothques, les centres culturels, les muses, les thtres, les
archives, les acadmies, la production cinmatographique, le folklore, les festivals et
lindustrie culturelle, les nouvelles technologies en Roumanie on encourage lutilisation des
langues minoritaires et rgionales au cadre de ces activits, tout en dveloppant les services de
traduction et dinterprtation, de doublage, de soutitrage ; on favorise laccs aux productions
artistiques ralises dans les langues minoritaires et rgionales.
Bibliographie
Avram, Mioara, Marius Sala, May we introduce the Romnian language to you? Bucureti,
2000.
Comisia European, Multilingvismul o punte de legtur pentru nelegerea reciproc,
Luxemburg: Oficiul pentru Publicaii Oficiale ale Comunitilor Europene, 2009.
Costa, Jean Paul, La Convention europenne des droits de lhomme, la Charte des droits
fondamentaux de lUnion europenne et la problmatique de ladhsion de lUnion
europenne la Convention, European University Institute, San Domenico, 2004.
Declaraia universal a drepturilor lingvistice, n Altera VI, 14, 2000, p. 108- 120.
Philippide, Alexandru, Orginea Romnilor, I, Iai, 1925; II, Iai, 1927.
Rosetti, Al., Istoria limbii romne. Bucureti, 1968.
Sala, Marius, Vintil-Rdulescu, Ioana, Limbile Europei, Bucureti, 2001.
Ressources web
Charte europenne des langues rgionales ou minoritaires :
http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/fr/Treaties/Html/148.htm
Charte europenne des droits fondamentaux de lUnion Europenne:
http://www.europarl.europa.eu/charter/pdf/text_fr.pdf
114
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
PROPER NOUNS IN ROMANIAN AND GERMAN. A CONTRASTIVE APPROACH
Alina PDUREAN, Assistant Professor, PhD, Aurel Vlaicu University of Arad
Abstract: When a Romanian native thinks about German, s/he would definitely say that there
is no connection between these two genetically different languages. In spite of all beliefs,
there are similarities between Romanian and German. Contrastive studies deal with the
identification of differences, but also of similarities between genetically related and non-
related languages. In the following study, we have tried to identify both similarities and
differences in terms of proper nouns between Romanian and German. We have analysed the
noun on two levels: semantic and morpho-syntactic level. The declination of proper nouns is
also an aspect worth to be taken into consideration. The findings are revealed in the study
below.
Keywords: contrastive studies, proper nouns, declination, morphologic-syntactic and
semantic approach.
Substantivele proprii denumesc obiecte, considerate izolate, pentru a le putea distinge
de celelalte obiecte de acelai fel (Ioana, Romnia, Petra, Mnchen). Substantivele proprii se
deosebesc de cele comune prin faptul c prezint un sistem de denominaie suplimentar.
Aceast denominaie are un caracter mai restrns, fiind limitat la anumite clase de obiecte:
persoane, animale, locuri etc (GALR, 2005: 118).
Substantivele proprii se deosebesc de cele comune prin anumite caracteristici
semantice, morfosintactice, ns i prin ortografierea acestora. Substantivele proprii se scriu
cu iniial majuscul n limba romn, fapt ce le deosebete de substantivele comune. Aceast
trstur nu este valabil pentru limba german, deoarece toate substantivele se ortografiaz
cu iniial majuscul. ntre cele dou tipuri de substantive se situeaz substantivele aflate la
limita celor dou clase, ce au un statut intermediar, neprecizat i controversat (Avram
2001:31). Alturi de acestea observm c anumite substantive din ambele clase cunosc
procedeul de trecere nspre o alt clas (Mihut, 1996:28-29). Aceste treceri au loc n ambele
direcii i n ambele limbi.
Substantivele cu statut intermediar sunt nume de dansuri populare, nume de rase,
numele lunilor anului. Acestea se scriu cu iniial minuscul (haegana, ionatan, ianuarie).
ntr-o sear de la nceputul lui iulie 1909, [...].
(An einem Abend am Anfang Juli 1909)
(Enigma Otiliei, p. 25)
La trecerea dintr-o clas n alta, substantivele i modific statutul. Astfel,
substantivele proprii devin comune prin eclips (Avram, 2001:31), adic ntr-un grup nominal
n care numele propriu este atribut, se elimin substantivul comun determinat al crui sens l
preia fostul nume propriu. Aceste substantive proprii devenite comune se vor scrie cu iniial
minuscul: un trdtor ca Iuda un iuda, eine Flasche Champagnewein eine Champagne.
115
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Diferenele culturale dintre spaiul romnesc i cel german sunt evidente n exemplul de mai
jos. Romnii neleg c este vorba despre igrile Carpai, n timp ce pentru germani este
necesar precizarea produsului despre care este vorba.
Ce-a putea s schimb / Unul dintre frai / Pentru un Carpai.
(Vulpea, p. 82)
Was knnt ich mit euch tauschen / Einen meiner Brder / Fr eine Zigarette.
(Der Fuchs, p. 107)
Substantivele comune devenite proprii i pierd caracterul de substantive numrabile i devin
incompatibile cu articolul nehotrt.
1. Caracteristici semantice
Substantivele proprii sunt lipsite de sens n afara actului denominativ de
individualizare a unui anumit obiect. Ele dobndesc o semnificaie anume, legat exclusiv de
obiectul pe care l individualizeaz, ntr-un anumit context i la un anumit moment.
Substantivele proprii pot fi clasificate n mai multe subcategorii. Aceste subcategorii
sunt valabile i pentru limba german (DUDEN, 2005:150):
nume proprii de persoan / antroponime: Mihaela, Ionescu, Johann, Mller;
nume de animale / zoonime: Grivei, Moritz;
nume de locuri / toponime: Europa, Romnia, Dunre, Bucegi, Deutschland, Donau,
Alpen (Alpi);
nume de corpuri cereti / astronime: Saturn, Merkur;
nume de srbtori: Crciun Weihnachten, Rusalii Pfingsten;
nume de evenimente (istorice sau culturale): Primul Rzboi Mondial der Erste
Weltkrieg, Iluminismul Aufklrung;
nume administrative: Electroputere, das Deutsche Fernsehen (Televiziunea
german)
nume comerciale: Lido, Metro, Nestle;
titluri de opere, texte tiinifice: Moromeii, Faust.
Vom da doar un exemplu pentru toate subcategoriile mai sus menionate, deoarece nu exist
diferene ntre ele.
i spune mamei: DELTA DUNRII.
(Vulpea, p. 27)
Sie sagte zu ihrer Mutter: DONAUDELTA.
(Der Fuchs, p. 33)
2. Caracteristici morfosintactice
Substantivele proprii din ambele limbi prezint categoriile gramaticale specifice
substantivului: gen, numr, caz i determinare. Trebuie s precizm c aceste categorii au
anumite particulariti datorate specificului denominativ al substantivelor proprii. Legat de
analiza contrastiv a substantivelor proprii din cele dou limbi aflate n atenia noastr,
116
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
precizm c exist anumite diferene privind att numrul, genul, ct i determinarea
substantivelor. Aceste diferene vor fi discutate pe parcursul studiului nostru.
Substantivele proprii cunosc toate cele trei categorii de gen. ntlnim i n acest caz o
clasificare n funcie de subclasa din care face parte substantivul:
numele de persoan i numele de animale se ncadreaz doar la genul masculin (Petru
Peter, Azorel Moritz) sau la genul feminin (Anca Karina, Joiana Mitzi). Nu
exist nicio regul care s interzic folosirea numelor masculine pentru persoane de
sex feminin, ns nu este o practic foarte uzitat;
cele mai multe toponime al cror gen este fixat, fie dup numele comun, fie dup
form, sunt n limba romn de gen feminin (aceast Romnie) sau neutru (acest
Cri) i doar numele de locuri cu form de plural admit context masculin (aceti
Carpai). n limba german situaia difer, deoarece genul este atribuit pe subclase de
substantive. Astfel, de genul masculin sunt majoritatea numelor de muni (der Vesuv
Vezuviu, der Mt. Everest Everest, der Caucazus Caucaz), unele nume de ruri,
fluvii i oceane (der Nil, der Rhein, der Atlantik), de genul feminin sunt majoritatea
numelor de ruri i locuri (die Seine Sena, die Themse Tamisa), iar de genul
neutru sunt numele de continente, ri (exist i cteva excepii), insule atunci cnd
primesc articolul zero (Europa, Rumnien). Dup cum putem observa n exemplele
mai sus menionate, cazurile de coresponden ntre cele dou limbi sunt destul de
rare. n limba romn nu avem substantive toponime la masculin, iar n ceea ce
privete genul feminin i neutru, substantivele toponime nu au acelai gen n limba
surs i n limba int, fapt ce ar putea pune probleme vorbitorilor nativi de limba
romn.
O alt diferen ntre cele dou limbi o constatm la nivelul terminaiilor folosite
pentru prenume. n limba romn, la prenumele feminine ntlnim terminaia vocalic -a
(Maria, Anca, Dorina), folosit i la unele masculine (Mircea, Toma). Masculinele se
remarc prin prezena terminaiei vocalice - folosit la diminutive (Petric, Lic). n limba
german ns, prenumele feminine pot primi i terminaii consonantice (Adelgard, Beate,
Carin) neexistnd terminaii specifice pentru marcarea genului ca n limba romn.
Referindu-ne la categoria numrului, substantivele proprii sunt greu de ncadrat ntre
substantivele numrabile i nonnumrabile. Datorit faptului c numele propriu se atribuie
unui singur obiect dintr-o clas de obiecte numrabile, acestea se apropie de nonnumrabile.
n acelai timp ns, posibilitatea ca mai multe obiecte dintr-o clas s primeasc acelai nume
este destul de ridicat. Acest fapt le apropie de clasa numrabilelor.
Posibilitatea de a folosi un substantiv propriu la plural, exist n ambele limbi, iar
nelesul substantivelor este acelai. Exemplele de mai jos vor ilustra acest lucru:
Ionetii (membrii familiei Ionescu) die Mllers (membrii familiei Mller)
Americile - die Amerikas (se refer la ambele continente cu numele de America)
[...] ocolind Cotrocenii pe oseaua Bolintin [...].
(Enigma Otiliei, p. 383)
117
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
[...] die Briests sind schlielich auch nicht von schlechten Eltern.
(n fond nici familia Briest nu provine din prini ri.)
(Effi Briest, p. 25)
Substantivele proprii se ncadreaz n clasa substantivelor singularia tantum i
pluralia tantum. Substantivele proprii singularia tantum denumesc un numr mic de obiecte
sau corespund unei necesiti de individualizare stricte. n aceast categorie ntr numele de
corpuri cereti (Pluto, Ursa Mare, Sonne Soarele), de instituii administrative (Academia
Romn, das Deutsche Parlament), numele unor evenimente istorice sau culturale
(Revoluia Francez, das Klassizismus).
[...] o firm de tabl pe care scria COOPERATIVA PROGRESUL
(Vulpea, p. 12)
[...] ein Blechschild, darauf stand GENOSSENSCHAFT DER FORTSCHRITT.
(Der Fuchs, p. 14)
Substantivele proprii pluralia tantum au doar form de plural i denumesc nume de
localiti (Bucureti, Popeti), lanuri muntoase (Carpaii Karpaten, Alpii Alpen),
srbtori (Pate Ostern, Rusalii Pfingsten). Dup cum se poate observa, n limba
german nu exist nume de localiti pluralia tantum. ntlnim ns n ambele limbi
determinani adugai substantivelor proprii nume de localiti pentru a le deosebi (Bolintin
Deal, Bolintin Vale, Frankfurt am Oder, Frankfurt am Main, Frankfurt am Neckar).
Pentru exemplificare am ales dou enunuri. n primul exemplu, observm o
concordan ntre limba romn i limba german, ns cel de-al doilea exemplu ne arat c
ntre cele dou limbi pot aprea i diferene ntre substantivele pluralia tantum. Aceast
diferen nu se manifest la nivelul ntregii categorii, ci doar la nivelul anumitor termeni.
1. Undeva dincolo de Carpai, [...].
(Vulpea, p. 91)
[...], das war hinter den Karpaten, [...].
(Der Fuchs, p. 118)
2. [...] n fiecare an, de Crciun, [...].
(Vulpea, p. 30)
[...] jedes Jahr zu Weihnachten, [...].
(Der Fuchs, p. 37)
n ceea ce privete categoria cazului, substantivele proprii au preluat n mare parte
flexiunea substantivelor comune. n limba romn, pentru cazul G i D la substantivele
masculine folosim morfemul proclitic lui. Acest morfem se folosete i pentru numele de
animale. ntlnim n limba romn contemporan tendina de extensiune a acestui morfem i
la substantivele feminine (lui Ioana), cu toate c acestea au propria lor flexiune (Ioanei). n
aceast situaie limba german prezint diferene considerabile, deoarece nu exist nicio
diferen ntre substantivele masculine i cele feminine. Ambele categorii folosesc la G -s
(Peters Auto-maina lui Petru, Petras Mutter-mama Petrei), formele de N, D, Ac fiind
identice.
118
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Am ales pentru exemplificare att un nume propriu feminin, ct i unul masculin
pentru a vedea diferenele din limba romn, dar i pentru a demonstra faptul c n limba
german nu exist diferene ntre substantivele proprii feminine i cele masculine.
Ochii Clarei nu sunt fardai [...].
(Vulpea, p. 17)
Claras Augen sind nicht geschminkt [...].
(Der Fuchs, p. 21)
Maina lui Pavel salt, [...].
(Vulpea, p. 55)
Pauls Hand griff nach ihr [...].
(Mna lui Paul o apuc)
(Der Fuchs, p. 263)
Determinarea substantivelor proprii prezint i ea particulariti, n sensul c nu
realizeaz opoziia determinat /nedeterminat. n limba romn, substantivele proprii accept
determinarea cu articol nehotrt n special n scopuri stilistice (un Sadoveanu un volum de
Sadoveanu). Substantivele proprii se folosesc n general nearticulat, forma articulat fiind
folosit pentru a marca diferena dintre NAc i V (Ana - Ano, Pavel Pavele).
Otilio, poate lui domnul Felix i e foame.
(Enigma Otiliei, p. 39)
ntlnim unele substantive proprii a cror terminaie poate fi confundat cu articolul
hotrt, ns aceste substantive sunt nearticulate (Radu,Timioara, Bianca).
Liviu e coleg de coal cu Paul, [...].
(Vulpea, p. 39)
Despre determinare n limba german vom vorbi separat deoarece n cazul
determinrii cu articol hotrt diferenele dintre limba romn i limba german sunt mari. Un
vorbitor de limba romn ce dorete stpnirea corect a limbii germane nu va putea apela la
convergenele dintre cele dou limbi. n aceast situaie va trebui s asimileze regulile
gramaticale impuse de normele limbii germane. Similar cu limba romn este folosirea
articolului nehotrt i a articolului zero. n limba german exist cteva categorii de
substantive ce trebuie folosite cu articol hotrt, n timp ce n limba romn sunt nearticulate:
nume de muni, mri, lacuri, ruri: die Alpen (Munii Alpi), der Bodensee, das
Mittelmeer (Marea Mediteranean);
nume de ri (att la singular ct i la plural): die Niederlande (Olanda), die USA
(SUA), die Slowakei (Slovacia), die Schweiz (Elveia), der Sudan (Sudan);
regiuni, strmtori, canale: die Normandie (Normandia), die Dobrudscha (Dobrogea),
das Elsass (Alsacia), der Bosphorus(Bosfor);
nume de strzi, cldiri, biserici, hoteluri, nave: Thomaskirche (Biserica Sf. Toma), das
Waldorf Astoria, die Carpathia (nava Carpathia);
119
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
nume de ziare sau reviste: der Spiegel, das Bild.
Exemplul de mai jos prezint un substantiv propriu articulat hotrt n limba german,
ns folosit nearticulat n limba romn. Astfel, putem observa diferena la nivel de
determinare ntre cele dou limbi.
[...] durch die lange Ebene, zur Donau tragen.
(Der Fuchs, p. 44)
[...] prin cmpia ntins pn la Dunre.
(Vulpea, p. 35)
3. Declinarea substantivelor proprii
Declinarea substantivelor proprii prezint anumite particulariti ce o deosebesc de cea
a substantivelor comune, cu toate c acestea manifest tendina de ncadrare n modelul
flexionar al substantivelor comune. i din acest punct de vedere observm diferene ntre
limba romn i limba german, deoarece declinarea substantivelor prezint diferene
semnificative. Vom analiza separat declinarea substantivelor proprii, urmnd s prezentm un
exemplu pentru a ilustra cele afirmate.
n limba romn, substantivele proprii se manifest n general ca substantive
invariabile, realiznd genitivul i dativul cu ajutorul afixului proclitic lui specific
substantivelor masculine (lui Ion, lui Carmen). ntlnim i situaii n care afixul lui este folosit
alternativ cu indicii enclitici ai genitivului i dativului (Radului, Tomei). Aceste forme se
folosesc mai ales n operele literare sau n expresii ncetenite (Duminica Tomei sau
Duminica Tomii)
Prin pdurea bradului / trece mama Radului.
(www.versuri.ro)
V reamintim c astzi, la Duminica Tomei, numita i "Patele blajinilor" n unele
sate ies credincioii la cimitir unde fac pomenire [...].
(www.crestinortodox.ro)
Ochii lui Paul erau pe jumtate nchii [...].
(Vulpea, p. 83)
Declinarea substantivelor proprii manifest anumite diferene, n funcie de genul
substantivului:
1. la substantivele feminine, forma de nominativ este identic cu cea de acuzativ:
-a (Ioana), -eea (Andreea), -ia (Maria). Genitivul i dativul singular au forma -ei
(Ioanei, Mariei). Pluralul are forma -e sau -i , unic pentru toate cazurile (Ioane,
Marii);
2. pentru substantivele masculine, formele de nominativ i acuzativ sunt: -u (Radu), -i
(Mihai) i -a (Luca), formele de genitiv i dativ sunt -lui (Radului) sau -i (Luci).
Situaiile n care aceste substantive sunt folosite la plural sunt foarte rare.
Exemplele de mai jos ne vor demonstra faptul c n limba romn nominativul cu
acuzativul, precum i genitivul cu dativul substantivelor proprii feminine au forme identice. n
german ns, doar genitivul are form diferit, fapt ilustrat i de exemplul:
120
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Clara a adormit, [...] o las pe Adina singur.
(Vulpea, p. 10)
Clara ist eingeschlafen, [...] lsst Adina allein.
(Der Fuchs, p. 12)
[...] spune Adina i maxilarele Clarei mestec [...].
(Vulpea, p. 8)
[...] sagt Adina und Claras Backenknochen [...].
(Der Fuchs, p. 8)
i sufl Adinei prul de pe ceaf.
(Vulpea, p. 16)
Er blies Adina in den Nacken.
(Vulpea, p. 19)
n limba german, declinarea substantivelor proprii se poate realiza n dou moduri.
ntr-o prim situaie substantivele proprii, indiferent de genul lor, au form identic pentru
nominativ, dativ i acuzativ, neexistnd diferene ntre cele dou genuri (Petra, Peter) iar la
cazul genitiv primesc -s (Petras, Peters). Nu avem ns forme de plural. Cea de a doua
posibilitate se refer la numele de ri, continente, ape, instituii care formeaz genitivul cu
ajutorul afixului von. Trebuie s menionm c limbajul uzual folosete i varianta cu s,
forma afixat fiind considerat elevat (Rumniens Hauptstadt, die Hauptstadt von Rumnien
capitala Romniei). Helbig / Buscha (Helbig/Buscha; 2001:221) precizeaz c substantivele
proprii sunt nsoite, n general, de articolul zero:
Die Eigennamen, die Maskulina und Neutra sind, folgen durchweg dem Singulartyp 1,
d.h., Akkusativ und Dativ sind endungslos und die Endung des Genitivs ist -s. [...]
Personennamen stehen meistens mit Nullartikel. [...] Bei Nachstellung wird durch
Umschreibung mit von + Dativ benutzt. [...] Feminine Personennamen verhalten sich
grundstzlich wie maskuline und neutrale Personennamen.
Auch Grigores Mutter war Arbeiterin in der Fabrik.
(i mama lui Grigore era muncitoare n fabric.)
(Der Fuchs, p. 101)
[...] dann siehst du schon den Turm von Kessin oder richtiger beide.
(atunci vezi deja Turnul din Kessin sau mai corect pe ambele.)
(Effi Briest, p. 48)
n cazul substantivelor proprii putem observa diferene considerabile ntre cele dou
limbi analizate din punct de vedere contrastiv, n special la nivelul determinrii i declinrii.
n aceast situaie se recomand nsuirea ca atare a normelor gramaticale ale limbii, pentru a
evita greelile de interferen.
Bibliografie
*** Gramatica Limbii Romne, V. Guu Romalo (coord.), vol I, Cuvntul, vol. II, Enunul,
Ed. Academiei Romne, Bucureti, 2005.
*** Gramatica limbii romne, Ediia a II-a revzut i adugit, vol. I Morfologia, vol. II
121
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Sintaxa, Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 1966.
*** DUDEN, Die Grammatik, vol.4, ediia a 7-a, Ed. Duden, Mannheim et al., 2005.
Avram, M., Gramatica pentru toi, Humanitas, ediia a III-a, Bucureti, 2001.
Helbig, G., Buscha, J., Deutsche Grammatik. Ein Handbuch fr den Auslnderunterricht, Ed.
Langenscheid, Berlin, 2001.
Mihu, L., Miua, B., Limba romn. Sinteze. Exerciii, Ed. Universitii Aurel Vlaicu,
Arad, 2007.
Opere literare
Der Fuchs war damals schon der Jger, Herta Mller, Ed. Fischer Taschenbuch, 2009.
Effi Briest, Theodor Fontane, Ed. Eduard Kaiser, Klagenfurt, f.a
Enigma Otiliei, G. Clinescu, Ed. Litera Internaional, Bucureti, 2010.
nc de pe atunci vulpea era vntorul, Herta Mller, Ed. Humanitas Fiction, Bucureti,
2009.
122
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
CONTEXTUAL RELEVANCE IN TRANSLATING DRAMA
THE CASE OF TENOR VARIETIES IN ROMANIAN VERSIONS OF TENNESSEE
WILLIAMS PLAYS
Ana-Cristina CHIRIL ERBAN, PhD Candidate, tefan cel Mare University of
Suceava
Abstract: Relating systemic functional theory to cognitive models of communication, the
present paper assumes that an appropriate evaluation of discourse parameters contributes to
achieving identity between the contextual knowledge of the sender and that of the listener (the
fundamental principle of successful communication). Representing a communicative act based
on inference, itself (in a cognitive perspective), translation needs relate to these three
dimensions of discourse in all its stages as a process (going from the perception and
comprehension of the authors intention to the reconstruction of the message addressed to a
second-degree receiver). In our particular study, the object of translation is a challenging text
at all three situational levels. With an awareness of their hierarchical interdependence, we
investigate some of the most distinctive features, with a focus on tenor, which proves
exceptionally challenging in the source-texts under scrutiny.
Keywords: communicative translation, contextual relevance, field of discourse, mode of
discourse, tenor varieties
Introduction
The aim of this article is to illustrate what we consider to be an essential episode in
Translation Studies, marking an evolution from norm-governed linguistic theories towards
function-governed communicative theories of translation. The functional approach proves
extremely beneficial to the sub-domain of Drama Translation, whose object of investigation is a
complex semiotic system (a polyphonic macro-unit of communication, called performance)
integrating the dramatic text as a signifying unit. The semiotic perspective of a dramatic text
entails the need to relate theatre translation to principles of functional, pragmatic and relevant
equivalence, thus proving the case of a dynamic communicative approach to literary
translation, in general.
Communicative standards revisited
Traditional theories in translation studies regarded translation as a linguistic activity
performed on texts. The significant factors controlling translation were, thus, abstract structures
of equivalence, defined lexically, syntactically and semantically, without any regard to extra-
linguistic factors. The latter were not taken into consideration as controlling, to a large extent,
the communicative instances which constitute the material of translation. The only real issue
was accuracy, and accuracy was defined both narrowly, in terms of linguistic equivalence, and
universally, with no attention to the differing needs and demands and expectations of real
people in real-world situations. This period of stagnation in translation studies is considered to
be coming from an understanding of text merely as a self-contained and self-generating entity,
123
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
instead of a decision-making procedure and an instance of communication between language
users (Hatim and Mason, 1990: 3). In our own view, translation, at this point, was approached
as a product-to-product comparison between the source-text (ST) and the target-text (TT).
From the perspective of more recent theories in Translation Studies, what is needed is a
systematic study of problems and solutions, by a close comparison of ST and TT procedures:
Which techniques produce which effects? What are the regularities of the translation process in
particular genres, cultures and historical periods, that is, in particular contexts of
communication? Prescriptive as well as descriptive models in drama translation are built on
such relevant questions to be considered by the science of translating.
To such views, Eugene Nidas reformulation of the notion of translation in terms of
types of equivalence appropriate to particular circumstances can be considered a
fundamental step. A founding father of the domain, the American researcher states that the
relative adequacy of different translations of the same text can only be determined in terms of
the extent to which each translation successfully fulfils the purpose for which it was intended
(Nida, apud Nord, 1997: 13). By distinguishing between formal correspondence( as the
closest possible match of form and content between ST and TT) and dynamic equivalence(as
a principle of equivalence of effect on reader of TT), Nida shifts attention away from the sterile
debate on free versus literal translation towards the effects of different translation strategies,
and through them, introduces an awareness of the complex communicative dimension of the
process. The sets of priorities established in The Theory and Practice of Translation (1969)
include: contextual consistency (relating to semantic appropriateness) over verbal
consistency (word for word concordance); oral over written forms of the language; audience-
adapted forms of language over traditionally prestigious forms. In our interpretation, such an
approach is sensitive to several communicative aspects of language: forms of actual
performance (use of the language); distinction between purely designative/denotative and
associative / connotative meaning (emotional response to the message); and last but not least,
socio-cultural elements of context (which play the dominant part in specifying meaning and
relate to the historical settings in which the text was produced - time, place, source, addressee
and circumstances and its culture, as well as to the target language, audience and culture).
Thus, Nidas equivalence of response is a pragmatic and sociolinguistic notion in translation.
Peter Newmark, in A Textbook of Translation (1998), also defines translation
procedures on the basis of contextual dimension, classified as: linguistic, referential, cultural
and individual. According to these, Newmark describes several types of translation, each
representing a possible strategy in certain circumstances (depending on the text type, aim of
translation or the receptor audience). Among them, communicative translation represents,
next to semantic translation, the ideal model, attempting to render the same contextual
meaning in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and
comprehensible to the readership (Newmark, 1998: 31). The former is personal and
individual and tends to over-translate in order to reproduce pragmatic impact while the latter is
social, tends to under-translate while concentrating on the message and being simple and
natural. (Newmark, 1998: 40).
The translation models we have exposed build up an image of the translator as a
negotiator of meaning between producers and receivers of text, assigning to him the central
role in a process of cross-cultural communication and cease to regard equivalence in static,
124
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
purely linguistic terms. Such perspectives can be directly related to principles of text
linguistics. If we accept that meaning is something that is negotiated between producers and
receivers of texts, it follows that the translator, as a special kind of text user, intervenes in this
process of negotiation, to relay it across linguistic and cultural boundaries. In doing so, the
translator tries to retrieve the intended meaning and effects of the ST producer and aims at
facilitating retrieval of these intentions by the reader of the target text, in conformity with TL
norms (Hatim and Mason, 1990: 33). The various domains of pragmatics, discourse linguistics
and sociolinguistics are all areas of study which are germane to this process, bringing insights
into the nature of intended meaning and effect, the relation of meaning to the communicative
environment or situation of communication and ultimately into the notion of functional
meaning. The models I have presented mean to illustrate an early, much needed recognition of
the role of contextual factors in translation. The following part of this paper focuses on explicit
theories of the notion, which account for even more complex, socio-cultural aware models of
translation.
Contextual relevance in translation
A theory of communicative context in translation was produced by M.A.K. Halliday
and the London School, who approach the notions of text and context as expressions of a
fundamental relationship of mutual determination between language and society. Halliday
offers a systemic functional theory which attempts to explain linguistic structure and linguistic
phenomena based on the assumption that language is required to serve certain universal types
of social demand. On the basis of these functions, a further description of three features of the
"context of situation" is given:
the field of discourse refers to what is happening, to the nature of the social action that
is taking place; to what it is that the participants are engaged in, in which language
figures as some essential component. The field is expressed through "ideational
meanings" (language as reflection of reality, representational);
the tenor of discourse refers to who is taking part, to the nature of the participants,
their statuses and roles and the relationship among them (referring to both the types of
speech roles that they take on in the dialogue and the whole cluster of socially
significant relationships in which they are involved); it corresponds to interpersonal
meaning (language as action, expressive and imperative);
the mode of discourse refers to the role that language is playing "(language as texture in
relation to the environment), to what it is that the participants expect language to do for
them in a particular situation: the symbolic organization of the text, the status that it has,
its function in the context, including the channel (spoken or written text) and the
rhetorical mode (didactic, argumentative, etc.).
We are to understand that by assigning a text these features, one may construct a model
of the social context of a text. It is what participants in a culture do throughout their
interactions, thus being able to make predictions about the meanings exchanged (based on
inferences from the situation to the text and from the text to the situation) and communicate.
Relating this type of textual interpretation to Sperber and Wilsons model of
communication (1986), one may conclude that an appropriate evaluation of discourse
125
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
parameters contributes to achieving identity between the contextual knowledge of the sender
and that of the listener (the fundamental principle of successful communication). Representing
a communicative act based on inference, itself (in a cognitive perspective), translation needs
relate to these three dimensions of discourse in all its stages as a process (going from the
perception and comprehension of the authors intention to the reconstruction of the message
addressed to a second-degree receiver). In our particular study, the object of translation is a
challenging text at all three situational levels. With an awareness of their hierarchical
interdependence, we will further investigate some of the most distinctive features in isolation,
for methodological reasons.
From the perspective of field, the corpus, consisting of two plays translated from
English into Romanian, belongs to specific literary discourse, identified as the dramatic genre.
The experiential component of context thus relates primarily to the norms of the dramatic
discourse, as an integrated element in theatrical communication, a macro-model characterised
by semiotic density, in which meaning results from a particular combination of verbal and non-
verbal signs. Due to its semiotic co-functionality, this type of discourse is also described by a
fundamental deictic orientation and a performative, proairectic aspect. As Elam (1980: 157)
notices, the speech event is, in its own right, the chief form of interaction in the drama, while
dramatic discourse is a network of complementary and conflicting illocutions and
perlocutions (1980: 159) and deixis is instituted at the origins of drama as the necessary
condition of a non-narrative form of world-creating discourse (1980: 139). The implications for
the act of translation concern essential principles postulated by prescriptive approaches in
Drama Translation Studies, such as the theory of performability (Bassnett, 1980, 1985,
2011).
The parameter of mode implies a consideration of the special configuration of dramatic
dialogue as non-oral spoken discourse, presenting conversational features (while having a
mimetic character) combined with textual characteristics such as its syntactic orderliness, its
informational intensity or its illocutionary purity. Adding to the challenge of translation in our
corpus is the particular style and art of composition used by Tennessee Williams, a playwright
who combined naturalist and expressionist techniques in an approach described as poetic
realism. Naturalist tendencies in his dramatic dialogues are manifest in specific writing
techniques which confer a high degree of spontaneity and naturalness to character discourse,
such as the use of spoken discourse markers or connectors, which require an activation of
various translational strategies in order to achieve pragmatic equivalence, such as in the case
below:
Table 1: Discourse marker translation
well, I was surprised...... s-i spun drept, (...), am fost surprins
Well, I wasnt surprised Ba eu nu am fost surprins
Oh, my law, well., Da, pe legea mea, ....
well, that spring, no, it was Deci, n primvara aceea, ba nu, a fost ...
well,...that was a long time ago Ei, asta s-a petrecut de mult ...
(Williams, 2000, Orpheus descending) (Williams, 1978, Orfeu n infern)
A faithful, direct translation of such pragmatic particles is admitted to result in a loss of
conversational features, since an impression of spontaneous speech relates to stereotypical
126
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
models of verbal interaction. The theatre translator is therefore to consider the distinctive
elements of conversational styles and strategies across cultures in his or her attempt to render
dialogue which should sound natural while being performed on stage and should thus create an
immediate illusion that the characters belong to the same culture as the audience.
Functional equivalence in translating tenor varieties
Accounting for the same fundamental dimension of dramatic mimesis is the tenor mode
of its fictional discourse or dialogue. The concept can be discussed with particular reference to
the notion of register, a concept relating to variation in language that goes with variation in the
context of situation.
Tennessee Williams dialogue achieves realistic notes by the use of language variation forms,
tenor varieties often expressing the social stratifications of his dramatic world or social
character opposition, based on the assumption that the use of situational levels of the language
at an individual level can reflect the systemic opposition between standard and non-standard
varieties of a language. To this view, most of the dialogue in the well-known A Streetcar
Named Desire covers levels of the English language going from intimate and casual to informal
in order to reflect the petty world of the immigrant slums of New Orleans. In Orpheus
Descending, register associated regional dialect builds up the image of a limited provincial
South. Character discourse is consequently marked at the phonological, lexical, morphological
and syntactic level to express a general note of colloquialism.
We will here select some of the more relevant features, starting with the graphic marks
of elision in the pronunciation of the phoneme : nothina-tall, snoopinaround, courtin,
lookin, watchin. Compensation and transposition, as well as transfer, here understood as a
change from one mark of variation to another, are the most frequent translational techniques.
For example, the various (phonological and lexical) marks of register in the source text instance
He starts courtin some chick (ST1)1 find an equivalent in a target text idiomatic phrase,
which creates equivalent contextual effects in terms of tenor as well as in diachronic variation:
ncepe s trag clopotele la putoaice (TT1). For instances in which compensation occurs in
macro-textual units and not within a sentence or a complex sentence, contractions are
sometimes used to stand for the frequent phonological marks of register in the source: nu-i,
brbatu-su, se-ntmpla, n-ai dect.
At the lexical level, idiomatic phrases constitute the pre-eminent mark of register in the
source texts. As the Romanian scholar Rodica Zafiu (2001: 246) points out, idioms are often
characterised by ludic tendencies and a lack of literal motivation in construction. Such features
add up to the multiple challenges of translating Tennessee Williams plays, illustrating the
difficulties of comprehension as an initial stage of the inferencial process constituted by
translation. Le us take, for instance, the original association of words in the American
colloquial phrase to give somebody the deep six(ST1), in which the reception and
understanding of contextual meaning (to kill, to get rid of somebody) is based on etymological
knowledge (six standing for six feet, which is the standard depth of a grave). The idiom
1
We use ST1 as an abbreviation of the source text Orpheus Descending (included in the volume Tennessee
Williams, Plays 1957 1980, New York, The Library of America, 2000) and TT1 for Mihnea Gheorghius
Romanian version of the play, which is included in Tennessee Williams, Teatru (Bucuresti, Editura Univers,
1978).
127
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
produces rich contextual effects in the target language challenging the translator, in the next
stage, to find expressive equivalents in the target language. The Romanian translators of
Tennessee Williams deal with such challenges in various ways:
- The general tendency of rendering source idioms by target idioms of equal
contextual relevance (Equivalence2;Relevant equivalence3);
Table 2: Idiom equivalence
TT1 ST1
Apoi a venit prohibiia i, ca tot omul, Macaronarul Then come prohibition an first thing ennyone knew,
s-a apucat de contraband. Asta i-a mers c i s-a The Wop had took to bootleggin like a duck to
potrivit ca balta la pete. (structural, compulsory water!
modulation)
exact asta mi-a trecut i mie prin cap ( concrete Thats exactly what passed through my mind
abstract modulation )
o s le trag fetelor stora btrne o chelfneal de Shell give those two maids a touch of her tongue
s le mearg fulgii (optional expansion)
Le-au fcut felul Gave them the deep six
TT2/TT34 ST2/ST3
Mi se nvrte capul /M zpceti de cap My head is swimming
Asta i-a nchis gura /A tcut mlc That shut her up like a clam
- Rendering idiomatic meaning through explicitation while keeping tenor
effects: se arunc asupra przii (hauls in the loot), se strneau nite scandaluri
(theyd raise such Cain)5;
- Textual compensation of register (source lexical unit rendered by idiom of
superior colloquial force): s bagi de seam dac au patima banilor (Notice
their passion for money); pun mna n foc c ...(I bet);
- Target idiom of inferior contextual relevance (inevitable enthropy): Lets cut the
re-bop (TS1)6 s terminm cu temenelile (TT2);
2
One of the seven fundamental translation strategies identified by Vinay and Darbelnet (1995), consisting in
maintenance in the TL of the SL situation by using completely different language structural and stylistic means
(1995: 342).
3
Ctlina Iliescu Gheorghiu considers that relevant equivalence consists in a high degree of interpretative
resemblance between the traget text communicative intentions and the translators perceptions of the soource text
senders intentions, ( Iliescu, 2009:141) while keeping the force of contextual effects and requiring equal efforts
to decode the message.
4
ST2 is an abbreviation for the source text A Streetcar Named Desire (in The Northon Anthology of American
Literature, Sixth Edition, Volume E, New York, 2003); ST3 is a second version of the same play, included in
Tennessee Williams, Plays 1937-1955 (The Library of America, New York, 2000); TT2 is the translated version of
Dorin Dron, included in Teatrul american contemporan (Editura pentru literatur universal, Bucureti, 1968) and
TT3 is a re-translation belonging to Antoaneta Ralian ( Tennessee Williams, Bucuresti, Art, 2010).
5
Raise hell, cause a disturbance, protest angrily; from the biblical son of Adam and Eve, the first murderer.
The expression implies bringing or returning that evil to Earth (Collins English Dictionary Complete and
Unabridged, 2003).
6
According to editorial footnotes in ST1, the term re-bop (whose implied basic meaning is nonsense) is an
improvisation evoking jazz sounds. These have a particular symbolic relevance in the plays semiotic system (as
non-verbal signs) and also function as cultural signs for the dramatic world (New Orleans).
128
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Compensation of idiomatic register relevance through other marks of tenor variation (lexical,
morphological or pragmatic marks):
Aw, Ill make myself scarce, in that case (ST2) - A, atunci o s dispar. (TT3)
Ah! n cazul sta, o terg (TT2).
We used to go up there an court up a storm, ha, ha, just court up a storm
(ST1) obinuiam s mergem acolo s petrecem, he, he, cum ne mai petreceam!
Translation loss by alteration of idiomatic meaning and neutralisation of
register.
The phrase to be on a kick , to be on a benny kick belongs to the American slang of the
50s , when benny stood for the stimulant medicine known as benzedrine. In our opinion, the
Romanian solution suggests not so much a lack of adequate perception of meaning but rather
the influence of a preliminary norm on translation. We believe the constraints of editorial
censorship, describing the Communist era in which the translation was performed, imposed
euphemistic tendencies, here manifested in a translation solution which comes down to micro-
textual rephrasing and changes in illocutionary acts (shifts in performative orientation):
What kick are you on, Lady, are you on a benny kick?...youve washed down a
couple of bennies with a pot of black coffee t make you come on strong for th
three oclock show? (ST1)
Mi se pare c eti adormit! Ce zici, Lady, nu vrei poate s-i fac o ceac dubl
de cafea neagr pentru a te ntrema puin pentru reprezentaia de la ora trei? (TT1).
Conclusion
The recognition of function in translation has brought about specific methodologies of
descriptive approaches in Translation Studies, which have turned good old equivalence into a
more dynamic principle, covering both adequacy and acceptability. At the core of such
complex paradigms stands the simple observation that the translation of an administrative
memorandum is regulated by different norms from those regulating literary translation. By the
same token, the translation of theatre requires specific strategies within the general norms of
literary translation. The recognition of these differences must serve to incorporate diversity of
function within an overall model of the translation process.
Bibliography
Bassnett, Susan, 1980/1991. Translation Studies, London, Routledge.
Bassnett, Susan, 1985. Ways Through the Labyrinth: Strategies and Methods for Translating
Theatre Texts in Theo Hermans (ed.), The Manipulation of Literature: Studies in Literary
Translation, ,Londra, Croom Helm, pp. 87- 102.
Bassnett, Susan, 1990. Translating for the Theatre-Textual Complexities, n Essays in
poetics, Vol.15, nr.1, 71-83.
129
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Bassnett, Susan, 2011. Reflections on Translation, Bristol, Multilingual Matters.
Collins English Dictionary Complete and Unabridged, 2003. HarperCollins Publishers.
Elam, Keir, 1980. The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama, Londra, Methuen.
Halliday, M.A.K., R., Hasan, 1989. Language, Context and Text: Aspects of Language in a
Social-Semiotic Perspective, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Halliday, M. A. K., 1978. Language as Social Semiotic, Londra, Edward Arnold.
Hatim, B. i I. Mason, 1990. Discourse and the Translator, Londra si New York, Longman.
Iliescu Gheorghiu, Ctlina , 2009. Traducerea textului dramatic. O abordare cognitiv, Iai,
Institutul European.
Levichi, Leon, (ed.), 1974. Dicionar Englez-Romn, Editura Academiei .
Newmark, Peter, 1998. A Textbook of Translation, London: Prentice Hall International.
Nida, Eugene, Taber, Charles, 1974. The Theory and Practice of Translation, New York: The
United Bible Society.
Nord, Christiane, 1997. Translating as a Purposeful Activity, Manchester: St. Jerome
Publishers.
Sperber, D., Wilson. D., 1986. Relevance : Communication and Cognition, Oxford, Blackwell.
Vinay, Jean-Paul, Darbelnet, Jean, (1958) 1995. Comparative Stylistics of French and English:
A Methodology for Translation, transl. by Juan C. Sager, M-J. Hamel, John Benjamins
Publishing.
Zafiu, Rodica, 2001. Diversitate stilistic n romna actual, Editura Universitii din
Bucureti
Corpus de studiu
Williams, Tennessee, 1978. Teatru, Bucuresti, Editura Univers.
Williams, Tennessee, 2000. Plays 1937 1955, New York, The Library of America.
Williams, Tennessee, 2000. Plays 1957 1980, New York, The Library of America.
Williams, Tennessee , 2010. Un tramvai numit Dorin, trad. Antoaneta Ralian, Bucureti: Art.
*** Teatrul american contemporan, 1968. Editura pentru literatur universal, Bucureti.
The Norton Anthology of American literature, 2003. vol.E, New York, Norton and Company.
130
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
VOCABULARIES OF DIGITAL SELF-REALIZATION AND THE PROBLEM OF
ANONYMITY
Camelia GRDINARU, Scientific Researcher, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University
of Iai
Abstract: Re-opening Rortys distinction between vocabularies of public deliberation and
vocabularies dedicated to the private life of individuals, Im interested in the way the changes
brought by the Internet use in human communication and interaction re-shape our
vocabularies of self-realization and self-creation. As it has been shown (for instance Walther
and Parks, Baym or Slater), this new form of communication produced a few key
transformations in the way people define their identity, on the one hand, and create
meaningful relationships with other people, on the other hand. The study of anonymity was
one of the first investigations in the field of computer-mediated communication. This research
was done in a polarized way, because the anonymity was postulated whether as being
essential for the freedom of speech and the expression of the self, or as comprising a lot of
dangers for the construction of identity and for the authenticity of the computer mediated-
communication. Nowadays, the media convergence, the nuanced relation between online and
offline identity, the fact that communication through new media tends to be as close as
possible to face-to-face communication seem to contribute to the change of the perceived
importance of anonymity. In this respect, the digital Cartesianism that characterized the early
stage of development of textual based-communication is now obsolete. Thus, anonymity was a
key element of the identitary vocabulary of the 90s that offered a plethora of possibilities of
self-edification and self-presentation. The recent evolution of social networks has blurred
even more the Rortyan distinction between public and private, making the comprehension of
users behaviours difficult to decipher.
Keywords: online identity, anonymity, vocabulary, privacy, self-realization
1. New Media i cutarea identitii
Lucrarea i propune s surprind cele mai semnificative modificri ale rolului i
importanei anonimatului n comunicarea mediat de calculator, schimbri care vor fi apoi
interpretate prin prisma indiciilor pe care acestea le transmit n raport cu valorizarea
vocabularelor private sau publice. Anonimatul reprezint o component semnificativ a
modului prin care identitatea online a fost definit n teorie i neleas n practic.
Capacitatea acestui concept de a se poziiona la grania dintre public i privat, din moment ce
putem vorbi despre mai multe grade sau niveluri ale anonimatului, a fcut ca ea s remodeleze
n funcie de poziionare i de valoarea perceput fie vocabularul deliberrii publice, fie
pe cel al vieii private a indivizilor, fie s realizeze, adeseori, un mix al celor dou tipuri de
vocabulare. De altfel, noile tehnologii i mijloace de comunicare au dat o alt form
ntregului vocabular al realizrii personale i al construirii sinelui. De asemenea, dihotomia
online offline a fost pus n discuie cu putere n diverse momente ale dezvoltrii new
media, pentru ca n abordrile contemporane s asistm la o accentuare a convergenei dintre
online i offline i la repudierea rupturii dintre cele dou aa-zise tipuri de identitate.
131
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
New Media a redeschis problematica identitii i a modalitilor prin care tehnologia
poate contura patternuri de interaciune, comunicare i configurare identitar. Utilizarea
noilor tehnologii i mijloace de comunicare a creat contexte inedite, n care definirea
identitii a cunoscut o serie de transformri semnificative. De asemenea, vocabularul dedicat
acestui subiect s-a mbogit i a devenit mai complex, coninnd concepte de acum extrem
de familiare, cum ar fi cel de eu digital, identitate remediat, alteritate virtual, efectul Proteus
etc. Literatura dedicat identitii online a nregistrat diverse trenduri interpretative care au
fost strns legate de evoluia Internetului i de utilizarea din ce n ce mai larg i mai
performant a opiunilor oferite. Astfel, dac primele studii abordau att gama vast de
posibiliti prin care sinele poate fi construit, expus sau modificat, ct i anxietile care
nsoeau aceste liberti, analizele actuale sunt mult mai temperate i mai nuanate n aceste
direcii. Bineneles, utilizarea prelungit a reelelor de socializare sau a spaiilor virtuale
imersive are o influen n conceperea propriei identiti, precum i n managementul
impresiei. Dar, n aceeai msur, nu doar comunicarea mediat de calculator influeneaz
construirea identitii, ci i modalitile particulare prin care oamenii utilizeaz tehnologia
transform substanial contextul n care se poate analiza relaia dintre new media i identitate.
n acest sens, dei inovaiile tehnologice vor rmne ntotdeauna un catalizator al multor
schimbri sociale, modurile particulare prin care acestea sunt nelese, adoptate, folosite i
integrate n viaa cotidian dau, la rndul lor, un feedback important i, uneori, schimb
traseul sau utilizarea unei invenii. Astfel, teoriile influenrii sociale asupra tehnologiei
(social shaping of technology) sau ale difuzrii inovaiilor (diffusion of innovation theory)
reprezint o contramsur fructuoas adus teoriei determinismului tehnologic.
2. Anonimatul online
n vocabularul identitii online, conceptul de anonimat a fost, nc de la nceput, un
element cheie, valorizat n special pentru multitudinea de posibiliti oferite n sensul auto-
edificrii i auto-prezentrii fiinei umane. Analiza anonimatului a fost una dintre primele
cercetri realizate n arealul comunicrii mediate de calculator (Lister, Giddings, Grant i
Kelly 2003, 209). De altfel, Lister et al. au desprins trei tradiii de cercetare din acest
domeniu: investigarea anonimatului, continuat astzi cu analiza comunicrii bazate pe
avatar; studiul eului digital, al comunitilor virtuale i al reelelor i cercetarea relaiei dintre
experienele reale i cele virtuale (relaia dintre online i offline, living in the
interface).
Polarizarea accentuat pe care o regsim n tratarea majoritii temelor care se afl sub
umbrela new media nu a ocolit i subiectul anonimatului. Astfel, anonimatul a fost perceput
fie ca un drept n online, o garanie a libertii de exprimare (Ian Clarke), fie ca un stigmat, un
indiciu al lipsei de responsabilitate din partea utilizatorilor, pentru a crei atenuare
recunoaterea i identificarea membrilor unei comuniti ar trebui s fie obligatorii (Dyson)
(Featherly 2003, 10). Pe de o parte sunt avantajele de care s-au legat speranele utopice, de
cealalt parte o serie ntreag de devieri, dintre care calomnierea este una dintre ele (Vamialis
2012). Drepturile i responsabilitile au trebuit s fie revizuite, inclusiv din perspectiv
juridic, deoarece libertatea de exprimare i libertatea de exprimare anonim (freedom of
speech versus freedom of anonymous speech) nu sunt ntrutotul identice. De asemenea,
132
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
trecerea de la web 1.0, unde forumurile de discuii i paginile web statice erau centrale, la
web 2.0, unde coninutul generat de ctre utilizatori a crescut exponenial, iar comunicarea n
cyberspace a devenit mult mai interactiv, a complicat tabloul iniial al comunicrii mediate
de calculator, ridicnd noi probleme n ceea ce privete anonimatul. Bineneles, adresele IP
ale calculatoarelor sunt identificabile, dei exist produse, precum Anonymizer, care fac ca
activitatea online s fie invizibil. n acest sens, amprentele digitale pot fi detectate, iar n
pofida a ceea ce majoritatea utilizatorilor crede, anonimatul n cyberspace este, n cele mai
multe cazuri, o iluzie (Vamialis 2012, 50).
Pe lng definiiile date acestui concept n cadrul studiilor new media, au aprut
abordri clarificatoare i din interiorul studiilor IT. Din ambele direcii a convers necesitatea
de a distinge ntre anonimat i confidenialitate (privacy), care sunt de multe ori confundate
ori folosite interanjabil, dei sunt dou concepte cu istoric i sensuri diferite. Pentru
Featherly, confidenialitatea trimite la existena unui contract ntre pri (ntre vnztorul
online i client, n vederea nedivulgrii datelor cardului bancar, de pild), n timp ce
anonimatul nu este corelat cu protecia dat de un contract social, ci cu dorina de a nu
dezvlui indici identitari, din diverse motive. Pentru Shmatikov i Hughes, confidenialitatea
este independent de anonimat, un protocol putnd s procure anonimatul, dar nu i
confidenialitatea, din moment ce aceasta din urm implic protecia informaiilor secundare:
n timp ce proprietile anonimatului au legtur cu protejarea identitii n comunicarea
observabil, nelegem confidenialitatea drept secretul deciziilor agenilor bazate pe
identitate (Shmatikov i Hughes 2002, 4). De altfel, printre termenii de baz se mai numr
i untraceability (presupusul atacator nu poate ti nimic despre cei care trimit mesaje),
absolute sender anonymity (chiar dac emitorii sunt necunoscui, se poate ti dac dou
comunicri provin de la acelai expeditor), mix anonymity (o form mai puternic de
unlinkability, neputndu-se determina care sunt agenii implicai ntr-o anumit form de
comunicare). Jisuk Woo consider c probabil cea mai viabil modalitate de a asigura
caracterul privat n mediile interactive este aplicarea dreptului de a nu fi identificat n reea,
situaie care presupune i acceptarea actelor de impostur, minciun i a secretelor legate de
identitate. ntrebarea fundamental cu care trebuie s ne confruntm devine: suntem pregtii
i dorim s permitem un drept la minciun de dragul privacy? n acest nou mediu conectat n
reea, poate c nu putem s o avem pe una fr alta. Dorim s sacrificm transparena i
eficiena birocratic de dragul caracterului privat n reea? Aici nu le putem avea pe
amndou n acelai timp. Astfel, ar fi futil s discutm metode tehnice i sociale de a obine
privacy din moment ce nu am hotrt nc dac suntem pregtii s schimbm concepia
noastr moral fundamental pentru a o realiza. Una este s susii c privacy este un drept
important, i alta este s sacrifici valori importante pentru ea (Woo 2006, 966). Prin urmare,
componenta etic este important n ceea ce privete definirea actual a caracterului privat n
interiorul reelelor de comunicare, i o perspectiv comprehensiv asupra ei nu trebuie s se
limiteze doar la o analiz tehnic, juridic, psihologic sau de IT.
Din perspectiva dezvoltat de ctre Spinello (2003, n Miller 2011, 113), conceptul de
privacy conine trei elemente eseniale: singurtatea, secretul i anonimatul. ntr-o anumit
msur, aceast abordare reuete s acopere semnificaiile culturale i istorice ale termenului
privacy, precum i multiplele sale sensuri (intimitate, confidenialitate, caracter privat).
133
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Astfel, celebrul the right to be let alone, lozinca lui Warren i Brandeis din 1890, se
regsete n primul element, care legitimeaz dreptul fiinei umane de a se izola de ceilali i
de a tri n solitudine. Aceast noiune rezoneaz cu concepte filosofice vechi, care aparin
tradiiei occidentale de gndire, cum ar fi cel de via contemplativ la greci, care presupune
i capacitatea fiinei umane de a-i cizela interioritatea n singurtate. Al doilea element al
triadei propuse de Spinello trimite la dreptul indivizilor de a deine controlul asupra cantitii,
calitii i tipului de informaii pe care ceilali le dein despre ei nii. n acest punct,
intervine managerierea imaginii publice a unei persoane i selecia caracteristicilor pe care
aceasta i le va aeza n acest profil exterior. Anonimatul, al treilea element prezentat, poate
fi conceput drept un element specific modern al privacy (Miller 2011, 113). n online, se
poate spune c eul digital nu este nici anonim, nici privat, mai ales c utiliznd formele
discursive de prezentare i comunicare, identitatea online este mai degrab una creat dect
una real (Miller 2011, 127).
La ntrebarea Ct de anonim poi fi n online?, Morio i Buchholz (2009) iau n
discuie trei niveluri de anonimat: anonimatul vizual (email-urile, de exemplu, nu includ
fotografia expeditorului sau alte indicii nonverbale, ns exist conexiune cu identitatea sa
real), disocierea dintre identitatea real i cea virtual (realizabil pe chat-uri sau n
comuniti), lipsa identificrii (atunci cnd comportamentele unui individ nu pot distinse de
cele ale altor persoane). Acest ultim nivel se apropie, n viziunea celor doi autori, de idealul
adevratei anonimiti, care poate conduce la o comunicare mai orientat nspre informaie
i cunoatere. Anonimatul vizual pare a facilita depersonalizarea, iar teoria deindividurii,
care susinea c, n mulime, indivizii devin iraionali, antinormativi, iresponsabili, a fost
contrabalansat de social identity model of deindividuation effects care a artat c anonimatul
poate introduce o schimbare a accentului de pe identitatea individual pe cea social. Morio i
Buchholz (2009, 303) realizeaz o cercetare i n privina posibilelor corelaii dintre
diferenele culturale i anonimitate. Rezultatele studiului lor au artat c autonomia este
valorizat n vest, n timp ce afilierea, n est, astfel nct utilizatorii online din societile
vestice prefer comunitile online cu niveluri sczute de anonimat, n timp ce utilizatorii din
est prefer comunitile virtuale cu niveluri ridicate de anonimat. Chiar dac rezultatele
studiului lor sunt limitate, este remarcabil ncercarea de a asocia patternuri culturale cu
comportamente online, n ciuda ideologiei noilor tehnologii, care susinea dizolvarea
granielor culturale n acest mediu. Mai obiectiv este, credem noi, varianta susinerii
pertinenei transpunerii unor nsemne i diferene culturale i n cyberspace, lucru care
explic, ntr-o oarecare msur, i complexitatea interrelaionrilor online.
n acelai timp, efectele paradoxale ale anonimatului nu nceteaz s apar. Studiile
cues to identity n comunicarea mediat de calculator (efectele indicilor de prezentare care
ofer informaii despre cei care interacioneaz) (Tanis i Postmes 2007) au artat c atunci
cnd realizeaz o sarcin online, participanii se simt mai confortabil i mai satisfcui de
mediu i performeaz mai bine n lipsa reperelor identitare. Aadar, n anumite contexte,
media richness theory este contrazis, prezena indicilor de identitate avnd un efect negativ,
neconducnd la mbogirea relaionrii. Pentru ndeplinirea anumitor sarcini de lucru n
echip, anonimitatea este larg apreciat, mai ales cnd intervine n evaluarea relaiilor
interpersonale n raport cu evaluarea interaciunii.
134
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
La o privire mai atent asupra literaturii de specialitate, dar i a utilizrii anonimatului
de-a lungul timpului, se pot distinge cel puin dou modele distincte de abordare i valorizare
a anonimatului. Astfel, n cercetrile timpurii asupra identitii online, anonimatul era celebrat
ca fiind o trstur vital n procesul de auto-constituire personal, de experiere i de integrare
a diverselor tipuri de minoriti, persoane socialmente marginalizate sau cu diverse probleme.
Astzi, aceast entuziasm legat de libertatea auto-crerii s-a mai diminuat, iar o serie de
constrngeri au aprut i n privina utilizrii anonimatului. Astfel, numrul crescut de surse
prin care identitatea cuiva poate fi verificat, colapsul contextului, augmentarea importanei
informaiilor oferite de ctre alte persoane, convergena tehnologic sau cerinele unor
platforme de socializare, ca Facebook, de a oferi informaii reale despre tine nsui sunt doar
cteva exemple care contureaz modificarea conceperii i folosirii anonimatului n
contemporaneitate. Nu n ultimul rnd, familiarizarea cu noile media i integrarea lor n viaa
cotidian a indivizilor a fcut s dispar grania dintre online i offline i s transforme
comunicarea mediat de new media ntr-o component funcional a existenei obinuite. n
aceast tipologie meta-teoretic (Grdinaru 2013), putem observa la lucru i tipurile de
vocabulare care sunt specifice fiecrei etape. Nu lipsesc nici abordrile care contest existena
unui profil sustenabil al identitii online, contextul nedeterminat al comunicrii prin new
media fiind, mai degrab, factorul care este responsabil de specificitile ei: lumea online nu
pare s schimbe prea mult modul n care gndim despre identitatea personal (Rodogno
2011, 319). De asemenea, utilizarea anonimatului n diferite scopuri concrete nu pare deloc s
se fi redus. De pild, pirateria online (activiti de file sharing ilegale) este n strns legtur
cu anonimatul, iar cercetrile ntreprinse de ctre Larsson, Svensson i Kaminski pe tinerii
suedezi ntre 15 i 25 de ani confirm o cretere a folosirii anonimatului. De altfel, cei trei
cercettori lanseaz urmtoarele interogaii, n urma acestui studiu: o ntrebare important
pentru dezvoltrile urmtoare se regsete n provocarea durkhemian unde conduce
tendina anonimatului? Reprezint un semn al unei noi scheme organizaionale digitale? Este
un indiciu al unei noi moraliti sau al schimbrii sociale la o scar mai mare? n cazul
pirateriei online, ea poate fi descris drept schimbnd concepiile despre bine i ru, alturi de
mijloacele n vederea obinerii elurilor acceptate, vizibile n cazul normelor de partajare a
fiierelor (Larsson, Svensson i Kaminski 2012, 109).
2.1. Ideologia nceputului. Cteva repere
n primele etape ale cercetrii comunicrii mediate de calculator, premisa de baz a
fost plcerea oferit de utilizarea anonimatului, interogaia esenial fiind: Cine
suntem/putem fi noi atunci cnd suntem online?. Astfel, expresii intrigante de tipul strini
intimi, familiari sau prieteni anonimi au nceput s populeze discursul asociat comunicrii
online. Problematica eului n cyberspace presupune att prezentarea de sine, ct i conceperea
sinelui; altfel spus, dou tipuri majore de interogaii iau natere aici: cum se prezint cineva
pe sine nsui atunci cnd este anonim i fr corp? i cum i concepe cineva eul atunci
cnd ceilali sunt, n mare parte, anonimi i acorporali? (Zhao 2005, 387). Prin urmare, nu
doar definirea propriei imagini de sine i a ideii de alteritate se modific, dar i comunicarea
cu ceilali i tipurile de interaciune posibile sunt afectate. Dac pn acum corporalitatea
reprezenta un garant al identitii (situaie nuanat o dat cu fiecare mare invenie
tehnologic, semntura, scrisul sau timbrul vocal din conversaiile telefonice ajungnd s
135
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
nlocuiasc prezena fizic), mediul online a fcut posibil o comunicare lipsit de indici
corporali sau chiar identitari, supus eecului i multor tendine negative, dar cunoscnd i
enorme avantaje i situaii pozitive. O serie de definiii date anonimatului au intenionat s se
desprind n mod voit de asocierea primar cu numele (anonim nsemnnd nenumit), ca n
accepiunea lui Kathleen A. Wallace: anonimatul este o form de nonidentificabilitate, pe
care o definesc ca lips a coordonrii caracteristicilor ntr-o anumit privin (1999, 23).
Decorporalizarea digital a fost una dintre trsturile cele mai aclamate ale culturii digitale i
n jurul careia s-au esut visele legate de depirea inegalitilor de gen, ras, vrst etc. n
ideologia nceputurilor new media, decorporalizarea reprezenta o condiie obligatorie care
putea garanta libertatea total de exprimare a individului i egalitatea subiecilor, ea stnd la
baza utilizrii masive a anonimatului. Aceast ideologie a fost compatibil cu stadiul
dezvoltrii tehnologice nsei, comunicarea mediat de calculator realizndu-se atunci numai
pe baz textual. Trecerea corpului n plan secund a fcut astfel cu putin revitalizarea
cartezianismului n era digital, transcenderea corporal fiind posibil ntr-un mediu de
comunicare care celebra anonimatul i utiliza textul pentru exprimarea i crearea identitii.
Computerul a putut, aadar, fi considerat un alter-ego, o main metafizic ce ncarneaz
cea de-a doua noastr natur, din moment ce ne afecteaz modalitatea n care gndim, mai
ales modul n care gndim despre noi nine (Turkle 1984, 13). Eul rmne un sistem
distribuit, iar alteritatea semnificativ nu mai este alctuit doar din oameni, ci i din
tehnologiile care ne modific n mod evident viziunile despre om, relaionare sau comunicare.
Experimentarea sinelui n primele etape ale dezvoltrii noilor tehnologii era
augmentat de opiunile date de ascunderea identitar, de creearea unei identiti complet noi
sau de alte alegeri legate de setrile de confidenialitate i vizibilitate. Astfel, eul nu mai era
privit ca o entitate fixat, ci prins ntr-un joc perpetuu al modificrilor i devenirilor.
Anonimatul online contribuia la aceast construcie deliberat a identitii, care se putea
transpune ntr-un veritabil portofoliu de roluri pe care o persoan le juca o dat cu
trecerea de la o fereastr la alta (Turkle 1995, 83). Tipurile diferite de identiti pe care o
persoan le poate deine n online sunt variate, de la pseudonime pe diverse forumuri sau
chaturi, la avataruri n realitatea virtual i pn la identiti opuse celei din offline.
Bineneles, i pn acum o persoan trebuia s controleze i s performeze mai multe roluri
sociale (fiu/fiic, mam, angajat etc.), iar dorina de a reconstrui propria imagine utiliznd
diverse instrumente este, de altfel, una veche. Cu toate acestea, a tri la interfa afecteaz n
mod distinct viziunea noastr despre eu, alteritate, corporalitate i lume. Sherry Turkle, ale
crei scrieri sunt de acum clasice n acest domeniu, explic astfel aceast diferen: sinele nu
doar joac diferite roluri n diverse contexte, la momente diferite, ceva de tipul experienei
unei persoane care, de exemplu, se trezete ca o iubit, pregtete micul dejun ca o mam i
merge la serviciu ca o avocat. Practica de via a ferestrelor (windows) este aceea a unui sine
descentrat care exist n mai multe lumi i joac mai multe roluri n acelai timp (Turkle
1995, 14). Abilitatea de a construi numeroase aspecte ale sinelui, libertatea de a exprima
anumite aspecte refulate ale identitii sau de a experimenta alte mti identitare a creat o
imagine a sinelui digital n termeni contradictorii i lipsii de orice urm a unitii. Donna
Haraway are o abordare sugestiv a acestui sine, pe care ea l denumete knowing self i
care este, n bun tradiie postmodern i feminist, conceput ca fiind parial n toate
136
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
nfirile sale, niciodat finisat, ntreg, pur i simplu acolo i original; i de aceea capabil s
se alture altuia, s se vad mpreun fr a pretinde s fie altcineva (Haraway 1988, 586,
s.a.). Discursul dominant asupra identitii online din anii 90 cunoate o puternic influen
poststructuralist, eul fiind conceput ca avnd o structur mobil, fluid i textual. Astfel,
aceast trstur concord cu caracteristicile web 1.0 i cu exprimarea identitar prin discurs
pe toate platformele. Eul este rizomatic, fragmentat, dispersat n reea, iar anonimatul joac un
rol central n panoplia de posibiliti pe care acesta le poate accesa sau ncerca.
2.2. Tendine i dificulti actuale
n prezent, diferenele dintre discursul identitar din anii 90 i cel actual se origineaz
n mai multe tipuri de schimbri petrecute n acest interval. Pentru a da doar cteva exemple,
modificrile tehnologice, creterea interactivitii sau convergena dintre online i offline sunt
eseniale n acest sens. Astfel, construcia deliberat a imaginii de sine a devenit mai dificil
n ultimul timp, din cauza creterii numrului de surse de informare despre un anumit individ.
Dac pe vechile platforme prin intermediul crora se desfura comunicarea, de tipul chat
rooms, informaiile erau auto-oferite, iar anonimatul era reglat personal n funcie de scopuri,
n noul web participativ exist nu doar coninut generat de ctre utilizatori, ci i de ctre reea
(Rui i Stefanone 2013). Astfel, pe reelele de socializare, tag-ul sau postarea de ctre ali
utilizatori a unor fotografii sau mesaje care privesc un alt utilizator fac mult mai dificil
ascunderea identitar, controlul sau managerierea dorit a prezentrii de sine. Informaiile
furnizate de ctre ceilali pot submina construcia atent a imaginii personale, chiar dac
setrile de confidenialitate sunt folosite performant. Mai mult, site-urile comerciale
colecteaz date despre utilizatori, alctuind veritabile dosare personale sofisticate i, n
general, urmele pe care le lsm n cyberspace, care pot lua forma comentariilor, postrilor,
like-urilor sau chiar stilul de scriitur utilizat pe bloguri se pot constitui n repere identitare
puternice, chiar dac utilizatorul n cauz folosete o anumit form de anonimat. De
asemenea, instrumentul de baz al construciei identitare online nu mai este doar textul, ci i
imaginile foto, nregistrrile video, audio, situaie care face mai uoar depistarea identitii
reale a unui anumit utilizator din reea. Personalizarea profilului personal reprezint n sine un
marker identitar n social media (Marwick 2013, Papacharissi 2002), muzica, fonturile,
avatarurile, hyperlink-urile fiind indici simbolici ai identitii online. De altfel, chiar dac n
continuare i poi crea o identitate fals, utiliza un pseudonim sau deschide mai multe conturi,
pentru mai multe categorii de public, social media actual a creat o presiune n vederea
aderrii la o singur identitate, bine fixat. Aceast situaie difer de contextul iniial al
apariiei Internetului, vzut atunci drept un laborator al experierii multiplelor faete ale
identitii. Convergena dintre identitatea offline i exprimarea sa n social media se poate
ilustra i prin utilizarea new media n scopul procesului de branding personal, evoluia
microcelebritilor online reprezentnd un alt fenomen semnificativ al identitii online
actuale (Senft 2013).
O alt diferen fa de nceputurile new media rezid n dou mari paliere, extrem de
sugestive pentru subiectul abordat: convergena dintre online i offline, precum i integrarea
noilor tehnologii n viaa cotidian a utilizatorilor. Astfel, Baym (2010) atest faptul c astzi
foarte multe persoane nu-i creeaz identiti radical diferite n online fa de ceea ce sunt n
afara reelelor electronice. n aceeai msur, Alice E. Marwick (2013) susine c dihotomia
dintre identitate online i identitatea offline este o tez limitat din cel puin 2 motive. n
137
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
primul rnd, astzi persoanele comunic online mai mult cu persoanele pe care le cunosc n
viaa real, aadar utilizeaz profiluri adevrate. n al doilea rnd, tehnologia wireless,
precum i dispozitivele mobile faciliteaz accesul la social media, astfel nct acestea devin
parte integrant a vieii cotidiene. Posibilitatea de a-i verifica, de pild, contul de Facebook
oricnd, fie de pe laptop, fie de pe telefon, nu mai transform conectarea la reea ntr-un soi de
eveniment distinct, care s-i ofere un context particular pentru crearea unei imagini personale
diferite semnificativ de cea obinuit. Bineneles, chiar dac autodezvluirea este crescut n
mediul online (Qian i Scott 2007), nu trebuie s se treac cu vederea efectele pe care
comunicarea mediat de calculator le are cel puin n exagerarea calitilor pozive n
prezentarea personal (teoria relaiilor hiperpersonale dezvoltat de ctre J. B. Walther n
1996 fiind gritoare n acest sens). De asemenea, specificitatea fiecrei platforme online i
spune cuvntul n creionarea prezentrii de sine, a conceperii sinelui i n utilizarea sau lipsa
utilizrii anonimatului.
3. Vocabularele identitii online
Cum pot fi interpretate aceste schimbri ale construciei identitii online i ale
valorizrii anonimatului n new media utiliznd filtrele hermeneutice preluate de la Richard
Rorty? Utiliznd conceptele de vocabular, precum i cele de perfeciune privat (autocreaie)
i solidaritate uman (sfer public), ncercm s le testm n domeniul descris anterior, n
cele dou mari etape asumate. Pentru Rorty, fiecare vocabular impune o re-descriere a
obiectului cercetat i, n ultim instan, o viziune asupra lumii. Orice vocabular trece prin
procese de revizuire sau chiar de nlocuire cu unul nou, proces complex i niciodat att de
raional pe ct am putea crede. Cum vocabularul autocreaiei este n mod necesar unul privat,
nemprtit, nepotrivit pentru argumentare, iar cel al solidaritii este n mod necesar unul
public i mprtit, un mediu pentru schimbul argumentativ (Rorty 1998, 27), am putea
considera etapa de nceput a dezvoltrii new media ca fiind circumscris primului tip de
vocabular, n timp ce stadiile contemporane s-ar exprima prin cel de-al doilea tip de
vocabular. Evident, este vorba despre o asociere care se realizeaz n termenii dominantei
discursive caracteristice celor dou etape i nu n termenii unei corespondene biunivoce
totale. De asemenea, trebuie asumat i remarca rortyan, conform creia sinele uman e mai
degrab creat prin folosirea unui vocabular, dect exprimat adecvat sau inadecvat printr-un
vocabular (Rorty 1998, 38). n acest sens, toate tipurile de limbaj sunt create, solidaritatea
fiind, de asemenea, creat i nu descoperit.
Din modalitile de utilizare concret a comunicrii mediate de calculator din anii
1990, precum i din literatura de specialitate aferent acestei perioade, se observ
oportunitatea resimit n legtur cu realizarea de sine folosind instrumente tehnologice noi.
Chiar dac sensul celebrrii auto-crerii n cyberspace era diluat prin exprimarea angoaselor i
prin diverse idei distopice, dominanta teoretic era aceea a libertii de creaie identitar, de
reinventare a sinelui prin depirea barierelor de gen, ras, etnie, religie etc. n acest sens,
vocabularul privat, al construciei i reconstruciei identitii online n funcie de propriile
reguli se regsete constant la nceputul utilizrii Internetului. La aceast situaie, contribuia
anonimatului a fost deosebit de important, fcnd posibile multe dintre prezentrile de sine
care altfel nu s-ar fi putut susine (ca n cazul adoptrii unor identiti online complet false).
Desigur, persoane anonime i lipsite de corp, care i construiesc identiti imaginare sau
138
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
complet reale se ntlnesc n online, unde interacioneaz, comunic i pot seta germenii
schimbrii sociale i ai solidaritii umane. Experienele relatate i explicate de ctre Howard
Rheingold (1993) din interiorul primelor comuniti virtuale sunt emblematice n acest sens.
n pofida diverselor tipuri de anonimat, membrii unei comuniti sunt capabili de ajutor
necondiionat, sfaturi, mprtirea cunotinelor sau a expertizei n mod gratuit, crend o
adevrat economie a darului digital. n aceeai msur, acte defimtoare, ilegale i lipsite de
etic se pot realiza la adpostul anonimatului, rupnd armonia dintre public i privat.
Urmnd terminologia rortyan, actualele forme de comunicare au complicat i mai
mult distinciile dintre cele dou forme de vocabulare, fcnd nelegerea comportamentelor
utilizatorilor dificil de descifrat. Social media sunt considerate drept filtre colaborative
plurale, care ar putea duce la crearea solidaritii, crend un vocabular public, prin intermediul
cruia lucrurile se mprtesc i se argumenteaz. Preferina utilizatorilor de a recrea
identitile din offline pe platformele online se regsete n prezent la categorii foarte diverse.
Studiul realizat de Bullingham i Vasconcelos (2013) att pe blogeri, ct i pe locuitorii din
Second Life au confirmat aceast ipotez. Dei utilizatorii din Second Life dein mai multe
oportuniti de a construi identiti distincte de cea real, eul digital rmne, pn la urm
ancorat n cel offline. Convergena dintre privat i public poate conduce la combinarea
vocabularelor, corespunznd unei identiti amestecate (blended identity) (Baker 2009), ce
presupune cooperarea i influena dintre online i offline.
4. Observaii finale
Interpretarea identitii online i a valorizrii anonimatului a fost realizat pe fundalul
dat de ncercarea de a stabili modele identitare corespunztoare celor mai semnificative etape
din dezvoltarea Internetului de la nceputurile sale i pn astzi. Relaia dintre construirea
identitii i new media este una nuanat i cere constant contextualizri precise; cu toate
acestea, decupajele prezentate sunt emblematice pentru surprinderea tendinelor principale din
momentele-cheie alese ca referin. Relevana anonimatului n cercetrile timpurii asupra
identitii online pare a fi contrabalansat de datele obinute din orientrile actuale. Limitrile,
dificultile i constrngerile aprute n procesul edificrii identitare din cadrul formelor
prezente de comunicare mediat de calculator sunt explicate i integrate ntr-o perspectiv mai
ampl. Dincolo de tendina analitic i metateoretic de a privi evoluia tratrii anonimatului
i a identitii virtuale, scopul lucrrii a fost i acela de a observa tipurile de vocabular pe care
anonimatul le antreneaz. Astfel, vocabularele realizrii de sine prin intermediul noilor
tehnologii i mijloace de comunicare au fost discutate la nivelul celor dou paliere considerate
drept simptomatice pentru ntreagul traseu al identitii online. Conceptele rortyene de
vocabular, autocreaie i solidaritate au fost reutilizate n acest scop, dezvluind reele posibile
de interpretare ale ecologiilor cotidiene ale utilizatorilor din anii 90 i din zilele noastre.
Referine bibliografice
Baker, A. J. 2009. Mick or Keith: blended identity of online rock fans. Identity in the
Information Society 2(1): 7-21.
139
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Bullingham, Liam i Vasconcelos, Ana C. 2013. The presentation of self in the online
world: Goffman and the study of online identities. Journal of Information Science 39 (1):
101-112.
Featherly, Kevin. 2003. Anonymity. n Encyclopedia of New Media, edited by Steve Jones,
9-11. New York: Sage Publications.
Haraway, D. 1988. Situated knowledges: The science question in feminism and the privilege
of partial perspective. Feminist studies 14(3): 575-599.
Hollenbaugh, E. E., & Everett, M. K. 2013. The Effects of Anonymity on Self Disclosure
in Blogs: An Application of the Online Disinhibition Effect. Journal of Computer Mediated
Communication 18: 283-302.
Grdinaru, Camelia. 2013. From Multitude to Convergence: Contemporary Trends in the
Study of Online Identity. n Argumentum: Journal of the Seminar of Discursive Logic,
Argumentation Theory & Rhetoric 11(2): 95-108.
Larsson, S., Svensson, M., & de Kaminski, M. 2012. Online piracy, anonymity and social
change. Innovation through deviance. Convergence: The International Journal of Research
into New Media Technologies 19(1): 95-114.
Leshed, G. 2009. Silencing the clatter: removing anonymity from a corporate online
community. Online Deliberation: Design, Research, and Practice, edited by Todd Davies
and Seeta Pena Gangadharan, 243-251. Stanford: Center for the Study of Language and
Information Publications.
Marwick, Alice E. 2013. Online Identity. In A Companion to New Media Dynamics, edited
by John Hartley, Jean Burgess, and Axel Bruns, 355-364. Chicester: Wiley-Blackwell
Publishing Ltd.
Morio, H., & Buchholz, C. 2009. How anonymous are you online? Examining online social
behaviors from a cross-cultural perspective. AI & Society 23(2): 297-307.
Morio, H., & Buchholz, C. 2009. How anonymous are you online? Examining online social
behaviors from a cross-cultural perspective. AI & Society 23(2): 297-307.
Papacharissi, Zizi. 2002. The Presentation of Self in Virtual Life: Characteristics of Personal
Home Pages. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 79 (3): 643-660.
Qian, H., i Scott, C. R. 2007. Anonymity and Self Disclosure on Weblogs. Journal of
Computer Mediated Communication 12(4): 1428-1451.
Rheingold, H. 1993. The virtual community: Homesteading on the electronic frontier. Boston
MA: Addison-Wesley Publishing.
Rorty, Richard. 1998. Contingen, ironie i solidaritate. Traducere i note de Corina Sorana
tefanov. Studiu introductive de Mircea Flonta. Bucureti: Editura ALL.
Rui, Jian Raymond and Stefanone, Michael A. 2013. Strategic Image Management Online.
Self-presentation, self-esteem and social network perspectives. Information, Communication
& Society (ahead-of-print): 1-20.
Senft, Theresa M. 2013. Microcelebrity and the Branded Self. In A Companion to New
Media Dynamics, edited by John Hartley, Jean Burgess, and Axel Bruns, 346-354. Chicester:
Wiley-Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Shmatikov, V., & Hughes, D. J. 2002. Defining anonymity and privacy. Workshop on
Issues in the Theory of Security (WITS 02): 1-12.
140
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Tanis, M., & Postmes, T. 2007. Two faces of anonymity: Paradoxical effects of cues to
identity in CMC. Computers in Human Behavior 23(2): 955-970.
Turkle, Sherry. 1984. The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit. New York: Simon
& Schuster.
Turkle, Sherry. 1995. Life on the Screen. Identity in the Age of the Internet. New York: Simon
& Schuster.
Vamialis, A. 2012. Online defamation: confronting anonymity. International Journal of Law
and Information Technology, 21(1), 31-65.
Wallace, Kathleen A. 1999. Anonymity. Ethics and Information Technology 1: 23-35.
Walther, J. B. (1996). Computer-mediated communication: Impersonal, interpersonal, and
hyperpersonal interaction. Communication Research 23: 3-43.
Woo, J. 2006. The right not to be identified: privacy and anonymity in the interactive media
environment. New Media & Society 8(6): 949-967.
Zhao, Shanyang. 2005. The Digital Self: Through the Looking Glass of Telecopresent
Others. Symbolic Interaction 28 (3): 387-405.
141
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ARGUMENTATION, DE-DOUBLING AND DE-RATIONALIZATION IN THE
ROMANIAN POLITICAL DISCOURSE
Gabriela GOUDENHOOFT, Assistant Professor, PhD, University of Oradea
Abstract: This paper has as a working hypothesis the idea that political discourse involves a
series of specific features, often reflecting the atomization of the social reality, generated and
related by it, demanding a specific and critical approach. Romanian contemporary political
discourse analysis reveals a dual profile of the imaginary, a mythical dimension of the
representation, a strange pairing between pre-modern and post-modern.
This dual dimension overlapps on a duplication of the public discourse, where the arguments
rationality is flawed by some ambiguity of common values, by the absence of a social
consensus, of an implied agreement on a set of social values and on an explicit adherence to
these values.
A relevant topic is the rationalization of the political discourse, taking into consideration the
discourses functions: communication, persuasion, legitimization, and the representation /
reconstruction of the reality, so seeing the discursive traps on a logic and linguistic level,
where the chosen categories succeed in dual pairs with an alarming frequency for the health
of the contemporary political and social life: mythic-realistic, unconditionally-engaged,
versatile-obsessive, intuitive-comprehensive etc.
The rationalization-derationalization dynamic and the mass media influence on public
discourse, are seen in relation to the dimensions of the new dramatic, spectacular media
political discourse and, alternatively, with the paradox, and the antinomy of the virtual-real,
uniqueness-multiplicity concepts.
We do not plead in favor of the idea that the media techniques in general or new media
coverage of politics are factors of contemporary public discourse derationalization, but just
follow the manner which this process, this subtle rationalization-derationalization game
seems to occur in the context of the political spectacularization.
Keywords: political discourse, rationality, spectacular media, atomization, antinomy
Discursul politic, ca form specializat de comunicare, funcioneaz n strns
legtur cu imaginarul social i politic i se situeaz la intersecia dintre mai multe niveluri
sau spaii simbolice importante: politic, public i comunicaional (Wolton, 1997). Acesta este
doar unul dintre motivele pentru care vom aborda problema dinamicii discursive n strns
legtur cu imaginarul dar i cu imaginea, pornind de la ipoteza modificrii nivelului de
raionalizare a discursului (dinamica raionalizare-deraionalizare) n condiiile modificrii
spaiului public la care acesta i gsete adecvarea, n contact i sub influena mass-media.
n ceea ce privete imaginarul social i politic romnesc, fr a avea pretenia c
structurile acestuia ar fi n mod absolut diferite de constructele manifeste ale altor comuniti,
observm o poziionare dihotomic i antinomic, adic o tendin cognitiv de diviziune a
ariilor n componente contradictorii, inclusiv la nivel valoric (bine-ru) i duale totodat,
conducnd la reprezentri bipolare i atitudini tranante, determinate de o logic disjunctiv
(ori-ori), fcnd adesea imposibil o percepie a nuanelor, cu tendine fie ale unei logici
rejective a contradictoriului (nici nici), fie ale unei coincidenia oppositorum de tip balcanic
142
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
i mpciutorist de genul hai s dm tuturor dreptate pentru c fiecare are dreptatea sa
(Goudenhooft, 2012, p.98). Aceasta induce o patologie pe care am putea-o numi sindrom
binar (Antohi, 2005, p.61) sau tendin de polarizare. Analiznd imaginarul romnesc vom
descoperi c numeroasele dihotomii i antinomii, mpreun cu tendinele rejective,
niciniciste sunt vehicule ale trecererii de la raionalitatea ordinar la cvasi-raionalitatea
mitic inclusiv n discursului public i/sau politic contemporan.
Nu vom analiza toate funciile discursului; am ales s documentm dinamica
raionalizare-deraionalizare n legtur cu funcia de comunicare a discursului, de persuadare,
de legitimare i de reprezentare/reconstrucie a realului.
Abordnd aspectul comunicaional al discursului, trebuie s avem n vedere
comunicarea nsi i modul n care aceasta comport relaii simetrice sau complementare
(Rovena-Frumuani, 2005, p.22) participanii la comunicare i reflect reciproc
comportamentul. Una dintre perechile antinomice prezente n structura discursiv sun aspectul
comunicrii o reprezint rigiditatea/versatilitatea. Cnd intervine rigiditatea, situarea pe o
poziie univoc, nchis, nu mai are loc comunicarea, nici empatia. Pe de alt parte, exist i
riscul unei anume versatiliti, politicianul spune ce vrea s aud publicul, alegtorul,
reflectndu-i dorinele, idealurile, n care el nsui nu crede ctui de puin. Paradoxul acestei
antinomii l constituie ireversibilitatea cci comunicarea este ireversibil (Ibidem, p.23).
Mesajul politic trece de la actorul politic la public de cele mai multe ori, fr posibilitate de
corectare, dar i fr urmrirea altei forme de feed-back, dect adeziunea cu consecine
electorale, care s se materializeze ntr-un acord al alegtorilor prin votul ctigat de
politician. Bineneles c acest fapt vizeaz funcia persuasiv a limbajului politic asupra
cruia vom reveni. Legat de comunicare este relevant faptul c discursul politic comunic
mesaj i imagine, actorul comunic informaie i se comunic pe sine ca imagine sau, altfel
spus, mesajul comunicat prin discurs cuprinde i informaii legate de imaginea politicianului.
Aadar n procesul de comunicare imaginea are i o funcie i valoare ideatic, capacitatea de
a oferi un referenial, conferind ncrctur ideologic mesajelor (Frigioiu, 2004, p.10).
Imaginea politic se comunic prin discurs i este adesea tributar mitului, cci mitul politic
se reflect att n construciile reprezentrilor sociale, ct i n modelele discursive utilizate n
pres, n alocuiuni publice i chiar n limbajul curent. Ideea care se extrage din aceste
observaii este aceea c suprapunerea construciilor duale peste fenomenul de polarizare a
imaginarului politic confer un anume profil discursului politic, laolalt cu acreditarea ideii
c spaiul politic este unul privilegiat, populat cu actori cu profil mitic (Goudenhooft, 2012,
p.109). Realitatea aceasta nu este, desigur, specific numai societii romneti. Societatea
modern se caracterizeaz astfel prin nencetatea producie de persoane nevrozate i
inferiorizate, care rezult din manifestarea acestui fenomen ambivalent (Dorna, 2004,
p.125).
Funcia discursului de a viza reconstrucia, transformarea, chiar i fictiv, a realitii,
este semnificativ n perspectiva dinamicii pe care o analizm. Putem observa adesea cum
autoritatea i legitimitatea omului politic, cnd acesta o are, desigur, se folosete de adevrate
ceremonii transformative crend noi realiti, modelnd realitatea. Logica simului comun
utilizeaz disociativ noiunile ordine/haos, legitim/nelegitim, just/injust (Frumuani, 2005,
p.144). Discursul politic particip aadar de o manier ambivalent la crearea social a
realitii sau la anihilarea ei. (Ibidem, p.146).
143
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
n ceea ce privete problema legitimitii omului politic, legtura dintre aceasta i
discurs este indisolubil. Discursul politic legitimeaz puterea. Discursul doctrinar
legitimeaz temeiul accesului la puterea politic, discursul propagandistic legitimeaz
raionalitatea accesului la puterea politic, discursul publicitar legitimeaz mijlocul prin care
se accede la puterea politic, discursul ideologic legitimeaz destinatarul care va beneficia de
accesul la puterea politic (Slvstru, 2009, p.38). Acionnd, decidentul i manifest
autoritatea n legtur cu legitimarea puterii, iar persuadarea, convingerea este temeiul
raional al legitimrii puterii (Ibidem, p.57). n fapt, exist 3 mecanisme ale legitimrii
politice: schematizarea discursiv (imaginea propus de orator autioriului referitor la o
problem, cu intenia de a-l convinge s adere la acea imagine), coerena intern a discursului
politic, asigurat de normele generale ale raionalitii (Ibidem, p.59). Necesitatea
raionalitii n cadrul discursului nu poate fi pus la ndoial. Perelman si Tyteca arat c
prezena unei contradicii ntr-un discurs argumentativ descalific argumentarea dar i pe cel
care o propune. De pild n discursurile politice romneti ntlnim erori de argumentare,
remarcndu-se adesea Ignoratio elenchi (lips de coeren problematic), urmat de lipsa de
coeren referenial, (acordarea aceluiai sens problemelor i de echilibrul ntemeierilor(
Slvstru, 2009, p.60). Semnalarea acestor erori certific o tendin de deraionalizare
discursiv, dar aceasta nu demonstreaz nsi absena raionalitii, cci absena unor factori
de ordinul raionalitii ar duce la pierderea credibilitii unui discurs politic. Se petrece
adesea un fenomen de transfer al raionalitii spre alte zone, atunci cnd se vorbete despre
raionalitatea compromisului politic. De acceea vom gsi n cadrul discursului politic
ntreaga tipologie a argumentelor: (Ibidem, pp.201 sqq): argumente bazate pe fapte,
argumente bazate pe exemple, argumente bazate pe autoritate (n ciuda absenei temeiului
raional al lor, cci spiritul critic cedeaz sub presiunea imperativului modelelor). Vom gsi,
de asemenea un ntreg inventar de strategii i proceduri logice folosite n discursul politic:
structuri deductive (modus ponens, tollens), structuri dilematice de argumentare, inferene
imediate la nivel propoziional i categorial (exemplu: silogismul retoric), structuri logice
inductive, transductive, probabilistice etc. Vom gsi ns i sofisme (ibidem, p.239): sofismele
de confruntare care limiteaz, argumentum ad hominem, sofismele de roluri, strategii de
imunizare, argumentum ad populum, ad verecundiam (autoritatii), ad misericordiam,
sofismele punctelor de plecare (vezi i Olbrecht i Tyteca), petitio principii (raionamentul
circular), sofismul falsei autoriti, falsei analogii, falsei consecine, post hoc ergo propter
hoc, argumentum ad ignorantiam, sofismele de limbaj (echivocaia, amfibolia, accentul,
diviziunea, compoziia) etc. Fr a intra n exemplificarea tuturor formelor de argumentare
credem c raionalitatea a pierdut din prestigiul pe care l avea i nu avem n vedere
raionalitatea echivalat cu logicitatea, ci raionalitatea conceput drept adecvare, adecvare ce
s-ar putea stabili printr-un proces de examinare critic (Marga, 1991, p.63); vom observa cum
prestigiul raionalitii a fost substituit de prestigiul i relevana succesului. Aici ne
intersectm, desigur, cu relaia dintre politic i moral care, ar merita n sine o examinare,
dar peste care vom trece menionnd doar c n epoca modern este promovat cultul
succesului, adic teoria c intenia care se realizeaz comport, prin nsui acest fapt i
exclusiv prin el, valoare moral, pe cnd cea nerealizat este, din cauza eecului, vrednic de
dispre (Benda, 2007, p.136). Succesul nseamn i eficacitate la nivel discursiv, iar
principiul eficacitii cuvntului duce la limbajul de instituire, existnd o reoric oficial,
144
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
legitim, autorizat, cci limbajul i primete autoritatea din afar (Bourdieu, 2012, p.141).
Legitimitatea discursului este dat de autoritatea delegat, de impostur autorizat 1.
Legitimitatea este legat i de profilul societii. Transmiterea gndirii se face potrivit
dou stiluri de baz: stilul societilor democratice i stilul societilor ierarhice, deoarece
aceste stiluri cuprind structuri lingvistice care le corespund mai bine (Perelman i Olbrechts-
Tyteca, 2012, 204-205). Aadar n societile democratice ncrederea public este extrem de
important, spre deosebire de cele autocratice, care dein alte mecanisme de echilibru i de
reglare (aparatul represiv i ideologic), iar mass-media trebuie s aib o dubl funcie: ea
trebuie s fie obiect al ncrederii i mediator al ncrederii fa de persoane, instituii, sistem
Rovena-Frumuani, 1999, p.227).
Cum se valideaz aceste observaii la nivelul discursului politic romnesc? Ele sunt n
strict dependen cu existena unui imaginar colectiv social polarizat care face posibil un
discurs politic, dar i jurnalistic, polarizate i antinomice n Romnia contemporan.
Imaginarul politic este o scen prielnic desfurrii antinomiilor pentru c persist n
mentalul colectiv romnesc ideea c spaiul politic este unul privilegiat, dar i mitic, inefabil,
cumva n afara lumii, populat de personaje speciale, de iniiai, unde regulile obinuite i
morala nu se aplic2 iar pledoaria pentru privilegierea regimului ontologic difereniat al
politicului merge pn la asumarea istoriei3.
Discursul politicienilor este polarizat i mizeaz pe antinomie i metafor, sloganuri
antitetice: Reforma nseamn un deal din care rsare o vale 4 Emil Constantinescu; PNL
este cel mai tnr vechi partid din Romnia- slogan PNL; n Europa nu se intr n
zdrene5 Mihai Ungheanu.
Caracterizrile antinomice se regsesc i n mentalul analitilor, scriitorilor,
gazetarilor. Cristian Tudor Popescu de pild, l caracterizeaz pe Traian Bsescu drept un
animal politic foarte mare, dar un om politic foarte mic!6. Ziarele mizeaz chiar pe titluri
antinomice: Lipseti i ctigi7, ansa i handicapul Guvernului Ponta8, Minciunile
1
Purttorul de cuvnt este un impostor nzestrat cu skeptron (...) tiina politic, nvat n instituii special
amenajate n acest scop este raionalizarea competenei pe care o cere universul politicii i pe care o posed n
stare practic profesionitii: ea urmrete creterea eficacitii cunoaterii practice prin punerea la dispoziia ei
a unor tehnici raionale precum sondajul, relaiile publice sau marketingul politic, tinznd, n acelai timp, s-o
legitimeze prin conferirea unor aparene de tiinificitate i prin instituirea problemelor politice n afaceri de
specialiti, pe care e de datoria speecialitilor s le traneze n numele cunoaterii, nu al interesului politic
(Bourdieu, 2012, pp.189-190).
2
Iat cum i caracterizeaz preedintele Traian Bsescu biroul: Biroul meu s-a sigilat, fietul s-a sigilat, toate
documentele secrete din cabinetul Preedintelui Romniei sunt sigilate. Preedintele interimar folosete biroul
de deasupra biroului preedintelui, adic cu un birou mai sus. Nu are acces la dosarele mele, ale preedintelui,
deci alea sparte din istoria Romniei. Acolo sunt lucruri tiute i netiute publicDeclaraia lui Traian Bsescu
la postul B1TV, preluat de Evenimentul Zilei, 17 iulie 2012.
3
Aceast hulit clas politic nscut dup 1990, practic creeaz momente de istorie remarcabile n viaa
societii romneti. Pentru c noi suntem aceia care schimbm lumea n care trim. - declara Ovidiu Petrescu
Ovidiu Cameliu Petrescu, 7 octombrie 2003, n Discursuri i dezbateri Parlamentare 1864-2004, coord. Gh
Buzatu, Editura Mica Valahie, Bucureti 2006, p.777.
4
Emil Constantinescu apud Constantin Sava, n Discursuri i dezbateri Parlamentare 1864-2004, coord. Gh
Buzatu, Editura Mica Valahie, Bucureti 2006, p.617.
5
Mihai Ungheanu, 28 decembrie 2008, n Discursuri i dezbateri Parlamentare 1864-2004, coord. Gh Buzatu,
Editura Mica Valahie, Bucureti 2006, p.621.
6
Jurnalul Naional, 12 iunie 2012.
7
Cristian Tudor Popescu, Ziarul financiar, seciunea politic, 10 iulie 2012.
8
Sorin Roca Stnescu , Jurnalul Naional,seciunea Editorial, 24 mai 2012
145
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
preacinstitului Bsescu 9 dar i pe text: Mergem spre ntuneric de muli ani. Vedem asta mai
ales acum cnd vom lua Lumin!10
Situarea cu preponderen pe poziii antinomice, folosirea de standarde duble i de
reprezentri care situeaz politicul ntr-o zon privilegiat, fracturarea solidaritii dintre
vorb i fapt, aplicarea simultan a principiului nimeni nu e mai presus de lege i a
privilegierii politicienilor de a aciona diferit, explic fenomenul de-raionalizrii discursului
public i politic romnesc i abandonul raionalitii logice n favoarea unei raionaliti
mitologice. Nu putem totui eluda faptul c mitul i raionalul sunt doua cadre de gndire
diametral opuse, iar ieirea din mit conduce la gsirea rdcinilor spirituale ale
raionalului (Gauchet, 2006, p.68).
Este ns posibil abandonarea mitului i a ritualului i instituionalizarea raionalitii
la nivelul imaginarului politic sau al discursului politic, cu att mai mult cu ct opoziia dintre
raional i mistic, dar i coexistena lor este documentat mai ales la nivel de limbaj, de
discurs? Nu mai este necesar s se dialogheze, se se discute, s se raioneze. Trebuie ateptat
ca cineva s vorbeasc pentru noi. (Eco, 1996, p.50). Putem, desigur, observa i o paradoxal
coexisten a preferinei pentru ateptarea salvatorului care s vorbeasc dar mai ales s
schimbe ceva pentru poporul romn, ca i i necesitatea i multiplicarea iraonal a discursului
n dezbatere spectacular, televizual, despre care vom discuta ceva mai departe.
De asemenea discursul public romnesc pare s se fi nrdcinat ntr-o adevrat
tradiie a dedublrii: Adrian Marino ofer o prezentatare metaforic a imaginii celor dou
Romnii11: una a tradiiei ideologice etniciste, naionaliste, ovine, antisemite, anticriticiste,
pe care autorul o consider fals, e altfel, (dei observm numeroase ncercri de acreditare a
existenei ei, mai ales pentru perioada interbelic) i una a ideologiei de tip iluminist, liberal,
democratic, pro-european i raionalist. Cele dou Romnii, pe de o parte una
antidemocratic, intolerant i mistic, iar pe de alta cea liberal i raionalist-critic par s se
fi confruntat ncepnd din secolul al XIX-lea. Existena bipolarei, antinomicei Romnii o
confirm intelectuali precum Stelian Tnase: C exist azi mai multe Romnii nu este un
secret. (...) Aceste Romnii sunt desprite de clivaje adnci12, aa cum se separ i urbanul
de rural, dar i Romnia profund de cea superficial sau, i Romnia deschis, urban,
informat, dorind liberti de Romnia conservatoare, izolat, nchis, arhaic, temtoare,
rural13. Analistul constat atomizarea societii romneti, alienarea ei, lipsa de perspectiv,
n condiiile n care asista, paradoxal, la o Romnie absent14, care nu fusese nc invitat n
acel moment (2003) s adere la Uniunea European. Gabriel Liiceanu propune i el, cu ironie
filosofic, o dihotomie romneasc: patria mare care a devenit irecognoscibil i alienat,
versus patria mic, Romnia de buzunar 15, populat cu oameni consacrai, cu valori
9
Dan Constantin, Jurnalul Naional, 12 aprilie 2012.
10
Ibidem.
11
Adrian Marino, Dou Romnii ideologice, n volumul Al treilea discurs. Cultur, ideologie i politic n
Romnia. Adrian Marino n dialog cu Sorin Antohi, (Iai: Polirom, 2001): 177-182;
12
Stelian Tnase, Fractura, Revista 22, 16.12.2004.
13
Idem, Despre oligarhie, Revista 22, 26.05.2003.
14
La coada Europei, printre cei mai sraci, dar i printre cei mai corupi, printre cei mai ineficieni, i printre cei
mai neltori i ambigui. Am rmas pe peronul grii de provincie s ateptm alt tren. Nici mcar nu se tie dac
va veni acest tren. Dar noi trebuie s stm cumini pe valize. Stelian Tnase, Romnia absent, Revista 22,
28.04.2003.
15
Gabriel Liiceanu, Povestea patriei mele mici, Revista 22, 10.07.2012.
146
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
perene i sigure, patria libertilor noastre individuale. Atomizarea merge mai departe,
conducnd spre o zon a proprietii, n msura n care n pres se scrie tot mai mult despre
Romnia lor i Romnia noastr16 (Goudenhooft 2012).
Dac ipoteza noastr vizeaz dinamica raionalizare-deraionalizare discursiv n
perspectiva lrgirii cadrului public de desfurare al acestuia prin incidena mijloacelor media
de difuzare a discursului, trebuie s avem n vedere dimensiunea spectacular a noului discurs
difuzat mediatic i, n subsidiar paradoxul i antinomia virtual-real, unicitate-multiplicitate.
Actorul politic care se desfoar n cadrul spectacolului mediatic se afl n mod virtual i
mediat n conexiune cu un public mult mai larg dect n cazul unui discurs public n strad sau
ntr-un spaiu discursiv clasic, dar n mod real i imediat el este izolat de acel public, el este
singur sau n legtur imediat doar cu operatorii media i nu cu destinatarii discursului. Poate
c nu ntmpltor n spectacolele politice televizate se permite accesul unui public limitat,
uneori, mai ales la dezbaterile politice, pentru a eluda impresia copleitoare de singurtate a
celui care rostete discursul.
Rolul i locul pe care l are realul n procesul modern de comunicare politic, incidena
funciei de reprezentare i de transformare a realitii prin discurs ne d informaii importante
privind dinamica raional-deraionalizare. D pornim de la observaia c orice situaie inter-
locutorie este un proces de co-construcie a realitii prin intermediul discursului, rezult c
percepem realitatea social nu ca pe un obiect de reflectare i vehiculare prin intermediul
limbajului ci, ca pe o recreare a lumii, a uneia dintre lumile posibile, n care postulatul de
baz se rezum astfel: orice cuvnt are o intenie persuasiv. (Dorna, 2004, p.175). Din
analiza discursurilor rezult c specia discursului politic dei face parte din paradigma
influenei i persuasiunii sociale, sub influena unei mize, iar pattern-urile strategice i
logicile persuasive fac din persuasiunea politic, una articualt mai ales pe o logic a
verosimilului. Este necesar persuadarea care are ca scop, chiar i numai n subsidiar,
meninerea unui climat social de echilibru cci echilibrul i predictibilitatea asigurat de
repectarea legilor sunt dezirabile n lumea noastr, iar convenia asupra unor valori comune i
chiar concesiile fcute n numele lor conduc la armonia social i ordine. n lumea post-
modern instrumentalizarea condiiilor de tip panes et circensis i gsete o perfect
aplicare la politic. Politicianul de azi ne ofer un spectacol n toate gamele (de la solemn la
grotesc) promindu-ne pine i anesteziindu-ne simul relitii cu o relitate recreat n
direct de dragul publicului care are o fals impresie c ar participa ntr-adevr la ceea ce se
petrece. Spectacolul politic ne ofer iluzia contemporaneitii cu decidentul, n ciuda i cu
preul confortului oferit de fotoliul din faa televizorului. Aadar politica se poate defini ca
spectacol relatat de mass-media i urmrit n direct de pri din public (Edelman, 1999,
p.183) iar scena politic are o configuraie dual (concret/abstract, siguran/ameninare,
criz/destindere) dulaitate de regsit, nu ntmpltor, i n cazul discursului televizual.
Mesajul politic televizual are o structur dual: partea manifest, explicit care se adreseaz
raionalului i mesajul implicit, ascuns al imaginii care se adreseaz incontientului, mesajul
subliminal.
16
n Romnia, la putere este, de fapt, o anumit mentalitate care se exprim i acioneaz prin politicienii i
liderii alei. Toi acetia i votanii lor i-au croit o Romnie numai a lor, n care noi, restul, suntem tolerai
Cristian Crisban, De ce nu o s mai votez, Jurnalul Naional, seciunea Editoiral, 2 iunie 2012.
147
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Desigur, rolul media la introducerea i dezvoltarea spectacolului i spectaculosului n
comunicarea politic este incontestabil17. Rezult i de aici un paradox: pe de o parte actorul
politic se izoleaz, imediatiatatea publicului se pierde n favoarea medierii de ctre
televiziune, radio etc., n pofida tocmai a ideii de prezentare n direct iar comunicarea
devin nsingurat, monologat i univoc, i, pe de alt parte, discursul se multiplic,
discursului politicianului suprapunndu-i-se discursul jurnalistului i chiar al publicului, dar la
care politicianul nsui nu mai are acces imediat, ci doar l poate evalua ca feed-back, ulterior.
De aceea cele trei riscuri care mineaz comunicarea politic sunt riscul cderii n politica-
spectacol, riscul aservirii opiniei publice la reprezentarea furnizat de sondaje i ruptura
dintre mass-media i public. Actorii politici sufer de o mutaie de la reprezentativ la
demonstrativ, la spectacular i histrionic. n aceste condiii miza pare s se mute de la
raionalitatea discursiv intern la imagine, cci la urma urmei o imagine valoreaz mai mult
dect o mie de cuvinte, expresie extrem de utilizat att n media ct i n politic i care
pledeaz pentru avantajele intuitivului n competiie cu inteligibilul. Dinamica nsi a
imaginii politicianului reprezint o provocare interesant, cci ea sufer transformri pe
msura evoluiei actorului politic. Actorul politic jongleaz cu raionalul i intuitivul; Max
Weber observa distincia ntre aciunea raional, cea n care actorul organizeaz mijloacele
cele mai bune n funcie de un scop bine stabilit, aciunea etic n care actorul urmrete o
idee valabil moral, aciunea tradiional unde nvinge cutuma i/sau obinuina, aciunea
afectiv dictat de emoie, sentiment, pasiune. Ei bine, aceasta din urm, care mizeaz pe
emoie i intuiie, pare s devin tot mai mult mijlocul de manifestare a inteniei discursive
contemporane, cci actorul politic pare s nu mai fie interesat (doar) de a persuada prin
mijloace i argumente raionale publicul, ci vrea s l mite, s l emoioneze, mizeaz pe
carism, imagine i prestigiu. Prestigiul este un soi de fascinaie care ne paralizeaz
facultile critice i ne umple sufletul de mirare i respect (...) Masele ntotdeauna, i foarte
adesea chiar indivizii, au nevoie de preri gata formate. Succesul acestor preri nu are nici o
legtur cu adevrul sau cu erorile pe care le conin; succesul se ntemeiaz exclusiv pe
prestigiul lor. (Le Bon, 2007, pp.67-68) Deci prestigiul este potenat de succes.
Mass media reuesc s compenseze individualismul, atomizarea i birocratizarea
relaiilor sociale, crend cetenilor impresia unui contact direct cu liderul, prin intermediul
imaginii telegenice iar liderul atinge cu plcere coarda familiaritii sau chiar a unei
afectiviti chiar i iluzorii fiind. (Frigioiu, 2004, p.29). Iar oamenii, aa cum observase i
Feuerbach, proiecteaz narcisic asupra liderilor caliti ideale, rezultnd identificarea cu
liderul ntr-o oarecare msur. Agreem personalitile politice cu care ne putem identifica n
mod ideal. Cu ct o cultur este mai primitiv cu att personalizarea puterii are mai mari anse
de succes. n culturile secularizate, cum este cea occidental, sub influena mass-media,
cultura civic se transform ntr-o cultur a spectacolului (ibidem, p.30), bazat pe
simulare, artficiu i parodie. n marele spectacol orchestrat de mass-media, ceteanul se
crede activ, important, crede (n sens cvasi-mistic) c poate influena deciziile politice,
confundnd realitatea cu ficiunea.
17
S-a constat c discursul politic reprezint echilibrul fragil ntre trei discursuri: al politicienilor, al
jurnalitilor i al publicului; miza discursului politic este instituirea unei anumite interpretri a realitii,
intrepretare totdeauna dependent de ctigarea puterii sau exercitarea ei (Rovena-Frumuani, 2005, pp.136-
137).
148
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Este destul de documentat ideea inflenei mediatice asupra deraionalizrii discursului
politic contemporan. Astfel, potrivit lui Jean-Marie Cotteret, impunnd o logic a
spectacularului, comunicarea politic televizual, oblig pe locutorii politici s renune la
raionamentul ipotetico-deductiv n favoarea celui asociativ. Politicianul adopt un alt gen de
discurs n situaii de comunicare televizat i mizeaz adesea, aa cum am artat, pe mijloace
extra-lingvistice de persuadare. Dar intervenia mijloacelor media i a reprezentanilor ei, n
spe prezena jurnalistului introduce noi elemente ntr-o ecuaia nici aa foarte simpl. Cui i
se va adresa politicianul? Acesta se va confrunta cu dilema discursului potrivit (potrivit cu
electoratul pe care l reprezint sau cu interlocutorul/jurnalistul) i va oscila ntre un discurs
elitist i unul populist: Eficacitatea discursului ine deci de autoritatea actorului politic, de
cermonialul de enunare i nu n ultimul rnd de ponderea pe care ceilali actori (jurnaliti,
comentatori politic) o dau discursului n chestiune. (Rovena-Frumuani, 2005, p.140).
Apare necesitatea conformrii la reete, trucuri, gselnie: clar, scurt, coerent, credibil
(Cotteret) dar i invetarea unor trucuri noi. Caracteristicile discursului modern au devenit
complicitatea i conivena, simplitatea (Rovena-Frumuani, 2005), nu complexitatea
raionamentului convinge ci aparena spectacular a argumentaiei. Imaginea face totui ct o
mie de cuvinte! Comunicarea politic televizat, ca form relativ nou de comunicare politic,
insereaz n sitemul politic tehnicile de marketing iar televiziunea ofer ocazia n care
autoritatea discursului s se poat exprima fr ajutorul corpurilor intermediare i reprezint
scena unde reprezentanii puterii intervin direct n spaiul public; discurs fr rspuns,
ndeprtare de dezbaterea democratic. (Haine, 2002, p.11) Televiziunea a creat de fapt un
nou spaiu public, n baza izomorfismului dintre discursul politic i cel televizual, permind
reaezarea comunicrii politice pe un alt model, acela al comunicrii interpersonale generate
de televiziune. Ca i realitate uman, politicul este o construcie social, un spectacol relatat
de mass-media (ibidem, p.12). Dar rolul media nu este doar de a produce i reproduce sensul
i semnificaia implicate n procesul cultural, ca o chestiune de semnificare, ci mai ales ca o
problem de putere18. Societatea modern este o societate iconic, a crei cultur este
fondat pe imagini i care se sprijin pe consensul imaginativ.
Nu pledm n favoarea ideii c tehnicile media n general sau mediatizarea modern a
politicului sunt responsabilii deraionalizrii discursului contemporan, urmrim ns modul n
care acest proces se produce n contextul spectacularizrii politicului. Astfel, nu putem s nu
observm intervenia unor demersuri raionale n acest cadru: configurarea narativ a
problemelor publice, care este i una dramatic (de spectacol), o concepie paxiologic asupra
opiniei publice, nscrierea problemei publice ntr-un context de descriere i de interpretare, de
explicare i de raionalizare (Haine, op. cit. pp.58-59). Jurgen Habermas observa c
interpenetrarea dintre privat i public, n favoarea creterii rolului statului social, dezvoltarea
unei industrii de bunuri culturale de mas i aplicarea n propaganda politic a tehnicilor de
reclam, i de marketing, echivaleaz cu ncetarea utilizrii publice a raionalitii. i ia
locul o form de manipulare a opiniei de ctre grupuri de interese i de ctre media cu scopul
de a asigura adeziunea plebiscitar a unui public vasalizat sau producerea feudal a unui
consens, aclamatoriu, esenial n integrarea sistemului social i politic. (Haine, 2002, p.59)
18
Cum poate spectatorul s reziste n faa discursului televizual care propune agenda zilnic, structureaz
timpul, selecioneaz i ierarhizeaz obiectele i subiectele, organiznd de fapt spaiul domestic i social?-
Haine, Rosemarie, (2002), Televiziunea i reconfigurarea politicului, Polirom, Iai, p.13;
149
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
. Problema const n aceea c funcia de raionalitate a sistemului este determinat de
instituiile politice dar ele ajung s fie exercitate prin elemente non-raionale precum mitul i
ritualul. Televiziunea creeaz o ficiune-spectacol19; ea pune politicul n scen crend nu un
contact direct ci aparena lui iar modelul asumrii de roluri, premis n stabilirea unei ierarhii
a valorilor, este i un pas n raionalizarea comportamentului nostru. (Haine, 2002, p.69).
Societatea modern dar i mai mult cea post-modern aparin speciei spectaculosului sunt
spectacliste i duc la degradarea lui a fi n a prea. (Haine, 2002, p.88)
Prin comercializarea politicului (tehnici de marketing, reclame etc) concepia potrivit
creia democraia nseamn raionalitate i interes public este o iluzie, dat fiind c noi ne
alegem politica din aceleai motive i ca urmare a aplicrii acelori motive de persuasiune
care ne fac s alegem o past de dini. .(Mc Nayr, 2007, p.66). Asistm nu numai la
deraionalizarea discursului politic dar i a alegerii politice. n lumea post-modern
comunicarea politic nu este altceva dect schimbul unideracionat de semnificani lipsii de
coninut i de mesaje fr sens, de-a lungul i de-a latul unui peisaj mediatic sterp (vezi
Daniel Boorstin the image-hyperreallity and post-modernity). Discursul politicianului este
ascultat de cei pe care Bobbio i numea majoritatea tcut. Boorstinaduga c tcerea silit
a maselor este indus prin pseudoeveniment, prin transformarea cetenilor din actori
politici n consumatori pasivi. Potrivit criticii liberale, politicii mediatizate spectaculare i
lipsesc caracterul raional i substana, dnd natere apatiei electoratului i populismului
superficial. Ea reprezint mai curnd un mijloc de autopromovare pentru politicieni dect
unul de informare a publicului (Denton, 1991, p.93). Suntem copleii de apariia i
dezvoltarea unor forme de comunicare mai rapide, mai simple i mai mobile, vorbim
desprecyberdemocraie ( Murdock i Golding, 2005, p.161), iar noua democraie
comunicativ ne transform n ceteni i netizeni, o cetenie consumerist i virtual de
tipul point-and-click.
Trebuie ns s menionm i viziuni mai optimiste asupra unui viitor n care societatea
i democraia sunt capabile s supravieuiasc spectacolului politic din media, imuniznd
ceteanul la propaganda i ndoctrinarea televizual i care l poate chiar raionaliza,
antrenndu-l s discearn, putnd s afle tot att de multe din prestaia mai mult sau mai
puin spontan a unui politician, pe ct din maniera raional n care acesta abordeaz diverse
probleme(Mc Nayr, 2007, p.282). Rmne totui de chestionat viitorul discursului politic i
raionalitatea sa, att asupra logicitii, respectiv asupra tot mai deselor i tot mai multor
ilogisme i falii logice20, asupra ambiguizrii discursului i a utilizrii lui tot mai des n
19
Politicul apare la TV ca un serial dramatic constituit din episoade care nareaz povestea personalitilor
politice (...) Atenia telespectatorului se concentreaz asupra eroului (eroilor) principal (principali) cu care se
identific. Verosimilitatea i nu adevrul constituie condiia credibilitii discursului; realul nu este recunoscut
ca atare dect dac el satisface codurile culturale existente n funcie de care este perceput. Se nate un adevr
al percepiei care se substituie logicii i reflexivitii, bazat pe sentimentul impresiei. (Ibidem, p.82)
20
Ilogismele sau faliile logice, de obicei sunt acompaniate de o pierdere a controlului asupra discursului.
Ilogismele corespund unei tentative de raionament, unei dorine de a demonstra care eueaz n argumentare.
Faliile logice sau ilogismele sunt indicatorii nevoii de justificare a comportamentului personal sau a unei
judeci contrazise de situaia real. Ilogismele corespund reaciei de aprare a Supraeului, fiind instrumente de
mascare a eecului n argumentare, fr ca subiectul s fie contient nici de scop, nici de mijloace.Dar ele pot
releva i reaua credin. Aparena de coeren a discursului este dat de utilizarea retoric a procedeelor logice
(n sensul de argumentaie cu funcie persuasiv): utilizarea conjunciilor (deci, i, dar, ori) poate induce iluzia
150
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
moduri prescriptive i impersonale (trebuie, se va face, s ni se dea) .a.m.d. Discursul
politic romnesc este polarizat (stnga dreapta, autohtonist modernist) n mod tradiional i
putem observa chiar o cronicizare a dualitii discursive la nivel naional21. Politicienii
romni par s i asume fr probleme ambiguitatea, care devine o zon n care ei nu simt nici
un fel de disconfort, fapt care ne permite unele concluzii cu privire la de-raionalizarea
discursului politic romnesc contemporan22.
Poate totui c raiunea este supraevaluat?! Gustave Le Bon ne ndeamn s o lsm
n seama filosofilor, fr a-i cere s intervin n guvernarea oamenilor. Nu pe calea raiunii,
ba, adeseori, chiar n pofida ei, s-au cristalizat sentimente precum onoarea, abnegaia, credina
religioas, patriotismul i dragostea de glorie, care s-au dovedit pn la urm resorturi ale
oricrei civilizaii. (Le Bon, 2007, p.59).
Bibliografie
Antohi, Sorin, (2005), Utopica. Studii asupra imaginarului social, Idea Design & Print, 2005,
Ediia a II-a, Cluj-Napoca;
Benda, Julien, (2007), Trdarea crturarilor, traducere Gabriela Creia, Humanitas,
Bucureti;
Bourdieu, (2012), Limbaj i putere simbolic, traducere Bogdan Ghiu i Laura Albulescu,
Editura Art, Bucureti;
Buzatu, Gheorghe, coordonator, (2006), Discursuri i dezbateri Parlamentare 1864-2004,
Editura Mica Valahie, Bucureti;
Cotteret, Jean-Marie (2000), La magie du discours: prcis de rhtorique audiovisuelle,
Michalon, Paris;
Cotteret, Jean-Marie (2006), La dmocratie tl-guide, Michalon, Paris;
Denton, Robert Jr., (1991), (edithor) Ethical Dimensions of Political Communication, Praeger
Publishers, London;
Dorna, Alexandre, (2004), Fundamentele psihologiei politice, traducere Lavinia Betea i
Laura Ranca, Editura Comunicare.ro, Bucureti;
Eco, Umberto, (1996), Limitele interpretrii, traducere tefania Mincu i Daniela Buc,
Editura Pontica, Constana;
Edelman, Murray, (1999), Politica i utilizarea simbolurilor, Polirom, Iai;
Frigioiu, Nicolae, (2004), Imaginea public a liderilor i instituiilor politice, Editura
Comunicare.ro, Bucureti;
unei rigori a raionamentului sau poate deturna atenia de la adevratul raionament. (Svulescu i Borun,
2008, p.125).
21
Vintil Mihilescu, S se revizuiasc primesc, dar... Ideologia originarist i discursul naional romnesc,
Sfera Politicii, 91-92, Anul IX, 2001: 7.
22
Iat cum justific politicianul Corneliu Vadim Tudor, firescul acestui paradox al ambiguitii: Politica este
foarte relativ, mai ales la acest nceput de secol i de mileniu: stnga devine dreapta, dreapta devine stnga, e
o geometrie variabil a punctelor cardinale n politic, noiunile cu care se opera pn acum civa ani devin
revolute i iat c trim surpriza de a-l vedea astzi huiduit pe preedintele american George Bush exact de
aceia care acum dou-trei sptmni l huiduiau pe Jean Marie Le Pen Corneliu Vadim Tudor, declaraie
politic rostit n edina Senatului din 27 mai 2002,
http://www.cdep.ro/pls/steno/steno.stenograma?idl=1&idm=4,02&ids=5321
151
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Gauchet, Marcel, (2006), Dezvrjirea lumii. O istorie politic a religiei, traducere Vasile
Tonoiu, Nemira, Bucureti;
Goudenhooft, (2012), Dihotomii i antinomii n imaginarul politic romnesc, n Miturile
politice n Romnia contemporan, Institutul European, Iai;
Habermas, Jrgen, The Theory of Communicative Action, vol.I- Reason and the Realization of
Society, translated by Thomas McCarthy, Beacon Press, Boston;
Haine, Rosemarie, (2002), Televiziunea i reconfigurarea politicului, Polirom, Iai;
Lardellier, Pascal, (2009), Teoria legturii ritualice. Antropologie i comunicare, traducere
Valentina Pricopie, Tritonic, Bucureti;
Le Bon, Gustave, (2007), Psihologia mulimilor, traducere Mariana Tabacu, Antet XX Press,
Bucureti;
Marga, Andrei, (1991), Raionalitate, comunicare, argumentare, Dacia, Cluj Napoca;
Mc Nayr, Brian, (2007), Introducere n comunicarea politic, traducere Claudiu Vere,
Polirom, Iai;
Murdock, Graham i Golding, Peter, (2005), Posibilitile digitale, realitile pieei:
Contradiciile convergenei, n Comunicare i putere, coordonator Valentina Marinescu,
Editura Niculescu, Bucureti;
Perelman, Cham i Olbrechts-Tyteca, Lucie, 2012, Tratat de argumentare. Noua retoric,
traducere Aurelia Stoica, Editura Universitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza Iai, Iai;
Rovena-Frumuani, Daniela, (1999), Semiotic, societate, cultur, Institutul European, Iai;
Rovena-Frumuani, Daniela, (2005), Analiza discursului. Ipoteze i ipostaze, Tritonic,
Bucureti;
Slvstru, Constantin, (1999), Discursul puterii, Institutul European, Iai;
Slvstru, Constantin, (2009), Arta dezbaterilor publice, Tritonic, Bucureti;
Svulescu, Silvia (2001), Retorica i teoria argumentrii, Bucureti,
http://www.scribd.com/doc/140227741/Silvia-Savulescu-Retorica-Si-Teoria-Argumentarii;
Svulescu, Silvia i Borun, Dumitru (2008), Analiza discursului public (curs universitar) -
http://www.scribd.com/doc/12412595/analiza-discursului-public;
Wolton, Dominique, (1997) - Penser la communication, Flammarion, Paris;
152
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
MEANING, DISCOURSE AND IDEOLOGY. A CRITICAL EXAMINATION OF VAN
DIJKS CONTRIBUTION
Ioan-Alexandru GRDINARU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza
University of Iai
Abstract: My paper focuses on Teun Van Dijks account of the concept of ideology. His option
for a multidisciplinary framework (Van Dijk 1998, 2006) entails a triple analysis, involving
discourse, knowledge and society. Studying the concept of ideology from this standpoint
presents the undeniable advantage of offering a better insight into the cognitive mechanisms
that are active when people become ideologically sensitive to discursive or societal data.
Moreover, such an approach provides at least the roots of a scientific explanation for the
ways through which an individual acquires and uses his or hers socially shared beliefs. Third,
Teun Van Dijk is an author who proves courageous enough to include in his theory a
mentalist vocabulary (mental models, categories of ideology schema, attitudes, internalized
social representations, common ground), a solution that even if it might involve certain
theoretical risks I personally find suitable and fruitful for the subject matter. On the other
hand, I try to show that while Van Dijk discusses a lot of important issues concerning the
relationship between meaning, language use and the construction of ideological discourse
(such as the problem of topic, the level of description, the problem of implications and
presuppositions or the local coherence), understanding the concept of meaning is even more
intricate a process than it has been presented by Van Dijk. The semantic possibilities
embedded in every format (conceptual, propositional, textual) open a much wider field for
investigation. In the same time, we may comprehend why many human communicative
activities are often prone to become elements of an ideological structure.
Keywords: Meaning, ideological discourse, mental models, context, interpretation
Introducere
Teun Van Dijk este, fr ndoial, unul dintre numele cele mai intens citate n legtur
cu problema construciei discursive a ideologiei. Motivele sunt legate att de competenele lui
Van Dijk n ceea ce privete analiza discursului, ct mai ales de inspiraia sa de a face un salt
curajos n direcia teoriilor cognitiviste, dar i sociale, elemente considerate drept
complemente necesare bazei furnizate de analitica discursivitii. Acest plonjon substanial nu
este lipsit de riscuri, ns, din moment ce o astfel de tripl perspectiv oblig la efortul ulterior
de unificare a rezultatelor i, pe de alt parte, implic adoptarea unui vocabular mentalist care,
dup cum se tie, compenseaz dezavantajul de a fi problematic din punct de vedere
ontologic prin avantajul explicativ evident. Van Dijk abordeaz tema discursului ideologic n
mai multe texte, fidel stilului su de rafinare permanent a instrumentului teoretic i de
adaptare continu a exemplelor la contextul socio-politic al momentului. n toate aceste
lucrri, ns, el dezvolt o concepie unitar.
Ideologie i cunoatere
Dup opinia lui Van Dijk, ideologiile reprezint, n primul rnd, un sistem de credine.
Aa cum noteaz autorul (2006, 116), ideologiile, ca atare, nu conin practicile ideologice
153
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
sau structurile sociale (de exemplu, biserici sau partide politice) care se bazeaz pe ele. Acest
lucru nseamn n acelai timp c o teorie a ideologiei are nevoie de o component cognitiv
care s poat explica n mod potrivit noiunile de credin i sistem de credine, de pild
n modalitatea n care sunt ele discutate n cadrul tiinei cognitive contemporane. Aceste
sisteme de credine aparin grupurilor, membrii unui grup oarecare fiind n situaia de a le
mprti, ele constituind totodat i unul dintre elementele fundamentale de constituire a
identitii de grup.
Credinele pe care oamenii le au n comun fac parte din ceea ce Van Dijk numete
cunoatere socio-cultural, asociat unei forme de memorie social: dac la nivel individual
accentul este pus, dup caz, pe memoria episodic sau pe cea de lung durat, atunci la nivelul
grupurilor sociale trebuie postulat existena unei instane similare. Cunoaterea asociat
grupurilor poate fi explicit, dar i presupus sau, ntr-un caz cu adevrat important pentru
studiul ideologiilor, ntr-o form proiectiv, cu un grad nalt de idealizare. Acest lucru
nseamn c n anumite situaii cunotinele se muleaz pe modelul clasic de analiz a
cunoaterii (credine adevrate i justificate) caz n care vorbim de o comunitate epistemic
n sens tare alteori credinele nu sunt probate ca adevrate sau nu sunt justificate pn la
capt, ns acest fapt nu le mpiedic s fie active. Oricum, problema justificrii ne oblig,
crede Van Dijk, s fim contieni de faptul c criteriile de decizie sunt relative la fiecare
comunitate n parte: o aseriune este considerat adevrat, de exemplu, de o colectivitate i
fals de alta (un exemplu analizat de Van Dijk este chiar rasismul, de pild Van Dijk 1987 i
1991). Un aspect esenial n constituirea discursiv a ideologiilor l constituie faptul c n
crearea mesajelor, de obicei, aseriunile cu pretenie de cunotine sunt luate de bune i
inserate ca atare, fr a fi demonstrate sau susinute. n aceeai msur, caracterul
preponderent declarativ (prin opoziie cu cel procedural) al cunoaterii prezente n ideologii i
asigur vorbitorului sau scriitorului un avantaj nsemnat, din moment ce el se va concentra
asupra unui corp de idei i mai puin asupra modalitilor n care ajungem s credem n
respectivele idei. La ntrebarea legat de caracterul universal ideologic al cunoaterii, Van
Dijk ofer un rspuns negativ. Bunul sim ne spune c nu toate formele de cunoatere sunt
intrinsec ideologice.
Pentru Van Dijk, legtura dintre reprezentrile sociale ale unui grup i manifestarea lor
discursiv trebuie vzut n activitatea de interpretare i nelegere pe care oamenii i
grupurile o realizeaz. Construcia unei teme ideologice este echivalent cu filtrarea
operaional a reprezentrilor sociale i a cunotinelor aferente lor (i n acelai timp a
schemelor i scenariilor de prelucrare) care, adesea, ia i forma unor reorganizri radicale a
datelor, dezbaterile publice despre exploatarea de la Roia Montan fiind un exemplu recent
care precede elaborarea reperelor semantice pentru dezvoltarea ulterioar de la nivelul
discursului. Aceast munc de interpretare i explicitare reprezint pn la urm o investiie
de comunicare (Grdinaru, 2013, 121), singura instan care deschide calea ctre actualizarea
structurilor cognitive n cadrul a ceea ce numim limbajul-n-aciune. Investiia final, n cazul
edificrii ideologiilor, ia forma opoziiei fundamentale NOI-EI, o polarizare care semnific n
aceeai msur primatul grupului nostru, valoarea cunoaterii noastre i, de ce nu,
superioritatea noastr moral i ontologic. Conformarea indivizilor i a grupurilor la
normele ideologice are i un aspect creativ, ntruct activitatea implicat multiplic i nu
simplific formele ideologice. Pentru a da un singur exemplu, s lum cazul populismului.
154
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Aa cum remarc Alexandre Dorna (2013, 7), populismul seamn cu un cameleon mimetic
care nu este nici unic i nici omogen. [..] Manifestrile sale n timp i spaiu arat nu doar o
mare varietate, dar i diferene notorii. De unde dificultatea de a sesiza ntr-un singur cuvnt
bogia sa expresiv i fluctuaia coninuturilor sale. Iar n ceea ce privete relaia strns
dintre ideologie i cunoatere, Dorna (2013, 9) observ c dinamica populist ajunge s
chestioneze semnificaia modern a poporului, noiune mai curnd aproape de mit dect de o
realitate bine delimitat, astfel nct unii autori o consider de negsit.
Discursivitate, context i spaiu de joc semantic
n cadrul abordrii sociocognitive a lui Van Dijk, conceptul de context este primordial.
Contextul face posibil activarea structurilor de cunoatere, ceea ce duce la activarea
formulelor discursive de exprimare a ideologiei. Structurile discursului sunt astfel in-formate
de ctre coninuturile cognitive, care oblig n acelai timp la articularea unor modele
contextuale. Pentru Van Dijk, aceste modele mbrac att forma semantic (preocuparea
comunicatorilor pentru depistarea, impunerea, sancionarea, negocierea, tranzacionarea sau
chiar cenzurarea sensului), ct i pe cea pragmatic (grija pentru relevan). Chiar dac astfel
de entiti nu sunt observabile, ele sunt de fapt puntea ce leag relaiile i reelele sociale de
evenimentul de comunicare propriu-zis (Grdinaru 2013, 124). Aspectul pragmatic al
modelelor contextuale (entiti mentale, s nu uitm) este vizat n exercitarea funciei de
control asupra utilizrii limbajului (de la actele de limbaj propriu-zise pn la ornamentele
stilistice sau selecia figurilor retorice), n timp ce dimensiunea semantic a modelelor
contextuale este legat strns de problema semnificaiei. Dup Van Dijk (2007, 293),
funcionarea optim la nivel pragmatic a modelelor contextuale produce discursuri potrivite,
adaptate parametrilor situaiei de comunicare, n timp ce funcionarea optim la nivel
semantic asigur prezena sensului (prin coeren i consecven). Prin participarea la
activitile de comunicare, oamenii sunt implicai nu doar n aplicarea unor modele mentale
contextuale, ci i n confruntarea lor, n relaia dinamic cu realitile la care ele se refer.
Coordonarea la nivelul intenionalitii dintre oameni diferii (care nu constituie neaprat un
grup cu o identitate anume) produce rezultatul scontat al similaritii comportamentale, al
micrilor concordante ntr-un spaiu simbolic de joc deschis n egal msur de co-prezena
participanilor, de investiia lor la nivelul comunicrii i de posibilitile oferite de discurs.
Coordonarea la nivelul intenionalitii de grup produce rezultatul unei voine comune
vibrante, auto-afirmatoare, manifestate prin coerena comportamental i prin experimentarea
plenar a ceea ce specialitii numesc sentiment de apartenen. Conceptul de context se
bucur, la Van Dijk, i de proprietatea parialitii; oamenii pot oricnd ignora o bun parte a
informaiilor vehiculate, a actelor de limbaj performate sau chiar a reprezentrilor sociale care
sunt subiacente unei situaii de comunicare oarecare. Filtrul operaional al seleciei nltur
toate aspectele subiectiv percepute ca surplus, pstrndu-le doar pe cele considerate centrale.
n legtur cu conotaiile negative ale termenului de ideologie, Van Dijk propune o
perspectiv suficient de echilibrat. Interesat ndeosebi de aspectul funcional i concret al
ideologiilor, el se distaneaz de poziiile extreme. Ideologia ca fals contiin, de exemplu,
poate fi eticheta potrivit pentru un anumit numr de cazuri, ns nu avem motive suficiente
s punem o relaie peren de egalitate ntre cei doi termeni. Karl Marx, Mannheim sau Destutt
de Tracy sunt valorificai n ceea ce constituie o paradigm general i elastic a construciei
155
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
i efectelor discursului ideologic. Ideologiile nu sunt doar un produs secundar al unui proces
de manifestare a voinei politice a unei clase sau a unui lider. Ideologiile nu se restrng doar la
ipostaza de marf n interiorul fenomenului de comodificare a voinei politice, ci se nasc
firesc, din nsi alctuirea grupurilor sociale. Este nevoie de cteva ingrediente (reprezentri
sociale, credine mprtite, apartenena la grup, gndire similar, apetena pentru aciune i
pentru transfigurarea ei ilocuionar i perlocuionar) pentru a genera un sistem minimal
ideologic. Omul nu ader la o ideologie numai n msura n care el devine subiectul unei
infuzii de capital politic, ci prin nsi natura sa de fiin social. Acest lucru nu nseamn ns
c nu exist contexte de comunicare care s fi fost deturnate ideologic (ideologically biased
contexts), la fel cum cunoaterea poate fi oricnd subiectul unei deturnri similare.
O scurt expunere a limitelor
Van Dijk enumer (2006, 118-120) cu onestitate limitele perspectivei sale asupra
ideologiei, remarcnd faptul c nc persist multe ntrebri privind structura i coninutul
ideologiilor, privind caracterul lor fundaional (putem numi un corp de idei sau de cunotine
ca fiind ideologic doar n msura n care el se afl n poziia socio-discursiv de a ntemeia
anumite practici sociale sau ar trebui extins aceast viziune i asupra altor credine care
aparin unui grup?), privind gradul de cunoatere a ideologiei de ctre membrii grupului (este
evident situaia n care anumii membri sunt experi sau lideri, avnd o cunoatere detaliat,
n timp ce alii posed doar cunotine foarte vagi ori, la limit, ader la o anumit ideologie
fr a avea o cunoatere minimal a principiilor sale), sau privind fundamentarea social a
ideologiilor (care sunt tipurile de colectivitate implicate?). Numai n legtur cu ultima
problem, de exemplu, apar numeroase aspecte de neocolit n aceast dezbatere: nu toate
colectivitile reprezint grupuri ideologice, pentru unele grupuri (feministe, neoliberale sau
anti-establishment, de exemplu) elementul ideologic este central n construirea lor, n timp ce
pentru altele nu, unele grupuri extind dimenisunea de liant a ideologiei la forme superioare de
apartenen (calitatea oficial, formal de membru, pltirea unei cotizaii, ntlniri periodice
sau obligatorii, edine festive etc.). Mai mult, Van Dijk distinge ntre grupuri sociale i
comuniti culturale (2006, 119-120), preciznd c n timp ce pentru primele elementul
ideologic slujete scopului de difereniere fa de alte grupuri, pentru comunitile culturale
elementul comun l reprezint anumite credine, atitudini sau valori mult mai generale, care nu
presupun neaprat referirea la alt comunitate.
O surs folositoare pentru nelegerea dimensiunii sociale a ideologiilor o reprezint
John Searle, n particular teoria dezvoltat de el n Realitatea ca proiect social (2000). n
lucrarea respectiv, filosoful american propune conceptul de intenionalitate colectiv non-
sumativ, concept care se afl la baza dezvoltrii interaciunilor sociale complexe. Searle
postuleaz existena acestui tip de intenionalitate tocmai pentru explicarea apetenei fiinei
umane pentru activitile de grup care dau natere, n timp, structurilor, coninuturilor i
ritualurilor sociale arborescente pe care le cunoatem astzi. Dac am fi de acord c
intenionalitatea colectiv se formeaz doar prin nsumare sau doar ca rezultant a
intenionalitilor individuale, atunci ar fi dificil de explicat cum de nu ne-am mpotmolit mai
des n estura scenariilor de interaciune prevzute n teoria jocurilor.
Explicaia ideologiilor trebuie, dup opinia mea, s insiste mai mult asupra factorului
semnificaie. Triada lui Van Dijk cunoatere-societate-discurs explic suficiente lucruri, ns
156
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
arunc puin umbr asupra faptului c posibilitatea elaborrii ideologiilor i a discursului
ideologic se afl chiar n structura conceptului de semnificaie. Dei este contient de acest
lucru (de exemplu, Van Dijk 2001 sau 2007), teoreticianul olandez nu insist suficient asupra
sa. Van Dijk observ, de pild, faptul c posibilitatea alunecrii ideologice pare mai curnd
legat de nivelul termenilor sau categoriilor, i mai puin de schemele, reelele sau scenariile
de organizare a cunotinelor. Aa cum am ncercat s art (Grdinaru 2011, 344-371), dac
adoptm o versiune funcionalist n explicarea conceptului de semnificaie, atunci nelegem
mai bine varietatea tipurilor de semnificaie, precum i procesul social al acordrii sau
atribuirii de semnificaie. Dac este s ne gndim i la observaiile lui Wittgenstein din
Cercetri filosofice, atunci actul de investire cu semnificaie a diferitelor tipuri de activiti
umane devine fundamental pentru economia ulterioar a ideologiilor. Ceea ce trebuie spus
rspicat este, aadar, urmtorul lucru: semnificaia nu este doar o etap n procesul de
prelucrare cognitiv care conduce mai apoi la cunotine, reprezentri de grup i apoi
ideologie constatabil discursiv. Naterea ideologiei este adnc nrdcinat n dinamica
atribuirii de semnificaii, la fel de mult cum este nrdcinat n intenionalitate. Prin
atribuirea de semnificaie, indivizii i grupurile svresc un act adamic, care este n acelai
timp un act de numire, un act de identificare i de scoatere n relief a lucrurilor, de eliberare a
lor dintr-o magm amorf, dar n acelai timp un act de decupaj socio-discursiv care reflect
voina lor.
Examinnd prezentarea pe care Van Dijk o face funciilor ideologiei, nu putem s nu
remarcm un efect de prim nsemntate. Ideologiile, ni se spune, au menirea de a organiza
reprezentrile sociale ale grupurilor, de a oferi susinere practicilor sociale, coordonnd astfel
i conduita acional a actorilor sociali, precum i aceea de a furniza o interfa simbolic
ntre grup i provocrile pe care realitatea i le pune n fa (Van Dijk 2006, 116-117). ns,
prin confruntarea cu aceast realitate, substana ideologic poate fi alterat, uneori ntr-o
msur semnificativ: aproape c putem invoca modelul popperian al testrii ipotezelor, cu
diferena c acum nu ne preocup justeea vocabularului teoretic i al relaiilor de condiionare
stabilite, ci purul succes practic al ideologiilor. n forma sa modificat, ideologia se va
constitui ntr-un prilej nou de activare i motivare a membrilor comunitii. Dac n acest elan
orientat ctre supravieuirea simbolic i ctre o mai bun adaptare a grupului ideologiile se
pot reproduce, atunci prezena lor dominant va fi resimit fr ndoial la nivelul
discursului. Astfel, ideologiile sunt prinse ntr-o micare n spiral, evoluia lor depinznd,
nc o dat, de chimia dintre cei trei factori principali i mediu.
n ultimul rnd, trebuie s remarcm faptul c abordarea multifaetat propus de Van
Dijk are avantajul greu de contestat al oricrei formule teoretice nereducioniste i care i
asum scopul de a explica o realitate complex printr-un model de o complexitate similar.
Opera lui Van Dijk deschide un orizont de lucru, ns, i nu nchide problema printr-o soluie
unic, definitiv. n lumina acestui orizont suntem invitai s participm, critic, la un efort
hermeneutic i semiotic ale crui motive sunt evidente. O nelegere mai bun a ideologiilor i
a concretizrii lor discursive nu nseamn nimic altceva dect o mai clar imagine a lumii
noastre.
157
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Concluzii
Instrumentele de analiz furnizate de teoria discursivitii, semantic, tiinele
cogniiei i psihologia social dovedesc, n cazul construciei articulate de Teun Van Dijk, o
compatibilitate fecund. Perspectivele care au fost dezvoltate n cadrul unui singur domeniu
se lovesc permanent de comarul golurilor din explicaie. Nici n-ar putea fi altfel, de vreme ce
a ncerca s oferi o viziune comprehensiv asupra fenomenului ideologiei nseamn a discuta
i despre minte, i despre discurs, dar i despre grupurile sociale sau despre voina politic.
Numai gndind mpreun aceste realiti putem spera la elaborarea unei teorii unitare. ns
munca autentic abia acum ncepe, n msura n care ne asumm obligaia de a prezenta o
form sistematic, elegant a formulei explicative i nu doar o alturare de contribuii
punctuale. Mai mult, aceast obligaie de sistematizare nu trebuie s lase la o parte elementele
problematice i care vizeaz, ntr-un fel sau altul, ntregul eafodaj, aa cum este cazul cu
discuia despre semnificaie: nu trebuie ignorate prile atunci cnd ne concentrm asupra
ntregului. Este necesar s ne amintim faptul c ideologia, pn la urm, se ascunde n detalii.
Referine bibliografice
Dorna, Alexandre. 2013. Une pandmie sournoise: le populisme et ses avatars. Argumentum
Journal of the Seminar of Discursive Logic, Argumentation Theory and Rhetoric 11(1): 7-21.
Grdinaru, Ioan-Alexandru. 2011.Limbaj i discursivitate n filosofia american a secolului XX.
Iai: Editura Universitii Al. I. Cuza.
Grdinaru, Ioan-Alexandru. 2013. Communication, Knowledge and Discourse. Remarks on
Teun Van Dijks Sociocognitive Interpretation of Context. Argumentum Journal of the
Seminar of Discursive Logic, Argumentation Theory and Rhetoric 11(1): 119-125.
Searle, John. 2000. Realitatea ca proiect social. Iai: Polirom.
Van Dijk, Teun. 1987. Communicating Racism. Ethnic Prejudice in Thought and Talk.
Newbury Park: Sage Publications.
Van Dijk, Teun. 1991. Racism and the Press. London and New York: Routledge.
Van Dijk, Teun. 1998. Ideology. A Multidisciplinary Approach. London: Sage Publications.
Van Dijk, Teun. 2001. Discourse, Ideology and Context. Folia linguistica XXX/1-2:11-40.
Van Dijk, Teun. 2006. Ideology and Discourse Analysis. Journal of Political Ideologies
11(2): 115-140.
Van Dijk, Teun. 2007. Comments on Context and Conversation. In Discourse and
Contemporary Social Change, edited by Norman Fairclough, Giuseppina Cortese and Patrizia
Ardizzone, 281-316. Bern: Peter Lang.
158
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE SOCIOLOGICAL DISCOURSE, A CRITICAL AND REALISTIC POINT OF
VIEW
Elena PITIU, PhD Candidate, University of Bucharest
Abstract: We speak in our days more and more about subjects that require a interdisciplinary
and multicultural approach. Science gives its hand with medicine, literature is connected with
psychology and history or communication in order to present in another way our society, a
society different than all other societies ever existed.
This is the reason why today being a sociologist means, probably, another thing than in the
traditional society. Now in the public area there are involved many actors with different
interests, material or moral ones, and with different perceptions on the same subject, in
according with their expectations.
The sociological research is now, considering these aspects, in a position of offering a
realistic point of view about the actual society, looking towards real problems that exist. Also,
one cannot be a sociologist if he is not critic. Any sociological analysis and scientific
discourse is critical, because it shows the existence of social issues; there are persons in the
social field who doesn't want these problems to be revealed to entire population, so they have
a negative perception about sociologists and their work, but the sociologist should maintain
his position, no matter what. Only accepting the existence of our problems we can try to find
ways of solving them or to decrease their negative effects.
This paper is trying to reveal the importance of the sociological work for our actual society
and the necessity that this work is accomplished respecting the ethical and procedural rules,
offering critical and realistic analysis of social problems and, perhaps, solutions for solving
them.
Keywords: sociologist, social actors, realistic, critical, equidistant.
Introduction
In our days, being a sociologist represents a difficult profession, because of many
social factors. Still, it's a profession searched on the field of work, because the universities
observed the preference of the students for this kind of studies and they offer many places and
selection, existing even concurrence between public and private universities. The Faculty of
Sociology and Social Work from The University of Bucharest is, as they say on their
presentation site ''in Center, in the Bucharest heart, in the middle of the events, in the middle
of all things, connected to everything that happens in the world () we are, by historical
tradition and the values that we promote, the first Faculty of Sociology and Social Work from
Romania and the biggest Faculty from University of Bucharest, after the number of our
students.'' These universities choose intelligent students, with good marks in the high school
and with a great desire to make a difference and to produce changes in the society.
At the beginning, students don't know exactly what does it means to be a sociologist.
They choose this faculty because parents or friends said so, because they have older brothers
or sisters who followed this school or because the name sounded well and they wanted to see
how things take place in sociology. After graduating the license studies, there are persons who
choose not to work in this domain, because they found out in three years of study that they are
159
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
not really connected with this profession, so they choose to leave and to continue their master
studies in another domain, or they try to work in companies where salaries are bigger and the
responsibilities are much different.
Still, there are persons who continue to study in advanced sociological research, who
are interested in observing the reality we all live in and they accept from the beginning the
fact that their incomes wouldn't be so big and the satisfaction they receive is more moral,
rather than material. These persons follow master degrees and doctoral and post-doctoral
programs and they become young researchers, with the availability of studying the social
phenomena, social transformations, interactions between different social groups, the
integration of marginal groups in society.
Now is the time when the sociologist becomes aware of its importance in the social
structure: he acts like a social engineer, who founds out the problems and try to get the
solutions for solving the related and the discovered issues.
Spontaneous and scientific knowledge
As Ioan Mihailescu said in the beginning of his book, ''General Sociology:
fundamental concepts and case studies'', people have expected with the emergence of
sociology to ask questions and give answers about the group or the society in which they
lived. Gradually they accumulated a large amount of knowledge about social life, representing
a genuine spontaneous sociology. The source of this knowledge is common sense.
Spontaneous sociology is encyclopedic and is very widespread. Even people with low
intellectual level are able to talk for hours about what is right and what is wrong in the group
in which they live, how life should be organized within a certain group, how should be family
relationships, neighborhood, economic relations or policy. Believing they know everything
about the society in which they lead their lives, many people are surprised that there is a
science - sociology - who claims to study what them it appears obvious to question the
knowledge considered to be true by the majority of group. Doubting the truth based on
common sense and transmitted by immemorial tradition seems to many people a company
insolent or at least unnecessary. (p.9)
Although it is so widespread and entrenched in the mindsets of individuals and groups,
spontaneous commonsense sociology suffers from several major drawbacks that make it
unacceptable scientific standpoint:
Spontaneous knowledge is passionate in nature - every man has certain interests,
views, prejudices, phobias and attractions. People are not content only to find what is
happening around them, but their attitudes, interpreting and judging reality. Spontaneous
knowledge has an illusory nature - social life deceives people, self-deception is so present
that scientists sometimes fall prey to them. In scientific work, self-illusion is totally
unacceptable.
Spontaneous knowledge is contradictory - people constantly oscillate between a
sense of fatality and of free will. When analyzing their successes or when they are make
future plans, they believe that everything depends on them, the successes are due to the skill
and quality, and that they can decide their destiny. If you are confronted with failure, they
invoke unfavorable circumstances, hostilities and plots planned by third parties or simply
hostile fate.
160
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Spontaneous knowledge is limited - the individual has circumscribed life experiences
to the social environment in which he lives. About what is happening in other groups or in
other companies, the individual is not only occasionally or not know anything. What he is not
familiar is considered abnormal or outrageous. For example, one of the characters created by
writer Marin Preda, seeing for the first time in my life a giraffe, after looking at it for hours,
concludes that no such thing exists.( p.9-10).
In the last 300 years, spontaneous knowledge based on common sense, has been
increasingly replaced by knowledge. In the social field, this replacement occurred later,
especially in the second half of the nineteenth century. Science is based on verifiable
evidence, rigorous observation of the facts. Scientific observation involves not only looking at
things; however, a look at what is happening around.(p.11)
Scientific knowledge is based on three principles, three basic axioms. The first is
the recognition by scientists that there is a real world independent of the observing subject,
the observed facts are real and not a product of the mind of the observer. The second axiom
consists in accepting the principle that relations between things are not random but have an
effect. More specifically, this axiom requires the principle of determinism, the relationship in
terms of cause and effect. Social determinism is more difficult to prove and analyzed against
physical determinism, however, it is not less true.
The third axiom is that the outside world can be known through objective observation.
Scientific truths can be proved by means rigorous and verified by other scientists.
Unlike glance or contemplation of the external world, scientific observation meet most of the
requirements: it is accurate - if you do not achieve the required accuracy, the observer must
avoid hasty or poorly substantiated judgments - is rigorous, is systematic - it is done
deliberately prepared and carried out with appropriate means. Scientific observation is
objective, that is unaffected by passions, phobias and prejudices of the person observed.
(p.11)
Objective character of scientific observation is the ability to see and accept the facts as
they are and not as they would like the observer to be. The observation of social phenomena,
objectivity is rather a goal, the observer must be aware of the need to limit its subjectivity and
act accordingly. Unlike ordinary observer, the scientist must educate objectivity, learn to be
objective. Scientific observation is recorded, performed by qualified and performed under
controlled conditions. (p.12)
Sociology performs several functions: first of all, an expository function, description,
presentation of facts and social processes, as they occur. Secondly, sociology aims and
explaining social facts, establishing relations of determination or the covariance between
different aspects of social life. In the third place, according to the stated purpose of the great
researchers in this field, sociology aims and improving social life. Hence the fact that the
declared or not reported critical sociology that studies society. Critical dimension of sociology
makes this science cannot be developed only in democratic societies. In the end, the results of
sociological research can have practical size and can be used in social policy. The sociologist
is not a politician, nor its substitute, but its scientific results can guide the work of the
politician. (p.13)
161
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Sociological discourse and human rights
Any sociological action should begin by exposing the problem that the specialist
identified and with trying to find solutions for it. No sociologists would start exploring the
real world if they wouldn't have the intimate belief that the results of their studies would be
noticed by political deciders and make a difference in good, for a group of persons or even for
one person. Any sociologist has the purpose of making the others life better in some aspects,
because if we wouldn't have this belief, the studies wouldn't be done and the society and its
subsystem groups would remain as they are if they wouldn't be changed.
As professor Septimiu Chelcea mention in his book, ''The methodology of
sociological research: quantitative and qualitative methods'', ''scientific understanding of
social processes, as well as individual and group behavior is always done within the
framework of theories recognized as true by the research community at a given time. By
theory we mean: an intellectual construction that a number of laws are associated with a
principle from which they can be rigorously derived''.
(p. 40).
''Scientific knowledge of facts, phenomena and social processes is achieved by clearly
defined concepts, using rigorous research methods and techniques, checking hypothesis or
pursuing the objective description of social life. (p. 42). The Universal Declaration of Human
Rights adopted and proclaimed on 10.12.1948 by the UN General Assembly represents a
veritable value sheet of researchers in social and behavioral sciences. Each of the 30 articles
of the Declaration proposes the fundamental values in which the scientist, whether
sociologist, psychologist, anthropologist or psychologist must state openly in his studies. <<
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They should act towards one
another in a spirit of brotherhood, regardless of race, color, sex, language, religion, political or
other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status>>''. (p. 53).
In this essay we tried to explore the sociological discourse in a critical and realistic
manner, the appearance of sociology as a science who studies, with concrete and measurable
instruments different phenomena of social life, what is the sociologist's role in the social area
and which are the traps that a sociologist may fall into while making their research.
As we said earlier, in the globalised society we speak more and more about
interdisciplinary issues and multiculturalism. When specialists want to study a phenomenon,
they make connections between different scientific domains. So, nowadays, medicine is
totally connected with science and technological development, psychology and sociology is
connected to literature and biology, so as in trying to explain the social issues, we have to
look well in other domains that influence the reality.
The sociologist and the society
The sociologist Catalin Zamfir made in his book ''To a paradigm of sociological
thinking'' interesting connections between the sociologist and the society he is in charge to
study: the crystallization of sociology as a scientific discipline and outlining its possibilities of
application raised a question of principle: which is the role of the sociologist practitioner? In
what capacity and which position must he contribute to the proper functioning and
162
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
improvement of society in which he belongs? In this respect two models distinguish through
the position of the sociologist towards the system that sustains him :
The client/consultant model: systemically, the sociologist relationship problem
society was addressed in the 50-60s in US, during which sociological research took an
important upheaval: they were expected massive applications of sociology. In this model, the
sociologist supports different subsystems of society, helping them to solve problems of social
activities, to maximize operating efficiency. The model assumes two mutually independent
systems: the social customer system and the consultant sociologist. The sociologist consultant
provides its specialized services for the client's systems. They have complete freedom of
decision, however. According to this model, the sociologist is a specialist who has a
significant number of knowledge and action techniques, know-hows that can be useful to
different particular systems comprising the company : small groups, families, businesses,
communities, political parties and candidates policies, governmental institutions towards the
system it supports.(p. 155).
The client/consultant poses however a number of difficulties of structure: firstly, an
uncritical acceptance of goals. The model is based on the famous dichotomy promoted by
Max Weber (1947) between ends and means , and justifies, in fact, political and ideological
subjugation of sociology. According to the Weberian theory, sociology has as legitimate
object of study only the sphere of means for achieving goals sphere that creates the social
actors. The sociologist must accept, in principle, to be put in the service of social actors, the
goals that they establish. The sociologist can not accept the offer for any customer. He must
lay open the question of possible value. In practice, he must always pose questions, whether it
is allowed to support its specialized instruments a political party that seeks to obtain and
maintain oppressive power to promote minor interests? To support a system in competition
with other systems, giving him a decisive advantage?
Second deadline refers to unequal access to science: who is in fact the client? The
free market accredits the idea that every part of society is a potential specialist service. But
such an assumption is inconsistent. The free market does not provide equal access to the
support of science; they are groups, commonly referred to as marginal, which is not always
leads to science: the unemployed, ethnic minorities , the elders, drug addicts. (p.156-157).
The third difficluty is the heterogeneity of customer limit itself. The idea that the
sociologist must support the client's interests proved quite confusing, in fact, any social
system is characterized by different interests, orientations among its members. Entering a
social system the specialist sociologist is subject to strong pressure from their group, social
classes and even private individuals. Each will be tempted to use sociologist work to promote
the interests, with the risk that the sociologist to become manipulative instrument of one or
other of the parties. Intervention can thus produce an imbalance in the social systems
promoting certain interests at the expense of others.
In the co-participation model, sociologist defines himself primarily as an active and
responsible member of the community, assumes the function of contributing to the
improvement of the entire social life, both globally, and in some subsystems in part. He is no
longer a simple exterior bidder whose services may or may not be bought, but a co-
participant, a catalyst for social development. The sociologists that take this model as the right
one assumes an active role, they fights for his ideas, seek to persuade.(p.158).
163
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The two models of the relationship sociologist society are not exclusive, but
complementary. They can be considered general paradigm, limit the sociologist-society
relationship between them there is a multitude of intermediate grades.(p.158).
In what concerns Fair Sociology, the sociologist Catalin Zamfir agree that the
specialists in social sciences ask themselves whether there might be an approach to consider
all social perspectives simultaneously, all the interests involved in a social reality without
stressing one or the other. In other words, if it can be taken a fair attitude in relation to social
groups and subsystems involved. Fairness can be achieved through a neutral stance: all
perspectives are recorded objectively, all existing interests. This approach has come to be
increasingly more of a necessary process in sociology, even though most times it is extremely
difficult.(p. 164).
Assuming plurality has a real social base: the democratic option. Destructive in the
long term, the use and/or handling is becoming increasingly evident. Open dialogue and
negotiation are, therefore, a solution favored by specialists. Acceptance opens the possibility
for democratic game specialist to assume a position objectively engaged in concrete plurality
of perspectives. Sociology equidistant ignores the diversity of interests, but rather a
highlight.(p.165).
The status-quo/alternative option :
Aldous Huxley 's book Brave New World, published in the 30's, surprised an era
through the image of a possible future: a highly refined technological society with a high
degree of integration and control over itself, but completely anti-human. The individual is
crushed, handled with an extraordinarily effective technology in the name of rationality and
efficiency, but bya system of rationality that is hostile even to humans. The book was,
however, literature, a novel more fictional than scientific. When a few decades later, in 1977,
Herbert Marcuse 's work appear one-dimensional man, the shock would be incomparably
greater. This time its a book of philosophical-scientific type. Marcuse considers a possible
mechanism of aberrant social systems. Any social system or global society or a subsystem of
them is characterized by a certain mode of organization. To function, the social system is
organized in a certain way develops integrative forces, a defense against all types of
disturbances, destructive intrusions. Structurally, the system is geared toward preserving,
perpetuating. Change is tolerated only as an improvement to that organization and not when
pressed for structural transformation. The progress of human society was made not only
because of the driving factor, but relative weakness of organizational forms. At one point, the
forces of change manage to defeat in self-defense the mechanisms of the existing
organization, requiring structural changes. Thus, Marcuse senses a real problem that the
sociologist often meetst: the choice between the status quo (the organization's existing
system) and its organization alternatives. There is here a danger for the sociologist: he can
become a prisoner of social organization in which they operate; accepting the issues raised by
a sociologist accepts the merits the status quo, its existing organization, without exploring
alternatives for the organization. It is therefore the duty of the sociologist in this situation to
decide whether to act to improve the organization 's existing system or organization
promoting alternatives. (p. 174).
164
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Regarding social organization, there is another aspect the sociologist must take into
account. In social systems, the dispute between alternatives is often used as an instrument of
struggle between groups to obtain power. A group of people engaged in the struggle for
power can assimilate a program, an alternative organization that to oppose other groups.
Choosing the alternative is equivalent to favoring the group that claims may result transfer of
power from one group to another. The case appears clearly in multi-party political system. A
party or a candidate often adopt a specific program does not necessarily because they consider
best, but to distinguish and oppose candidates. For this reason, the sociologist must not fall
into the trap of power struggle. He must prevent cognitive polarization transformation (natural
differences of opinion about alternatives) in social polarization (differentiation of interests
and struggle for power between groups and individuals).
Thus, the true scientific objectivity and the possibility of effective application of
sociology in the practice of human communities can only be achieved on the basis of explicit
and responsible choices within social context it is applied in. (p.178).
Conclusions.
Considering the arguments we mentioned before, we think that it is difficult nowadays
to be a sociologist, but not impossible. Is a profession full of expectations, that provides
interesting points ok view and many exploratory possibilities. Of course, it was difficult to
explore the social area in the classical period of this science, when studying human behaviour
or the behaviour of man in relations with other persons became a challenge and when Auguste
Comte or Emile Durkheim made real efforts to make the scientific community from that
period understand that they were in front of a new science, with perspectives and scientific
instruments of interogating the social area; this is a thing that we cannot deny. But it is also
difficult to make sociological work in our days, when the society is more complex than ever,
when the migration has no geographical limits; in our society, the distances reduced in a
drastic way, because of communication development, the acces to the Internet from almost
every place in this world and the evolution of air transportation.
Because of this, in the actual society there are, as we said, in the social area, a lot of
social actors with different interests. Their activity may influence the professional and private
life of different groups of persons. These persons hire sociologists to make different
researches in various domains. The sociologists put together their experience with the field
work and arrive at different conclusions, making prognoses about social life or about the
implications of some actions, social and political ones, to several groups of persons.
The ones that ask for assistance come from different social parts, but, as we mentioned
earlier, almost all the time they have the financial support and can afford to study the issue
they are interested in. In this context, the sociologist is put in the middle: his conclusions
should present the reality as it is, the sociological discourse should be pertinent and easy to
check by other specialists, even if in the social sciences, the external factors are very
fluctuating from one day to another. So, the sociologist should have even experience and
theoretical preparation, in order to choose the right method to study a specific process or
phenomenon, but also, a specialist in social sciences should carry out his activity using a set
of ethical rules, rules that even unwritten, shoul be applied, without any doubt, to every
scientific field, not only in sociology.
165
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
As a conclusion, we think that the sociologists shoul claim for the respect of the
scientific truth and should present the reality as it is, with no fear to offend the ones who
ordered the study or the public opinion formers. Our society should be aware that we cannot
live in lie forever. When we know that we have problems and what is their nature, we search
solutions for solving them. If we keep lying to each other, as our forerunners lived before the
1989, in the socialist totalitary regime, we cannot see exactly the existence and the intensity
of one problem, we can only make suppositions upon it.
Also, a sociologist's work means to have a critical point of view of the issue they
study. They present the studied group and the interractions between his members as they
really happen, and their conclusions may offend one participant or another in social life. The
sociologist is critical by its own existence; he identifies problems and search for solutions.
When identifying real issues, he can offend some managers or political decidents, but he
should have the strenght of presenting the problems and give strong arguments and correct
procents in support of his conclusions.
Even if it is well known that an specialist who make observations upon a subject for
research pass that observation through his own perception and believes, its recomandable for
sociologists to keep themseves as objectives as they can, with an equidistant position upon the
decidents from community, free and not manipulated. They should maintain their personal
opinions and believes and not let their internal structure manipulated in the purpose of gaining
more money; they shouls tell the truth, no matter what and have in mind a special respect for
the truth. A sociological discourse should present the reality in a critical an inteligible form
and to propose solutions that political or private space decidents may take in consideration.
References
Chelcea, Septimiu, 2004. Metodologia cercetrii sociologice. Metode cantitative i calitative.
(The methodology of sociological research: quantitative and qualitative methods). Bucuresti:
editura Economica.
Mihailescu, Ioan, 2003. Sociologie generala. Concepte fundamentale si studii de caz. General
sociology. Fundamental concepts and case studies. Iasi: editura Polirom.
Zamfir, Catalin, 2005. Incertitudinea. O perspectiva psihosociologica. Uncertainty. A psycho-
sociological perspective. Bucuresti: editura Economica.
Zamfir, Catalin, 2005. Spre o paradigma a gandirii sociologice. To a paradigm of
sociological thinking. Iasi: editura Polirom.
www.sas.unibuc.ro.
166
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
PRAGMA-SEMANTIC VALUES OF THE METAPHOR IN THE CONTEMPORARY
POLITICAL DISCOURSE
Mihaela MOCANU, Scientific Researcher, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of
Iai
Abstract: The specificity of politic communication is generated by the status of the
interlocutors that are on asymmetric positions: on the one hand, there are the politicians and
the governors that use verbal signs in order to legitimate the power they have, on the other
hand, there are the citizens, the voters that should be convinced, seduced, determined to think
and to act in a specific direction. From this point of view, political communication is very
often reduced to talking to the voters and to politic marketing, being defined by specific
strategies of persuasion that support the objectives of the political issuer. Among the
persuasion strategies used by politicians, there is also the capitalization of rhetorical
methods. The relationship of the political discourse with old rhetoric consists, first of all, in
the desire of the talker to make the viewers like him/her and to convince the public. Among
the figures of speech, the contemporary political discourse mainly uses the virtues of
metaphor, its quality of making the transition from simple to complex, from abstract to
concrete, thus making communication have a powerful subjective dimension. The political
metaphor loses the specificity of poetic metaphor, becoming vulgar, in the etymological
meaning of the word and laborious. In order to underline the pragmatic-semantic dimensions
of metaphors in the contemporary political discourse, the purpose of our paper is to analyse
the political declarations from the inferior room of the Parliament of Romania, during the
month of October 2013.
Keywords: politic communication, politic discourse, metaphor, semantic analysis, pragmatic
analysis
Comunicare i discurs politic
Avnd ca scop gestionarea vieii colective, politica recurge la discurs pentru a face
sensibile recunoaterile i reprezentrile, n spe, pentru a conferi coeren (a se citi sens)
socialului. Mai mult dect cunoaterea a ceea ce se ntmpl, omul politic este interesat de
formele sub care referenialul politic este reprezentat. Din aceast perspectiv, aciunea
politic pare a avea ca principal obiect de activitate producerea de limbaje i simboluri,
menite s construiasc o realitate consonant cu ideologia care o guverneaz. Aciunea
politic traduce, n esen, lupta pentru nsuirea semnelor-putere, viznd, pe de o parte,
ctigarea dreptului/ accesului la cuvnt, iar pe de alt parte, obinerea privilegiului de a
impune sensuri proprii. Discursul politic oficial dobndete valoare normativ, jalonnd
limitele i prescriind coninuturile comunicrilor politice ulterioare. Pe aceast linie de
interpretare, politica se definete printr-o serie de raporturi simbolice, pentru c, n societatea
politizat n care trim, tranzaciile politice presupun cu siguran fora, dar se realizeaz fr
recursul explicit la for n aceeai msur n care tranzaciile financiare se realizeaz fr
recursul la aur1.
1
Olivier Burgelin, La naissance du pouvoir etudiant, en Communications, n.21, 1968, p. 33.
167
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Comunicarea politic definete un spaiu n care se relaioneaz discursurile
contradictorii a trei actori care au legitimitatea de a se exprima n mod public asupra politicii:
oamenii politici, jurnalitii i opinia public, prin intermediul sondajelor de opinie 2.O
perspectiv integratoare evideniaz c actul comunicrii politice este deopotriv:
a) relaie intenional i spaiu de interaciune;
b) ritual, dar i ansamblu de reglementri juridice;
c) dispozitiv tehnologic i simbolic care pune n scen politicul, dar i practic
democratic;
d) mesaj politic, dar i cunoatere politic (reprezentri, atitudini, prejudeci, opinii
colective n legtur cu politica);
e) strategii de marketing politic, viznd promovarea unor imagini, atitudini i valori
particulare.
Urmrind suscitarea unor concepii i atitudini particulare la nivelul receptrii,
comunicarea politic este asimilat deseori comunicrii electorale i marketingului politic. Pe
aceast linie de interpretare, Philippe J. Maarek apreciaz c: La transformation des modes
de communication des hommes politiques este pourtant inluctable. Lessor des medias de
masse dans le monde contemporain, puis des nouveaux medias () a rendu obsolte la
communication politique classique, du moins tant quelle ne saccompagne pas dune
mercatisation modernise. La communication politique moderne ne peut donc plus se
contenter, comme auparavant, de la qualit littraire des discours politiques et du brio de la
rhtorique de ses nonciateurs ()3.
Analiza comunicrii politice nu se poate limita, ns, la decelarea strategiilor i tehnicilor
de comunicare utilizate, la aa-numitul marketing politic, care transform oamenii i
doctrinele politice n mrfuri. Acest demers trebuie coroborat cu descrierea coordonatelor
implicate n situaia de comunicare politic i a efectelor pe care le genereaz relaiile dintre
ele la nivelul mesajului. n aceast perspectiv, comunicarea politic se distinge prin trsturi
precum:
a) Dimensiunea simbolic: comunicarea politic este spaiul manifestrii simbolice a
relaiilor de putere de pe scena politic, teren al negocierii imaginii publice, conferind
transparen actelor politice avantajoase i ocultnd aspectele dezavantajoase.
b) Dramatizarea: ine de asumarea unor roluri n cadrul comunicrii politice, n msura
n care politicianul vorbete n numele unei grupri politice, al unei ideologii, iar
publicul receptor, potenialul electorat, impune adoptarea i promovarea unor
atitudini, valori i credine specifice.
c) Reconstrucia referenialului politic: dincolo de transmiterea unor coninuturi,
emitentul politic este interesat de modalitatea n care sunt prezentate actele politice.
n acest sens, comunicarea politic are rol eminamente mistificator, modificnd,
reinterpretnd evenimentele politice, evitnd asumarea unor adevruri sociale, prin
apelul la eufemism, metafor, omisiune etc.
2
Dominique Wolton, Penser la communication, Flammarion, Paris, 1997, p. 107.
3
Philippe J. Maarek, Commmunication et marketing de l homme politique, Litec, Paris, 2001, p.2.
168
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
d) Intenionalitatea: este factorul cheie al comunicrii politice. Fiecare manifestare
discursiv din spaiul politic vizeaz suscitarea unor atitudini particulare la nivelul
receptrii.
Exprimarea raporturilor de for de pe scena politic se realizeaz prin apelul la limbaje
extrem de variate: cuvnt, imagine, muzic, obiecte, uniforme, arhitectur, embleme etc. Mai
toate produsele activitii umane sau care au vreo legtur cu activitatea uman pot fi preluate
i valorificate prin aciune politic, dar, fr ndoial, limbajul verbal este prioritar, att prin
impactul pe care l are asupra auditoriului, ct i prin multitudinea formelor de manifestare pe
care le nregistreaz. n acest sens, M. Edelman afirm c limbajul este o faet integral a
scenei politice: nu doar un instrument pentru descrierea evenimentelor, ci este el nsui parte
din evenimente, conturndu-le puternic semnificaia i ajutnd la definirea rolurilor politice pe
care autoritile i masele consider c le joac 4.
Patrick Charaudeau5 distinge trei ipostaze de utilizare a limbajului politic:
limbajul politic ca sistem de gndire;
limbajul politic ca act de comunicare;
limbajul politic n calitate de comentariu al referenialului politic.
Spre deosebire de limbaj, care continu s circule cu accepiuni variate, discursul politic
reprezint un concept uzual, unanim acceptat n literatura de specialitate, definind ansamblul
strategiilor lingvistice, actualizabile n diverse situaii de comunicare politic. Sintagma
nregistreaz un nalt nivel de generalitate, prin trecerea de la situaii concrete de comunicare,
la paradigma mecanismelor structurale i funcionale ale manifestrilor discursive din spaiul
politic. Mijloc de exprimare a evenimentelor de pe scena politic, dar i a afinitilor politice
ale locutorului, discursul politic constituie, deopotriv, spaiu de reconstrucie a referenialului
politic, prin prisma intereselor politice ale emitentului, suport al ideologiei, valorilor i
credinelor i instrument de manipulare, prin inculcarea de atitudini i valori noi auditoriului.
Care sunt trsturile care confer unui discurs caracterul politic i cum putem s-l
difereniem de alte manifestri discursive? Jean-Marie Denquin propune, n acest sens, trei
criterii de delimitare:
a) Criteriul emitorului: este politic discursul emis de un om politic. Criteriul
emitorului nu se dovedete universal valabil, de vreme ce nu putem considera
utilizarea discursului politic apanajul exclusiv al persoanelor care ocup scena
politic: discuia dintre persoane neangrenate n sfera politic poate, ea nsi, s aib
caracter politic.
b) Criteriul coninutului: pare a ridica mai puine inconveniente dect primul. Potrivit
acestui criteriu, subiectul, tema, va determina caracterul politic al unui limbaj i nu
natura vocabulelor utilizate. Orice limbaj politic vehiculeaz un discurs politic, dar
reciproca nu este valabil 6.
c) Criteriul contextului: exist situaii n care actorii politici exprim discursuri politice
prin coninut, alteori, statutul acestora confer caracter politic unui discurs al crui
4
M. Edelman, Politica i utilizarea simbolurilor, Editura Polirom, Iai, 1999, p. 3.
5
Patrick Charaudeau, Le discours politique. Les masques du pouvoir, Librairie Vuibert, Paris, 2005, p. 30.
6
Jean-Marie Denquin, La politique et le langage, Michel Houdiard Editeur, Paris, 2007, p. 21.
169
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
coninut nu are nimic de-a face cu politica (de exemplu o argumentaie tehnic sau
economic).
Remarcm c factura politic a unui discurs este determinat, n primul rnd, de situaia
de comunicare n care apare i nu de coninuturile vehiculate. Adjectivul calificativ politic are,
potrivit lui Jean-Marie Denquin, rolul de a opune un tip de discurs altora, iar n cazul
manifestrilor discursive care nu prezint caracter politic prin vocabular, prin tem sau
retoric, calificarea se va face prin raportare la context. Astfel, un om politic, care strig Ce
oroare! n cadrul familiei, nu rostete un discurs politic, dar n faa unei camere de filmat, n
preajma unor atentate, acest enun dobndete caracter politic.
Subliniem faptul c discursul politic nu reprezint un ornament, o suprastructur, ci este
constitutiv aciunii politice, n msura n care reprezentrile politice, prin care indivizii i
gruprile se definesc, capt consisten i vizibilitate prin intermediul manifestrilor
discursive. Numeroase acte politice sunt, prin natura lor, acte de discurs (un exemplu n acest
sens l ofer demisiile), iar altele se sprijin, n realizarea lor, pe cuvnt. Printre trsturile
specifice limbajului politic, menionm natura interdiscursiv, dramatizarea, finalitile de
legitimare, intenionalitatea, miza persuasiv i coninutul ideologic.
Discursul politic contemporan funcii i trsturi
n calitate de mijloc de obinere i legitimare a puterii politice, discursul politic poart
amprenta funciilor pe care le ndeplinete n cadrul comunicrii politice i a condiiilor
concrete de generare. Suport de manifestare a ideologiei i propagandei, discursul politic
ndeplinete, potrivit Henrietei Mitrea erban, trei funcii specifice7:
Funcia de comunicare i socializare (informare, educare, contientizare, formare de
opinii i atitudini favorabile factorilor politici etc.);
Funcia de incitare i mobilizare (influenarea atitudinilor i opiunilor politice ale
receptorilor);
Funcia de legitimare a guvernanilor, gruprilor politice, instituiilor politice i,
implicit, a deciziilor acestora.
Nina-Aurora Blan vorbete, la rndul ei, de patru funcii ale limbajului politic8: funcia
structurant (n sensul n care fiecare discurs politic urmrete reorganizarea referenialului
politic, n vederea obinerii unor efecte particulare la nivelul receptrii); funcia decizional
(n msura n care, n domeniul politic, parler cest faire); funcia pedagogic (caracteristica
discursului politic este aceea de a furniza informaii, cel puin la nivel teoretic, dar i de a
genera adeziunea, consimmntul publicului receptor la un set de valori i credine); funcia
terapeutic (discursul politic furnizeaz un tip de raionalitate politic, confer un sens
spaiului politic, mpiedicnd astfel apariia ndoielilor, a angoasei, prin rennoirea permanent
a anumitor certitudini).
Dac avem n vedere discursul politic interpretativ (discursul ziaritilor, al analitilor
politici), neles ca un tip de metadiscurs, care are ca obiect discursul politic al altuia,
7
Henrieta Mitrea-erban, Limbajul politic n democraie, Editura Institutului de tiine Politice i Relaii
Internaionale, Bucureti, 2006, p. 9.
8
Nina Aurora Blan, Discursul politic romnesc, Editura Universitaria, Craiova, 2005, pp. 19-20.
170
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
inventarul funciilor pe care le nregistreaz manifestrile discursive din spaiul politic poate fi
completat cu:
Funcia de explicitare (glosri n marginea discursului politic-obiect);
Funcia de demistificare (de dezvluire a formei fr fond);
Funcia de mediere (ntre diveri actori politici i publicul larg);
Funcia reflexiv (de exprimare a valorilor, credinelor i reprezentrilor pe care le
mprtete locutorul).
Analiza semantic a discursului politic contemporan relev trsturi precum:
a) Predilecia pentru termeni concrei, n detrimentul celor abstraci, generat de
principiul accesibilitii. Preferina pentru terminologia concret favorizeaz utilizarea
alegoriilor, facilitnd procesul de decodare la nivelul receptrii.
b) Utilizarea eufemismului, unul dintre principalele instrumente de eludare a aspectelor
peiorative ale realitii politice. Practic a manifestrilor discursive din toate timpurile,
mijloc de protejare a sensibilitii publicului receptor, eufemismul dobndete, n
cadrul comunicrii politice, valene defensive, viznd conservarea imaginii locutorului
i, implicit, a statutului acestuia n ierarhia puterii.
c) Specializarea semantic a cuvintelor din vocabularul comun, prin atribuirea unor
sensuri politice bine definite (dreapta, stnga, centru, portocaliu, baron).
d) Deschiderea spre mprumuturi neologice.
e) Predilecia pentru cuvinte aparinnd unor cmpuri semantice particulare: domeniul
rzboiului, domeniul religios, cel sportiv etc.
Majoritatea mutaiilor semantice nregistrate de limbajul politic se datoreaz
procedeelor retorice utilizate. Spre deosebire de filosofie i literatur, discursul politic
valorific resursele retoricii n mod diferit, potrivit funciilor pe care le ndeplinete i tipului
de public pe care l vizeaz. Adresndu-se unui public extrem de larg i eterogen, limbajul
politic valorific potenialul figurilor de discurs, stabilind conexiuni ntre categoriile
ideologice i cele ale gndirii comune, n perspectiv pragmatic. n acest sens, prosopopeea,
metafora i personificarea devin constante ale retoricii politice, dar nu sunt omise nici
resursele celorlalte procedee. De-a lungul timpului, se remarc preferina pentru unele sau
altele dintre acestea. Astfel, n vreme ce limbajul politic romnesc din secolul al XIX-lea
manifest interes pentru prosopopee, prin intermediul creia, se atribuie obiectelor/
abstractelor/ elementelor naturale ori supranaturale caracteristici ale fiinelor animate, n
secolul al XX-lea remarcm spaiul larg acordat comparaiei.
Metafora valene semantice i pragmatice n discursul politic contemporan
n rndurile care urmeaz, ne ndreptm atenia asupra valenelor semantice i
pragmatice pe care le nregistreaz metafora n discursul politic contemporan. Consideraiile
noastre se sprijin pe analiza alocuiunilor din camera inferioar a Parlamentului Romniei,
exemplele oferite fiind extrase din declaraiile politice susinute n edinele Camerei
Deputailor, pe parcursul lunii octombrie 2013.
Apreciind c metafora nu este o noiune de competen exclusiv a lingvisticii, ci un
concept complex, cu implicaii filosofice, care trebuie situat ntr-un plan cultural mai larg 9,
9
Ovidiu Verde, Metafora un concept deschis, Editura Universitii din Bucureti, Bucureti, 2009, p. 9.
171
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Ovidiu Verde subliniaz necesitatea ndreptrii ateniei asupra procesului de receptare i
interpretare a metaforelor, considernd c interesul abordrilor pragmatice pentru condiiile
care produc tensiunea dintre sensul literal i cel metaforic are prioritate n faa chestiunilor
tehnice legate de problema indiciilor sensului figurat10.
Potrivit lui G. Lakoff i M. Johnson11, a descifra o metafor nseamn a lua n
considerare urmtoarele teze:
- metafora nu este doar limbaj, ci i o problem de gndire conceptual;
- o metafor conceptual convenional este o suprapunere parial a unei structuri
conceptuale (conceptul-surs) asupra unei alte structuri conceptuale (conceptul-int);
- suprapunerea metaforic este strict unidirecional, mergnd de la domeniul-surs
ctre domeniul-int;
- ntr-o metafor conceptual convenional, conceptul-int este parial structurat i
constituit de conceptul-surs;
- metaforele convenionale nu sunt propoziii.
Astfel, n enunul nu este zi de la Dumnezeu fr o chifl politic (s.n.) a lui Victor
Ponta i tovarii lui n ale guvernrii, ceea ce mi-a ngreunat foarte mult activitatea de
selecie i prioritizare a acestor chifle12, conceptul-surs chifl repercuteaz asupra
conceptului-int actele politice ale prim-ministrului o serie de sensuri peiorative, devenind
echivalent semantic pentru greeal de guvernare i sugernd, n substrat, incapacitatea
guvernului Ponta de a gestiona actele de pe scena politic romneasc.
Metafora politic pierde virtuile metaforei poetice, devenind vulgar, n sensul
etimologic al cuvntului, i laborioas, iar importana ei nu rezid n frecven, ci n locul pe
care l ocup n economia manifestrii discursive. Remarcm, n acest sens, preferina
politicienilor pentru exprimarea metaforic nc din titlurile alocuiunilor: Recunoti c eti
mistre?, Voi avei gazele, noi avem chibritul!, Invazia rablelor, Ali Baba n sol major -
concert pentru economie i pian, Zmeura de aur pentru Victor Ponta, Cianur pe pine,
Parlamentul zmeurilor de aur, Greu la deal cu boii mici, Muntele i are legile sale etc.
Comunicare oblic, deplasare de sens, plasticitate, accente de subiectivitate sunt doar
cteva dintre trsturile pe care metafora le confer discursului din spaiul politic. Rolul ei
este acela de a prezenta faptele n calitate de, n baza unei relaii de asemnare, care
genereaz deplasarea de sens: a vorbi despre politic n termenii unui joc, despre rzboi n
termenii unui spectacol de teatru, despre problemele sociale n termenii patologiei, despre
noiuni abstracte n termeni concrei sunt tot attea deschideri pe care le opereaz metafora la
nivel semantic. Spre deosebire de metafora artistic, metafora poetic poart amprenta unor
judeci de valoare: ea poate s pun n valoare sau s devalorizeze obiectul descris, s
supraestimeze sau s degradeze imaginea unei persoane, grupri, instituii, ri etc.
ntr-o perspectiv mai ampl asupra metaforei, conceput nu doar ca simpl figur de
stil, ci ca figur discursiv, n sensul metaforei vii, ea are capacitatea generrii unui lan ntreg
de semnificaii, mbogind discursul politic i conferindu-i plasticitate i suplee.
10
Ovidiu Verde, Metafora un concept deschis, Editura Universitii din Bucureti, Bucureti, 2009, p. 9.
11
Apud Camelia Mihaela Cmeciu, Strategii persuasive n discursul politic, editura Universitas XXI, Iai, 2005,
p. 37.
12
http://www.cdep.ro/pls/steno/steno.stenograma?ids=7305&idm=1,116&idl=1, accesat la 22.11.2013.
172
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Presupunnd o form particular de inferen, metafora implic efecte i valori comunicative
indirect vehiculate, ntr-o perspectiv pragmatic ce nu poate s neglijeze legturile
contextuale i raporturile cu utilizatorii. n spaiul comunicrii politice, unde emitentul este
mai degrab interesat de reconstrucia referenialului evenimenial dect de respectul
adevrului, metafora ofer acestuia ansa de a eluda aspectele care i sunt nefavorabile,
ndreptnd atenia receptorilor asupra slbiciunilor adversarului politic.
Capacitatea de a pune n relaie domenii extrem de diverse, de a le apropia sau chiar
de a le face s fuzioneze, constituie mecanismul funcionalitii metaforei, iar aptitudinea de a
stabili conexiuni depinde de cunotinele, de imaginaia, de talentul i, nu n ultimul rnd, de
intenia locutorului, care are libertatea de a recurge la un repertoriu prestabilit sau de a genera
expresii metaforice noi. Printre cele mai ntlnite domenii de generare a construciilor
metaforice din discursul politic contemporan se nscriu13:
Politic i joc: conceptul metaforic de joc apare frecvent n discursul sau
comentariul politic, n calitate de sinonim al strategiei sau al regulilor care
guverneaz cmpul politic:
Acest om iresponsabil i bate joc cu nesimire i de locuitorii din munii
Apuseni i de toi ceilali romni, indiferent de opinia lor fa de proiectul minier
mult discutat din Roia Montan. Ce nseamn acest ping-pong cu un proiect de
lege (s.n.) ce are legtur cu un obiectiv de nsemntate naional, domnule
premier? Acesta este modul prin care gestionai dumneavoastr o asemenea
tem?14. (Clement Negru - declaraie politic cu titlul Roia Montan nu este
jucria lui Ponta)
Politic i condiii atmosferice apropierea de fenomenele meteorologice
sugereaz n subsidiar schimbrile ce caracterizeaz lumea politic i efemeritatea
actelor politice:
Sub norul de fum mediatic i de demagogie (s.n.) dus la extrem, Victor Ponta
ascunde zi de zi incapacitatea sa n a guverna ara pentru i n folosul
romnilor15. (Florin Mihail Secar - declaraie politic cu titlul Guvernul ne ia de
proti!)
Politic i spectacol: nu de puine ori, domeniul politic este asimilat unui
spectacol de teatru sau film, iar oamenii politici unor actori care joac potrivit
unor scenarii scrise de ei nii:
Muli s-ar ntreba de ce i acord lui Victor Ponta premiul Zmeura de aur? Pi
cu ce este diferit Victor Ponta de actorii slabi de la Hollywood? l nconjoar
zilnic zeci de camere de luat vederi? l nconjoar! Este difuzat la televiziuni 24
de ore pe zi? Este! Are mai muli scenariti i regizori care-i traseaz cu precizie
toate micrile i i pun n gur cele mai sfruntate minciuni? Are! Are decoruri?
Are! Este Victor Ponta un actor ratat? Este! () Sunt convins c dac Victor
Ponta va continua cu acest talent actoricesc, cu sigurana va fi premiat i n alte
ocazii pentru cel mai bun rol principal n telenovela Eu cnd vreau s mint,
mint! sau serialul SF Eu mint de nghea apele, numai c romnii ar trebui
13
Rafika Keryayi-Lasri, La mtaphore dans le commentaire politique, LHarmattan, Paris, 2003, p. 94.
14
http://www.cdep.ro/pls/steno/steno.stenograma?ids=7303&idm=1,143&idl=1, accesat la 20.11.2013.
15
http://www.cdep.ro/pls/steno/steno.stenograma?ids=7308&idm=1,011&idl=1, accesat la 20.11.2013.
173
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
scutii s mai nghit toate minciunile Domniei Sale 16. (Florin Mihail Secar -
declaraie politic cu titlul Zmeura de aur pentru Victor Ponta)
Politic i muzic asocierea cu muzica este n strns legtur cu inteniile de
devalorizare a activitii politice a adversarilor:
Nu-l tii pe domnul Varujan? Cum de nu tii? Este pianistul! Este prim-solistul
care interpreteaz de ani buni i fr ncetare aceeai partitur: Ali Baba i cei 40
de hoi, n sol major17. (Florin Gheorghe - declaraie politic cu titlul Ali Baba
n sol major - concert pentru economie i pian)
Politic i rzboi - apropierea experienei politice de imaginea unui rzboi
constituie una dintre cele mai ntlnite expresii metaforice n cazul evocrii unor
situaii controversate:
Practic, ntr-o sptmn, Victor Ponta i coaliia de guvernare au atacat frontal,
la baionet, dou dintre puterile recunoscute n stat - cea judectoreasci cea a
presei18. (Tinel Gheorghe - declaraie politic cu titlul Greu la deal cu boii mici)
Politic i conceptele de natere i de moarte - eseniale pentru experiena
uman, conceptele de natere i de moarte nu sunt legate doar de existena
omului, ci nglobeaz orice experien ce st sub semnul nceputului i al
sfritului:
n tot acest scenariu sumbru, ministrul Nicolescu e parc singurul nevinovat de
moartea clinic n care se zbate sntatea romneasc 19. ( Liliana Ciobanu -
declaraie politic Cine salveaz sntatea din moarte clinic)
Politic i regn animal: transferul de tip metaforic prin care numele unor specii
de animale (inferioare, de prad) sunt folosite pentru a califica specia uman 20
este o constant a discursului politic contemporan. Transferul presupune trecerea
cuvintelor n categoria axiologicelor depreciative: devalorizarea/ valorizarea
negativ reprezint o component obligatorie a acestui proces 21. Recursul
frecvent la vocabularul care desemneaz regnul animal cu referire la lumea
politic produce clieizarea unor metafore (rechini, lupi tineri, acali, iepurai,
uri, mistrei etc.). Metafora dinozaurului trimite la realiti sociale, economice,
politice depite, compromise istoric i moral: dinozaur industrial, politic,
universitar, de media etc. Metafora animalier are n general conotaii negative,
viznd discreditarea adversarului politic.
Politic i sntate: asocierea vieii politice cu o stare precar de sntate are ca
scop discreditarea, devalorizarea oamenilor politici aflai la guvernare. Metafora
bolii trimite n subsidiar la eecul guvernrii unei grupri politice:
Guvernarea USL a promis, se tie, dac nu vindecarea, cel puin tratarea tuturor
rnilor lsate pe trupul Romniei de o guvernare, n multe privine, iresponsabil.
16
http://www.cdep.ro/pls/steno/steno.stenograma?ids=7303&idm=1,066&idl=1, accesat la 19.11.2013.
17
http://www.cdep.ro/pls/steno/steno.stenograma?ids=7303&idm=1,065&idl=1, accesat la 19.11.2013.
18
http://www.cdep.ro/pls/steno/steno.stenograma?ids=7305&idm=1,116&idl=1, accesat la 22.11.2013.
19
http://www.cdep.ro/pls/steno/steno.stenograma?ids=7303&idm=1,082&idl=1, accesat la 22.11.2013.
20
V. Gabriela Duda, Limbajul politicienilor: ntre violen i deriziune, n Domnia Tomescu (coord), Limbajul
politic romnesc actual, Editura Universitii Petrol-Gaze din Ploieti, Ploieti, 2009, pp. 17-42.
21
V. Gabriela Duda, Limbajul politicienilor: ntre violen i deriziune, n Domnia Tomescu (coord), Limbajul
politic romnesc actual, Editura Universitii Petrol-Gaze din Ploieti, Ploieti, 2009, p. 20.
174
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Numai c rnile sunt multe, i, din pcate, doctorii competeni, numii manageri ai
sistemelor social-economice, precum i cele trebuincioase vindecrii, respectiv
injeciile cu capital, lipsesc de pe piaa noastr srcit de valori.
S-a nceput, dup cum bine se tie, cu repararea rnilor lsate n trupul naiunii de
tierile salariale, apoi cu tratamentul aplicat pe delicata ran a pensiilor militarilor.
Acestea ns sunt probleme macrosistemice ce se ncearc a fi rezolvate cu un
pacient adus n pragul nevrozei, convulsiv i care nu mai tolereaz medicaia
politicianist22. (Ion Mocioalc - declaraie politic intitulat Vindecarea
Romniei trebuie nceput cu rnile mici)
Politic i sex - discursul politic contemporan nu putea face abstracie de o
trstur a manifestrilor discursive din spaiul mediatic: aluziile sexuale.
Insolvena nu poate salva impotena! Impotena lui Ponta n a stimula creterea
economic i a schimba n bine standardul de via al romnilor, n a respecta
legea i instituiile statului romn a fost deja demonstrat n cele peste 550 de zile
de guvernare care au otrvit viaa romnilor23. (Florin Mihail Secar - declaraie
politic intitulat Insolvena salveaz impotena)
Politic i religie aezarea i discutarea evenimentelor politice ntr-un context
de gndire i afectivitate religios are la baz intenia vorbitorului de a detepta
structuri preexistente n mentalul colectiv:
Descartes spunea c Bunul-sim este nsuirea, puterea de a judeca bine i de a
distinge ce-i adevrat de ce este fals. Nimic mai adevrat! i nimic mai fals, n
pelerinajele politicianiste din aceste zile de la Iai, la moatele Sfintei Cuvioase
Parascheva. () Politicienii din toate partidele au format un sobor ad-hoc i s-au
dus la Iai ca la Mecca, s pupe moatele ntr-o zi de srbtoare, fr s-i mai
intereseze dac ara este guvernat, dac CFR Marf se vinde sau nu, dac micii
fermieri i pot plti noile impozite, dac omerii vor mai avea din ce s triasc
()24. (Nuu Fonta - declaraie politic intitulat Guvernarea sfintelor moate!)
Remarcm c n spaiul comunicrii politice exprimrile metaforice valorific cmpuri
semantice dintre cele mai diverse, avnd n comun funcia de a formula, prin domeniul-int,
trsturi specifice domeniului-surs. Comportamentele, practicile, atitudinile nu sunt
reprezentate n mod izolat, ci prin intermediul unor relaii semiotice care apropie experienele,
n funcie de proprietile pe care le au n comun. Subliniind relaia de interdependen dintre
metafor i contextul socio-cultural n care ia natere, Umberto Eco afirm c elaborarea unei
metafore are la baz un univers de coninut deja constituit, o reea de interpretani care decid
semiotic asemnri i diferene de proprieti25. Fr a se limita la un simplu joc de cuvinte,
metafora implic traducerea raporturilor cu lumea, cu cellalt, fapt care explic preferina
manifestat, ntr-o epoc sau alta, pentru anumite structuri metaforice. Ea este girat de un
sistem conceptual la rndul lui structurat, guvernat de orizontul cultural al fiecruia, iar
interpretarea expresiilor metaforice nu poate oculta experienele, conceptele, valorile,
atitudinile care le inspir i le genereaz n acelai timp. Pe aceast linie de interpretare,
22
http://www.cdep.ro/pls/steno/steno.stenograma?ids=7303&idm=1,079&idl=1, accesat la 21.11.2013.
23
http://www.cdep.ro/pls/steno/steno.stenograma?ids=7305&idm=1,002&idl=1, accesat la 22.11.2013.
24
http://www.cdep.ro/pls/steno/steno.stenograma?ids=7308&idm=1,085&idl=1, accesat la 22.11.2013.
25
Umberto Eco, Smiotique et philosophie du langage, PUF, Paris, 1988.
175
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Lakoff i Johnson26 propun o taxonomie a metaforei politice, dup criteriul categoriilor de
experiene care le genereaz:
a) Metafore de orientare: nglobeaz dou procese diferite: cel spaial i cel temporal.
n cadrul lingvisticii textuale, structurile metaforice nu sunt entiti frastice izolate,
fiind rspndite pe ntreaga suprafa a textului, ntr-o manier omogen i
supunndu-se unui principiu mai general, cel al pertinenei locale. Spaiul i timpul
organizeaz experiena noastr fizic i cultural, aflndu-se, de multe ori, la baza
unor concepte metaforice. Metaforele de orientare spaial sunt organizate prin
raportare la o direcie determinat: sus/ jos, exterior/ interior, n fa/ n spate etc.,
favoriznd elaborarea unor judeci negative, pozitive sau neutre asupra unei stri,
a unei situaii sau a unei persoane, prin localizarea acesteia.
b) Metafore ontologice: permit perceperea evenimentelor, emoiilor, ideilor etc., n
calitate de entiti. Prin intermediul metaforelor ontologice, experiene abstracte
devin experiene concrete, noiuni care nu pot fi cuantificate devin evaluabile,
noiuni spirituale devin materiale etc. (Ex. Lupt pentru inima acestei ri!).
c) Metafore ale coninuturilor: permit considerarea strilor i activitilor n calitate
de obiecte. n acest sens, activiti, evenimente, aciuni i stri sunt tratate
metaforic ca substane (Ex: Cum ai intrat n politic?).
d) Metafore personificatorii: marcheaz o deplasare semantic de pe non-uman pe
uman, conferind elementelor din prima clas puterea de a aciona, de a vorbi, de a
gndi etc. (Ex. Romnia sufer.).
e) Metafore organice: fac apel la diferite pri ale corpului uman (bra, ochi, frunte
etc.), ncrcate de valori simbolice particulare (Ex. Capul partidului a luat decizia
moiunii de cenzur.).
Natura relaional a semnificaiei metaforice impune interogaia asupra naturii i a
mecanismelor de funcionare a metaforei, orientarea ateniei att asupra semanticii
enunurilor, ct i asupra sintaxei, a sintagmaticii semnelor metaforice ntr-un discurs
particular. Cea de-a treia dimensiune a triadei semiotice, perspectiva pragmatic, se dovedete
esenial n procesul de decodare a metaforei politice: dimensiunea pragmatic este o cale
principal, obligatorie pentru studiul metaforei. Ea subliniaz caracterul extra-discursiv al
acesteia, efectele pe care le are n context, motivaiile individuale sau sociale care o
genereaz; toate aceste elemente sunt inerente funcionrii metaforelor. Exprimarea
metaforic este un act de limbaj avnd reprezentri i finaliti specifice, fapt ce ne oblig la
cercetarea valenelor ei pragmatice27.
Concluzii
Oferind terenul cultivrii unor exprimri oblice i al inferenelor care conduc dincolo de
litera discursului, metafora ofer msura dimensiunii histrionice a discursului politic, tentat
mai degrab s ascund dect s dezvluie. ntr-o perspectiv pragmatic, ce nu poate s
neglijeze legturile contextuale i raporturile cu utilizatorii, discursul politic nu se limiteaz la
o simpl aciune de comunicare ntre emitor i receptor, fiind generat, n mod necesar, de o
26
G. Lakoff, M. Hohnson, Les metaphores dans la vie quotidienne, Minuit, Paris, 1985, p. 254.
27
Rafika Kerzazi-Lasri, La mtaphore dans le commentaire politique, LHarmattan, Paris, 2003, p. 103.
176
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
intenie persuasiv. n aceste condiii, nu intereseaz att frumuseea discursului sau
niruirea logic a ideilor, ct, mai degrab, selecia i valorificareainstrumentarului
lingvistic n consonan cu efectele persuasive urmrite. Metafora politic nu este un simplu
ornament stilistic, ci funcioneaz ca prim nivel de structurare a persuasiunii. Prin folosirea
metaforei locutorul ctig de dou ori: prima dat prin reducerea timpului alocat (i chiar a
efortului intelectual), iar a doua oar cel mai important! las loc unei duble interpretri.
Mesajul astfel vag construit va fi decodat de receptor de cele mai multe ori n funcie de
nevoile, ateptrile i dorinele acestuia28.
Form particular de inferen, cu efecte i valori comunicative indirect vehiculate,
metafora politic traduce, n fond, inteniile emitentului de eludare, respectiv de mistificare a
realitii politice. Discursul politic contemporan valorific, cu precdere, virtuile metaforei,
calitatea acesteia de a opera treceri de la complex la simplu, de la abstract la concret,
imprimnd discursului o puternic dimensiune subiectiv. Subliniem, de asemenea, substratul
explicit polemic al construciilor metaforice din discursul politic contemporan, rolul lor n
demersul de discreditare a adversarilor politici. Definirea mecanismului metaforic n termeni
de interaciune, de tranzacie ntre contexte pune n valoare potenialul semantic al
exprimrilor metaforice i, nu n ultimul rnd, impactul pe care l au acestea la nivelul
receptrii. Metafora proiecteaz asupra subiectului principal nsuiri care aparin subiectului
secundar, funcionnd asemenea unui filtru care suprim anumite trsturi ale obiectului i
accentueaz altele, n funcie de finalitile discursive ale politicianului.
Bibliografie
Avdanei, tefan (1994), La nceput a fost metafora, Editura Virginia, Iai.
Banciu, Viorica (2009), Semantic and Pragmatic Characteristics of Political Discourse,
Editura Argonaut, Cluj-Napoca.
Blan, Nina Aurora (2005), Discursul politic romnesc, Editura Universitaria, Craiova.
Burgelin, Olivier (1968), La naissance du pouvoir etudiant, en Communications, n.21, p. 33.
Charaudeau, Patrick (2005), Le discours politique. Les masques du pouvoir, Librairie
Vuibert, Paris.
Cmeciu, Camelia Mihaela (2005), Strategii persuasive n discursul politic, Universitas XXI,
Iai.
Denquin, Jean-Marie (2007), La politique et le langage, Michel Houdiard Editeur, Paris.
Duda, V. Gabriela (2009), Limbajul politicienilor: ntre violen i deriziune, n Domnia
Tomescu (coord), Limbajul politic romnesc actual, Editura Universitii Petrol-Gaze din
Ploieti, 2009, pp. 17-42.
Eco, Umberto (1988), Smiotique et philosophie du langage, PUF, Paris.
Edelman, M. (1999), Politica i utilizarea simbolurilor, Editura Polirom, Iai.
Keryayi-Lasri, Rafika (2003), La mtaphore dans le commentaire politique, LHarmattan,
Paris.
Lakoff, G.; Hohnson M. (1985), Les metaphores dans la vie quotidienne, Minuit, Paris.
28
Domnia Tomescu (coord), Limbajul politic romnesc actual, Editura Universitii Petrol-Gaze din Ploieti,
Ploieti, 2009, p. 182.
177
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Maarek, J. Philippe (2001), Communication et marketing de lhomme politique, Editions
Litec, Paris.
Mitrea-erban, Henrieta (2006), Limbajul politic n democraie, Editura Institutului de tiine
Politice i Relaii Internaionale, Bucureti.
Ricoeur, Paul (1984), Metafora vie, Editura Univers, Bucureti.
Tomescu, Domnia coord. (2009), Limbajul politic romnesc actual, Editura Universitii
Petrol-Gaze din Ploieti, Ploieti.
Verde, Ovidiu (2004), Metafora un concept deschis, Editura Universitii din Bucureti,
Bucureti.
Wolton, Dominique (1997), Penser la communication, Flammarion, Paris.
Sitografie
http://www.cdep.ro/pls/steno/steno.data?cam=2&dat=20131001&idl=1.
http://www.cdep.ro/pls/steno/steno.data?cam=2&dat=20131008&idl=1.
http://www.cdep.ro/pls/steno/steno.data?cam=2&dat=20131015&idl=1.
http://www.cdep.ro/pls/steno/steno.data?cam=2&dat=20131022&idl=1.
http://www.cdep.ro/pls/steno/steno.data?cam=2&dat=20131029&idl=1.
178
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE HISTORY, PECULIAR TERMINOLOGY AND TRANSLATION PROBLEMS
OF THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE
NAGY Imola Katalin, PhD, Sapientia University of Trgu-Mure
Abstract: The aim of this article is to cover the issue of English as the lingua franca of
medicine and its influence on other languages. Besides linguistic aspects, we attempt to offer
a survey of translation problems and difficulties, as these are viewed by some of the authors
who have dealt with this topic. We also wish to cover some aspects of the historical evolution
of medical terminology and issues related to the way medical terms have appeared and
spread over the centuries.Keywords: language of medicine, terminology and terminography,
translating medical texts, linguistic peculiarity
Keywords: lingua franca, medical terminology, historical evolution, dictionary, translation
The language of medical sciences is used in contexts where failures in communication or
mistakes in expressing oneself may lead to disastruous results. It is said that medicine is the king
of all professions. Today, the lingua franca of medicine is English, as the most widely cited
medical journals are in English. Practitioners have to be able to master this new lingua franca of
medicine, not only to communicate (with their patients or the other members of the medical
staff), but also to improve professionally, to have access to the most recent discoveries.
History of medical terminology
Every profession and every science builds up its own specialized language use and
terminology. Scientific terminology differs from the terminology of professions in being more
systematic and based on taxonomy. One of the most important battles medicine has ever had
was its striving to turn, from ars mechnica i.e. profession into ars liberalis, i.e. science. With
the advent of medicine as science, it had to implement a more regulated and systematic
terminology and conceptual framework.
The history of European medical terminologies goes back to ancient Greece, the 6-5th
centuries BC. The first medical activities were carried out in ancient Greece, Rome and
Egypt. Todays famous Hippocratic Oath dates back to the times of Hippocrates, who is
considered the Father of Medicine. His cures and healing methods differed from those of the
priests of his time, as, unlike these, Hippocrates believed that illnesses were not caused by
angry gods, but they had natural causes. Frnculescu summarizes the history of medicine in
the following way: Latin was the lingua franca of Western medical writing for several
centuries. The roots of Western medicine lie in Greek. Medical learning was transmitted in
Latin translations of Greek and Arabic texts, mostly by translators whose first language was
not a European vernacular, but Arabic or Greek. Galens texts became available in the 13th
century in Latin commentaries, with several layers of additions. Medical texts began to be
translated into vernacular languages such as French, English, German, Portuguese, and
Catalan in the 14th and 15th centuries, almost simultaneously in different parts of Europe.
However, at that time, Latin retained its strong position as a pan-European language of
179
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
science. The situation started to change in France, at the end of the 16th century, and in
England, at the end of the 17th century, when several authors began to publish in both
vernacular languages and Latin. But Latin still retained its position longer in other parts of
Europe, for example in German-speaking countries (Frnculescu, 2009:4).
Thus, in ancient times, the language of medicine was Greek. The first important
collection of medical writings is the so-called Corpus Hippocraticum, a collection of 60
studies. The terminology of these books stands at the basis of todays medical terminology.
Even some of the linguistic phenomena that operate in these ancient writings are similar to the
ones that operate today: for instance, the word metastasis, initially meaning exodus, moving
out, was not used in its general meaning, but suffered a change of meaning and started to be
used with its medical meaning, i.e. change, alteration.
Among the first medical dictionary writers Andrs Lszl Magyar (2009) mentions
Xencritos, Callimachus, Tanagraios, etc. Their dictionaries were monolingual and focused on
the explanation of words. Claudios Galenos (2nd century BC) played an important role in the
systematization and canonization of the Greek medical terminology. Another important
moment in the evolution of medicine was the Middle Ages, when different medical schools,
like the of the University of Montpelier, started to perform dissections of human bodies. In
the Middle Ages, more precisely towards the end of the 15th century, the first medical
treatises in French were published. French became the new linga franca in the 16th century,
and again in the 18th when Louis Pasteur and Claude Bernard became famous.
This ancient Greek medical terminology survived and was handed over to modern
European medical terminologies via three intermediaries: the Arab medical translations and
their Latin re-translations, the Byzantine medical terminology (also in Greek) and the
European Latin-based medical activities, carried out especially in the network of Catholic
monasteries.
Among the first Arab translators of medical texts Magyar (2009) mentions the name of
Huanin ibn Ishak al-Ibadi whose Latin name was Johannitius (808-877), and who was the son
of of rich chemist from Syria. He is the founder and the creator of the Arabic medical
terminology. The Arabs medical dictionaries are the first plurilingual dictionaries in the field.
The role of the Byzantine Empire is also tremenduous, in point of terminology but also
in point of medical instruments. For instance, the term arteriosclerosis comes from the
writings of Teophylos Protospatarios, while the first description of the medical
symptomatology of hepatitis is due to Simeon Seth, who also introduced the term itself. The
institution of hospitals also appeared in the Byzantine culture. .
From 529 onward, the Benedictine monasteries developed an intense medical activity.
Between the 6th and 12th centuries these monasteries became the training and schooling
centers for doctors, pharmacists and other medical professionals, being, in the same time, the
places where medical books and treatises were written. The first hospitals in Western Europe
appeared in these religious institutions. Their role in the development of medical sciences is
related mostly to the development of the institutional frames of health services.
The crusades brought about the import of new medical branches, surgical procedures,
names of medical plants and medical instruments. Theodorus Borgogognis Cyrurgia lists the
names of certain medical and surgical instruments for the first time, while the first data related
to forensic medicine and autopsies also date back to the 14th century. Among the most
180
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
important translators who translated medical texts we mention Constantinus Africanus, Petrus
Hispanus and many others. Due to their work, in the 9th and 14th centuries Latin becomes the
lingua franca of medicine.
In Europe, the first dictionaries and glossaries became known as the Synonyma
Stephani, a dictionary elaborated by Stephanus of Antiochia in 1127. Another dictionary
from the Early Middle Ages is the one written by Matthaeus Sylvaticus, Opera pandectarum
medicinae (Magyar, 2009: 180-186).
The huge amount of Arab and Greek medical texts translated into Latin in the 9-13th
centuries led to the appearance of the first medical universities in Europe and the
development of medical literature. Teaching of medical sciences basically meant reading and
explaining the works of ancient Greek or Arab writers. There were four main types of medical
texts: commentaries (explanatory texts), compendium (Latin summaries of Greek or Arab
writings), herbaria (books of herbs and recipes based on medical plants), and consilia or
regimen (advice books) (Magyar, 2009: 186). The medical literature of that time is
characterized by terminological inconsistencies, the predominance of Latin, alongside with
the appearance of the first medical texts in vernacular languages (German, French, Italian,
etc).
Guttenbergs invention revolutionized the medical field as well, as printing led to the
standardization of medical terminology. It was the dawn of a critical approach to medical
texts and translations, and translation started to become a profession that one could live on.
The medical professionals of the Renaissance period strived to introduce the principle of
standardized medical terminology; it is the time when terms of Greek origin started to be used
with Latin suffixes or prepositions or with Latin spelling: dehydratio, haemolysis, dyspnoe.
The first medical dictionary of the Renaissance was Symphorien Champers or Campigeiuss
Vocabulorum medicinalium ac terminorum difficilium explanationes (published in Lyon in
1508). The same period brought about the appearance of the Spanish dictionary writers,
Antonius Nebrissensis work, Lexicon artis medicae or that of Laurentius Phrisius, Synonyma
und gerecht Usslegung der Worter (Strasbourg, 1519).
Another plurilingual medical dictionary that can be understood and explained today is
the work of the Swiss Michael Toxites, Onomastica II Primum Philosophiae et medicae,
alterum Theophrasti Paracelsi vocum explicatio (Strasbourg, 1574). In 1555 Bartholomaeus
and Petrus Rostinus published the first dictionary-like version of the Hippocratic corpus of
medical texts, with the entries arranged in alphabetical order. Henric Stephanuss
Dictionarum medicum (Paris, 1564) is not plurilingual (it gives only Latin explanations), but
in point of methodology and a philological approach to dictionary writing is the work of a
pioneer in the field.
In the second half of the 16th century, the very first medical enciclopedias were
published. Bartholomeus Castelluss Lexicon medicum graeco-latinum (Venice, 1607) is a
bilingual dictionary that lists the Greek and Latin versions of medical terms, but it includes
not only the terminology launched by ancient writers, but also contemporary names of
surgical procedures and pharmaceutical products. The purpose of this dictionary was not to
be read as a philological work, its aim was rather practical and pragmatical, addressing
medical professionals. The end of the 17th century brought about the appearance of the most
popular and cheapest, thus most widespread medical lexicon, namely Stephanus Blancarduss
181
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Lexicon medicum novum graeco-latinum (Amsterdam, 1679). It was completed and
republished by Johann Heinrich Schultze in Halle in 1739, who included in this improved
version not only the explanations of the terms, but also their etymology.
The first dictionary of anatomy was published in Basel in 1551 (Josephus Amerarius
Dikokeuke onomastike. Diligens exquisito nominum, quibus partes corporis humani appelari
solent, followed in 1591 by another dictinary of anatomical terms, written by Caspar
Bauhinus. The first dictionary of specialized medicine was Jean Duvelles Onomatologie
chirurgicale (Lyon, 1644), followed by Prodromus lexici utrisque medicinae practicae,
written by J. L. Hannemann in Hamburg, in 1662. In 1612 the first dictionary of medical
chemistry and alchemy was published in Frankfurt by Martinus Rulan, Lexicon alchimiae,
sive dictionarum alchemisticum. (Magyar, 2009: 187-188).
Between the 17th and the 19th centuries, several branches of medical sciences
appeared (pharmacology, physiology, pathology, toxicology, etc.). Their terminology
contributed largely to the enrichment of the medical vocabulary. New terms were borrowed
from other sciences (physics, chemistry, zoology, botanics, biology), while other terms were
coined. Attempts to make up taxonomies of the clinical terminology date back to the 17th-
18th centuries. The first linnean taxonomies were created by J. B. M Sagar in his Systema
morborum symptomaticum, (Vienna, 1783) or by F. Boissier de Sauvages in his Nosologia
methodica, morborum classes juxta Sydenhami mentem et botanicorum ordinem,
(Amsterdam, 1768), based on previous taxonomies created by Thomas Sydenham or Carl von
Linn. A new discipline was introduced in the curricula of medical schools and universities:
the science of prescription.
In the 17th century public health care was implemented as a new field of medical
activities, hence new terms like politica medica, policlinica, quarantine were introduced. The
same century witnessed the separation of medicine as ars mechnica from medicine as ars
liberalis, the scientific medical texts and non-scientific or secular medical texts become two
distinct genres. This latter variant, which included texts that aimed to promote medical
information for average people, was mainly linked to vernacular languages, while the lingua
franca of scientific medical texts was still Latin and/or Greek. In these higly specialized texts
only the names of illnesses were sometimes given in vernacular languages, while the forensic,
anatomical, physiological or pharmacological terminology was Latin.
Another reason of the enrichment of medical terminology was the technical
development and the new referents that appeared (enzyme, baccilus, mental hygiene,
stethoscope, bronchoscope,etc). The most important feature of the medical language in the
18th and 19th century was a high degree of specialization. David Crystal lists some of the
scientific terms that appeared over the centuries in the English medical terminology. Thus, in
the 16th century we note terms like: cornea, cranium, glottis, mumps, temperature, tibia, in the
17th century terms like: cardiac, microscope, pharynx, rheumatism, In the 18th century:
antiseptic, molecule, neurosis, thyroid, in the 19th century words like aphasia, chromosome,
cirrhosis, laryngitis, metabolism, while in the 20th century the Oxford English Dictionary
recorded terms like: allergy, genetics, penicillin, vitamin. (Crystal, 1997: 386 )
The 19th century brought about the first visible progress in medicine as a scientific
activity. The 20th century, and the period that followed the 2nd World War brought about
significant progress in the field. In the interwar period German was a good candidate to
182
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
become the lingua franca of medicine, in the 50s-60s French medical literature gained field.
The emergence of the United States as the leading economic power of the world and the
increasing impact of the Anglo-American culture led to the spread of English all over the
world. In the era of the Internet and the World Wide Web, English has become the most
important vehicle for transmitting information, and it has turned into the dominant language
of international scientific communication as well, which implies multiple linguistic contacts
between English and other vernacular languages.
Terminological peculiarities
Among the most important ways of creating medical terms are narrowing and
extension of meaning, (auscultation, pelvis), word creation (enzyme, created based on the
Greek word enzyme, tuberculosis, created from the Latin tuberculum and the Greek ending is
or the term gas created and introduced by the Flemish scientist Van Helmont). Another way
of creating medical terms is through eponyms, i.e. using proper names to create common
nouns. Thus, there are names of illnesses and syndromes or other common nouns like
roentgen. Another, less common means is the creation of metaphorical terms that rely on the
similarities of objects or phenomena (elephantiasis, cancer).
Medical terms present a wide range of types: disease processes, anatomy, physiology,
medication names. Magyar refers to six main groups of medical terms:
1. anatomical terms (cranium, mandibulum, mamma)
2. names of symptoms and syndromes (apoplexia, fibbrillation)
3. names of illnesses (influenza, typhus)
4. names of materia medica, i.e. medical materials (bolus armenicus, theriaca, opium)
5.tools and instruments used in medical procedures (forceps, gastroscope)
6. verbs connects with medical activities, processes, and physiological phenomena
(collapsus, exitus, palpatio) (Magyar, 2009: 181).
In the writings of Hippocrates and Galenus, the most frequent terms belong to the 2nd,
3rd, 4th and 6th groups. Yet, it must be said that the percentage of terms related to surgical
instruments and tools was far poorer in their time than it is today, as the number of referents
was signifiantly smaller. Because of this, today, the words related to the physiology and/or
pathology of the human body are of Greek origin, while the anatomical terms and names of
medical instruments were created in the 14th century or after, and are of Latin origin.
After analysing a number of English texts on medical topics, we have identified the
following specificities of English for Medicine:
the large amount of terms of Latin origin (Infarct- Lat. Infarcio= to stuff into, to
obstruct; tumour- Lat. Tumere= to swell; pulse- Lat pulsus= a pushing or a beating
or Greek origin ( coma- Gr. Koma= deep sleep; nausea- Gr. Naus= ship; anorexia-
Gr. An= without+ orexis= appetite, necrosis- Gr. Nekrosis= deadness) or even
combinations like cardiovascular- Gr. cardia = heart + Lat. Vasculum= a vessel;
the use of Present Simple when describing processes, mechanisms and/or functions
of the organism (Patients who suffer from asthma exhibit virtually identical
symptoms to those who suffer from airflow limitation caused by chronic bronchitis;
183
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The pupil contracts when light falls on the eye; The external and internal intercostal
muscles occupy the space between the ribs);
the use of Paste Tense and Present Perfect for asking questions about the patients
medical history, past illnesses, childhood or adult diseases (How long have you had
this cough? When did these spots appear? Have you ever been hospitalized?) and
Present Simple in questions connected with their lifestyle and attitude (Do you
smoke? );
the use of Present Perfect to refer to recent discoveries/ medical procedures or
experiments (Greenhill has noted an increasingly common cause of tubal
pregnancy, namely previous plastic operation on the tube) Dobrovici-Bostaca,
1999, 223);
the extensive use of acronyms and abbreviations: AB-abortion, Ab-antibody,
ABLB- alternate binaural loudness balance/test, a.d.- aurio-dextra/Latin term for
right ear, AIDS-acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, BP- blood presure; British
Pharamcopoeia; boiling point (the context is vital for the understanding of the terms
and for deciding upon the proper meaning of the abbreviation), CLA- Certified
Laboratory Assistant, RN- Registered Nurse, VSD- ventricular septal defect, WBC-
white blood cell, y.o.- year old, etc.
Another aspect of medical English is the use of synonyms: whereas more largely
used terms like remedy or medical history taking can have synonyms (medicine,
cure, treatment in the case of remedy or anamnesis in the case of medical history
taking), the majority of the more specialized terms (especially noun phrases) do not
have synonyms, this leads to the use of this/that/these/those or which or to the
repetition of the same word in one sentence: Symptomatology may also be based on
morphologic alteration of the tissues, which gives rise to characteristic types of
lesions; these are divided into so-called elementary or primary lesions and
secondary lesions, which occur conescutively in consequence to the primary lesions
(Dobrovici- Bostaca, 1999, 133). Another aspect of the use of synonyms is when
they use the English variant alongside with the Latin version, such as uterine tube or
fallopian tube and tuba uterina Fallopii (Lat. Tuba= trumpet or in toto/overall,
completely such as in This concept is difficult to accept in toto (Dobrovici-Bostaca
1999: 223);
English for medicine resembles English for horticultural sciences or biology in the large
number of nouns with irregular plural forms, such as nouns of Latin origin:
-us i: bacillus-bacilli, locus-loci, stimulus-stimuli
-us es: virus-viruses
-us both i and es ended plural forms: fungus-funguses/fungi, nucleus-
nucleuses/nuclei
-a ae: larva-larvae
-um a: bacterium-bacteria, ovum-ova, stratum-strata
Another set of irregular plurals derive from Greek words:
-is -es: diagnosis-diagnoses, axis-axes, synopsis-synopses
184
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Passive Voice is largely used in medical English: Penicillin was discovered by Alexander
Fleming in 1926; Insulin is a hormone produced by the islets of Langerhans; Very little is known
about the reasons of the shifts, changes and fluctuations of diabetes; Needle biopsy is used to
examine kidney and prostate tissue;
The use of modal verbs is another issue of medical English, the most frequently used
modals are can and should or must. Can is mainly used to expose possible scenarios in the
evolution of the disease or physiological process: Occasionally fulminant hepatic failure can
occur; Jaundice can occur if the patient takes contraceptive pills. The alternative to can is may
in the same type of contexts: The abuse of tobacco may result in dimness of vision; Tobacco
may act as an allergen.
Should and must are used in nursing manuals and instructions for looking after patients,
to describe processes and procedures of nursing, namely when giving advice on how different
medical procedures should be carried out properly: The bath should begin with the area of the
eyes; Before a patients temperature is taken, the thermometer should be carefully cleaned; The
hot-water container should never be placed directly against the skin of a patient; it must be
covered with soft material to protect against burns. (Nagy, 2011: 271-284).
The taxonomy of names related to illnesses and diseases is a more complex problem,
and this is due to the large amount of disease names in vernacular languages, which can be
subject to changes depending on historical periods and/or countries. According to Lszl
Andrs Magyar, in point of form, the names of illnesses and diseases may be categorized as
follows:
metaphorical names: elephantiasis, carcinoma, bursitis
topographic names (recalling the position of the illness relative to the of organs):
pneumonia, endocarditis
etyological names (with reference to the pathogenic agent): hystoplasmosis,
brucellosis
eponyms (derived from proper names): Basedows disease, Kaposis sarcoma
symptomatic names: burning feet syndoma,hirsutismus, androtrichia
Some disease names convey negative connotations: leprosy is today being replaced by
Hansens disease.
The influence of English on Romanian medical terminology and translation problems
The influence of English on todays Romanian medical terminology is tremendous:
English has affected all levels of the language: vocabulary (word borrowing being the most
common phenomenon), but also the semantic, syntactic and pragmatics levels.
Iulia Cristina Frnculescus article focuses on the negative outcomes of such linguistic
transfers in the field of Romanian medical language. There is a long list of English neological
terms in the Romanian medical language that have been listed in Romanian medical
dictionaries as well, proving that they have been accepted and fully used by the Romanian
medical comunities: banding, borderline, bridge to recovery, floppy, bridge to transplant,
bypass, clubbing, pacemaker, end-stage, flail, flapping tremor, flutter, follow-up, graft,
guideline, patch, marker, rash, scallop, prick, pattern, screening, scratch, thrill, turnover,
slice, stripping, trigger, shunt, stem cell, target, feedback. The lexemes of the above list are
185
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
examples of universal lexical Anglicisms with geminated vowels and consonants (e.g. flutter,
patch, pattern, scratch), multiverbal lexical Anglicisms with consonant groupings (e.g.
feedback), compounds that contain a noun and a particle, generally considered difficult to
translate adequately (e.g. follow-up, bypass, turnover), phrases with nouns related by a
preposition, also considered difficult to translate (e.g. bridge to transplant, bridge to recovery),
and ing simple and compound terms, extremely popular with specialist writers (e.g. banding,
screening, stripping) (Frnculescu, 2009: 5).
Among the most important negative aspects of Anglicisms, Frnculescu mentions false
friends (Engl. dramatically - Rom. dramatic; Engl. murmur - Rom. murmur; Engl. insult -
Rom. insult etc.), polysemantic words (switch, cleft, marker, management), inadequate
calques, either lexical or grammatical (Engl. in the population - Rom. n populaia), and
English doublets (synonymous variants) for already existing words in Romanian (Engl. rash /
Rom. erupie; Engl. pacemaker / Rom. stimulator cardiac) (Frnculescu, 2009: 5-6).
Yet, we have to admit that neologisms are inextricably linked to language evolution
and they penetrate the language at high speed. One of the non-linguistic causes is
globalization, among the linguistic reasons we have to mention: lack of a monosemantic
Romanian term to designate a referent (new reality), short character, international spread.
Another reason could be a so-called linguistic snobbishness (Butiurc, 2007: 46)
Among other categories of English borrowings and or calques Doina Butiurc
mentions:
1. common nouns with medical or pharmaceutical referent: rom. abazie < engl.
abasia; rom. acardie < engl. acardia; rom. amebom < engl. amoeboma; rom. bradilalie <
engl. bradylalia; rom. cafein < engl. caffeine.
2. proper nouns (eponyms): usually a noun phrase consisting of a common noun and a
proper name of a person connected to discoveries in histology, anatomy, physiology: canale
Havers, Discuri Merkel, metoda Sorensen, piramida lui Malphighi, reactivi Edman,
simptomul Emery-Dreifuss. What is even more interesting is that there are synonymic pairs,
both of them being such proper noun-common noun combinations: simptomul Madelung =
simptomul Launois Bensuade. Such compounds that follow the English pattern are different
from other, non-English like forms, in which the noun is in the Genitive: trompa lui
Eustachio, tendonul lui Achile.
Besides calques such as glande bulbouretrale (engl. bulbourethral glands),
sonogram transabdominal (engl. transabdominal, sonogram), terapie cognitiv (engl.
cognitive therapy), one must mention free translation or equivalence in cases like terapie de
comportare (eng. behavioral therapy), gref de os (eng. bone grafting).
Another field of prolific borrowings from English is represented by acronyms,
abbreviations and symbols. Besides the large number of Greek or Latin acronyms (which
impose a fixed word order), ad pond. om. (ad pondus omnium), ad sat. (ad saturatio); add
(addetur); admov. (admoveatur); adst. feb.(adstante febre); noct. maneq (nocte maneque),
Butiurc mentions a relatively small number of English acronyms (with less rigid word
order): hosp (cf. hospital); wt (cf. weight) (Butiurc, 2007: 47-48).
The growing number of this type of English borrowings is caused by the growing
number of referents that have to be designated in different fields of avant-garde medicine. The
sign and the phrase it refers to are perfect synonyms. Abbreviations in medical English are
186
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
mainly used on lab tests and prescriptions. Even medical magazines have their own English
name and abbreviation.
The influence of English on Hungarian medical terminology and translation problems
In a very interesting article on the presence of the English element in contemporary
Hungarian texts belonging to the field of medicine va Nmeth resents, just as Butiurca does,
the preference for the English variant, although there is a Hungarian term as well: tarsal
tunnel-tarsalis alagt szindrma, score-pontszm, up-to-date- napraksz, staging-
stdiummeghatrozs, compliance-egyttmkds, study-tanulmny, mapping-feltrkpezs,
core biopszia- hengerbiopszia, hairy cell- hajas sejtes leukaemia/ adult T-sejtes leukaemia,
short tau inversion recovery szekvencia-, hard copy film- nyomtatott felvtel, marker- jell,
non-responder- nem vlaszol beteg, grade- szvettani malignitsi fokozat, graft- tltetett
szvet, bypassmtt- kerlmtt, gap-junction- rskapcsolat (Nmeth, 2004: 822-4).
Another case of loan word usage is the one when English terms are borrowed as such,
without any attempt to create or to use a Hungarian equivalent: remodelling, stentgraft,
leukocytarolling, Toll-like-receptor.
According to the author, the spread of English is not limited only to professional
books and articles or other scientific writings, but it also affects the everyday language usage,
the normal, daily communication between workers in the medical professions: notices
requesting a second opinion, lab tests, analyses results, final reports. The reason for using the
English terms or combined English-Hungarian terms instead of full Hungarian translations are
numerous: among these we mention, just as with Romanian, the willingness to use short terms
(English words and expression may be shorter indeed), the English words being more
accurate (less connotative, as denotation, lack of metaphorical or connotative aspects is
essential in ESP) but also professional snobbishness might play a certain role in this. There
have been attempts to Hungaricize terms and impose the mother tongue variant, but language
usage habits are not easy to change, especially in ESP.
Another rather strange situation in va Nmeths view is the use of the English variant
in brackets after the Hungarian version: this may sound rather awkward in the case of
interdisciplinary words or sentences like a felvteleket az eljegyzs (worklist) alapjn
ksztik el; az indikcit csak individulis mdon (case-by-case alapon) lehet megtlni.
Giving the English term is definitely fruitful in the case of abbreviations and acronyms. Still,
in Hungarian texts English acronyms might raise difficulties in point of pronunciation and
definite article usage or suffixation (NSAIDs nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: the
NSAIDs- az (NSAID-ok=ensaid-ok or enszed-ek; ICS International Continence Society: the
ICS- a/az ICS) (Nmeth, 2004: 822-4).
When translating acronyms, sometimes the abbreviation of the last word (especially
the ones ending in t or s) must be given in Hungarian as well, even if the acronym itself
contains the terms virus, test or study: thus, in Hungarian we will have structures like: HIV
vrus or GTT vizsglat (GTT-glucose tolerance test)
Mistranslations might occur at the level of word combinations or compound nouns as
well: when translating NNT, number needed to treat as kezelend betegszm instead of
kezelend beteg szm we make a mistake as we count the patients and not their number, while
187
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
a total number of patients should be translated as sszes beteg szma and not sszes betegek
szma, as in Hungarian the determiner sszes goes with a singular noun.
Another interesting case of terminology usage is the one that combines words of Latin,
Greek, English and Hungarian words as well, as in the examples mucosa associated lymphoid
tissue, large granular lymphocyte leukaemia, painful anal fissures tnetegyttes (Nmeth,
2004: 822-4).
English for Medicine involves the medical terminology (description, diagnosis,
treatment), implying a lot of terms related to anatomy or physiology (mainly of Latin or Greek
origin), but it also involves the language used in the communication between the people involved
in the process of curing. When teaching or designing curricula/ teaching materials for English in
Medicine, we have to have in mind the specificities of the communication between the main
actors of this kind of communication, as well as the linguistic features of this very special/
specialized language. Terminology is not only a linguistic phnomenon, it is an issue of
communication and information. In point of English loan words, the authors that we have
mentioned earlier seem to echo, at least to a certain degree, Zaubergas cautious attitude, i.e.
neologisms and word borrowings are normal, overusing foreign words might be dangerous for
the health of the language: a society that must continuously import techniques, science and
technology, and which is the recipient of knowledge created by others in other languages may
want to control the entrance of adapted or direct borrowings if he wants to ensure that its own
language is not overwhelmed by foreign structrures (Zauberga, 2005, 115).
Lszl Andrs Magyar underlines, in his article on the history of the language of
medicine, two aspects of this specialized language: its grammar and more precisely its syntax
may not be unique or peculiar, but its terminology and vocabulary are definitely unique. The
history of the language of medicine basically means the history of the medical terminology
(Magyar, 2009: 179). The most important feature of all European medical languages is the
Greek and Latin origin. The majority of French and English medical terms are of Latin origin.
The English influenced other languages non only in point of terminology, but also in point of
spelling, inflection, pronunciation and tendency to abbreviate. In what medical English is
concerned, it forces a confrontation between scientific and everyday language... Language is
involved at all points in the medical consultation (Crystal, 1997: 386)
Bibliography
Antic, Zorica. 2010, Analysis of Students Errors in English for Medial Purposes. In Acta
Facultatis Medicae Naissensis. Scientific Journal of the Faculty of Medicine in Nis, (27):
159-163.
Butiurca, Doina. 2007.Limbajul medical. Influenta engleza. In Distorsionari in
comunicarea lingvistica, literar si etnofolclorica romaneasca si contextul european.
Bucureti: Editura Alfa.
Crystal, David. 1997. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Dobrovici, Viorica Bostaca, Ioan. 1999. English in Medicine. A Text Book for Doctors,
Students in Medicine and Nurses. Iai: Polirom.
188
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Frinculescu, Iulia Cristina. 2009. The physiology of English as a lingua franca in medicine.
in Fiziologia-Physiology. 19.2 (62): 4-6.
Magyar Lszl Andrs. 2009. Az eurpai orvosi nyelv trtnete. In A magyar orvosi nyelv
trtnete, edited by Bsze Pter. Budapest: Medicina Knyvkiad.
http://www.orvosinyelv.hu, accessed on 06.03.2012
Nagy Imola Katalin, Terminology issues and guidelines for teaching English for Special
Purposes, in Doina Butiurc- Inga Dru- Imre Attila (eds), Terminology and Translation
Studies. Plurilingual Terminology in the Context of European Intercultural Dialogue, Scientia
Publishing House, Cluj-Napoca, 2011.
Nmeth, va, 2004. Magyarul nem megy ? Anglicizmusok a magyar orvosi nyelvben. in
LAM,14 (12): 822-4, http://www.lam.hu/folyoiratok/lam/0412/1.htm, accessed on 02.22.
2011.
Zauberga, Ieva. 2005. Handling terminology in translation. In New Trends in Translation
Studies, edited by Krisztina Kroly and gota Fris. Budapest: Akadmiai Kiad.
189
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
POLITICAL ORATORY AND LITERATURE. A CASE OF CROSSBREEDING AND
CONTAMINATION IN 19TH CENTURY ROMANIA
Roxana PATRA, Scientific Researcher III, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of
Iai
Abstract: At one with institutional up-to-date and state modernisation in the 19th century,
Romanian political speech got through a process of formulation, settlement and clarification.
After the ex-pulpiters had turned into laic orators, political speaking actually developed hand
in hand with a growing class-awareness, which implied the following strategies: 1. the choice
of the most persuasive approaches (visionary, commonsensical, technical, cultivated speech,
and so on); 2. the creation of a masters gallery (public personalities who, in a relatively
short time, took the lead in the ranks of eloquence); 3. the establishment of a tradition
(corresponding to an increasing interest in the publication of political speeches, either fresh
or cannonical).
The present paper inquires into the relationship between political speech and literary
references, by references understanding not only virtual allusions to literature, but also the
political orators condition of former literati. On the one hand, the massive use of literary
figures, as well as the appeal to quotation (one of the favoured speech techniques), points up
an intrinsic crossbreeding of political speech and literature. On the other hand, if we take
into consideration the basic formation of personalities such as Mihail Kogalniceanu, I. C.
Bratianu, C. A. Rossetti, B. P. Hasdeu, Titu Maiorescu, Petre Gradisteanu, Take Ionescu,
Barbu St. Delavrancea, we discover an extrinsic contamination of political speech and
literature, as all the names just mentioned were involved in literary business, whether as
journalists or as aspiring writers.
Our presumption is that the stylistic mutations, the ideological sideslips and the generic
mobility of modern political eloquence owe much to the specific production conditions within
the context of 19th century Romania. First of all, the construction of Romanian political
idiolect relates to the process of elites constitution and self-assertion; second, lacking the
conditions of free speech, forum debate and democratic fairness, the political oratory is not
cut according to a rationale of oral communication, but according to the rules of written
discourse. After all, the texts issued by the great masters of Romanian eloquence illustrate an
interesting crossbreeding and contamination between the strategies of oral and written
communication.
Keywords: Political oratory; Literary references, Literate orator, Eloquence, Written
discourse
Introduction
Closely related to the European nationalist turmoil and to its phraseology, the political
speech from 19th century Romania underwent a series of thematic, structural and aesthetical
changes. Whereas the 48 Revolution had encouraged inflamed gambols, the next four stages
that is, the 1859 Union of the Romanian Principalities, the accession of Charles of
Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen to the throne of the United Romanian Principalities in 1866, the
Independence War of 1877, and the proclamation of the Romanian kingdom in 1881 went
through a gradual discharge of emotional appeals and visionary standstills. However, in the
broad context of political discourse intellectualisation and technicality, the relationship
190
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
between political oratory and literature did not cease; not only virtual allusions to literature,
but also the political orators condition of former literati kept them together. On the one hand,
the massive use of literary figures, as well as the appeal to quotation (one of the favoured
speech techniques), points up an intrinsic crossbreeding of political speech and literature.
On the other hand, if we take into consideration the basic formation of personalities such as
Ion Heliade Radulescu, Vasile Alecsandri, Mihail Kogalniceanu, I. C. Bratianu, C. A.
Rossetti, B. P. Hasdeu, Titu Maiorescu, Petre Gradisteanu, Take Ionescu, Barbu St.
Delavrancea and so on, we discover an extrinsic contamination of political speech and
literature, as all the names just mentioned were involved in literary business, whether as
journalists or as aspiring writers.
Our presumption is that the establishment of 19 the century political discourse,
corresponding to an enthusiastic publication of political speeches, is figured by the debris and
leftovers that literature had discarded within the political debate. Anyhow, this is not a case of
political unconscious1 which weighs down the aesthetic fling; on the contrary, this is
perhaps a case of aesthetic or literary unconscious, which anarchically scrambles the main
goals of political discourse. It follows naturally that the specific cultural conditions of 19th
century Europe the tremendous influence of Romanticism and its enduring agony during
Decadence are also responsible for the stylistic mutations, ideological sideslips and an
overall generic mobility of modern political eloquence. The young intelligentsia had been
educated in Western universities and, consequently, brought about them a Romantic air of
modernity and a will for democratisation. Henri Wald, a Romanian philosopher and logician,
assumes that the birth of ancient Greek oratory redoubles the ascension of demos: rhetoric
was born in a politest agora, fell into disuse within a monotheist church, revived during the
centuries of humanism, and decayed again during scientism so as to get into the publics eye
again once with the globalisation of democracy2. Thus, the Romanian political argument
relied on two main European models: first, the French oratory styled during the reign of
Napoleon III, and second, the English political speech enforced by the habits of Westminster
parliamentary life3. Let us notice that the two discursive directions did not develop
synchronically; when the French model had been burned and surpassed, some members of the
cultural society Junimea activated English resources such as Lord Macaulays specimens of
oratorical art, Palmerstons, Disraelis and Gladstones contributions in the Parliament.
Therefore, the construction of Romanian political idiolect relates to the process of elites
constitution and self-assertion.
Beyond models and ready-made patters of speech (that are also recipes for success), the
Romanian oratory of the 19th century was shaped by local circumstances and agents; lacking
the conditions of free speech, forum debate and democratic fairness, barely could it have been
cut according to a rationale of oral communication. Actually, in spite of its oral regime, it
1
Frederic Jameson, The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act, Routledge, 2002.
2
Henri Wald, apud Vistian Goia, Introduction, in Oratori i elocin romneasc (Romanian Orators and Eloquence),
edited, prefaced, notes and glossary by Vistian Goia, Dacia Publishing House, Cluj-Napoca, 1985, p. 7.
3
Without a clear indication of models and sources, Vistian Goia also delineates two courses in the history of the
Romanian political eloquence which are drawn from Blaise Pascals antinomy between lesprit geometrique
and lesprit de finesse: 1. the orators tendency to conquer and seduce (by making appeal to figurative
garments); 2. the orators tendency to convince and activate his public (by making appeal to realism and
moralism). Refer to Vistian Goia, op. cit., p. 9.
191
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
observed the rules of written discourse. After all, the texts produced by the great masters of
Romanian eloquence illustrate an interesting crossbreeding and contamination between the
strategies of oral and written communication. Listing a few instances will be illustrative for
our motion here.
Persuasive Approaches and Personal Styles in Romanian Political Speech. A Visit
Tour though the Masters Gallery
One of the forefathers of Romanian political pulpit was Ion Heliade Radulescu, a
prodigious writer, a prominent figure of the national-democratic movement from 1848 and a
great public speaker, trained through a sustained activity as member or co-founder of various
societies. As he counted himself among the supporters of a School for Vocal Music,
Declamation, and Literature, his main interest hinted at the postural quality of political speech
(actio oratoria). Complementary to Radulescus gesticulatory discourse, Vasile Alecsandri,
the celebrated poet and playwright, upheld a line of disengaged speech, which allowed him to
slip some stylistic effects, and maybe to use a set of distancing techniques (digression, acted
cynicism, ignorance and un-worldliness). A third type of approach can be identified in
Mikhail Kogalniceanu, I. C. Bratianu, Barbu Katargiu and Vasile Boerescu who play the part
of realpolitik, adding to their political argument a good portion of realism and moralism.
The masters party comprises nevertheless a cluster of oratorical styles, tainted with
personal effects: whereas I. C. Bratianu stands for realism and logic, Kogalniceanu
exemplifies the grandeur and harmony of sentence and Barbu Katargiu, the swiftness of
inspiration and the power of improvisation4.
Before the 48 Revolution took fire, the Romanian students quartered in Paris had
formed a private Society in charged with the dissemination of national-democratic creeds.
Under Lamartines cultural patronage and guiding example, the members of The Romanian
Students Society had been already initiated in the ruses of public speech by reading Eugne
Paignons loquence et improvisation: art de la parole oratoire, a seminal book which,
around 1850, had scored its third edition. Paignons survey on the history of eloquence enlists
the types of public speech (judiciary, parliamentary and religious) and insists on the
qualitative difference between the craft and the art of speaking; it follows naturally that
improvisation and the skilful improvisators (those that create after the writers fashion) take
the front line5.
After having assumed the French rhetoricians ideas, in 1866, the historian V. A Urechia
delivers a public lecture that evinces the propelling power of inspired oratory; nevertheless, he
departs from Paignons perspective because the orator should not be only the writers kinsman
(a sorcerer or a gambit), but he should be also a sort of moralist. Urechias examples are
the hours most proficient orators, that is, Anastasie Panu, Barbu Katargiu, Mikhail
Kogalniceanu and I. C. Bratianu all of them sssembling a logic of sensible poetry,
philosophical idea, psychological insight and physical resilience. Provocative for the
nowadays reader, the metaphors that provide a global image for each ones speaking skills are
chosen among the field of weather phenomena: the mild breeze (the zephyr), the storm,
4
Vistian Goia, op. cit., p. 13.
5
Eugne Paignon, loquence et improvisation: art de la parole oratoire, Auguste Durand, Paris, 1854.
192
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
the sea, and the avalanche (the snowball effect). The first among the quads of aces, A.
Panu (1810-1867) illustrates a kind of artistic, poetical, and mild breeze eloquence
because, putting aside brainwork, he used to judge things with his heart. Described in
identical weather phrases, Barbu Katargiu (1807-1862) could stand for those stormy ideas
that shatter the old foundations. The broad audiences memories treasure the ex-PM of the
United Romanian Principalities under a prevailing visual regime; the historian calls forth
Katargius high and shining forehead, his fiery eyes and his bony, philosophical cheeks. The
third in line, Kogalniceanus eloquence resembles to a toreadors volts (he is named the
Espada of Romanian oratory) or, better, to a boats vacillating movement on a troubled sea.
His talent is neither poetical (aesthetical), nor philosophical; Urechia believes that
Kogalniceanu won general admiration by having a profound knowledge of human soul. I. C.
Bratianu (1821-1891) comes as the fourth master of Romanian eloquence. Usually trimmed
for his digressive way of putting things, the leader of the Liberal Party seems, anyway, an
avalanche that is both a crushing and an encompassing force 6.
Among the four aces, only three lasted as longstanding standards in the Romanian
masters gallery: Katargiu, Bratianu and Kogalniceanu. For instance, Barbu Katargius editor,
Anghel Demetrescu, recalls the orators knowledge and talent as one of humanist
completeness (intertwining literature, law, history, economics and political economy), a
feature which makes the difference between the encyclopaedic orator and specialised tribune
stand-ups. The harsh conservative is an aristocrat, a passionate of eloquence games, whereas
his adversaries are nothing but a bunch of hard-boiled bourgeois7. Kogalniceanu, in his turn,
forged this encyclopaedic disposition of speech (squeezing in various historical and cultural
hints) in several parliamentary interventions around 1859 such as Discourse on Granting
Political Rights for all the Countrys Inhabitants8, Discourse on the Union of Romanian
Principalities9, Discourse on Behalf of the Moldavian Representatives in Bucharest
Commons10 or Discourse on the Election of Alexander Moruzi as Deputy for Vaslui County11.
After a while, he dropped off this old-fashioned speech style and adopted a moralist morgue.
6
V. A. Urechia, DESPRE ELOCINTA ROMNA. ORATORIA FORENSE, AMVONUL, HARANGA.
ORATORII MODERNI. PANU, BARBU CATARGIU, COGALNICEANU, BRATIANU &. &. LECTURA
PUBLIC INUTA IN 12/24 DECEMBRIE 1866 (On Romanian Eloquence...), Bucharest, The Royal Printing
House Carol Gbl, 1878, pp. 127-158: Oratorele, frate al poetului, nu este dect acela care ca om onest, lupt,
deprins la vorbire, pentru triumful adevrulu, al binelui, i n ctva i al frumosului, fiind frumosul legtura
comun dintre poesie i elocin ... Sburtori ai cuvntului!... Eac ne facem snta cruce!... Fugii!... Se nu rsune
alt cuvnt ntre Tisa i Marea negr, dect cuvntul de iubire al familiei, cuvntul dulce al friei i amiciei,
cuvntul snt al legei, mai ales cuvntul mntuitor al Romnismului, etc.
7
Barbu Katargiu, Discursurile lui Barbu Katargiu (1859-1862 iunie 8), edited and introduced by a biographical
note on Katargiu Family and by the orators biography, Bucharest, Eduard Wiegand Printing House, 1886, pp.
I-XC.
8
Mikhail Kogalniceanu, Discurs cu privire la acordarea de drepturi politice pentru toi locuitrii rii (Discourse
on Granting Political Rights for all the Countrys Inhabitants), in Mikhail Kogalniceanu, Discursuri parlamentare
din epoca unirii. 22 septembrie 1857-14 decembrie 1861 (Parliamentary Speeches from the Union Epoch. 22nd
September 1857 14th of December 1861), introductory study by V. Ra, Editura Stiinific Printing House,
Bucharest, 1959, pp. 28-44.
9
Idem, Discurs cu privire la unirea Principatelor (Discourse on the Union of Romanian Principalities), in op.
cit., pp. 16-19.
10
Idem, Discurs inut din partea deputailor Moldovei n Adunarea de la Bucureti (Discourse on Behalf of the
Moldavian Representatives in Bucharest Commons), pp. 19-28.
11
Idem, Discurs cu privire la alegerea lui Al. Moruzi ca deputat de Vaslui (Discourse on the Election of
Alexander Moruzi as Deputy for Vaslui County), in op. cit., pp. 315-333.
193
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
With the passing of time, both the inspired and the encyclopaedic orator were being
gradually replaced by a type of practical speaker who took a stand only when a matter of his
competence was in question. Therefore, P. P. Carp got fame with his financial qualified-
ness, Titu Maiorescu, with his reformative thing on education, Vasile Boerescu, with his
legal touches, Take Ionescu, with his ideological twists. So, onlookers of the Romanian
political life appended a list of alternative models, who individualize themselves according to
their know-how: Vasile Boerescu, C. C. Arion, P. P Carp, Nicolae Ionescu, Al. Lahovary,
Titu Maiorescu, Al. Marghiloman, V. Pogor, Take Ionescu. At the end of the 19 th century,
George Panu himself a politician and a journalist for Lupta publishes a series of
parliamentary portraits and types, which introduces, beyond its maliciousness, a new angle
to look on the art of politic eloquence.
Now, when everybody is carried away by the Decadent whiz about art for arts sake,
not even the realist, commonsensical speaker would do. This is why the brutal
conservative Alexander Lahovary and the grim and soiled socialist Ion Ndejde do not win
the portraitists admiration12; similarly, while lacking great cultural sources (Spencer,
Hartman, Buckle, and Schopenhauer, among mandatory ones), the young Alexander
Marghiloman is dismissed as being too politically correct13. On the contrary, the renowned
anarchist from inside Junimea circle, pushes to the foreground a typology of finesse,
unworldly and unbiased oratory, represented by C. C. Arion, D. Apostoleanu, N. Bibescu,
Nicolae Ionescu and Take Ionescu. Actually, this seems to be a matter of neo-humanist
restoration, yet under a decadent shade; G. Panu prefers educated speakers, who are able to
observe to a rule of public conduct and to check their behaviour 14, to prevail in politics as
epicureans and Nirvana seekers15, to remain completely dispassionate, skeptical,
lethargic and even lazy, to manoeuvre with dexterity the commonplace and the clich 16,
to use jewels of language and literature and to introduce adequate neologisms 17 and, last but
not least, to speak as if they were writing 18.
At the end of the 19th century and at the dawn of a new era, the Romanian political
eloquence illustrated a case of crossbreeding and contamination between the strategies of oral
and written communication, between two VIP postures, that is, the writer and the
parliamentary. Most of all, the commentators of 19th century political oratory re-enact a myth
of fluency, that virtually sends back to Paignons theory on the orators inspiration and
inborn genius, even to his latent literate condition. At the conservatives congress in 1902,
Titu Maiorescu, who gives scores for the troop of incoming orators (Simion Mehedini,
Constantin Rdulescu-Motru, P. P. Negulescu, Al. S. Florescu), is inclined towards
12
George Panu, Portrete i tipuri parlamentare (Parliamentary Potraits and Types), Lupta Typography,
Bucharest, 1893, p. 77.
13
Ibidem, p. 94.
14
Ibidem, pp. 5-7.
15
Ibidem, pp. 8-10.
16
Ibidem, pp. 25-27.
17
Ibidem, pp. 65-67.
18
Ibidem, p. 69-71.
194
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Mehedinis oratorical style because, while lecturing, he seems to put culture and ideas in
motion19.
Reaching up to 1935, Panus considerations on the likeness between the gifted speaker
and a grand opera tenor prompt Ion Petrovici to draw the essential lines of the oratorical
talent; these are, believes Petrovici, the spontaneity of phrase pacing (spontaneitatea
frazrii) and the easiness of improvisation (uurinta imporvizaiei). Leaving other
imperative characteristics (e.g., the reactivity to the publics signals or the adjustment of tone
to atmosphere20) aside, one can discern that the 20th century is still perpetrating the myths of
written fluency and that of orator-poet kinship.
Political Oratory and the Press. A Contamination of Specific Strategies
Serving as a sort of training base for future politicians and agile public speakers, the
unionist journal Pruncul Romn was nurtured and supported by The Romanian Students
Society. A living chronicle of the national-democratic movement from 1848 21, its columns
hosted names such as Dimitrie Bratianu, I. C. Bratianu, C. A. Rosetti, Vasile Boerescu, Vasile
Alecsandri, and so forth; names which would put their unmistakeable mark on the whole
course of Romanian modern history. Once taken the journalist habits, these personalities go
on spinning around press communities, even though their new positions in the administration
of the United Principalities enforce on them an objective, disengaged line of conduct. It is in
1857 that Mikhail Kogalniceanu underlines the importance of the press for nationalist and
unionist ideals: [they were left without] any political education! By default of press we see
ourselves closed into a fatal circle; the lights are choked, the sane ideas cannot go through,
the calumny and the false news alone have free access; and the reform must be done at once,
like the Minervas appearance from Joes head [emphasis added]22. Indeed, for modern
Romanias forefathers, the freedom of the press stood right into the middle of parliamentary
debates. A series of four speeches delivered by Barbu Katargiu may prove it undeniably 23.
Consequently, the political leaders enhanced the newspapers columns with both a didactical
function and a dialogic, involving feature, which pertain to the tradition of parliamentarianism
and, generally, to political oratory.
In the trail of Pruncul Romn, I. C. Bratianu and C. A. Rosetti are the co-founders of a
nationalist newspaper which, under the alluring name Romnul, soon turned into a Liberal
Partys official mouthpiece. As columnist, Bratianus first articles extend and echo the
experimented speakers effects: the 1 st person, the interrogatives and expletives, the
19
I. E Torouiu& Gh. Carda, Studii i documente (Studies and Documents), vol I. Junimea, Bucovina Graphic
House, 1931, pp. 31-33.
20
Ion Petrovici, Talentul oratoric (Oratorical Talent), Conferinte la radio (1932-1943) Radio Conferences
(1932-1943), edition cured by Marian Diaconu, Casa Radio Publishing House, Bucharest, 2002, pp. 88-93.
21
Refer also to Adrian Niculescu, Aux racines de la dmocratie roumaine Pruncul Romn, premier journal
libre roumain, chonique de la Rvolution valaque de 1848, Clusium Publishing House, 2008.
22 Mikhail Kogalniceanu, Discurs cu privire la acordarea de drepturi politice pentru toi locuitrii rii
(Discourse on Granting Political Rights for all the Countrys Inhabitants), op. cit.: fr nici o educaie politic!
Prin lipsa presii ne vedem nchii ntr-un cerc cu totul fatal; luminele snt nduite, ideile sntoase nu pot
strbate, calomniile i falsele nouti singure i au liber gioc i reforma trebuie s ias gata i deodat, ca
Minerva din capul lui Joe!
23 Barbu Katargiu, Discursuri parlamentare. 1859-1862 (Parliamentary Speeches), with a preface and a study
on Barbu Katargiu by Anghel Demetrescu; re-issued with a preface, an index of persons and names by Petre V.
Hane, Bucharest, Minerva Publishing House, 1914, pp. 304-309.
195
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
cumulative effect of repetitions, the appeal to Gods assistance, the latter-day journalists ex-
status as public speaker, the trope of the writings ordeals, the prophets portent 24. One of C.
A. Rosettis speeches (delivered in 1881, when the daily had turned 25 years) leaks the
information that, due to a permanent excitation and to a spirit intended for action, Bratianus
articles had always ended abruptly with the monotonous phrase to be continued. And never
to be continued again, because the journalist had returned to its former function of public
trumpeter! For liberal heads, there is a symbolical continuity of various eloquence
hypostases, linking the prophet, the psalmist, the priest, the journalist, and the
parliamentary25.
Free from the requirements and responsibilities of public speaking, the press ensured a
good-enough speakers corner; thus, by sponsoring or settling various gazettes, other political
leaders applied the same recipe of success. For instance, Vasile Boerescu (1830-1883) a
shark-like diplomat, as he used to style himself launched, already in 1857, a newspaper
called Naionalul, a stand for the moderate wing of the liberals and a cosy cultural
environment for political inklings. From the same long-distance politician would depart
another circumstantial mass-media project; during the Independence War of 1977, the
newspaper Pressa circulated the inspired formula Romania-the Belgium of the Orient on
the presupposition that, had it kept its neutrality within the context of Balkan conflicts,
Romania would have won more. At any rate, the newspaper activity reflects Boerescus
composed temper and his innate lucidity, also occurring while acting as a parliamentary26.
The relationship between the art of eloquence and the development of print journalism
does not always resume to contamination and crossbreeding. It has already been noticed that,
when the three crucial moments struck (1859, 1877, 1918), there was ripe-time for the
Romanian political oratory as well. Nevertheless, the finest pieces of public speaking
challenged the finest journalism of the time 27. Titu Maiorescu himself is prone to cast great
24 I. C. Bratianu, Romnia (1851) and Nationalitatea (1853), in Acte i cuvntri (Acts and Speeches), edited by
G. marinescu & C. Grecescu, Vol. I, Part I, Cartea Romneasc Publishing House, Bucharest, 1938, pp. 15-27,
pp. 32-36: De aceea eu, pe care natura i ndeletnicirile precedente m osndesc a nu lua condeiul n mn, m
socotesc silit, dator astzi a jertfi orice iubire de sinei i a expune n puine cuvinte, care este dup credina mea,
caracterul general al revoluiunii ncepute n 48 i n parte i mai pe larg ce este Romnia i care este misiunea ei
n faza cea nou n care intr omenirea prin aceast revoluiune european [emphasis added]; O naia mea, ct
eti de sublim ! O singur a ta fapt m sfinete, m face s crez n Dumnezeu, n buntatea naturei omeneti i
s plng de fericire, cci sunt din ai ti!; Ce! astzi cnd Europa ntreag este n frmntare i gata de a-i lua o
organizaiune natural, astfel nct fiece naiune fiind un singur trup, funcionnd n toat libertatea i deplin
armonie cu celelalte naiuni, s poat s-i mplineasc misiunea dup vrednicia i osrdia sa [...] Ce! o naiune
de 10 milioane, eit din gintea aceea ce nu mai piere" cum o strig Mazzini, nu vi se nfieaz vou ce v
zicei Romni, dect ca o aduntur de oameni, ca trup fr suflet ce-1 putei sdruncina i nchiria o parte
Turciei, alta Rusiei i alta Austriei! Ce! o lucrare att de uria, un rezultat att de sublim, glasul cel tnr al
Romniei ce rsun pn la ceruri, virtutea ei ce apleac frunile cele mai trufae, inima, soarele cel strlucit al
Romniei, carele a nclzit nencetat Europa oriental, carele a nceput acum a o lumina i ale creia raze
strbtur chiar ceaa Engliterii i deteptar comitetul european din Londra, pn a ne zice c Romnii nu mai
pot pune arcurile cele nou ale podului lui Traian, voi ce v zicei Romni, nu simiri nimic, nu vzuri nimic,
n'auziri nimic i nici o singur raz de soare nu atinse sloiul de ghia de pe inimile voastre !... Blestem !, etc.
25
C. A. Rosetti, Lui C. A. Rosetti. La o suta de ani de la naterea sa (To C. A. Rosetti. A Hundred years from His
Birth), a commemorative volume supported by Democraia, the journal of liberal studies of National Liberal
Party, 1916. pp. 344-351.
26
Vasile Boerescu, Noti biografic (Biographical Note), in Discursuri politice (1859-1883) Political
Speeches, vol I (1859-1873), Socec Printing House, Bucharest, 1910, pp. 3-7.
27
Vistian Goia, op. cit., p. 13.
196
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
orators into greater cultural roles because, he avowed in Oratori, retori, limbui (Orators,
Rhetoricians, Gabblers), the press had turned into a corrupt political tool28.
A Rationale of Written Discourse. Literary Leftovers
Perhaps one of the most visual and representative among all the public hypostases in
the 19th century, the orators image comes closely to theatre and opera. In 1857, when he
delivered his speech on equal civil rights for all the inhabitants of Romanian Principalities,
Kogalniceanu admitted that there is no other pleasure for a MP than receiving tumultuous
applauses29, perhaps as a lead actor, as a diva or as a tenor on the stage. G. Panu pursued this
simile later on. No wonder that the eye-witnesses record chiefly the voice shifts and pitches,
maybe the gestures, and lesser these orators trendsetting ideas. Anghel Demetriescu, the
editor of Barbu Katargius speeches, recalls the old politician in a grand tragedians pose,
especially, the diction and the low bass tone with thunder effects, the demonic figure, the
way the speaker used to furrow his hair and to handle his quizzing glasses. Nicolae Ionescus
voice in G. Panus account had something mellifluous, like an actors. P. P. Carp caught
the publics ear by having learnt the art of declamation, a declamation that broke glasses.
Apparently, Delavrancea used to have a throaty, harsh pronunciation, like the sound of
fanfares. Take Ionescu earned public esteem being the equal of a pianist.
At the kick-off of his career, the same Take Ionescu hides his identity under the pen-name
Demetriu G. Ionnescu. The politician-to-be is publishing now various short prose fragments
such as U pagin din viaa unui vistor (A Page from a Dreamers Life), U lacrim (A
Tear) or Spiritele anului 3000 (The Spirits of Year 3000)30. Ionescus turns of phrase and his
literary unconscious are absolutely transparent in parliamentary interventions (little Take,
golden mouth, the friends and adversaries surnamed him): the use of anecdotes, overt
ratiocination, forceful closures 31, and so forth.
A similar case of hybridisation between literary and political interests can be illustrated in
Titu Maiorescu, Gh. Panu, and Barbu tefanescu Delavrancea, all of them trained within
Junimea circle, which is, according to Tudor Vianu, a nursery of oratorical talents 32. Such
being the question, it is not however the only bond between literature and political oratory
that Vianu stresses upon; by rhetorical writers he understands those writers that import oral
features, as some of the orators could import figurative language 33. Whereas Ion Petrovici
thought that speeches should contain a minimum of literature, Vistian Goia underlines the
actual co-extension of the two arts in terms of mutual maintenance 34.
More than a common set of techniques (narrative structures, forms of logical disposition,
literary figures, cultural references and intertextuality), literature and political oratory share
28
Titu Maiorescu, Oratori, retori, limbui, in Critice, vol. III, Minerva Publishing House, 1908.
29
Mikhail Kogalniceanu, op. cit.
30
Refer to Perpecissius notes to Eminescus Scrisoarea II (Satire II), in Complete Works, vol. II, Fundaia
Regal pentru Literatur i Art, Bucharest, pp. 222-223
31
Consult Take Ionescus speeches from 1890 to 1899, in Take Ionescu, Discursuri politice (Political Speeches),
volumes I- IV, edited and cured by Cristu S. Negoescu, G. A. Lzreanu Printing House, Bucharest, 1904.
32
Tudor Vianu, Istoria literaturii romne moderne, edited by erban Cioculescu, Vladimir Streinu and Tudor
Vianu, EDP, Bucharest, 1971, p. 145.
33
Tudor Vianu, Arta prozatorilor romni, apud Vistian Goia, op. cit., p. 21.
34
Ibidem, p. 26.
197
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
in the vein of Carlyles famous book35 the same hero-worshiping, the same myth on a sort
of fluency that remakes and voices out, on Gods dictation, Gods own word. If not a
feigned Poet or Man of Letters, the typical orator of 19 th century Romania is, after an intricate
cross-breeding line, their legitimate inheritor.
References
Boerescu, Vasile, Discursuri politice (1859-1883) Political Speeches, vol I (1859-1873),
Socec Printing House, Bucharest, 1910.
Bratianu, I. C., Acte i cuvntri (Acts and Speeches), edited by G. marinescu & C. Grecescu,
Vol. I, Part I, Cartea Romneasc Publishing House, Bucharest, 1938
Carlyle, Thomas, On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History, www. archive. org.
Eminescu, Mihai, Complete Works, vol. II, Fundaia Regal pentru Literatur i Art,
Bucharest, 1943.
Goia, Vistian, Oratori i elocin romneasc (Romanian Orators and Eloquence), edited,
prefaced, notes and glossary by Vistian Goia, Dacia Publishing House, Cluj-Napoca, 1985
Ionescu, Take, Discursuri politice (Political Speeches), volumes I- IV, edited and cured by
Cristu S. Negoescu, G. A. Lzreanu Printing House, Bucharest, 1904.
Jameson, Frederic, The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act,
Routledge, 2002.
Katargiu, Barbu, Discursuri parlamentare. 1859-1862 (Parliamentary Speeches), with a
preface and a study on Barbu Katargiu by Anghel Demetrescu; re-issued with a preface, an
index of persons and names by Petre V. Hane, Bucharest, Minerva Publishing House,
1914.
Katargiu, Barbu, Discursurile lui Barbu Katargiu (1859-1862 iunie 8), edited and introduced
by a biographical note on Katargiu Family and by the orators biography, Bucharest, Eduard
Wiegand Printing House, 1886.
Kogalniceanu, Mikhail, Discursuri parlamentare din epoca unirii. 22 septembrie 1857-14
decembrie 1861 (Parliamentary Speeches from the Union Epoch. 22nd September 1857
14th of December 1861), introductory study by V. Ra, Editura Stiinific Printing House,
Bucharest, 1959.
Maiorescu, Titu, Critice, vol. III, Minerva Publishing House, 1908
Niculescu, Adrian, Aux racines de la dmocratie roumaine Pruncul Romn, premier journal
libre roumain, chonique de la Rvolution valaque de 1848, Clusium Publishing House,
2008.
Paignon, Eugne, loquence et improvisation: art de la parole oratoire, Auguste Durand,
Paris, 1854.
Panu, George, Portrete i tipuri parlamentare (Parliamentary Potraits and Types), Lupta
Typography, Bucharest, 1893, p. 77.
35
Thomas Carlyle, On Heroes, Hero-Worship, and the Heroic in History, www. archive. org, accesed in 14th
November 2013.
198
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Petrovici, Ion, Talentul oratoric (Oratorical Talent), Conferinte la radio (1932-1943) Radio
Conferences (1932-1943), edition cured by Marian Diaconu, Casa Radio Publishing House,
Bucharest, 2002.
Rosetti, C. A., Lui C. A. Rosetti. La o suta de ani de la naterea sa (To C. A. Rosetti. A
Hundred years from His Birth), a commemorative volume supported by Democraia, the
journal of liberal studies of National Liberal Party, 1916.
Torouiu, I. E & Carda, Gh., Studii i documente (Studies and Documents), vol I. Junimea,
Bucovina Graphic House, 1931.
Urechia, V. A., Despre elocinta romana (On Romanian Eloquence...), Bucharest, The Royal
Printing House Carol Gbl, 1878.
Vianu, Tudor, Istoria literaturii romne moderne, edited by erban Cioculescu, Vladimir
Streinu and Tudor Vianu, EDP, Bucharest, 1971.
199
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
LA VEILLE MULTILINGUE ET LE PROCESSUS DE TRADUCTION
Marilena MILCU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu
Abstract: In globalization era translators profession, all its specific tasks, all areas of
evolution and intervention of the specialist translator are in permanent transformation and
evolution. Thanks to globalization and the development of the information age, a new concept
has emerged - the multilingual social-media monitoring. The concept of multilingual
monitoring covers quite a few distinctive types of social-economical-media scanning, such
as the medical monitoring, the technological and scientific monitoring, economic intelligence
monitoring, the media monitoring, geopolitical monitoring, etc. , which are characterized by
a continuous and very close observation of the information belonging to a certain specific
domain, targeted to a specific topic. The activities of monitoring are rarely confined to
national borders, the monitoring is often multilingual and implies translators intervention
who discovers, this way, new work opportunities and a multiplication of its basic functions by
the assimilation of the research activity and a profound analysis of all information and data.
Keywords: social-media monitoring, monitoring translator, communication, information age
1. La veille multilingue : dfinition et particularits
Nous vivons dans une socit de linformation que lon veut maitriser et exploiter au
maximum et dans laquelle les technologies de linformation jouent un rle fondamental. La
socit que nous frquentons est une socit de la connaissance qui nous oblige dtre mis en
rseau, de diversifier nos connaissances et dtre au courant avec le raffinement des logiciels
que lon utilise chaque jour dans lexercice de nos professions. Le mtier de traducteur est, lui
aussi, en constante volution et transformation. Les taches du traducteur deviennent de plus en
plus complexes et diversifies, son domaine daction de plus en plus vaste. La veille
multilingue est un domaine relativement nouveau qui dsigne l'activit de suivi
informationnel ralise paralllement en deux ou plusieurs langues sur un sujet ou un
domaine particulier. Elle englobe plusieurs types de veilles spcifiques telles que la veille
mdia, la veille juridique, la veille mdicale, la veille technologique et scientifique, la veille
gopolitique, la veille rglementaire, la veille conomique ou encore l'intelligence
conomique. Ces diffrents types de veille se basent sur une recherche documentaire
considrable, sur le traitement de linformation en plusieurs langues et sur lutilisation de
lInternet et de la technologie de linformation. En consquence, la fonction de veille est
stratgique parce quelle permet une institution, une entreprise, une organisation dtre
au courant avec ce qui se passe dans son domaine dactivit et dintervention et cela une
chelle globale et mondiale.
Dans ce contexte on peut affirmer que la socit de linformation est aussi la socit
de la traduction, parce que la traduction est le moteur de la mondialisation et la langue de
lEurope cest la traduction (Umberto Eco). Le mtier de traducteur connait des volutions
rapides bases sur la maitrise et lutilisation de linformation. Aprs avoir t longtemps
limit dans des activits linguistiques, le traducteur est de plus en plus sollicit pour intervenir
dans le processus de dcision. Il doit rechercher et slectionner linformation pertinente pour
200
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
la traduction et la diffusion car les langues et la traduction ont une fonction stratgique dans la
socit actuelle marque par les tensions, les conflits, les problmes identitaires et
communautaires.
La veille est une activit continue et itrative de surveillance active de
lenvironnement technologique, commercial, gopolitique, afin den anticiper les volutions,
cest un processus actif, dynamique, itratif, actualis, ouvert et prospectif. Il existe plusieurs
quivalents pour le terme franais veille , savoir monitoring , scanning ,
screening , observation . Mais, bien que symboliquement synonymes, les termes ne le
sont parfaitement parce que monitoring suppose la surveillance travers un monitor ,
donc par lintermdiaire dun cran et cest une activit oriente travers un outil, le cas tant
le mme pour screening - visualisation ou scanning - balayage . La veille ,
en franais, par opposition sa dfinition dans le Monde anglo-saxon o cette activit est
base sur la machine, suppose une activit oriente vers le facteur humain et la prsence
humaine.
La veille multilingue est une activit de suivi informationnel effectue
simultanment en deux ou plusieurs langues et visant lenrichissement des rsultats de la
recherche documentaire par une diversification linguistique des sources (Guidre, 2006).
Dans la veille ce qui est multilingue cest le document traiter, lenvironnement et le
rapport entre les langues, le locuteur, le rcepteur, le processus et le produit. Lobjectif de la
veille est de prparer constamment la prise des dcisions pour des sujets complexes et des
problmes difficiles rsoudre.
2. Types de veille multilingue et stratgique, tapes, acteurs et outils
La veille tend son domaine daction sur plusieurs domaines dintrt stratgique, tels
le juridique, les mdias, la communication, la technologie, etc.
2.1. La veille mdias ou marketing est une pratique de plus en plus large qui se situe la base
de tous les types de veille. Cest la veille des veilles et se dfinit par un suivi des
informations traites par diffrentes sources mdiatiques, cibles en fonction dun sujet
dtermin. La veille mdias a un motto : sinformer maintenant pour mieux agir demain et
cest une veille portant sur les marchs et la communication commerciale, dans plusieurs aires
linguistiques caractristiques, besoins, tendances du march ; image de marque ; diffusion
de limage, publicit ;
2.2. La veille juridique est la veille portant sur les lois et les rglementations en vigueur dans
diffrents pays et diffuss dans plusieurs langues concernant un domaine dactivit ou un sujet
particulier comme la sant, la scurit, lalimentation, le tabac, lenvironnement, etc.
2.3. La veille technologique est une veille portant sur les volutions technologiques par le
suivi des innovations et des types dutilisation de la technologie en plusieurs langues, afin de
reprer les acquis technologiques et scientifiques les plus rcents.
2.4. La veille gopolitique vise la situation politique et les volutions socioconomiques
internes divers Etats et rgions. On suit les partis, les rapports de force, les lections, les
rvoltes et rbellions, etc.
2.5. La veille sociale ou socitale porte sur les phnomnes communautaires ou les problmes
de socit et leur traitement dans diffrentes langues. Les problmes viss seraient le
201
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
chmage, les drogues, le droit des femmes, lavortement, lgalit des sexes, les problmes
religieux.
2.6. La veille concurrentielle porte sur la surveillance de lactivit conomique dans un
secteur particulier, vise notamment la surveillance des concurrents, de leurs atouts et de leurs
faiblesses. Ce type de veille est spcifique aux entreprises multinationales implantes dans
plusieurs aires linguistiques et culturelles, par exemple LOral, lentreprise Renault,
Michelin, Continental, etc.
2.7. La veille brevet porte sur les brevets dposs dans divers pays et langues, et permettant
de suivre les informations et innovations techniques et les dcouvertes scientifiques.
2.8. La veille est un processus qui regroupe plusieurs tapes, telles laudit, la collecte des
donnes, lanalyse, la synthse et la diffusion des informations. Un systme de veille assure
les fonctions dacquisition interne et externe, de classification et de stockage, danalyse, de
traduction, de formatage et de diffusion. Les finalits de la veille sont la connaissance des
volutions de lenvironnement, lidentification des menaces et des opportunits, lappui la
prise de dcisions, la dynamisation de toute organisation.
2.9. Les acteurs de la veille multilingue sont nombreux et se trouvent en permanente
interdpendance. On a premirement les dcideurs qui demandent la veille et dcident sur
lutilisation des informations collectes ; viennent ensuite les observateurs qui observent les
informations et les donnes et signalent les nouveauts ; les experts valident la valeur et
limportance des informations collectes ; les traducteurs traduisent mais avant tout ils
dcident de tout ce qui est stratgique et significatif traduire ; Les quatre acteurs de la veille
ont en commun lactivit danalyse des donnes. Lanalyse des donnes permet de traiter un
nombre trs important de donnes et de dgager les aspects les plus intressants.
2.10. Les outils de la veille multilingue se classifient en fonction de leur destination. Ainsi a-
t-on : a) les outils de recherche et dobservation : moteurs de recherche, logiciels de suivi
informationnel, agents, rseau dexperts ; b) les outils de collecte et danalyse : logiciels de
traitement automatique du discours, outils de tri et de classification ; c) les outils de traduction
et de communication : moteurs et logiciels de traduction, outils de rsums automatiques
partir de gros volume de donnes ; Inutile dexpliquer que des systmes experts sont
dvelopps pour chaque domaine.
3. Le traducteur veille
Cet intrt croissant pour les questions lies au partage et la diffusion de la
connaissance lchelle mondiale a mis la traduction au cur des proccupations, celle-ci
tant perue comme le moyen le plus simple et le plus efficace pour promouvoir la diversit
linguistique et culturelle. Dans les ensembles conomiques o se ctoient plusieurs langues et
cultures, aux traditions parfois sculaires, la traduction est le seul dnominateur commun qui
permet le dialogue et linter-comprhension.Dans ce type de contexte mouvant, il ne sagit
plus simplement de traduire lautre mais de veiller sur lautre dans tous les sens du terme :
veiller sur son bien-tre mais aussi surveiller les menaces ventuelles contre la paix et la
scurit. Etant en contact direct avec les productions en langue trangre le traducteur ne fait
plus que transmettre un message dune langue A vers une langue B, il est en prise directe avec
la ralit et lactualit du monde. Par sa position privilgie comme mdiateur culturel, il est
202
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
devenu, sans toujours en prendre la mesure un vritable veilleur multilingue (Guidre,
2008).
La traduction veille dsigne lactivit de traduction slective employe comme aide
la prise de dcisions. Ce qui distingue la traduction veille du processus de traduction
habituelle, cest son caractre finalis, dcisionnel et slectif : slection des sources utilises,
des outils de traitement du texte, slection des documents traduire et des mthodes de
communication. Le traducteur devient veilleur au moment o on lui confie des tches et des
missions de surveillance, au moment o il devient sujet actant, dcisionnaire et non pas un
simple excutant. Au moment o il est veilleur, il dpasse sa condition traditionnelle et
devient maitre de la totalit du processus, de la source la cible, en passant par le canal. Il
devient une personne ressource qui est linitiateur et loprateur de la traduction veille. De
cette manire la traduction devient recherche et analyse : analyse et traduction de la requte
en langue trangre, analyse et traduction des rsultats obtenus en langue trangre, analyse et
traduction des documents slectionns suivant des critres de pertinence finalise.
Le traducteur veille franchit, dans son travail, plusieurs tapes. Il fouille des
documents multilingues afin de rechercher et de trouver linformation ncessaire, il ralise
lauthentification des documents en langue trangre, il traduit les documents, re-traduit des
documents anciens tout en ractualisant le sens, il ralise lanalyse de la traduction, cest--
dire quil fait une tude compare de plusieurs documents traduits, il rvise les traductions,
recommande la traduction de certains documents, ralise lexpertise des rapports et dcrypte
les documents, textes ou phrases nigmatiques en langue trangre. Ce traitement des
donnes disponibles en plusieurs langues est effectu par les traducteurs qui agissent, en
ralit, comme des gestionnaires de projet multilingue. La diversit des canaux et des sources
ncessite des comptences linguistiques et communicationnelles particulirement dvelopps
chez le traducteur de formation. Celui-ci ne procde pas seulement au recoupement et la
comparaison des informations valides issues du rseau des observateurs et de celui des
capteurs, il est le point central de leur traitement. Les donnes tant multilingues, il procde
dabord leur analyse approfondie, puis leur classification suivant des critres de pertinence
propres, enfin leur synthse pour les rendre accessibles dans la langue cible des bnficiaires
de la veille. Bref, cest sur ses paules que repose lessentiel du traitement intelligent des
donnes extraites, avant transmission au dcideur (Guidre, 2008).
En conclusion, le traducteur veille remplit plusieurs fonctions. Il ralise le travail de
traduction et de veille, il supervise le travail, cest--dire ralise la gestion de projet, il rvise
le travail devenant ainsi un surveillant veilleur, et expertise le travail en faisant lanalyse
interne et externe. Dans tous les cas, lactivit du traducteur est stratgique, car le travail nest
pas une traduction de routine, mais une traduction dcisive et dcisionnelle. Ses employeurs
peuvent tre gouvernements, ministres, entreprises multinationales, services de scurit, etc.
En tout cas, le traducteur diversifie, par la veille multilingue, ses domaines dactivit car le
march de la veille multilingue est mondial et le traducteur veilleur sinternationalise. La
quantit de son travail dpend, bien sr, de ses qualits professionnelles et humaines, du
rseau dans lequel il sinsre et de la notorit personnelle.
La notorit personnelle dpend de ses comptences : comptences linguistiques et
culturelles qui se rapporte une excellente connaissance des langues de travail, au savoir de
dcoder les variations langagires ; comptences techniques et mthodologiques visant la
203
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
connaissance et la capacit de gestion dun projet de veille en plusieurs langues et le savoir
danalyser et de synthtiser un grand volume dinformation et de donnes en langue
trangre ; les comptences traductionnelles et stratgiques permettant la production,
lvaluation et le contrle de la qualit dune traduction finalise.
Bibliographie
LArgus de la presse, Veille et tudes mdias. Au cur des stratgies de communication. Le
livre Blanc. Argus de la Presse, Paris, 2006.
Chanial, E., Outils de veille : les solutions de demain, Archimag, pp. 40-42, 2006.
Devaux, V., Evaluation des outils de veille. Mise en oeuvre - mthodologies perspectives,
Rencontres 2006 des Professionnels de l'IST: 2006, Nancy, 2006.
Franji, L., Traduction veille et analyse mdias, Traduire, nr.215, pp. 63-75, 2007.
Guidre, M., Le traducteur veilleur ou traduction et veille multilingue, Traduire, nr. 215, pp.
44-62, 2007.
Guidre, M., Quest-ce que la traduction finalise, Hieronymus, 4/2007.
Guidre, M., Professional translation and National Security, Proceedings of the 45th annual
conference of ATA, 13-14 October, 2004.
Meschonnic, H., Ethique et politique du traduire, Paris, 2007.
Rouach, D., La veille technologique et lintelligence conomique, PUF, Paris, 1996.
204
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
BETWEEN LEXICAL TERMINOLOGY AND DISCOURSIVE TERMINOLOGY.
THE LANGUAGE OF ARCHITECTURE
Bianca GEMAN, Assistant, PhD Candidate, The Technical Constructions University of
Bucharest
Abstract: This study shows that a complex linguistic analysis, in the correlation of
paradigmatic and syntagmatic data, faced with specialized information leads to an objective
and complex description of the architecture terminology. The strict extra-linguistic
determination entails a more rigorous use of the terms of architecture, with definitions and
inter-conceptual relations present at the level of the terminological density. These definitions
and inter-conceptual relations are quite numerous in texts of wider circulation. The
specialized features of the analyzed texts enhance their importance for the specialized
language of architecture, precisely because they reflect the dynamic semantics for
appropriate terms.
Keywords: architecture, language, terminology, contexts, variation.
n ultimii ani, preocuparea pentru studiul terminologiilor tiinifice din punct de
vedere lingvistic, a cunoscut o dezvoltare complex, datorat identificrii particularitilor i
analizei relaiilor n limbajele de specialitate cu mijloace lingvistice (comune cu cele aplicate
n lexicul comun). Acest interes are ca scop, tendina actual de deschidere a codurilor
tiinifice n condiiile societilor moderne. n acest context, terminologia din arhitectur,
dobndete o importan deosebit pentru c este un domeniu tiinific i o disciplin cu un
impact social larg.
Arhitectura este tiina i arta de a proiecta i de a executa cldiri, complexe de
cldiri i ansambluri, pentru satisfacerea nevoilor de trai, materiale, sociale, culturale i
artistice ale oamenilor. Arhitectura nu trebuie considerat exclusiv ca o ramur a artei sau a
tiinei construciilor; ea realizeaz mpletirea acestor dou sectoare, crend opere folositoare,
trainice i frumoase(ieica 1967: 65).
Paradigma propus pentru analiz, este cea a cldirilor religioase. Termenii acestei
paradigme, BISERIC, CATEDRAL, DOM, SCHIT, prezint interes ntruct au o
circulaie larg, nu numai n comunicarea specializat, ci i n cea obinuit. Se pune astfel
problema relaiei dintre termen i cuvnt i a pstrrii nucleului dur al sensului specializat
n diversele texte i contexte analizate. Se procedeaz astfel la o analiz complex,
paradigmatic i sintagmatic (Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 26-27), ce vizeaz precizia exprimrii
sensului specializat, prin care s se pun n valoare n ce msur termenii din arhitectur,
satisfac condiiile terminologice de univocitate, precizie i monoreferenialitate i se constituie
ntr-o ierarhie conceptual (Cabr 2000:10, Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 32), avnd n vedere c
extinderile textuale i contextuale pot antrena diferite modificri semantice, mergnd spre
determinri sau chiar sensuri noi.
Metoda de cercetare utilizat este, n primul rnd, analiza sensului specializat existent
n definiii lexicografice i terminografice. Prin urmare, se impune raportarea permanent la
dicionarele de uz general (cum ar fi DEX 1998 sau DEXI 2007), dar i la cele de specialitate
205
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
(Dicionarul de art 1995). Prin compararea direct a celor dou tipuri de definiii, se vor
identifica elementele componente relevante pentru vorbitorii obinuii sau, dimpotriv, pentru
specialiti.
Demn de menionat este faptul c, prin apariia termenilor propui spre analiz, n
comunicarea obinuit, Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne (1998) omite tratarea
minuioas a sensului specializat, nefiind prezente elemente majore precum marca diastratic,
definiia riguroas ori contextele diagnostice. Mrcile de uzaj (arhit.) sau (bis.), nu nsoesc
definiiile termenilor din paradigma lexico-semantic format n jurul arhilexemului
CONSTRUCIE RELIGIOAS.
Mrcile stilistice (diastratice) sunt informaii date ntre paranteze naintea definiiei
lexicografice i reprezint judeci de valoare explicite ale lexicografului n raport cu normele
i condiiile socio-culturale de utilizare a unor cuvinte i sensuri.
n DEXI 2007, definiia termenului DOM conine marca diastratic (arhit.) care indic
domeniul de apartenen al acestui termen. Termenul SCHIT este nsoit de marca diastratic
(bis.) pentru bisericesc, n cazul paradigmei noastre indicnd un subdomeniu sau o ramur a
arhitecturii, i anume arhitectura bisericeasc.
n cazul lexicului specializat, mrcile diastratice sunt foarte importante pentru
vorbitorul obinuit pentru c indic preliminar att situaiile extralingvistice, ct i cele
lingvistice de comunicare corect, fiind informaii contextuale (sintagmatice) complexe, ele
privesc fie terminologia tiinific creia i aparine termenul, fie numai un domeniu special
de referin (Bidu-Vrnceanu: 2000).
Lectura comparat a definiiilor lexicografice ale cuvintelor BISERIC,
CATEDRAL, DOM, impune o corectare a genului proxim. Astfel, pentru CATEDRAL
genul proxim este biseric, iar pentru DOM este catedral; definiia lexicografic a
cuvntului BISERIC este cldire destinat celebrrii unui cult cretin, ceea ce nseamn c
genul proxim este formulat extrem de general (cldire). Dac avem n vedere c n definiia
cuvntului CATEDRAL apare i o diferen specific fa de BISERIC, adic mare
(CATEDRAL fiind o biseric mare) i dac DOM este definit prin catedral (i nu prin
biseric) rezult c DOMUL este mai mare sau mai important dect CATEDRALA. Lipsa de
unitate a genului proxim al cuvintelor din aceeai clas are, deci, implicaii i asupra
diferenelor specifice dintre ele, diferene greu de sesizat de ctre un vorbitor obinuit, mai
ales dac se limiteaz la lectura izolat a definiiei lexicografice a unuia dintre cuvinte.
Trebuie s avem n vedere c pentru DOM i CATEDRAL competena multor vorbitori
poate fi imperfect (Bidu-Vrnceanu 1993: 37).
Aadar, reorganizarea definiiilor lexicografice n ce privete diferenele specifice ale
cuvintelor BISERIC, CATEDRAL, DOM este condiionat, n primul rnd, de lectura
comparat care trebuie s duc la selectarea unor date relevante incluse prea discret n genul
proxim. n al doilea rnd, pentru precizarea diferenelor specifice apare necesitatea nlturrii
datelor nerelevante i, mai ales, obligaia unei formulri mai economice a lor. Partea din
definiia lexicografic a cuvintelor CATEDRAL i DOM formulat n unele orae italiene,
germane etc. este ambigu admind mai multe interpretri (privind tipul de religie, stilul
arhitectonic etc.)
Se poate deduce o difereniere probabil sub aspectul semului variabil /mrime/ cu
valorile /mare/ i /mic/ pentru c anumii termeni sunt caracterizai explicit din acest punct de
206
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
vedere, precum termenii CATEDRAL (biseric (mare) n care serviciul religios este
oficiat, de obicei, de un (arhi)episcop), DOM (catedral impuntoare, de obicei biseric
principal a unui ora) i SCHIT (mnstire mic). Diferenierea termenilor n clase
urmrete trsturi definitorii abstracte, mrimea sau poziia ntr-o ierarhie. Ordonarea
diferenelor specifice din definiiile lexicografice depinde mai puin de prile de vorbire
reprezentate, ct de sensurile concrete analizate.
Definiia terminografic din Dicionarul de art a hiperonimului BISERIC, prezint
urmtoarele sintagme hiponimice: BISERIC HAL, ~SAL, ~DE PLAN CENTRAL, ~TIP
CRUCE GREAC, ~DE PLAN TRICONC, ~ATHONIT. Aceste sintagme hiponimice au
un caracter fixat la nivel terminologic prin dicionare i alte lucrri de specialitate. BISERICA
HAL reprezint un tip de biseric n care navele centrale au aceeai nlime cu cea
central, care este asfel luminat numai indirect, toate trei fiind adpostite sub acelai
acoperi.
De asemenea, Dicionarul de art nregistreaz din punct de vedere funcional, alte
hiponime, exprimate prin urmtoarele sintagme: BISERICI ABAIALE sau ~DE
MNSTIRE; ~COLEGIALE; ~PAROHIALE; ~DE PELERINAJ; ~COMEMORATIV;
~VOTIV, fiecare cu definiii specializate. BISERICILE DE PELERINAJ sunt situate fie pe
marile drumuri de pelerinaj ale Evului Mediu (de ex. spre Compostella, spre Palestina) sau n
locurile de pelerinaj din diferite puncte ale Europei, Asiei Mici sau Orientului Apropiat.
Variaia discursiv, baz a terminologiei textuale a impus mai multe distincii cu
caracter general (Desmet 2006: 236), dintre care unele ni se par importante pentru analiza
noastr. Se disting nivelul tiinific specializat (texte i cursuri universitare), nivelul
considerat intermediar, reprezentat de textele din revistele de specialitate elaborate de
specialiti pentru un public de iniiai (Desmet 2006: 237) (discurs considerat semi
vulgarizat) i discursul de vulgarizare tiinific reprezentat de sectoarele specializate din
presa general (id.).
Dintr-o perspectiv mai general, ali autori (Mejri 2006: 704-705) disting discursul
academic, pe de o parte, al practicienilor i discursul general pe de alt parte. Criteriul care
st la baza acestei distincii relev importana lingvisticii n studiul terminologic, lund n
consideraie consistena sau densitatea terminologic a textului (prezent n grade diferite),
opus absenei acesteia prin disoluia termenilor n text avnd ca rezultat un discurs fr
contrapondere terminologic (id.). Se consider c discursul e cu att mai specializat cu ct
consistena conceptual (terminologic) e mai mare i invers. Coerena conceptual
semantic este dat de prezena altor termeni specializai din aceeai sfer, indispensabili
interpretrii. (Mejri 2006: 700). Se delimiteaz astfel un discurs specializat de unul
semispecializat i eterogen (id.: 704).
Utilitatea acestor criterii de interpretare a termenilor va fi dovedit i de analiza pe
care o vom ntreprinde i va demonstra existena importanei variaiei discursive n
terminologia arhitecturii.
n cadrul terminologiei textuale o problem important este cea a alctuirii corpusului
(de texte), ca baz a analizei. Din acest punct de vedere corpusul constituie un obiectiv central
n numeroase analize terminologice actuale (v. Volumul Mots, termes et contextes) i se rein
cteva idei importante:
207
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
- Corpusul trebuie sa fie omogen i reprezentativ pentru un anumit domeniu, iar
termenii s fie selectai dup criterii bine definite (Desmet 2006: 240).
- Se distinge maniera de investigare automat a corpusului (preferat de multe studii
actuale) de cea manual sau intelectual (Haidi Widad 2006: 160), analiza ntreprins de noi
bazndu-se pe cea de-a doua.
- Condiionat de mijloacele investigrii, corpusul poate fi finit sau, de cele mai multe
ori, nelimitat sau deschis, n ultimul caz avnd importan reprezentativitatea (Mejri 2006:
704). Respectnd condiiile de a alctui corpusul printr-o regrupare structurat de texte (Rijo
Lina 2006: 510) se consider c un corpus deschis (id.) poate favoriza identificarea
stabilizrii termenului i diversele tipuri de variaie terminologic (ibid), (v. i M. Contente
2006: 455).
- n cazul indexrii manuale sau intelectuale (utilizate i de noi), investigarea are n
vedere anumite cuvinte - cheie (Berteles 2006: 371, Haidi Widad 2006: 160). Cuvintele
cheie sunt reprezentative pentru anumite familii conceptuale sau pentru o rudenie
conceptual (Haidi Widad 2006: 165). Alegerea cuvintelor cheie se bazeaz nu numai pe
criteriul conceptual semantic, ci i pe frecven, apreciat general sau statistic (Berteles
2006: 373374). Identificarea cuvintelor cheie se poate face astfel avnd n vedere
actualizarea n texte i contexte a unor termeni prototipici (Lerat 2006 : 89), iar importana
acestui studiu este relevant n investigarea unor texte din mass-media (de exemplu din Le
Monde, ianuarie septembrie 1998, v. Berteles 2006: 373).
Cercetarea bazat pe cuvinte - cheie s-a dovedit relevant n analiza termenilor din
domeniul arhitecturii ntreprins de noi. O consecin a importanei cuvintelor cheie este
gradul lor de monosemie sau de polisemie, important pentru specificitatea terminologic
(Berteles 2006: 372379). Se afirm (id.) c pentru cuvintele cheie cele mai specifice exist
condiia de a fi mai polisemice.
Investigarea terminologic pe baza cuvintelor cheie este ilustrativ pentru reflectarea
obiectiv a relaiei complexe i dinamice dintre extralingvistic (n sensul cel mai global) i
lingvistic (Costa 2006: 7980). Este, de aceea, un aspect foarte important n analiza termenilor
pe care o vom ntreprinde, mai ales n relaia dintre textele tiinifice i n presa de specialitate
(v. Referine bibliografice, Surse).
Analiza sintagmatic, bazat pe studiul contextelor, condiionat de integrarea lor n
anumite tipuri de texte poate s reflecte legtura dintre sistemul lingvistic i cel conceptual
(Contente 2006: 457). Studiile actuale de terminologie (v. volumul Mots, termes et contexts
2006) pun n eviden tipologii noi, mai rafinate ale contextelor, sintetizate de unele definiii.
Se reine n acest sens definiia aplicabil direct n studiul nostru: totalitatea elementelor
cognitive, situaionale sau intertextuale (subl. n.) capabile s intervin n procesul de
construire a sensului (Mosbah 2006: 652). Aceast definiie pune n eviden att importana
relaiei extralingvistic/lingvistic, evident n terminologia arhitecturii, ct i necesitatea
mbinrii studiului paradigmatic cu cel sintagmatic n analiza lingvistic a termenilor.
O alt interpretare general a contextului care condiioneaz analiza variaiei
terminologice privete precizri privind contextele extralingvistice. O importan preliminar
o au situaiile de comunicare condiionate de grupurile socio-profesionale, care determin
variaii situaionale i de uzaj i care se pot reprezenta adeseori prin situaii de comunicare
mixte (Bertaccini i Mateucci 2006: 325 326).
208
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Alte tipologii ale contextelor au aplicri importante n studiul terminologic. Se
delimiteaz n general contextele extralingvistice (n sensul cel mai global) de cele lingvistice
(care sunt o constant) (Costa 2006: 7980), toate tipurile de contexte avnd o funcie
mediatoare ntre individ i comunicarea specializat (id.: 82).
n funcie de alte tipuri de contexte specializate se determin variaii contextuale ale
termenilor (Desmet 2006: 241), condiionate att paradigmatic, ct i sintagmatic ducnd la
variaii conceptuale i denominative (id.).
n raport cu studiul contextual al termenilor se arat importana vectorilor
cunotinelor de specialitate (Desmet 2006: 242), cu consecine asupra variaiei
terminologice constatate n ntrebuinri specializate i ntrebuinri mai puin specializate
(id. 244). Aceste variaii sunt corelate cu cele textuale i discursive i pot fi foarte importante
n analiza unor termeni precum BISERIC.
n cele ce urmeaz vom urmri variaia n terminologia arhitecturii, cu distincii ntre
textele tiinifice i cele din pres reflectate n mai multe tipuri de variaii.
Textul tiinific pe care l vom analiza, a fost excerptat dintr-un curs universitar de
Istoria arhitecturii din Romnia (Brtuleanu, 2002) i reprezint un subcapitol destinat
arhitecturii catedralelor oraelor medievale din Transilvania. Este un text destinat viitorilor
specialiti (studeni la Facultatea de Arhitectur), redactat de specialiti ai domeniului. Fiind
un curs universitar, i propune definirea i descrierea ct mai clar a termenilor i a
conceptelor din domeniul arhitecturii. n acest text este prezentat varietatea de stiluri,
caracteristice arhitecturii religioase din Transilvania, diversitatea formelor arhitecturale
determinat de existena a dou culte: - cel catolic i cel ortodox. Conectarea arhitecturii
bisericilor catolice la formele Romanicului i Goticului din Europa central, transformrile pe
care bisericile ridicate n aceste stiluri le sufer, sunt redate prin termeni specializai:
BISERIC ROMANIC, COR GOTIC, HALLENKIRCHE, BOLI, CONTRAFORI,
ARCE BUTANTE: n privina oraelor, ele sunt n mare parte aezri rurale de colonizare
care au cptat un caracter urban datorit practicrii intensive a meteugurilor i comerului.
Dezvoltarea lor este relativ rapid i coincide ca perioad cu epoca n care, n Europa central,
Goticul ajunsese la maturitate. Aceasta a condus n unele cazuri la transformarea sau
completarea unor biserici romanice oreneti mai vechi (biserica evanghelic din Sebe
sec. XIII-XIV-, construit n stil romanic, i se nlocuiete vechiul cor cu unul nou, gotic;
catedrala Sf. Mihail din Alba Iulia sec. XIII-XVII-, cel mai valoros monument de art
medieval din Transilvania, mbinnd forme ale romanicului trziu cu unele ale goticului).
[...] Biserica Neagr din Braov (1384-1477) constituie un exemplu de construcie gotic
influenat de arhitectura contemporan din Slovacia; biserica evanghelic din Sibiu (sec.
XIV-XV), dar mai ales catedrala Sf. Mihail din Cluj (1394-c.1450) precum i biserica din
deal din Sighioara (1345-1515) ilustreaz i ele cu precdere epoca trzie a Goticului
central-european prin formula spaial de tip hallenkirche, prin utilizarea unor boli
sprijinite pe nervuri, ca i prin marile deschideri ale golurilor ferestrelor si decoraia de piatr
care le ncadreaz. Totui se pstreaz anumite trsturi specifice Romanicului marea
grosime a zidurilor exterioare i prezena contraforilor alipii acestora, absena arcelor
butante. Rezult de aici un volum masiv, impresie accentuat i de includerea ntregului spaiu
sub un singur acoperi (Brtuleanu 2003: 56). Hiperonimul BISERIC, prezint urmtoarele
sintagme hiponimice: BISERIC ROMANIC, BISERIC EVANGHELIC, BISERIC
209
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
HAL-HALLENKIRCHE, sintagme survenite ca urmare a evoluiei terminologice i a
actualizrii permanente a sensurilor ce decurg din modificrile semantice aprute n timp, din
extinderea termenilor dincolo de aria de specializare strict. Rezult c terminologia
arhitecturii este caracterizat de flexibilitate i actualizare permanent.
Analiza textului arat o consisten terminologic n cadrul unei familii conceptuale
strict specific discursului tiinific. Prezentarea este neutr, fr exprimri metaforice, bazat
pe definiii i caracterizri obiective. Cvasisinonimia dintre termenii BISERIC i
CATEDRAL, afecteaz identificarea unui termen vedet (Bertaccini i Mateucci 2006:
325). Nivelul tiinific ce caracterizeaz acest text, presupune faptul ca emitorul (autorul)
este un foarte bun cunosctor al domeniului la care se face referin. Comunicarea de tip
tiinific presupune utilizarea unui cod nchis, accesibil (teoretic) n mod exclusiv
specialitilor.
n continuare vom urmri actualizarea termenilor n alt tip de discurs, cel al textelor
din presa de circulaie relativ larg (v. la Surse). Se va urmri n ce msur aceste texte se
caracterizeaz printr-un nivel de specializare similar cu cel analizat anterior i n ce msur se
poate constata o dinamic sub aspectul frecvenei, al valorilor conceptual-semantice i al
relaiilor cu termeni nrudii, condiionate strict de evoluia factorilor extralingvistici. Nivelul
de larg circulaie se adreseaz persoanelor neinstruite ntr-un domeniu tehnic sau tiinific,
care beneficiaz prin intermediul mass-media de informaii, dintr-un domeniu sau mai multe.
Biserica Ortodox Romn transform un proiect prestigios i vechi n realitate,
prin construirea Catedralei Mntuirii Neamului, n pofida criticilor i a semnelor de
ntrebare ridicate de un lca de cult ce i propune s depeasc n grandoare Casa
Poporului, comenteaz agenia german DPA.
Atunci cnd va fi finalizat, noua catedral cu o nlime de 125 de metri se va ridica
deasupra Palatului Parlamentului, construit ntre 1965 i 1989 de fostul dictator Nicolae
Ceauescu.
Lucrrile la fundaia catedralei au nceput n urm cu un an i ar urma s se ncheie n
2015. Cldirea va putea primi pn la 5.000 de oameni n timpul slujbelor i va avea dou sli
pentru diverse evenimente cu o capacitate de 1.000 de persoane fiecare.
Catedrala va include i cantine pentru sraci, iar cldirea va fi deservit de 14 lifturi.
n complex vor exista i dou centre de cazare a pelerinilor, un centru cultural i unul social.
Parcarea va avea capacitatea de 700 de locuri.
Respingnd acuzaiile de arogan, Patriarhia susine c actuala Catedral
Mitropolitan Bucureti, construit n 1656, este prea mic, iar Catedrala Mntuirii
Neamului este o necesitate liturgic i public (Romnia Liber 2011/ 396).
Se observ utilizarea relaxat a termenilor, folosirea unor concepte cu anumite
componente semantice considerate drept distincte ori uor inteligibile n raport cu altele care
descriu un cod eminamente nchis. Termenul BISERIC apare cu sensul de comunitate
religioas de acelai cult - BISERICA ORTODOX ROMN, sens omonim cu cel de
cldire destinat celebrrii unui cult cretin. Se remarc polisemia intern cu o legtur
evident ntre sensuri.
Analiza contextual a polisemiei poate contribui la diferenierea/ dezambiguizarea
semantic. Aceasta se impune mai ales prin faptul c unii termeni, n combinaii libere, ajung
s desemneze concepte noi, fapt motivat de dinamica cunoaterii. Identificarea semantic prin
210
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
context este necesar i pentru sensurile de baz, inclusiv n cazul unor termeni foarte
importani, precum termenul CLDIRE, utilizat n textul nostru cu sensul concret de
construcie nlat la suprafaa pmntului i care servete la adpostirea unor oameni,
unor animale, unor obiecte i instalaii etc. (DEX 1998).
n ceea ce privete termenul CATEDRAL, se constat determinarea sintagmatic, a
tipurilor sale, sintagme care suplinesc interpretarea specializat: CATEDRAL
MITROPOLITAN, CATEDRALA MNTUIRII NEAMULUI.
Utilizarea precis, lipsit de echivoc, a anumitor uniti terminologice ale cror
concepte sunt strict specializate, este redat de cel de-al doilea text de pres. ntre lexicul
comun i cel specializat se constat existena unei relaii de interdependen, care se manifest
la nivelul tiinelor caracterizate de difuzare larg. Aceast relaie este determinat de
interesul publicului larg nespecializat pentru informaii exprimate cu ajutorul unitilor
lexicale specifice unor domenii i de dorina de divulgare a unor aspecte aparinnd
cunoaterii, din partea specialitilor.
Reprezentanii organizaiei care s-a ocupat de construcia i ntreinerea Domului din
Milano au iniiat o campanie de strngere de fonduri pentru salvarea celebrei catedrale, prin
care cei care vor s doneze ntre 10 i 100 de euro pot adopta cte un gargui (jgheab sau
burlan scurt pentru scurgerea apei de ploaie, bogat ornamentat, adesea cu figuri). [...]
Proiectul presupune adoptarea simbolic a unuia dintre cele 137 de garguie ale Domului din
Milano, contra unei donaii cu o valoare cuprins ntre 10 i 100 de euro (ziare.com 2012/16
noiembrie).
Unele sinonimii dezvoltate, se bazeaz pe dorina unei comunicri diversificate, care
s evite repetiiile. Este confirmat sinonimia stabilit de dicionar a termenului DOM care
desemneaz o catedral impuntoare, de obicei biseric principal a unui ora (DEX
1998).
n cazul termenului JGHEAB, relaia de sinonimie este refcut prin etimonul strin,
GARGUI. Ambii termeni sunt prezeni n dicionarele de specialitate. Se observ
interdependena dintre terminologia arhitecturii i lexicul comun. Interesul mai larg pentru
lexicul specializat (LS) l pune ntr-o relaie direct cu lexicul comun (LC), extinderea lui
dincolo de domeniul strict al specialitilor determin migrarea multor termeni n limba
comun. Explicaia dat are n vedere rolul sporit al tiinei i tehnicii n societile moderne
(Cabr 2000: 23), care determin o apropiere mai mare ntre cunoaterea tiinific i cea
obinuit (Bidu-Vrnceanu 2010: 11). Lexicul din domeniul arhitecturii, este influenat de
evoluia societii care solicit i i imprim dorina sporit de cunoatere plurivalent cu
riscurile (tiinifice, sociale i lingvistice) ce rezult din diversitatea cunotinelor nsuite.
Analiza ntreprins arat c analiza lingvistic complex, n corelaia datelor
paradigmatice i sintagmatice, confruntate cu informaiile specializate aduce o descriere
obiectiv i complex a terminologiei arhitecturii. Variaia terminologic n textele actuale
este condiionat, n primul rnd de evoluia societilor i a evenimentelor extralingvistice,
iar presa de larg circulaie este silit s reflecte dinamica modificrilor care se produc sub
ochii notri i nu sunt nc reflectate n textele strict tiinifice, dat fiind c acestea se
elaboreaz mai greu. Determinarea strict din punct de vedere extralingvistic are drept
consecin utilizarea mult mai riguroas a termenilor, cu definiii i relaii interconceptuale
manifestate la nivelul densitii terminologice destul de mari n texte cu o circulaie mai larg.
211
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Aceste caracteristici specializate ale textelor analizate cresc importana lor pentru limbajul
specializat, tocmai pentru c reflect dinamica semantic n termeni adecvai. Se remarc, n
primul rnd, contextele care nu se difereniaz de cele tiinifice prin caracteristicile obiective
privitoare la realitile noi. Exist ns i contexte fireti pentru o pres care poate interesa i
nespecialitii i care se apropie de texte de vulgarizare tiinific prin disoluia termenilor
specializai.
n concluziile anterioare rezult c aspectele semnalate i analizate arat c relaia
dintre diferitele tipuri de texte i dintre acestea i dicionare este relevant pentru a nregistra
noi interpretri specializate. Textele foarte actuale sunt astfel o surs foarte important, de
care trebuie s inem seama, cu consecine asupra interpretrii conceptual semantice
dinamice n terminologia arhitecturii.
Referine bibliografice
Bjoint, Henri i Thoiron, Philippe, 2000 Le sens en terminologie, Presses Universitaires de
Lyon, Lyon.
Bertaccini, Franco i Matteuci, Alessandra, 2006 - La terminologie dentreprise et ses
contextes dusage, n Mots..., p. 317-327.
Bertels, Ann, 2006 - Les spcificits en contextes: comment tudier la polysmie, n
Mots,..., p. 371-381.
Bidu-Vrnceanu, Angela, coord. 2000 Lexic comun, lexic specializat, Editura Universitii
din Bucureti.
Bidu-Vrnceanu, Angela 2007- Lexic specializat n micare. De la dicionare la texte, Editura
Universitii din Bucureti.
Cabr, Maria Teresa, 1991, Terminologie ou terminologies? Spcialit linguistique ou
domaine interdisciplinaire?, n Meta, XXXV, nr. 1.
Cabr, Maria Teresa, 2000, Sur la reprsentation mentale: bases pour une tentative de
modlisation, n H. Bejoint i Ph. Thoiron, p. 20 .u.
Contente, Madalena, 2006, Termes et textes: la construction du sens dans la terminologie
mdicale, n Mots,..., p. 453-467.
Costa, Rute, 2006 Texte, terme et contexte, n Mots,..., p.79-89.
Desmet, Isabel, 2006, Variabilit et variation en terminologie et langues spcialises:
discours, textes et contextes , n Mots,..., p. 235-249.
Lino, Teresa, 2006, Contextes et nologie terminologique dans le domaine mdical, n
Mots,..., p. 509-515.
Mejri, Soumaya, 2006, La terminologie de sciences de gestion en contexte: terme ou mot? ,
n Mots,..., p. 699-709.
Mots,..., 2006, Mots, termes et contextes, Actes des septimes Journes scientifiques du rseau
Lexicologie, terminologie, traduction, sous la direction des Daniel Blampain, Philippe
Thoiron, Marc Van Campenhoudt, Editions des archives contemporaines, Paris, 2006.
Said, Mosbah, 2006 Le strotype, du mot au concept: saicies travers les contextes, n
Mots,..., p.651-661.
Temmerman, R., Kerremans Koen, Vanderwort, V., 2006 La terminographie en
contexte(s), n Mots,..., p.429-441.
212
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Van gehuchten, Lieve, 2006 Lunit phrasologique en didactique des langues etrangres
de spcialit: le cas du discours conomique dentreprise en espagnol, n Mots,..., p.673 .u.
Dicionare
DEX Dicionar explicativ al limbii romne, ediia a 2-a, coord. Ion Coteanu i Lucreia
Mare, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1998.
DEXI Dicionarul explicativ ilustrat al limbii romne, coord. Eugenia Dima, Editura Arc &
Gunivas, Italia, 2007.
Dicionar de art, coord. Mircea Popescu, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti,1995.
Dicionar politehnic, coord. ieica, Radu, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1967.
Lexicon de construcii i arhitectur, coord. Blan, tefan; Mihilescu t. Nicolae, Editura
Criana, 1985.
Surse
Brtuleanu, Anca, 2002 Istoria arhitecturii n Romnia, Note de curs. Universitatea de
Arhitectur i Urbanism Ion Mincu, Bucureti.
Sandu Tomaevschi, Anca, 2003 Elemente de arhitectur, Ecas, Bucureti.
Romnia Liber, nr. 396, 2011
Ziare.com, 16 noiembrie, 2012
213
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
DISCOURSIVE MARKERS IN ROMANIAN. TERMINOLOGICAL AND
CONCEPTUAL ASPECTS
Aurelia Nicoleta PAVEL (DICU), PhD Candidate, University of Bucharest
Abstract: This paper is an attempt to clarify the extent of the concept of discourse markers
known in Romanian as marcatori discursivi as well as to provide the means of establishing its
notional content. The justification of such endeavor arises from the inconsistent terminology
that is used in Romanian pragmatic research. These lexical expressions the role of which is
mainly of assuring the cohesion and coherence of the discourse form an eclectic class that
contains conjunctions, adverbs, prepositional phrases or more developed structures and
therefore it makes difficult the conceptual demarcation. Furthermore the parallel terms in
current use (as discourse connectives, discourse operators, pragmatic connectives, sentence
connectives, and cue phrases) dont always coincide notionally. This is why after a short
theoretical review about the matter in the Romanian pragmatic research I have decided on
defining the concept of discourse markers and establishing some ways of their identification. I
conclude by providing a functional classification of the discourse markers by resorting to the
Spanish researchers proposal, especially that of Montolo Durn, Portols, Martn
Zorraquino and Escandell.
Keywords: discourse markers, pragmatic connectives, discourse particles,
nonvericonditional, procedural meaning
1. Consideraii generale
Putem considera c germenii studiului pragmaticii i implicit al marcatorilor discursivi
se regsesc n studiile lui Frege de la nceputul secolului XX. Pentru acesta gndul sau sensul
este coninutul unei propoziii care poate fi apreciat ca adevrat sau fals. Atrage ns
atenia c anumite forme propoziionale (ordinul, dorina, cererea, interogativa parial1,
exclamaia) dei purttoare de sens nu se supun condiiilor de adevr. Aceast constatare
reprezint, dei nu n mod voit, trecerea de la abordarea tradiional a sensului lingvistic, la
recunoaterea faptului c limba nu se reduce numai la aseriuni ce descriu realitatea
nconjurtoare, ci red i fapte de natur subiectiv sau relaional (i care n opinia acestuia
nu au valoare comunicativ ntruct nu exprim un gnd i nu pot fi, deci, adevrate sau
false). Astfel sensul i referina unei propoziii sunt date de condiia respectiv valoarea de
adevr a acesteia. De exemplu n cazul predicatului e verde referina este funcia care asociaz
obiectele verzi valorii de adevrat i obiectele de alt culoare valorii de fals (Iten:30). Frege
remarc, pe de alt parte, c anumite elemente lingvistice, de exemplu modalizatoarele din
fericire, din nefericire nu pot fi apropriate n termeni de sens i referin, ele necontribuind n
nici un fel la valoarea de adevr a propoziiilor care le conin.
1
Un regim aparte l au interogativele totale care cuprind o idee n integralitatea ei i la care rspunsul da sau nu
nu reprezint altceva dect evaluarea ca adevrat sau fals al coninutului cruia i s-a ataat ca modalitate o
cerere. Astfel o interogativ total va avea n comun cu o propoziie declarativ coninutul, dar nu i modalitatea
care n primul caz este cererea, iar n al doilea aseriunea. De aici Frege distinge n propoziia declarativ: 1)
nelegerea unei idei actul de a gndi, 2) recunoaterea adevrului unei idei actul de a raiona, 3) manifestarea
acestui raionament aseriunea. (Frege: 355).
214
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Chiar dac studiul sensului lingvistic la Frege este limitat de perspectiva logico-
matematic a acestuia, observaiile de mai sus au ridicat un semn de ntrebare cu privire la
natura pur descriptiv a semnului lingvistic i a deschis calea studiului acelor elemente din
limb care, spre deosebire de cele refereniale, nu au un sens vericondiional. Se regsesc n
aceast categorie: conjunciile, prepoziiile, interjeciile, adverbele modalizatoare, expresiile
de tipul pe de alt parte, cine tie, apropo i orice alt unitate creia i lipsete caracterul
denotativ2. Dac se ncearc o analiz compoziional se constat c nu li se pot atribui
trsturi semantice, coninutul lor putnd fi ns descris apelnd la funciile pe care le
ndeplinesc. La o atent analiz a acestora s-a constatat c, dac unele dintre ele au rol n
organizarea i analiza frastic (conjunciile, prepoziiile), altele se manifest la nivel
pragmatic prin relaionarea i furnizarea de indicii privind interpretarea componentelor
discursului3. Acestora din urm li s-a spus particule discursive, conectori prag-matici, fraze
cheie, operatori discursivi, operatori pragmatici, marcatori discursivi, marcatori pragmatici,
mrci pragmatice i ncepnd cu anii 80 li s-a recunoscut un coninut instrucional sau
procedural.
n ceea ce privete terminologia n lucrarea de fa am optat pentru marcatori
discursivi deoarece tinde s se generalizeze. l regsim n literatura de limb englez sub
numele discourse markers, n cea de limb francez ca marqueurs discursifs, iar coala
spaniol de pragmatic folosete sintagma marcadores del discurso. Un alt motiv este faptul
c, n cazul termenului de conector (destul de des utilizat), acesta exprima numai una dintre
multiplele funciile ndeplinite de elementele aparinnd acestei clase. De altfel, aceast
denumire o rezervm pentru a desemna mai trziu doar marcatorii cu rol de relaie. Am
respins de asemenea sintagma particul discursiv ntruct, din punct de vedere formal, nu
cores-punde realitii, fiind deja cunoscut c aceast clas include i structuri de tipul
sintagmelor i propoziiilor stereotipe.
n ciuda abundenei de definiii i dei nc nu s-a ajuns la un consens, exist
unanimitate n ceea ce privete urmtoarele caracteristici ale marcatorilor discursivi:
nu sunt analizabili din punct de vedere sintactic (datorit slabei sau inexistentei
integrri sintactice)
nivelul la care opereaz este discursul (n sensul menionat n nota de subsol 3),
rela-ionnd sau afectnd uniti ale acestuia
se grupeaz pe criteriul funcionalitilor pragmatice comune (dei aparin unor
clase morfologice diferite)
au coninut procedural. 4
Din motive de economie a spaiului de redactare nu vom dezbate direciile de cercetare
actuale i controversele care nc planeaz asupra acestui subiect, ci ne vom limita la o
2
Undeva la mijloc stau deicticele i pronumele i chiar articolul care nu au o valoare denotativ per se, ci o
dobndesc prin raportare la alte elemente contextuale i cotextuale.
3
nelegem discursul articularea de enunuri (monologic) sau ca succesiune ordonat de acte de vorbire
(dialogic) ce reprezint o actualizare (scris sau oral) a limbii care depete graniele gramaticii textuale, fiind
grefat de o intenie comunicativ ntr-un context determinat. Acesta se structureaz pe criterii de coeren,
coeziune, intenionalitate, acceptabilitate, informativitate, situaionalitate, intertextualitate.
4
Spunem c o informaie este procedural dac este nonveri-condiional (nu afecteaz valoarea de adevr a
propoziiei) i dac ea privete maniera n care trebuie tratat informaia pentru a fi interpretat (Moeschler J., ,
Reboul A.:1994) (trad. ns.)
215
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
prezentare succint a situaiei terminologiei n pragmatica romneasc, ndrznind la final o
definiie i o clasificare.
2. Marcatorii discursivi n pragmatica romneasc
n prezenta lucrare, punctul de plecare privind studiul acestor elemente n literatura
autohton de specialitate l-a constituit Gramatica Academiei (GLR de aici nainte), capitolul
Conectori frastici i transfrastici al Isabelei Nedelcu.
n deschiderea acestuia sunt definii conec-
torii ca o clas eterogen de elemente lexico-gramaticale cu rol n articularea
relaiilor gramaticale (sintactico-semantice) i/sau pragmatice dintre componentele discursului
care se situeaz la nivel frastic sau transfrastic (p.767).
Astfel n funcie de nivelele nainte menio-nate conectorii sunt mprii n frastici i
transfrastici, recunoscndu-se celor dinti un rol preponderent sintactico-semantic i doar
adiacent unul pragmatic, n timp ce n cazul celor din urm accentul cade pe funcia
pragmatic, consecin direct a constrngerilor pe care acetia le impun, constrngeri care
afecteaz conexiunea ntre enunuri n funcie de intenia comunicativ.
Din subcapitolul 2., dedicat conectorilor pragmatici, aflm c n aceast clas se
ncadreaz acei conectori cu rol n organizarea i avansarea tematic a discursului adic toi
conectorii transfrastici i unii conectori frastici cu rol pragmatic (n sensul c relaioneaz
uniti discursive i nu grupuri sintactice sau propoziii prin raporturi de coordonare/
subordonare). Pentru delimitarea sferei acestora autoa-rea capitolului folosete criteriul
integrrii sintactice (slabe sau absente n cazul conectorilor transfrastici) i al rolului acestora
de a semnala n mod exclusiv diverse relaii semantico-pragmatice.
Din subcapitolul 4 aflm: Constituind un tip aparte de conectori pragmatici, aceti
conectori (cei de structurare discursiv subl. ns.) ajut la decuparea secvenelor textuale i,
implicit, la decodarea sensului global al tex-tului. Fiind orientai ctre discurs sau ctre
factorii de care depinde structurarea acestuia (interlocutori, context situaional, tem a
discursului), marcatorii discursivi au un rol ostensiv n comunicare. (GLR:775)5.
Rezult c marcatorii discursivi sunt asimilai noiunii de conector pragmatic,
constituind o categorie a acesteia. Aceast relaie, dei nu foarte clar, reiese i din subcapitolul
Deixis realizat de Adriana Gorscu: Funcia de supraorganizare a discursului prin precizarea
valorii semantico-pragmatice a componentelor sale n raport cu ansamblul, precum i n raport
cu componentele nvecinate, se realizeaz prin expresii de o natur eterogen (de la formaii
libere pn la lexeme specializate verbe i locuiuni verbale ca nseamn, vaszic, adverbe
i locuiuni adverbiale, cum sunt adic, vaszic, conjuncii: aadar etc.). O parte dintre
acestea se pot grupa ntr-o clas funcional (de asemenea eterogen ca ncadrare
gramatical) cea a conectorilor dis-cursivi (marcatori/conectori pragmatici, mrci/semnale
discursive) (subl. ns.) [...] Conectorii discursivi pot funciona intradiscursiv (intralo-cutiv),
indicnd raportul (logic, afectiv, argu-mentativ etc.) ntre enunul pe care l introduc i un alt
5
Ca marcatori discursivi apar gruprile prepoziionale n legtur cu, apropo de, fa de, n raport cu, n ceea
ce privete etc., care anun o tem de discurs sau aduc n prim plan un element dintr-un discurs anterior (subl.
ns.): Apropo de citatul lui Heidegger: este att de limpede ce anume desparte filozofia de literatur. (G.
Liiceanu, Ua interzis; vezi i Circumstanialul de relaie, 1.3) (Gramatica Limbii Romne, vol. II, 2008:
p.771)
216
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
enun al aceluiai locutor, n cadrul aceleiai intervenii sau interdiscursiv (interlocutiv),
poziionnd replica locutorului n raport cu replica anterioar, a alocutorului. (GLR: 745)
Iar din capitolul Limba romn vorbit al Margaretei Manu Magda putem desprinde o
definiie a mrcilor discursive 6: mijloace ling-vistice de reglare a spaiului interactiv care
asigur coeziunea i coerena secvenelor de acte ilocuionare care constituie discursul oral,
eterogene din punct de vedere structural i categorial.
Din coroborarea celor de mai sus pare
s rezulte urmtorul raport de incluziune:
a) conectori discursivi conectori pragma-tici ( marcatori discursivi) mrci
discursive 7
Se observ o relaie de sinonimie ntre sin-tagmele conectori de structurare discursiv
marcator discursiv. n ceea ce privete terme-nul conectori discursivi acesta pare s se limi-
teze la discursul oral (locutor, alocutor, inter-venie, intralocutiv, interlocutiv) cum de altfel e
i cazul mrcilor discursive. ntinderea con-ceptual i relaiile dintre mai sus menionaii
termeni rmn ns neclare.
O analiz mai amnunit a marcato-rilor discursivi o gsim n teza de doctorat a
Ariadnei tefnescu, care i consider o clas nrudit cu cea a conectorilor pragmatici i
subclas a marcatorilor pragmatici. n aceast lucrare, noiunea de conectori pragmatici
difer de cea din GLR, autoarea definindu-i ca jonctivii sintactici care au capacitatea de a
transmite o informaie nonvericondiional, recte pragmatic, care declaneaz un meca-nism
pragmatic ce contribuie la constituirea semnificaiei enunului n care apar, ceea ce aparent ar
corespunde celei de conectori frastici cu rol pragmatic. Ulterior, ns, autoarea afirm c n
concepia sa toi conectorii sintactici sunt i pragmatici (Conectori pragmatici, p.17), motiv
pentru care i denumete i conectori sintactico-pragmatici. Relaia dintre acetia i marcatorii
discursivi este lmurit dup cum urmeaz: unii conectori sintactico-pragmatici migreaz n
zona ocupat de marcatorii discursivi (conjunciile i / dar), situaie n care cele dou
ipostaze reprezint un caz de omonimie (i nu singurul) din cadrul acestei clase.
n concepia Ariadnei tefnescu relaia: marcatori pragmatici conectori pragmatici
marcatori discursivi, ar arta astfel:
b) marcatori pragmatici conectori sintactico-pragmatici marcatori discursivi
Reamintim aici observaiile din seciunea Consideraii generale unde atrgeam atenia
c sfera unitilor lingvistice care nu au un sens vericondiional (evaluabil ca adevrat sau fals
i deci descriptiv) reunete att elemente analizabile (integrabile) sintactic ct i unele
neanalizabile din acest punct de vedere. Primelor le corespunde conceptul de conectori
sintactico-pragmatici, iar celor din urm cel de marcatori discursivi, ambele reunindu-se sub
umbrela mai larg a marcatorilor pragmatici. Dac ar fi s stabilim o echivalen termino-
6
Structurile interaciunii orale se manifest prin secvene de acte ilocuionare [...] a cror coeziune i coeren
se realizeaz prin intermediul unor mijloace lingvistice de reglare a spaiului interactiv, care funcioneaz ca
mrci discursive. Acestea nglobeaz elemente eterogene din punct de vedere structural: elemente lexicale sau
gramaticale simple sau compuse, locuiuni, stereotipii verbale, mbinri libere (sintagme, propoziii sau fraze).
Din perspectiv gramatical, mrcile discursive reunesc: vocative, verbe, interjecii, adverbe i locuiuni
adverbiale, conjuncii, construcii exclamative sau interogative etc.( Gramatica Limbii Romne, vol. II, 2008:
p. 874)
7
nelegem prin include, iar prin reunit cu.
217
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
logic ntre cele dou abordri prezentate mai sus am avea (stnga tefnescu dreapta
Nedelcu) :
marcatori pragmatici = conectori frastici i transfrastici
conectori sintactico-pragmatici = conectori
frastici
marcatori discursivi = conectori pragmatici (conectori transfrastici i
conectori frastici cu rol pragmatic)
Dei nu s-au luat n discuie i alte lucrri (nu ne-ar mai rmne spaiu de propuneri),
considerm c cele de mai sus reprezint un argument suficient n favoarea sistematizrii
materiei i unificrii terminologice.
Rmne s lmurim ce se nelege prin coninutul procedural al marcatorilor
discursivi. Conform Portols i Martn Zorraquino (1999), acesta const ntr-o serie de
instruciuni semantice care orienteaz inferenele ce trebuie fcute pe seama membrilor
discursivi care le conin. Ca urmare, bunul uz al unui marcator va depinde nu numai de
proprietile gramaticale, ci de asemeni de msura efortului locutorilor n nelegerea
discursului. Toi marcatorii l constrng pe interlocutor prin semnificaia lor de a realiza
inferenele ntr-un mod determinat.8 (traducerea i adaptarea n.s)
Autorii menionai grupeaz instruciunile n:
Instruciuni cu privire la tipul de conexiune
Cum semnaleaz Martn Zorraquino i Portols (1999), exist marcatori care
relaioneaz doi sau mai muli membri discursivi (conectorii, reformulatorii, structuratorii de
informaie) sau care afecteaz doar un membru al discursului (operatorii). De exemplu:
mi plac fructele. Ca urmare, mi-am cumprat struguri. (conector consecutiv)
Viaa i ofer i surprize plcute: un curcubeu pe cerul care se nsenineaz, de
exemplu.(operator)
Instruciuni argumentative
nainte de a semnala cum funcioneaz marcatorul discursiv ca vector instrucional al
activitii argumentative este necesar a se preciza ce se nelege prin argumentare. n acest
caz se are n vedere activitatea social, intelectual i verbal care servete la justificarea sau
respingerea unei opinii (Briz, 1998) i st la baza dialogului celei mai banale conversaii.
Argumentele au o anume orientare care determin modul n care se formuleaz concluzia
(implicit sau explicit) Acetia pot fi coorientai (duc la aceeai concluzie) sau antiorientai
(duc la concluzii contrare). Un alt criteriu de evaluare a argumentelor l constituie fora
argumentativ. Spunem, de exemplu, c ns introduce un argument contraorientat cu o for
argumentativ mai mare dect argumentul precedent, ntruct concluzia la care duce este
contrar celei induse de argumentul iniial.
tie englez. ns locuiete n Braov. (deci nu-l angajm locul de munc e n
Bucureti)
Instruciuni cu privire la structura informativ
8
en una serie de instrucciones semnticas que gua las inferencias que se han de efectuar de los distintos
miembros del discurso en los que aparecen estas unidades. Por tanto, el buen uso de un marcador depender no
slo de las propiedades gramaticales, sino tambin de cul sea nuestro esfuerzo para lograr la comprensin de un
discurso. Todos los marcadores discursivos compelen al oyente por su significado a realizar las inferencias de un
modo determinado.
218
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Exist marcatori care pot furniza n principal instruciuni referitoare la distribuia
comentariilor. Acetia sunt grupai sub denumirea de structuratori ai informaiei.
Astfel, de exemplu, perechea de marcatori pe de-o parte i pe de alt parte introduc
doi membri discursivi care se asociaz ca diferite pri ale unui singur comentariu 9 (trad.
ns.) dup cum se observ n urmtorul exemplu:
Soluia e dificil. Pe de o parte, problema este complicat; pe de alta, aproape c nu
ne mai rmne timp ca s-o rezolvm.
n orice caz, s-a observat c unul i acelai marcator poate ndeplini funcii diferite,
adic poate avea mai multe sensuri procedurale. Ca urmare se poate afirma c exist un grup
de marcatori polifuncionali sau polivaleni (bine, pi, astfel etc.).
3. Definiie
Ca definiie o propunem pe cea a lui Jos Portols Lzaro i Mara Antonia Martn
Zorraquino din Gramatica Descriptiva de la Lengua Espaola10 (GDLE de aici nainte) cu
cteva amendamente mprumutate din GLR .
Marcatorii discursivi, sunt uniti lingvistice invariabile fr funcie sintactic n
cadrul predicaiei propoziionale, avnd o misiune ce vizeaz discursul: aceea de ghida, n
concordan cu proprietile lor sintactice, semantice i pragmatice, inferenele care se
realizeaz n actul comunicrii prin organizarea i asigurarea progresiei tematice a acestuia
sau prin furnizarea de informaii despre atitudinea vorbitorului n legtur cu coninutul
comunicrii.
4. Mijloace de identificare a marcatorilor discursivi
Datorit deja menionatei varieti categoriale i pentru o mai uoar ncadrare n
aceast clas funcional a unor elemente lexico-gramaticale ambivalente propunem, n cele
ce urmeaz, un model de analiz a comportamentului acestora urmnd criteriile propuse n
GDLE (invariabilitate, poziie sintactic, mrci intonaionale, posibilitatea de a primi
modificatori i complemente sau de a se coordona, comportamentul fa de structurile
scindate focalizatoare, gradul de independen sintactic, autonomie, inciden).
Invariabilitate
Din acest punct de vedere se distinge ntre marcatori i sintagmele care conserv
capacitatea de flexiune i combinaie a membrilor si:
Lucia este rnit i, drept urmare, nu poate face parte din echip. 11
Lucia este rnit i, din acest motiv, nu poate face parte din echip.
Drept urmare este marcator, n timp ce din acest motiv prin posibilitatea de a primi
modificatori i complemente (chiar i din aceste mrunte motive de alcov) nu.
O s-o fac bine vs. Bine, o s-o fac.
9
As, por ejemplo, el par de marcadores de una parte y de otra presentan dos miembros del discurso que
vinculan como distintas partes de un nico comentario (Martn Zorraquino i
Portols,1999)
10
"Los marcadores del discurso, son unidades lingsticas invariables, no ejercen una funcin sintctica en el
marco de la predicacin oracional - son pues, elementos marginales - y poseen un cometido coincidente en el
discurso: el de guiar, de acuerdo con sus propiedades morfo-sintcticas, semnticas y pragmticas, las
inferencias que se realizan en la comunicacin."
11
Exemplele sunt personale
219
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
A spus-o ntr-un cuvnt. vs. ntr-un cuvnt, i-a exprimat nemulumirea.
Dac primesc modificatori nceteaz a mai fi marcatori, de exemplu: ntr-un cuvnt,
ce-i drept, nepotrivit, i-a exprimat nemulumirea.
Un caz particular care se cuvine a fi discutat aici este cel al marcatorilor discursivi
propoziionali, care din punct de vedere morfo-sintactic mbrac haina unor adevrate
propoziii (tiu eu, tii/ tii, tii tu/ tii Dvs., vreau s zic, cred, etc.). n cazul acestora avem
de-a face cu propoziii fixate n limb ntr-o form invariabil, care nu se pot coordona,
juxtapune cu alte propoziii i nici nu le pot subordona (i deci nu se pot integra sintactic).
M-am dus, tii, la mama, c e bolnav. (marcator discursiv, parentetic)
tii c m-am dus la mama pentru c e bolnav? (nu i-a pierdut capacitatea de
reciune i i conserv sensul de ai aflat c...?)
Poziii sintactice
Marcatorii discursivi au o mai mare mobilitate spre deosebire de conjunciile cu
valoare discursiv care ntotdeauna preced membrul pe care l introduc. Acetia pot fi
antepui, interpui sau postpui membrului discursiv pe care l afecteaz.
Paul i-a continuat drumul chiar dac era obosit.
Paul i-a continuat drumul, era obosit chiar dac.
Paul era obosit. Cu toate astea, i-a continuat drumul.
Paul era obosit. i-a continuat, cu toate astea, drumul.
Paul era obosit. i-a continuat drumul, cu toate astea.
Mrci de intonaie i punctuaie
Formeaz un grup de intonaie; ntr-o pronunie ngrijit se percepe o pauz
posterioar marcatorului i uneori i anterioar. n scris apare de obicei urmat de virgul (n
poziie iniial), ntre virgule (n interior) sau precedat de virgul n (poziie final). Fapt ce i
marcheaz poziia periferic fa de propoziie. Astfel se poate face diferena ntre:
O s fac bine proiectul vs. Bine, o s fac proiectul.
Ceea ce vrei s zici este evident vs. Ceea ce zici, evident, m deranjeaz.
Modificatori i complemente
Marcatorilor discursivi spre deosebire, de exemplu, de adverbele circumstaniale le
lipsete posibilitatea de a primi modificatori sau complemente. A se compara:
St departe. vs. De departe, are dreptate.
St departe de aici. vs. De departe de aici, are dreptate.
St foarte departe. vs. Foarte de departe are dreptate.
Coordonare
Marcatorii discursivi nu se pot coordona
ntre ei de exemplu bine i n consecin.
Focalizare
Marcatorii discursivi afecteaz propoziia asupra creia opereaz, n totalitatea ei.
Nefiind integrai sintactic sau semantic nu permit elipsa i din acelai motiv nici nu pot fi
focalizai n structuri scindate.
Anton ar renuna la premiu din raiuni serioase, dar, ca urmare a acestui fapt, nu.
Anton ar renuna la premiu din raiuni serioase, dar, ca urmare, nu.
220
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Tocmai ca urmare a acestui fapt este foarte cutat./ Tocmai din acest motiv este foarte
cutat.
Tocmai ca urmare, este foarte cutat.
Independen sintactic i autonomie
Marcatorii discursivi prezint independen sintactic n sensul c nu sunt integrai
frastic, ci discursiv. Va trebui aici s facem diferena ntre unitile care, cum am menionat
mai sus, se pot gsi n ambele ipostaze. n 1) fr ndoial nu poate fi marcator discursiv, lui
subordonndu-i-se o propoziie, dar este n 2).
1) Fr ndoial c are dreptate.
2) Fr ndoial, are dreptate.
Gradul de independen sintactic difer de la caz la caz, de exemplu Bine, din contr
au un grad mai mare de independen fa de membrul discursiv care le urmeaz / preced n
comparaie cu, de exemplu, cu toate astea. O autonomie similar o au mai ales marcatorii
conversa-ionali.
Bine. Acum s o lum de la capt.
Nu este o persoan blnd din fire. Din contr.
Inciden
Marcatorii se gsesc poziionai n membrii discursivi care aparin unor categorii
lexicale i sintagmatice foarte diverse nu doar propoziii cum ar fi:
Substantive: Cldura sufleteasc, compasiunea, cu alte cuvinte, dragostea este
cea pe care o cutm cu toii.
Adjective: Erau fete educate i pedante; chiar mai mult: franuzoaice.
Adverbe: Maina ddea din ce n ce mai des rateuri i mergea ca vai de ea.
Adic ru de tot.
Sintagme prepoziionale: E pus acolo de frumusee? Ce tiu eu? n orice caz,
de decor.
Sintagme verbale: Elevul se scuz pentru tema nefcut. Profesorul i ddu cu
toate astea un patru.
Propoziii: Era bolnav de plmni i, colac peste pupz, mai i fuma.
5. Clasificare
Inspirndu-ne, din nou din GDLE, propunem n continuare urmtoarea clasificare pe
criterii funcionale a marcatorilor discursivi fr a avea, desigur, pretenia de a fi exhaustiv
i neamendabil.
A. STRUCTURATORI (conectorii de structurare discursiv n GLR)
Locutorii i dezvolt discursul astfel ca diversele pri ale acestuia s comenteze teme/
subiecte determinate. Pentru a facilita structurarea informaiei exist marcatori specializai
numii generic structuratori ai informaiei. ntre acetia distingem:
Ordonatori (conectorii corelativi n GLR)
Ordonatorii sunt structuratori ai informaiei cu dou funcii primordiale: n primul rnd, indic
locul pe care l ocup un membru discursiv n ansamblul unei secvene discursive ordonat pe
pri; i, n al doilea rnd, prezint ansamblul respectivei secvene ca un comentariu unic, iar
221
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
fiecare parte ca un subcomentariu. Pot fi de deschidere (n primul rnd, pe de o parte etc), de
continuare (n al doilea/ al treilea rnd, pe de alt parte, la fel, n acelai fel, n acelai
mod etc) i de nchidere (n ultimul rnd, n cele din urm etc.) a discursului.
De comentariu
Marcatorii de comentariu sunt aceia care prezint membrul discursiv pe care l introduc ca un
nou comentariu, fapt care l distinge de fragmentul discursiv anterior, ca de exemplu: aa
stnd lucrurile, ei bine, acestea fiind zise etc.
Digresori
Introduc o tem marginal fa de cea principal. Menionm aici: ntre noi fie vorba,
apropo, etc.
B. CONECTORI
Un conector este un marcator discursiv care leag semantic i pragmatic un membru
discursiv de altul anterior. Semnificaia conectorului furnizeaz o serie de instruciuni care
orienteaz inferenele care trebuie obinute din grupajul celor doi membri discursivi
relaionai:
Acetia se mpart n:
Aditivi
Conectorii aditivi unesc doi membrii discursivi cu aceeai orientare argumentativ cum sunt:
n plus, pe deasupra, chiar mai mult, pe lng asta, pe de alt parte etc.
Consecutivi
Acetia prezint membrul discursiv care i conine ca fiind o consecin a unuia anterior.
Menionm dintre acetia: ca urmare, de aici, n consecin, atunci, astfel, drept urmare etc.
Contraargumentativi
Leag doi membrii discursivi astfel nct cel de-al doilea se prezint ca supresor sau atenuator
al unei concluzii care ar putea decurge din primul cum e cazul lui: n schimb, dimpotriv, din
contr, cu toate astea, ns, etc.
C. REFORMULATORI
Sunt marcatorii care prezint membrul discursiv pe care l introduc ca o nou formulare a
celui anterior. Avem aici reformulatorii:
Explicativi
Reformuleaz, clarificnd sau explicnd ceea ce s-a dorit a spune ntr-un membru anterior
care ar putea fi mai greu de neles. Se cunosc din aceast categorie: adic, cu alte cuvinte,
vaszic, vreau s spun.
Rectificativi
Substituie un membru pe care l prezint ca fiind formulat incorect cu altul care corecteaz
respectiva formulare sau cel puin o mbuntete. i avem aici pe: mai bine zis, chiar mai
bine, mai exact etc.
de Distaniere
Prezint ca lipsit de relevan un membru anterior celui care i conin. Prin acest tip de
reformulare nu se urmrete o rectificare a cele afirmate iniial, ci se dorete ca noua
formulare s fie cea care condiioneaz continuarea discursului, privndu-se n acelai timp de
222
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
pertinen membrul care l preced. n orice caz, oricum (ar fi), ntr-un fel sau altul, chiar i
aa etc.
Recapitulativi
Prezint membrul lor discursiv ca pe o concluzie sau recapitulare pornind de la un membru
anterior sau o serie de acetia. Includem aici: n concluzie, pe scurt, ntr-un cuvnt, dup toate
cele, una peste alta, n cele din urm etc.
D. OPERATORI ARGUMENTATIVI
Sunt marcatorii care prin semnificaia lor condiioneaz posibilitile argumentative ale
membrului discursiv n care sunt inclui, fr a-l relaiona ns cu alt membru anterior.
de Consolidare argumentativ
Semnificaia acestora const n principal consolidarea ca argument a membrului n care se
gsesc n raport cu alte posibile argumente (explicite sau implicite). Enumerm aici: n
realitate, n fond (i la urma urmei), de fapt etc.
de Concretizare
Prezint membrul discursiv pe care l conin ca fiind o concretizare sau exemplificare a unei
afirmaii anterioare de caracter mai general. Acetia sunt: de exemplu, de pild, bunoar, cu
titlu de exemplu etc.
E. CONVERSAIONALI (mrci dis-cursive n GLR)
Conversaia are pe lng funcia informativ (tranzacional) orientat ctre mesaj i o funcie
interactiv orientat ctre interlocutor, ca urmare marcatorii conversaionali vin s sprijine
aceast funcie prin efectele lor pragmatice: de iniiere, meninere, sau ncheiere a unei
intervenii, de transfer al rolului de locutor, de exprimare atitudinii locutorului n raport cu
coninutul comunicrii, ntr-un cuvnt asigur structurarea, coerena i coeziunea dialogului.
de Modalitate epistemic
Apar n enunuri declarative i au ca scop consolidarea aseriunii din care fac parte. Dintre
acetia menionm: evident, de departe, aparent, de fapt, efectiv, cu siguran, fr ndoial,
etc.
de Modalitate deontic
Indic dac locutorul admite (bine, de acord, sigur, etc.) ceea ce se sugereaz n fragmentul
de discurs la care remit, afectnd enunurile directive care implic o propunere.
Focalizatori ai alteritii
Vizeaz interlocutorul i pot introduce orice
tip de enun: declarative, directive, ntrebri n oricare dintre modalitile propoziionale:
asertiv, imperativ, interogativ cum e cazul marcatorilor: domle, frate, vere, uite, ascult,
auzi, vezi tu, etc.
Metadiscursivi conversaionali
Fac parte din procedeele pe care interlocutorii le utilizeaz pentru a construi conversaia. Pun
n eviden atitudinea vorbitorului n raport cu ceea ce a fost sau va fi comunicat
(GLR:776). Intr n aceast gam: bine, ei bine, ei, asta..., tiu eu, ca s spun drept s spun,
ntre ghilimele fie zis, sincer vorbind, ca s spun aa etc. (ex. bine ca marc a receptrii
mesajului, sau semnal al schimbului de replici)
223
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ncheiem prin a atrage atenia c marcatorii discursivi continu s fie subiect de
controverse, chiar dac n anumite privine s-a ajuns la un consens, fapt ce reiese i din
succinta analiz a prezentului articol. Acest lucru se datoreaz i faptului c n comunicare pe
lng componenta lingvistic un rol important l ocup contextul (situaional i cognitiv),
marcatorii discursivi funcionnd, de fapt, ca punte de legtur ntre cele dou. Dat fiind
natura cognitiv a procesului argumentativ, marcatorii discursivi sunt asociai mai nou cu
conceptul de model mental n desfurare al discursului12 n sensul c ei sunt considerai
elemente de coeziune ntre membrii discursivi care i conin i un element al modelului mental
pe care locutorul l are cu privire la discurs, element care decurge dintr-un aspect evident al
contextului extralingvistic. n acest sens marcatorii nu sunt simplii jonctivi, ei participnd
activ la construirea discursului ghidndu-l n conformitate cu inteniile locutorilor. Se poate
spune, n ultim instan, c discursul este de fapt o negociere ntre reprezentrile interne
(informaii compilate de natur lingvistic i contextual) ale locutorilor cu privire la tema
acestuia, n care medierea este asigurat de marcatorii discursivi.
Bibliografie
Blakemore, Diane, Relevance and Linguistic Meaning The Semantics and Pragmatics of
Discourse Markers, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2002.
Briz, Antonio, El espaol coloquial en la conversacin: esbozo de pragmalingiistica,
Ariel, Barcelona, 1998.
Fraser, Bruce, Pragmatics Markers, n Journal of Pragmatics, n.31, Cambridge, 1996.
Frege, Gottlob, Translations from the Philosophical Writings of Gottlob Frege, ed. Peter
Geach i Max Black, Basil Blackwell, Oxford, 1960.
Gramtica descriptiva de la lengua espaola, vol.III, Espasa Calpe S.A., Madrid, 1999.
Gramatica limbii romne, vol.II, Editura Academiei Romne, Bucureti, 2005.
Iten, Corinne, Linguistic Meaning, Truth Conditions and Relevance, Palgrave Macmillan, New
York, 2005.
Levinson, Stephen C., Pragmatics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1983.
Moeschler, Jacques, Reboul Anne, Dictionnaire encyclopdique de pragmatique, Seuil, Paris,
1994.
Mosegaard Hansen, Maj-Britt, The semantic status of discourse markers, Lingua 104, pp.235-
260, 1998.
Mosegaard Hansen, Maj-Britt, A dynamic polysemy approach to DMs, n Approaches to
Discourse Particles, ed. Kerstin Fischer, Elsevier, Bremen, 2006.
Schiffrin, Deborah, Discourse Markers, Cambridge, 1987.
tefnescu, Ariadna, Conectori pragmatici, Editura Universitii din Bucureti, Bucureti,
2007.
12
developing mental model of the discourse, n A dynamic polysemy approach to DMs de M.-B. Mosegaard
Hansen
224
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE BULGARIANS FROM BANAT: IMPLEMENT DIFFERENT WAYS OF
TRANSMITTING BULGARIAN FOLK STORIES INTO ROMANIAN
Eliana-Alina POPEI, PhD Candidate, University of the West, Timioara
Abstract: Banat, being the perfect environment for intercultural research, presents a fine
example when it comes to interethnic interaction. Therefore, the first part of the study puts
into perspective the specific culture of the Banat region and the research process which was
followed by this article. The study in question is directed towards the community of
Bulgarians living in Dudestii Vechi, jud. Timis. Being a historical community in the Banat
region, the Banat bulgarians offer the researcher a diverse research opprotunity when it
comes to telling Bulgarian folk stories in Romanian. The manner of improvising traditional
story telling when it comes to recording, manners of the adaptation of the text from the
maternal language to the Romanian language, gives rise to an intercultural and inter
linguistic phenomenon. At the same time, the study is representative of the present standing of
popular folk tale, and it determines the actual portrait of the story teller as much as the
process of interaction between him and the researcher.
Keywords: folk story, Banat, transmitting, Bulgarians, intercultural
Introducere
Studiul de fa ar putea beneficia de dou premise de nceput: pe de o parte, basmul
popular i aria sa teoretic, iar pe de alt parte, dialogul intercultural n regiunea Banatului,
unde comuniatea de bulgari este una de dimeniune istoric. Pentru a realiza o imagine a
specificului cultural bnean, voi reda o succint descriere relevant, fr a intra foarte mult
n detalii de factur istoric:
,,Situat ntr-o arie de interferen ntre centrul i rsritul Europei, ntre nordul i sudul
ei, strbtut de Dunre i sprijinit de Munii Carpai, schimbnd n decursul istoriei zece
stpniri diferite, Banatul a fost ntotdeauna un spaiu de siguran i de civilizaie. Specificul
su se datoreaz n primul rnd coexistenei pe suprafaa lui a acestor numeroase etnii, cu
religii, limbi i stadii de dezvoltare diferite, dar toate contribuind cu cte ceva la progresul
general al regiunii. Dar, dei regiune profund plurietnic i plurilingvistic, Banatul s-a
evideniat ntotdeauna prin spiritul de toleran i nelegere ntre naionalitile sale. 1
n acest climat, bulgarii bneni reprezint una dintre etniile istorice i cu un rol
marcant pentru caracterul regional: ,, n anul 2006 s-au mplinit 268 de ani de cnd un grup de
bulgari emigrani din nord-vestul Bulgariei s-au aezat pe meleagurile bnene. Acetia sunt
cunoscui n istorie cu numele de bulgari bneni. Timp de peste 250 de ani ei nu au avut
legturi cu patria de origine, trind nconjurai de de alte culturi, de alte naionaliti. Cu toate
acestea au reuit s-i pstreze identitatea cultural, obiceiurile, tradiiile i mai ales limba,
pstrndui totodat i identitatea naional. Ba mai mult, au reuit s creeze o cultur proprie.
1
Mircea Rusnac, mpotriva falsificrilor comuniste ale istoriei Banatului, n Banatera.eu, [on line] URL:
http://www.banaterra.eu/romana/rusnac-mircea-impotriva-falsificarilor-comuniste-ale-istoriei-banatului[Accesat
n 20.11.2013].
225
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Iat de ce Academia bulgar, prin vocea academicianului prof. Stojko Stojkov, consider
limba bulgarilor bneni ca fiind a doua limb literar bulgar. 2
Pe baza acestor contexte, articolul se concentreaz asupra etniei bulgare din Dudeii
Vechi i vizeaz modul n care etniii bulgari transpun n limba romn naraiuni populare din
cultura matern. Se impune totodat meniunea c articolul face parte dintr-un studiu mai
amplu, realizat n 2010-2013, care a concentrat culegerea naraiunilor de tip basmic de la mai
multe etnii regionale.
Studiul de teren
Dintre multiplele forme de definire a basmului popular, voi opta spre a reproduce una
a lui BarbuTheodorescu i Octav Pun, dei ar fi putut intra n discuie i ali teoreticieni
romni. Prin urmare: ,,Basmul este cea mai vast i mai rspndit specie folcloric,
corespunznd romanului din literatura cult. Totodat, el este cea mai iubit creaie popular
[...] Termenul basm e sinonim cu cel de poveste (povest i poveast), dei unii folcloriti
caut s-i diferenieze, prin supranaturalul din basme ce-ar lipsi n poveti. n anchete
ntreprinse printre ranii povestitori se constat c n popor nu exist termenii de legend i
fabul: snoava este prea puin folosit n Muntenia, iar n cuvntul de poveste sau basm se
cuprind toate speciile genului 3 n descrierea celor doi autori, specia basmului este remarcat
prin latura sa terminologic i faptul c unii termeni neutilizai de ctre populaie au fost
adoptai de ctre cercettori. n acelai timp, ipostaza basmului ca ,,cea mai iubit creaie
popular va rmne un pol de raportare pe parcursul studiului.
Pentru a nu intra n detalii de factur teoretic mai mult dect este cazul, voi direciona
lucrurile n realitatea culeas din teren. Materialul empiric al articolului de fa constituie
nregistrrile a dou povestitoare femei, aparintoare a dou generaii diferite, de etnie
bulgar din Dudetii Vechi, judeul Timi. Analizat la un nivel comparativ, materialul obinut
de la cele dou femei relev att funcii disticte ale basmului popular n prezent, ct i
modaliti diferite de narare a textelor n limba romn.
n cazul Terezei Catarov, n vrst de 70 de ani, lucrurile se contureaz n mod
involuntar ntr-un context al povestitului apropiat de cel tradiional. Mai exact, cea care
efectueaz nregistrarea naraiunilor este nepoata acesteia, Tereza Catarov. Acest detaliu
schimb n mare parte modul n care povestitoarea trateaz procesul de nregistrare. Pentru a
aminti cteva detalii n ceea ce privete povestitul tradiional, Mihai Pop rezum informaiile
de baz sub forma unui fragment explcativ: ,,tim c seara bunici i bunicele povesteau (poate
n umele locuri mai povestesc i aztzi) copiilor cnd acetia nu stteau atrnai de televizor.
tim c se povestea la eztoare, la dezghiocatul porumbului, n cabanele forestiere, pe
antiere, n cazrmi, n tren n timpul cltoriilor lungi, n nchisori etc. Dar consemnarea
ocaziilor de a povesti este doar o abordate general a problemei contexelor n care se
performeaz i recepteaz povestirile. Ele sunt doar cadrul general de loc i timp al
povestitului. Pentru a cunoate mai bine ce determi un act de comunicare anumit, este de
dorit ca n folclorisctic, ca i n lingvistic, s ajungem la cunoaterea nunaat a contextelor.
2
Nick Markov, Bulgarii, n Banatera.eu, [on line] URL: http://www.banaterra.eu/romana/node/927 [Accesat n
01.11.2013].
33
Barbu Theodorecu, Octav Pun, Folclor literar romnesc, Bucureri, Editura Didactic i Pedagigic, 1967,
p. 213.
226
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Acestea sunt conotate social i cultural, iar cnd adncim componena grupurilor, prin
indivizi, i psihologic. Ele determin locul i timpul n care se povestete i, mai mult dect
att, situaiile n care se povestete i scopul povestitorului. Aceste determinri contribuie la
nelegerea fenomenului, att la nivelul performrii, ct i la acela al receptrii. 4
Vzut ntre ,,ocazie , ,,timp, ,,loc conotaie ,,socal, ,,psihoogic, ,,scop,
povestitul tradiional este repus n funciune nu graie unui cercettor interesat de naraiuni ale
bulgarilor bneni, ci de nepoata care determin un anume mod de a povesti.
Tereza Catarov nareaz dou naraiuni bulgreti n limba romn i le imporovizeaz
cu interesul de a-i epata n primul rnd nepoata:
oricica
T.C.: S ncepem? Povestea pe bulgrete i zice Mmnka.
T.C.: i nseamn...?
T.C. : i nseamn oricica. Era foarte demult o familie de oameni btrni ...n-au avut
copii, n-au avut neamuri, erau singuri i ....n-au avut cu cine s se neleag, s-au ataat de o
oricic. i ea i-o ajutat....
T.C.: oricica era a lor din gospodrie?
T.C.: sta...precis c de acolo, c ei au vzut c ea e foarte istea...Prima dat au
urmrit-o, ce face i tot n favoarea lor ca s-i ajute i pn....nu tiu cum s-or ataat aa de ea
c i-o ajutat n gospodrie...Ei fiind btrni, n-au putut s se aplece, o legat ireturile, ce o
putut ea la...posibilitatea ei...cum era...i aa c tot timpul....plecau de acas, n-o luau cnd
plecau de acas, n-o luau ca s nu se piard sau cineva s o fure, numa.....acas. i cnd
plecau de acas undeva, erau fr grij c ea fcea toate, fcea curat, cum putea se tra pe
jos...n grdin cnd i vedea fugea iar dup ei, smulgea pn i iarba, plivea acolo....i mult
timp a fost aa, da....o dat, nu tiu, de Crciun parc, era de srbtoare mare, ei se duceau la
biseric i erau fr grij, iar ea avea grij de mncare, cum putea, se cra pe oal, nu tiu,
n-am fost acolo s vd ....
T.C.: chicoteli
T.C.: i...tot era pregtit i ea s pun n sup tieii. Cum o scpat acolo, ce o fcut ....
T.C.: Vai....
T.C.: O picat n oal, n sup. O picat n oal i n-o mai putut s ias. i atunci ei
bucuroi cnd au venit acas, au vzut tot rnduit, pn i farfuriile pe mas i tot....i nu-i ea
s-i ntmpine, c de obicei, venea tot timpul, cum deschidea ua venea n faa lor i striga
Mmnka... aa pe bulgrete Unde eti?, Hai vino. Mmnka..... btrnul,
Mmnka... baba, nicicum nu apare i atunci ...nicicum...i au nceput s plng...i nu-i
rspuns oricica asta i atunci baba o nceput s ......d ncaz i aa plngnd mou cnd o
vzut ..... dup mou o nceput baba .....i plngeau i plngeau i plngeau i dup aia s-o
fcut i sear i ei tot plngeau. i mou o zis Hai c totui acuma trebuie s trim, suntem
triti i ncjii, dar trebuie s trim n continuare ....c doar o mai veni cineva n ajutorul
nostru ...c puterile tot mai puine sunt la oameni btrni. i baba o zis Nici nu-mi trebuie,
nici nu o s .....niciodata i mou o luat polonicu s-i pun din oal de acolo de unde era
4
Mihai Pop, Folclor literar romnesc, vol. I, Editura Grai i suflet Cultura Naional, Bucureti, 1998, p. 321.
227
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
supa, cnd deodat.....oricica...c cum s-o necat ea sraca cnd o vrut s pun tieii. Na i
aa de atunci iar o nceput s plng, iar ....i niciodat n-or mai avut oamenii tia aa
bucurie i nici ajutor.
Poveste bulgreasc
T.C.: A fost o dat un iepura foarte iste. Fa de ceilali, el se descurca peste tot i
...pn la urm el s-a vzut mai presus dect toi iepurii i o zis c De ce io s nu m
csstoresc dac tot sunt cel mai detept?
TC: Clar....
T.C.: Ei...ei nu s-au gndit la aa ceva....atialali
T.C. chicoteli
T.C.: Da el, uite aa, s-o hotrt i s-o pus s caute n pdure. A ncercat peste tot, prima
dat la vietile astea mai mici o ncercat....
TC: La Mmnka...
T.C: Da... la Mmnka....la ariciul...la...dup aia a nceput cu tia mai mari...o dat i
de cprioare, o ncercat i cprioarele i lupi i nimica. i o dat i-o surs norocul ...a aprobat-o
vulpea. Vulpea o zis Las c i eu sunt de acord, te iubesc i ne lum aa...Na...da vulpea, ea
cu alte interese, de viclean, nu aa. El, sincer sracuvoia s fie n rnd cu oamenii i tot a mers
s vorbeasc, s-o dus la ea mereu i s stabileasc cum, c el o vrut s fac chiar i nunt..s
fac...dac aa s-a ntmplat...Au stabilit data nunii i cum era i normal naii...Trebuia prima
dat s se ocupe de nai, giveri, de tia iari i ...Pn or acceptat, o gsit...lupu s fie na.
Lupu s fie na da nici lupu iar nu-i gsete c la toi le e fric de el. S se alinieze acolo n
alaiu sta...nu?
TC: chicoteli
T.C.: i iar o trecut un timp bun pn s-or....o aprobat tot pisica sraca. Ea a aprobat cu
lupul s fie givr prima dat. Na, asta-i bine. Acuma, naii...naii...iar nimeni. Pn o gsit un
aricel.
TC: chicoteli
TC: Era mai bun la suflet sau tiu io? C o aprobat s fie ntre tia periculoi, s zic aa.
i ariciu, ariciu iar caut .... nicicum...Cine iar vulpe? Poate s-or neles ele dou ntre ele ca
sta s fie nau. Deci sta mic de tot ...Nau, naa, vulpea ....i asta....bine i asta s-or neles.
i acuma, s nceap nunta. S-or adunat neamurile acolo n pdure, toi veseli, fericii, s
mearg la cununie...
C: chicoteli
TC: i acuma s plece...S-or aliniat acolo, prima dat mirele cu mireasa, dup aia
giverii, naii, dup nai toi acolo ce s-or adunat. Da pe cnd s plece, el fiind mai detept,
iepurele o simit c mireasa tot l miroase...
C.: chicoteli
TC: i tia toi din jur fac semne c se mbrieze, s se prind la bra, aa s merag
cum i normal la cununie i cnd s-o apropiat mai bine de el, ea o nceput mai tare, dar el .....o
nceput inima s-i bat cum bate la iepura, i nici n-o putut s mai rsufle de fric.
TC: hiiiii
TC: N-o putut s rsufle. i ...dar o sperat totui c o s fie bine.
228
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
TC: chicoteli
TC: i...cnd s-o apropiat de el mireasa, imediat l-o mucat de gt. i pn nuntaii or
vzut tot... Nuntaii nu s-or prins imediat. Aa pe bulgrete cum se zice Kat ij svbda ij
vdela, mumata zaya ij izela. Pn nuntaii or vzut, mireasa o mncat mereu.
TC: ioi
TC : i atunci toi or nceput iar pe bulgrete: Sate uplacvat ij lesa/ j-i ustnala
uduva. Or nceput toi s plng, s boceasc c ....vulpea mireas o rmas vduv....n loc s
fie.....
C.: rsete
TC: O rmas vduv din pcate...
TC: i tu asta de unde ai aflat-o?
TC: Pi eu de la bunicii mei. Era i un fel de cntecel cu asta....
TC: i cealalt ?
TC: Tot aa. C doar acuma de unde s mai auzi? Eu la 70 de ani....numa asta ce...cum
o zis o femeie btrn ...i m-am mirat, da acuma vd c e adevrat. Zice Ce e pe cuier, o
rmas acolo agat de cuier. Da acuma pe cuier nu mai este loc, deci acuma uit repede, da
asta in minte c o fost la nceput pus pe cuier acolo agat.
TC: Da.
TC: i acuma cuieru-i plin i se cam pierd, nu mai in minte.
TC: Da.
Dup cum reiese din interviul realizat de Tereza Catarov, ambele naraiuni beneficiaz
de un final tragic. Ele au ca fir unificator interpretarea povestitoarei i modul n care ea se
raporteaz la nregistrare. Pentru titlu, Tereza Catarov aleg un cuvnt neobinuit n limba
romn, oricica. Acesta constituie, n mod cert, cel dinti semnal c povestitoarea deine un
spririt creativ i improvizator de care orice bun povestitor se bucur. Mai mult, ea racioneaz
cu fermitate la fiecare ntrebare a nepoatei sale. Practic, se simuleaz sau mai mult, reactiveaz
un soi de povestit cu efectul descris la un moment dat de Giuseppe Pitr: ,,Noi, copiii de
altdat, ne amintim aceste naraiuni pentru copiii i pe bunica cea btrn care ne aduna n
jurul ei n lungile seri de iarn i cu un ritm bine controlat ne povestea de fii de regi i de
prinese ndrgostite, de mame vitrege rele i de ficce vitrege nevinovate, de castele fermecate
i de zne care se fceau nevzute, de balauri care dorm cu ochii deschii, de vulturi i psri
vorbitoare. Noi ne apropiam i cu privirile lacome, nsoeam tnrul prin n cltoriile sale
periculoase, n spaimele sale, ne bucuram de reuitele sale. i aproape c vd afectuasa
naratoare care ne domina prin vorba ei eficace, rspundea ntrebrilor noastre, inndu-ne
cumini cu ameninarea ntreruperii povetii, privindu-ne pe unul sau pe altul, urmrnd atenia
noastr i concentrndu-se pe firul povetii sale. (trad. mea)5 Pe aceeai lungime de und,
5
,,Noi, fanciulli duna volta, ricordiamo queste ingenue narrazioni, e la vecchia nonna che nelle lunghe serate
dinveno, ci raccglieva intorno a s e con misurate cadenze ci veniva favoleggiando di figli di re e di reginelle
innamorate, di perfide madrigne e di innocenti figliastre, di castelli incantati e di fate che vi servivano invisibili,
di draghi dormitenti cogli occhi aperti e di aquile ed ucelli parlanti. E noi ci accendevamo nel viso, e cogli
sguardi avidi accompagnavamo nei suoi pericolosi viaggi il giovane re, dividevamo le sue ansie, gioivamo de
suoi trionfi. E ci par quasi di vedere laffetuosa narratrice dominarci colla parola efficace, ripondere a nostri
<<perch>>, tenerci buoni colla minacia duna interruzione, guardarci or luno or laltro tra paga della nostra
attenzione e assorta nel filo della sua storia. Giuseppe, Pitr, Fabe, novelle e racconti popolari siciliani raccolti
229
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Tereza Catarov interpreteaz i stimuleaz atenia i interesul asculttorului amnnd parc
finalul tragic.
Fiecare scen beneficiaz n discursul povestitoarei de o pregtire intens. Sfitul
micului animal n ziua de duminic i n supa fierbinte atinge un ritual extrem de important
pentru regiunea Banatului. Adugarea pastelor n sup imediat naintea sosirii familiei de la
biseric i a servirii prnzului, vizeaz gustul proaspt al mncrii i importana mesei dintr-o
zi de srbtare. Planificarea finalului tragic n acest moment justific intenia transmiterii
unui anume mesaj i stimularea emoional a publicului.
La nivelul transformrii textului din pavlicheana bulgarilor bneni n limba romn,
Tereza Catarov pstreaz numele personajului, mai cu seam n adresrile directe ale
btrnilor ,,....i nu-i ea s-i ntmpine, c de obicei, venea tot timpul, cum deschidea ua
venea n faa lor i striga Mmnka... aa pe bulgrete Unde eti?, Hai vino.
Mmnka..... btrnul, Mmnka... baba, nicicum nu apare i atunci ...nicicum...i au
nceput s plng...i nu-i rspuns oricica asta i atunci baba o nceput s ......d ncaz i aa
plngnd mou cnd o vzut ..... dup mou o nceput baba .....i plngeau i plngeau i
plngeau i dup aia s-o fcut i sear i ei tot plngeau.
Cel de-al doilea text, prezint similitudini structurale i chiar de interpretare cu cel
dinti. Prima parte a sa, nu pare s se bucure de o intensitate narativ, de vivacitata specific
naraiunilor populare. Cu toate acestea, modul n care este povestit, asigur c se pregtete un
episod care va nviora ntreg textul.
Imaginea nunii, este, de obicei, una final n basmul popular, ea garantnd un happy-
end ateptat. Tot aici, detaliile despre acesata sunt reduse, n veme ce textul Terezei Catarov
prezint toate informaiile oraganizatorice ale evenimentului: gsirea unei soii, a naului, a
soiei pentru na. Tot ambientul creat, scoate la iveal o caren a unei aciuni mai veloce.
Dup cum atest nregistrarea, exist n permanen un liant nentrerupt ntre
chicotelile nepoatei i interpretarea narativ. Urmeaz apoi tabloul nunii, unde povestitoarea
joac un fel de rol menit s ademeneasc asculttorul: ,,i acuma, s nceap nunta. S-or
adunat neamurile acolo n pdure, toi veseli, fericii, s mearg la cununie...i acuma s
plece...S-or aliniat acolo, prima dat mirele cu mireasa, dup aia giverii, naii, dup nai toi
acolo ce s-or adunat. Din acest punct, evenimentele se intmpl ntr-un ritm alert, ghidate de
vocea povestitoarei i modul n care nu se mai oprete n furnizarea unor mici detalii.
Abrutizarea miresei vine pe nepregtite: ,, Da pe cnd s plece, el fiind mai detept, iepurele
o simit c mireasa tot l miroase... Moartea micului personaj animalier nu poate fi evitat, iar
ca de final, bocetul conservat n limba matern aduce un echilibru textului.
Dincolo de exclamaii i bocet, Terza Catarov prezint i opinia sa despre acset gen de
naraiuni i observ c ele sunt pe cale s se piard. Este vorba despre un monolog mai
degrab, n care povestitoarea amintete de vorbele unei btrne: ,,C doar acuma de unde s
mai auzi? Eu la 70 de ani....numa asta ce...cum o zis o femeie btrn ...i m-am mirat, da
acuma vd c e adevrat. Zice Ce e pe cuier, o rmas acolo agat de cuier. Da acuma pe
cuier nu mai este loc, deci acuma uit repede, da asta in minte c o fost la nceput pus pe
cuier acolo agat.
ed illustrati da Giuseppe Pitr, Con Discorso preliminare,Grammatica del dialetto e delle parlate siciliane.
Saggio di novelline albanesi di Sicilia e Glossario, vol. I, Bologna, Forni Editore, 1985, p. 42, ediia online.
230
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Textele furnizate de Tereza Catarov i exprimarea concepiei sale despre satutul
basmului n actualitate, evideniaz deschiderea informatorilor spre acest tip de naraiuni i
faptul c povestitul oral (cel dinspre bunici spre nepoi) se poate reactiva n orice moment.
La polul cellalt, Ani Talpe, n vrst de 49 de ani, de origine din aceeai localitate,
manifest o atitudine cu totul diferit, att pentru procesul de nregsitrare, ct i fa de
naraiunea pe care o pune la dispoziia cercettorului.
Aflat la o generaie distran de Tereza Catarov, Ani Talpe pregtete ntlnirea cu
cercettorul i nesigur de reuita resuscitrii din memorie a unei naraiuni integrale, o
construiete dinainte, mpreun cu mama ei. Mai mult, ea tehnoredacteaz textul, iar la
vederea aparatului de nregistrat, l reproduce din memorie, crendu-se astfel dou variante:
Poveste bulgreasc - varianta scris
Se spune c, demult, cnd nc zmeii mai umblau pe pmnt, cnd oamenii i
ncropeau csue de lut i i le mprejmuiau cu crengi, cnd unii lucrau pe la alii pentru cte
un produs, pentru c nici bani nu erau pe vremea aceea.
Aa s-a ntmplat i cu o familie care avea un biat de 14-15 ani, biat care a vzut
lumina zilei cu mult nainte de termen, fapt pentru care sttea prost cu judecata, fiind limitat
n gndire.
Deci prinii au decis c ar fi vremea s mearg i el s ctige cte ceva pentru c
fizic era foarte bine dezvoltat. L-au trimis aadar s munceasc. Biatul a btut ceva cale pn
a ajuns la o cas, a ntrebat dac nu au ceva de lucru pentru el, iar gazda l-a pus de ndat la
treab. Cu toate problemele lui, biatul era foarte harnic i i-a fcut treba n foarte scurt timp
i foarte bine. Gazda, fiind prima zi, i d un ac drept rsplat i i spune ca mine s vin iar.
La ntoarcere spre cas, nimerete un om cu o cocie plin cu paie. Acesta l ia n cru i
biatul, netiind ce s fac cu acul, l nfige n paie. Ajuns acas, mama i cere plata pentru ce
a lucrat n prima zi. Biatul i povestete c a primit un ac i c l-a nfipt n carul cu fn cu
care venise pn acas.
Mama l dojenete i i spune c dac mine primete aa ceva, s caute o hrtie, s
nveleasc i s aduc sub bra. A treia zi primete un vielu i conform sfaturilor mamei a tot
cutat hrtii pe drum, a tot nvluit vielul i l-a tot strns sub bra, de era s-l omoare. L-a
bgat direct n cas, l-a pus pe mas i iar i-a primit cearta:
Cnd se mai ntmpl aa, caut i tu o sfoar, leag-l, trage-l dup tine i du-l direct
n stal i pune-i tulei n fa.
A patra zi, mergnd tot la acelai om la lucru, i vznd acesta ct este de harnic, se
hotrte s-i dea fata de soie. Ion a cutat tot drumul sfori ca s o lege i s o trag dup el,
iar cnd a ajuns acas, a bgat-o n stal i a pus n fa tulei, dup care a fugit la mama lui s
se laude cu ce a primit. Ea s-a gdit c acum a adus i vaca, cnd colo, era o fat. Bineneles
c iar l-a certat i i-a spus c nu a fcut bine. Trebuia s o ia de mnu i s o bage n cas i
s se poarte frumos cu ea.
Vine vremea s mearg n gostie la prinii fetei i fata cum l-a tiut un pic ne..., l-a
rugat s asculte de ea i s fac numai cum zice ea. n primul rnd, s nu mnnce mult (c el
nu prea tia ct i trebuie). Cnd se vor aeza la mas, s fie atent la ea i cnd l va clca ea pe
picior, s se opreasc din mncat. Nici nu s-au aezat bine la mas c trecu peste picioarele lui
231
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
o pisic care era de-a fta i are era un pic mai greu. Ion a crezut c e soia lui i nu s-a atins
deloc de mncare. Degeaba au insistat toi, inclusiv ea, c Ion n-a mai gustat din bucate.
Deoarece s-a nnoptat, au decis s doarm acolo. Cnd toat lumea a adormit, Ion i-a zis soiei
c ei i este uor, dar el moare de foame. Ea i-a zis c nu l-a oprit nimeni, dar Ion a zis c a fot
clcat pe picior de cineva. Au ajuns la concluzia c era pisica, dar totui, el trebuia s
mnnce ceva, c murea de foame. Ea l-a sftuit s nu mai aprind lampa, s mearg pe
pipite pn la cuptor, unde tie c mama ei a aezat sarmalele care au rmas. El, bietul, a
nimerit puii de pisic care ntre timp ftase i i-a mncat. S-a dus napoi n pat i a ntrebat-o
pe soie de ce sarmalele mamei sale miaun.
Doamne, ai mncat puii de pisic...? Treci i te culc imediat!
Dup un timp, i se face sete. Soia l trimite n veci s bea vin. El deschide robinetul,
bea vin ct i pic bine, dar uit s nchid robinetul. Se duce n fundul curii la veceu, iar la
ntoarcere, calc ntr-o balt n dreptul beciului i simte miros puternic de vin. Soia se
enerveaz pe el, i ca s evite cearta de diminea cu tatl ei, i spune s se mbrace repede i
s plece acas imediat. Ea se mbrac prima i i optete c ea iese, iar el s nchid ua i s
se ia dup ea. Un pic ameit de la vin, el nelege s ia ua i s fug dp soie. Dup o bucat
bun de fugit, soia se ntoace napoi i strig s se grbeasc, iar el i rspunde:
Pi ie de ce i-ar fi greu? Pi n-ai zis tu s iau ua?
Doamne, i-ai lsat pe ai mei fr pui de pisic, fr vin i acuma fr u! Acum du-o
pn acas c vom vedea!
Pe drum ns, obosesc i i apuc somnul. Ion urc ua pe nite crengi ntr-un copac i
se culc. Nu trece mult timp i sub pom vin nite zmei care ngroap un sac de aur. Ion, ca s
i aud mai bine, se tot apleac, pn e czu peste ei. Zmeul cel mai btrn a ncepu s ipe:
Fugii ct putei i nu v uitai napoi, c cine tie cine ne-a urmrit i vrea s ne
omoare!
Cnd s-au ndeprtat zmeii, Ion a luat comoara, i-a luat soia i au plecat acas. i au
trit fericii n belug, doar c Ion nu a ieit nicio clip din vorbele soiei lui, iar soia a trit
toat viaa cu consolarea c dei i-a luat brbat srac cu duhul, a ajuns s fie un om foarte
bogat material.
Poveste bulgreasc varianta audio
A.T.: O s reiau ideea. Deci bunica era cea care ne povestea. N-au fost cri pe vremea
aia i multe poveti nu erau cu Alb ca zpada, cu zne...
E.P.: Deci nu erau basme.
A.T.: Nu erau basme, erau poveti din astea cumva rupte din via, adic panii mai
vechi, mai fcute aa, ntr-o alt form, povestite, -aa, din care, zicea bunica, s i nvm
cte ceva, deci nu numa' s rmnem n cap cu o zn bun, cu ce tiu eu ce sau, io tiu nite
prini frumoi -att. S nvei ceva din basmul la i s rmi cu ceva care s-i, io tiu, nu
tiu, s fie mai... mai cu nvminte, sau cum s zic, s...
E.P.: S fie mai cu tlc.
A.T.: Cu tlc, aa, poate c asta-i vorba, tlc.
E.P.: i mai trziu, cnd ai mers la coal ai ajuns s citii basme sau...
232
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
A.T.: Da, mi-a plcut foarte mult Poveti nemuritoare. Volume ntregi citeam. Chiar
mi-au plcut foarte mult. Alea da. Deja mare eram, i prin liceu, cred c tot alegeam cte o
carte de Poveti nemuritoare.
E.P.: Da, c erau atunci la mod.
A.T.: Da, erau. i mi-au plcut foarte mult.
E.P.: i textul pe care l-ai pregtit pentru astzi, de unde-l tii?
A.T.: De la mama mea. n momentul n care mi-ai spus c ai vrea s v spun i o
poveste am sunat-o i am zis:
Mam, te gndeti la ce poveti, ce tii mai frumos, ce poi s-mi spui cel mai frumos,
cea mai frumoas poveste, s o povestim i s o aternem pe-o hrtie c am s i-o transmit
cuiva.
i nah, am scris-o pe hrtie i...
E.P.: Deci, practic, ai reconstruit-o mpreun cu mama.
A.T.: Am reconstruit-o. Pi, v dai seama c, nah eu, nespunnd nici la copii nici...,
m-am rupt oarecum de poveti de cnd am citit eu, pentru mine, n liceu, cnd o fi fost
ultimele poveti aa. De atunci, gata, s-a terminat. -atunci n-am mai...
E.P.: N-ai transmis mai departe.
A.T.: Nu, nu, nu. Mai mult bunicii, prinii, deci mama mea, soacra mea, pentru fata
mea, da' eu nu in minte s-i fi... Oi fi povestit eu aa, puintel, la culcare, da' nu zilnic, sau nu
era ceva obicei. Nu, deci nu prea, mai mult bunicii...
E.P.: i, ce mai vreau s v ntreb... Naraiunea asta ai tiut-o direct n limba romn
sau ai tradus-o?
A.T.: Nu, n bulgrete.
E.P.: A, n bulgrete. i acuma ai reconstruit-o.
A.T.: Oarecum am refcut-o, da, n romnete ca s putem povesti un pic aa...
E.P.: Pi, mi-o povestii?
A.T.: Sigur c da. Pi, se spune c tare demult, ntr-o familie, so-soie, nah, nu puteau
s aibe copii. i, ntr-un final, Dumnezeu S-a ndurat i la ani mai naintai s-a nscut un
bieel, da' nici la la termen sracu'. i, nefiind la termen, a avut nite lipsuri bieelu'. Era
mai netiutor, mai nepriceput, mai ne-. i atunci a crescut cu foarte mult dragoste de la
prini, a fost totul ok. i cnd a crescut mrior a trebuit s munceasc i el, normal, s duc
prinii un pic, s vad cum se muncete, cum se ctig c, fiind i ei srcui, trebuia s
munceasc i copilu' la rndul lui. Era deja june, sau cum s zic, tnr flcu i l-au trimis. i
copilu' a nceput s umble din cas-n cas i a ajuns ntr-un final la o familie mai nstrit, a
btut la poart, s-a prezentat i a cerut ceva de lucru. -atuncea gazda respectiv ia dat ceva s
fac. i el, chiar dac era nepriceput mintal sau ne... nu gsesc cuvntul...
E.P.: Mai puin dezvoltat.
A.T.: Da, aa. Fizic era foarte i voinic, dar i priceput. Deci lucra orice-i ddeai i
fcea treab bun. La finalul zilei primul lui ctig a fost un ac, ac de cusut, aa a fost prima
rsplat de la omul respectiv. A plecat spre cas, nah, cu leafa pe ziua respectiv i pe drum
un om cu o cru cu paie. i el, sracu', nepriceput i aa, cum nu l-o dus, o nfipt acu' n
paie. Cnd o ajuns n faa casei lui s coboare din cru nu mai gsea acu'. Se d jos, d-l
ncolo de ac. Mama-l ntmpin, l ntreab cum a fost prima zi de lucru. I-a povestit el ce
lucra.
233
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
i plata?
Ei, mami, zice, s tii c am primit un ac, da' l-am bgat n paie i, cnd s cobor, nu
l-am mai gsit.
Mi, mam, zice, nu te-ai gndit i tu? Cnd primeti ceva de genul sta, ntorci
vestua pe dos i nfigi acel obiect n vestu i vii cu el acas.
Bine.
A doua zi, tiind el de casa respectiv i c-i de lucru acolo i c a fost bine primit,
merge iari, face treab bun i primete slnin, o bucic de slnin drept rsplat.
Acuma, tiind de la mama c tre' s-o-nfig n vest, tot se chinuia s bage-n vest slnina.
Deci el n-avea discernmnt, sau cum s zic, cuvntul potrivit pentru aa. S-a chinuit s-o bage
cumva. Ajunge acas', tot era uns pe vest, tot.
Pi, mami, ce-ai primit astzi?
Uite, mam, ce! i tot se chinuia s...
Vai, copilu' mamii, da' nu aa! zice. Cnd primeti ceva de genul sta, zice, nvlui
ntr-o hrtie i pui frumos sub bra i, na, duci acas.
Bun.
A treia zi iari pleac, iar muncete. Deja vede omul, gazda respectiv, i foarte
mulumit de el, tot mai mult i d, tot mai, vrea ct mai mult s-l rsplteasc, i d un viel.
El, sracu', tot drumu' cuta ziare i hrtii s-l nvluie i s-l bage sub bra pe viel, s-l duc
aa, c aa o zis mama, nu. Ajunge acas. Tot ipa sracu' viel, plngea, se vita, cum s zic,
c tot l strngea biatu'.
Na, mami, ce-ai primit?
Pi, uite!
Pi da, mam, nu aa, zice. Cnd primeti ceva de genul sta caui o sfoar, ceva, l
legi frumos i-l tragi dup tine i-l pui direct n, cum se cheam, grajd, aa, l legi, i pui paie
n fa, zice, i aa se face.
Bine.
Mine-zi iari merge la treab i, cum spun, omul a fost foarte mulumit, gazda
respectiv, de biat i biatu' o fost i frumuel. Acuma c n-o fost el mintal perfect, da' la
munc i acolo i-o dat super ok. Acuma zice, avea i el o fat, ce s fac, plcndu-i de biat
i probabil c i fata..., nu tiu ce s zic, dar s-a gndit s-i dea fata, s se mrite cu acel biat
pentru c era i vrednic, i frumos i... Bine. Seara-i d fata. El, sracu', pe tot drumu' cuta
numa' sfori, tot o lega, tot o trgea dup el pe fat. i, cnd o ajuns acas, o bag direct n
grajd, o leag de vlul acela, i d tulei, paie, fn, ce i-o da.
Mami, hai s vezi ce i-am adus!
Mama, bucuroas deja, c-o zis c-o primit i vac, c dac-o primit vielul acuma sigur o
adus i vac. Cnd o ajuns n grajd:
Vai, zice, mam, da' ce-ai fcut cu fata asta?
Pi am primit-o, zice, i am fcut cum ai zis tu.
Vai, mam, da' nu-i bine, ia-o de mnu, pune-o n cea mai nou camer, du-o, pune-
i n fa, nu tiu, un pahar de ap, omenete-o, pup-o, fii cu ea drgu, nu aa.
n fine, na, l nva ea cum s fac. Acuma cteva zile n-o mai mers la lucru, o rmas
cu fata i duminica s mearg n gostie la prini, s duc fata, na, s-i vad i ea prinii.
Cnd s-or dus, da' n drum spre prini, fata i-o zis:
234
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Mi, zice, cnd ajungem acolo, tu nu prea tii s te opreti cnd mnnci i mnci
cam ct n-ar trebui. Cnd vd eu ca-i mncat destul te calc eu uor pe picior i tu te opreti,
da, s nu avem discuii.
Bun.
Se duc. Ajung acolo, se pune masa, dar pn s se pun supa, sau cu ce-or fi nceput s
mnnce, trece pisica i-l atinge pe picior i el a zis:
Na, dac m-a atins soia, aa s-o gndit el c-i soia, n-a mai vrut s mnnce nimic.
Degeaba s-o adus dup aia sup, sarmale, ce-or fi adus oamenii, c el nu s-o atins de
nimica. Toi l mbiau, inclusiv soia.
Da' mnnc ceva, da' gust! Nu, nu, i iar nu!
Bun. Fiind mai departe de cas, o zis c dorm la prinii fetei. Aa. S-or culcat, da' el
flmnd, sracu', nu mai putea de foame i tia c mama, fata tia c mama a pus sarmalele pe
cuptor i i-a zis, biatul i-a zis la fat:
Vreau s mnnc.
Te duci uor, nu aprinzi lampa, nimica, c-i spun eu unde-s sarmale, zice, i te duci
i mnnci. S nu te aud nimeni c..
C ie i-e uor, zicea biatul la fat, c tu ai mncat!
Pi de ce n-ai mncat, c o fost mncare n fa.
Pi nu m-ai clcat?
Nu, drag, nu te-am clcat. nseamn c o fost pisica.
Na, atuncea s-or neles ei c, de fapt, nu l-a clcat. -atunci se scoal el tiptil, merge
la sob, i, cnd ia cte o sarm de-aia mic, mieuna sarma. De fapt, ma ftase i erau
miceii aceia. i cnd vine napoi la nevast zice:
Mam, zice, ce sarmale face mum-ta, zice, c atunci cnd o mucam i o aa, zice,
mieuna.
Vai de mine, zice, tu nu eti normal! Tu ai mncat mii lui maic-mea.
Zice:
Nu, sau se poate, nu tiu, n fine.
Na, st ce st el. Acuma i-i sete.
Auzi, muiere, mie mi-i sete!
Doamne, zice, ce te mai apuc i pe tine. Du-te-n pai, i-o zis unde, zice, du-te,
pune-i o can de vin, bea i vino napoi i te culc s ne-odihnim c nu mai putem de
obosii.
Na, merge el n pai, deschide robinetul la vin, da' nu-l mai nchide. Tot vinu' o curs.
i pn s mearg el, o mers i pn la toalet, i cnd o venit napoi o ajuns n dreptul
paiului i o clcat n ceva ap i mirosea a vin. Merge napoi la soie n pat:
Auzi, eu cred c am fcut o prostie iari.
Pi ce-ai mai fcut?
Pi am dat drumul la vin i n-am mai nchis robinetul.
Vai, zice, haida repede, mbrac-te i hai s merem c m omoar prinii cnd se
scoal c mii i-ai mncat, vinul i-ai dat drumul, zice, suntem de miru' lumii. Hai acas'! Nu
mai vreau s mai stm.
Na, era miezul nopii, eu tiu ct noaptea. Zice:
Hai, o iau nainte, zice fata.
235
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
i strig dup el s-nchid ua de la ieire. El, prostovanul, a nteles c s-o ia dup el,
s ia ua. O ia -o duce n spate i ea se grbete, fata, se duce nainte. Cnd se-ntoarce strig
la el.
Cic:
Ce faci? Nu vii?
Pi da ie i-i uor, zice biatul, io am de crat ceva n spate.
Pi ce?
Pi ua!
Da' ce caui dom'le cu ua?
Pi n-ai zis tu s-o iau.
Zice:
Nu.
C-n bulgrete rimeaz s-o-nchizi cu s-o iei, deci de aia el a neles c s-o ia. Na, n
fine, acuma dac-ai luat-o, acuma ia-o pn acas' c o ducem noi napoi cnd mai venim la
prinii mei. n drum spre, obosesc, i i noapte i aa, se opresc ntr-o pdure i nu tiu cum
ajunge el s pun, zic s doarm noaptea un pic mcar pn se face ziu. Pun, se chinuie
cumva, pun aia pe nite crengi ntr-un pom aa i se culc pe u. La un moment dat, cum
dorm ei, se aud sub pom nite glasuri de oameni i se uit el n jos i erau nite zmei care
vorbeau -or ngropat nite comori acolo, chiar sub pom i cum tot se apleca s-i aud ce
vorbesc i ce fac, tot de curios, pic peste ei.
tia, speriai, o iau la fug care-ncotro i cel mai btrn ip la ei:
Da' plecai, nici nu-ntoarcei capetele napoi c cine tie cine i i ne omoar i... Da'
fugii ct mai repede!
i zmeii s-au mprtiat toi pn la ultimul. i ei au rmas cu comoara i, ca i
concluzie, numa' un pic s m uit aicea c... S-a consolat fata c, dei e srac cu duhul, e
bogat material i... da, asta a fost consolarea ei c, dei biatul a fost foarte srac cu duhul a
fost bogat material i au fcut tot ce le-a dorit sufletul pn la urm i au trit fericii i, na,
cam asta-i povestioara. Nu tiu ct i de frumoas, da'...
E.P.: Ei, da. E foarte frumoas. i, spunei-mi, cnd ai scris-o n limba romn, ai
avut vreo problem, nu tiu, era ceva ce a fost mai greu de tradus?
A.T.: Nu, dar, cum am mai spus, chestia cu ua. Deci fata cnd a strigat s nchid ua,
seamnn foarte bine cuvntul ia-o cu nchide-o, deci de aia a neles el c s-o ia dup el i a
scos-o din ni, a luat-o n spate i a dus-o. Pe urm sunt i alte cuvinte aa... Trebuia un pic
s m gndesc, normal, c... Nu, dar n-a fost greu, a fost uor.
Ceea ce atrage atenia la varianta scris const n observarea pregnant a pregtirii i
lefuirii sale. Improvizaia, nc de la incipit cu forma preluat din naraiunile romneti arat
interesul informatoarei spre a transmite un material ct mai calitativ. Spre deosebire de prima
povestitoare, Ani Talpe nu vizaez captarea asculttorului, ns ea nu beneficiaz de un
context de povestit adecvat, ci de un proces de cercetare n vederea unui studiu, dect de unul
care s reactiveze o form de povestit tradiional.
n prima variant, protagonistul primete numele Ion, n vreme ce n varianta audio,
acesta dispare. Totodat, Ani Taslpe nu conserv elemente din dialectul bulgarilor
bneni, ns i confer naraiunii un caracter popular prin utilizarea unor regionalisme:
,,cocie (cru), ,,sarm (sarmal) ,,pe gostie (musafiri) etc. Totodat, ea integreaz
236
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
expresii actuale ca ,,super ok sau exclamaia ,,nu eti normal!. n acest mod, textul su se
situeaz la grania dintre resuscitare a povestitului mpreun cu un mebru al familiei,
pigmentarea cu regionalisme i includerea termenilor contemporani.
De dimensiuni relativ lungi n balan cu povetile Terezei Catarov, basmul lui Ani
Talpe arat c povestitorul mai tnr are capacitatea de a re-crea o pies a culturii
tradiionale. Spre deosebire de prima povestitoare, Ani Talpe nu mizeaz pe stilul
interpretativ, ns mizeaz pe transmiterea unui material care atinge o valoare aproape
patrimonial. Aceast atitudine este justificat de ntreg procesul de pregtire a textului i de
adaptare a sa ntr-o form ct mai estetic i ct mai apropia de storetipiile basmelor
romneti. Maniera pe care o alege informatoarea n prezentarea naraiunii sale este sugestiv
pentru statutul actual al basmului popular, n mod predilect pentru informatori din generaia sa
i ncadrai n cultura urban.
Ceea ce supinde n debutul interviului, este raportul extrem de fragil a acesteia cu
basmul propriu-zis, familia prefernd povetile realiste. n acelai timp, informatoarea are
contiina transmiterii unui element de patrimoniu, dar i a unui material care s serveasc
unui cercettor venit din afar: Mam, te gndeti la ce poveti...ce tii mai frumos, ce poi
s-mi spui cel mai frumos, cea mai frumoas poveste, s o povestim i s o aternem pe-o
hrtie c am s i-o transmit cuiva.
Concluzii
Materialul analizat reprezint un experiment sugestiv pentru povestitul tradiional,
pentru cum este receptat i tratat basmul de ctre persoanele cu o vrst mai naintat i cum
este considetat de cele aflate la o generaie diferen. n metamorfoza textului dintr-o limb n
alta, povestitorul mai apropiat de stilul tradiional prefer s conserve bocetul i adresrile
directe, n vreme ce povestitorul modern i confer textului o anume implicaie estetic, i
adapteaz ct mai aproape de formula cunoscut din cultura naional.
n urma studiului comparativ efectuat, se remarc o ipostaz aparte basmului popular,
aceea de a fi o pies de patrimoniu etnic. Deschiderea bulgarilor din Dudetii Vechi spre
acest proces de cercetare i textele narate constituie un garant pentru reuita unor cercetri
mai ample. De asemenea, revenind la fragmentul din Barbu Theodorescu i Octav Pun, la
caracterizarea speciei ca ,,cea mai iubit dintre creaiile tradiionale, se poate constata, n
mod facil necesitatea evalurii basmului popular mai cu seam din punct de vedere teoretic.
n acest caz, aplecarea ateniei spre povestitorii de generaii diferite i studierea comparatv a
acestora, reprezint un pol de cercetare inovator i necesar naraiunilor populare.
Bibliografie
Pitr, Giuseppe Fabe, novelle e racconti popolari siciliani raccolti ed illustrati da Giuseppe
Pitr, Con Discorso preliminare,Grammatica del dialetto e delle parlate siciliane. Saggio di
novelline albanesi di Sicilia e Glossario, vol. I, Bologna, Forni Editore, 1985, ediia online.
Pop, Mihai, Folclor literar romnesc, vol. I, Editura Grai i suflet Cultura Naional,
Bucureti, 1998
Theodorecu, Barbu, Pun, Octav, Folclor literar romnesc, Bucureti, Editura Didactic i
Pedagogic, 1967.
237
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
,,Banaterra [on line] la URL: http://www.banaterra.eu/romana/rusnac-mircea-impotriva-
falsificarilor-comuniste-ale-istoriei-banatului [accesat la 20.11.2013]
,,Banatera [on line] URL: http://www.banaterra.eu/romana/node/927 [Accesat n
01.11.2013].
238
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
LE LANGUAGE DU POUVOIR: LE SYMBOLE DUNIT DANS LE DISCOURS DE
NICOLAE CEAUSESCU
Cristina PREUTU, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai
Abstract: The aim of my research is based on the idea that the politics of unity promoted by
Nicolae Ceausescu has been one of the main myths around which political power was built.
This myth embodies both a symbolic dimension that can be found in the analysis of the
discourse, and a practical one, closely related with the real political decisions.
My analysis is concerns the period between 1965 and 1974. This lapse of time is marked by
several changes in the manner of interpreting and applying the political decisions.
Regarding the methodology of my study, I applied a quantitative analysis of the discourse,
based on the model provided by Harold Laswell and Teun van Dijk, method which also
completes the interpretation of this symbolic dimension.
The mains sources of the study are Nicolae Ceausescus speeches and various documents
identified in the archives of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Romania (the
National Archives of Romania, Bucharest).
Thereby, the main questions I intend to answer are: what is the role of language within the
system of communist power, what are its effects upon society and which is the particularity of
the process of transformation of a single word in a political symbol?
Keywords: communism, propaganda, political power, language, political symbol.
La ralisation de lunit de la nation a t une dentre les principaux thmes de la
propagande externe et interne du Nicolae Ceauescu. Mais, la propagande ntait pas quune
construction discursive artificielle. Ce discours a t aliment par les ralits sociales et les
rponses de la population aux actions du pouvoir politique. Ainsi, cette recherche est fond
sur lide du Edelman que le sens de langage est directement lie par le contexte sociale ou il
se dveloppe. Donc, ltude de langage du pouvoir nest pas une analyse linguistique,
simplement, mais une analyse de la raction du rcepteur, aussi1.
On connait que toutes les visions sociales et nationales ont comme fondement un
mythe politique. La construction du mythe a t essentielle pour maintenir la prennit du
rgime communiste. Ainsi, son dveloppement a t ajout avec des symboles politiques. Les
symboles politiques sont de deux types: de natures matriel et de nature linguistique 2. Les
dernires ces sont en fait des mots simple mais ont t utilis avec une connotation
symbolique.
Donc, la prmisse de mon tude est que le leader roumain a utilis la vision
manichenne comme fondation de sa politique sociale. Lide ntait pas originale, car ce
principe de construction du discours politique a t spcifique aux rgimes totalitaires.
Nicolae Ceauescu a utilis lidologie comme identit du groupe. Donc, sa politique
nationale a t fonde sur une construction discursive dune nation unique, intgrative,
1
Murray Edelman, Politica i utilizarea simbolurilor, Polirom, 1999, p. 15.
2
Voir Constantin Hariciu i Elena Banciu, Comunicarea politic, Bucureti, Ars Docendi, 2006, p. 133.
239
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
totalisante, qui a comme finalit la construction dHomme Nouveau. Le point original utilis
de leader roumain a t lutilisation du discours politique comme solution aux problmes
sociaux et conomiques des roumains. Dans le contexte de dveloppement de la crise
conomique en Roumanie des annes '80, Nicolae Ceausescu a devenu plus orthodoxe dans
ses moyens daction. La puret idologique a devenu des plus en plus frquente dans ses
discours. Dans ce contexte, plus profonde devint la crise, plus rigide devint ses discours. Le
clivage entre la ralit conomique et sociale dune part et le discours officielle, dautre part a
devenu de plus en plus profond. Donc, mon tude prsente une forme danalyse de la
formation et de la mtamorphose de ce clivage qui a contribu leffondrement de rgime en
1989.
Dans mon tude jutilise lexpression de discours intgrant pour un discours qui offre
au lindividu la possibilit dtre intgr dans un group sociale ou politique. Lexpression est
utilise de Debra B. Bergoffen en The politic body: democratic metaphors, totalitarian
practices, erotic rebelions,3 pour dmontrer que lidentification avec un corps politique a
comme consquence la cration dune nouvelle identit personnelle, aussi.
La thorie de discours totalisant est dveloppe par Christian Godin. Ce type de
discours demande un seule principe dvaluation et de classification pour les deux
corps sociale et politique qui a comme rsultat la ralisation dun seul corps. 4 Le but final tait
dassur le contrle total de la socit, ladhsion volontaire du peuple et la cration dune
image externe positive de la Roumanie. En ce qui concerne la finalit que jy mentionn, la
cration dHomme Nouveau, dans la vision du Nicolae Ceauescu il ntait pas un hommo
universalis, mais un homme dvou au parti et un roumain honnte.
En ce qui concerne la mthodologie utilis dans mon tude, jai mis en application
deux mthodes: une analyse historique des discours et une mthode linguistique. Cette
dernire-l est une analyse quantitative qui sappelle la mthode danalyse de dsignation et
appartient lanalyse smantique du contenu. Il sagit dune procdure de classer des signes
en fonction de ce quils signifient 5. En connaissant les limites de cette mthode danalyse6 je
ne me propos pas une analyse exhaustive du discours politique du Nicolae Ceausescu, mais
je veux doffre une image de la signification et de la direction de ces discours, dans la
perspective de cette mthode danalyse. Pour cette raison jai utilis 20 de discours du leader
communiste roumain qui ont t soutenu dans les sances du Conseil du Travailleurs de
Nationalit Magyare et Allemande et les sances du Conseil National du Front dUnit
Socialiste et celle du dixime, onzime et deuxime Congrs du Parti Communiste
Roumaine7. Les autres sources utilis dans mon analyse ces sont des sources documentaires
3
Debra B. Bergoffen, The politic body: democratic metaphors, totalitarian practices, erotic rebelions, en
Philosophy Social Criticism, 16/1990, SAGE Publication.
4
Voire Christian Godin, La totalit. Prologue pour une philosophie de la totalit, Editions Champ Vallon,
Seyssel, 1997.
5
Comme la classification dIrving L. Janis din Harold D. Lasswell, Nathan Leites, Language of politics. Studies
in quantitative semantics, The M.I.T.Press, 1965, p.56.
6
Voir la caractrisation de mthode danalyse de contenu en Jack C.Plano, Robert E.Riggs, Helenan S.Robin,
Dicionar de analiz politic, Bucureti, Editura EcceHomo, 1993, pp. 14-15.
7
Nicolae Ceauescu, Romnia pe drumul construirii societii socialiste multilaterial dezvoltate, Bucureti,
Editura Politic: (vol. 4-Raportul Comitetului Central al Partidului Comunist Romn cu privire la activitatea
PCR n perioada dintre Congresul al IX-lea i Congresul al X-lea i sarcinile de viitor ale Partidului. 6 august
1969, pp. 249-235; Cuvntare la Conferina extraordinar a organizaiei judeene de partid Cluj. 12 iulie 1969,
240
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
de lArchive Nationale Historique Centrale, aussi que des travaux de la thorie du politique
nationaliste, tels que les tudes dHarold D. Lasswell, B. S. Murty, Peter Sugar ou Bruno
Leone.
Alors, la principale objective de mon tude est lidentification du caractre du principe
de lunit dans la politique interne de Nicolae Ceausescu, en utilisant une analyse de contenu
smantique du symbole de la nation dans ces discours. Jai aussi identifi les significations
motionnels des termes: la nation, le patriotisme, l'unit, qui sont directement lies et rvlent
l'importance de leurs utilisation dans le contexte des minorits sous le gouvernement
Ceausescu.
Donc, en ce qui concerne la politique nationaliste, la premire partie du gouvernement
de Nicolae Ceausescu ntait pas trs diffrent de celle du Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej. Il a
hrit de lui un environnement dquilibre interne et externe. Signes d'un changement rel sa
produit aprs le Xme Congrs du Parti communiste, en 1969. Il a mentionn ici limportance
de lunit de fer du parti8 et lunit indestructible entre le parti et le peuple travailleur sans
distinction de nationalit dans la ralisation des buts propos dans le Congrs.
Bas sur une vision manichenne du monde, une vision spcifique de l'idologie
communiste, la parole de Ceausescu tait destine renforcer l'image dune unique et
grandiose Roumaine dans sa pouvoir conomique. Par consquent, les lignes de la politique
conomique de la seconde moiti des annes '70 visaient placer la Roumanie dans un
environnement conomique international favorable 9. La puissance conomique de la
Roumanie devait dmonter sa puissance sociale et politique. Par consquent, les organismes
sociaux et politiques ne doivent pas seulement tre fort et unifi, mais mme concident. Cet
aspect de l'agrgation de la socit rvle la politique lniniste de Ceausescu, la direction de
qu'il revendique son discours et son vision du monde.
pp. 121-144; Cuvntare de ncheiere a Congresului al X-lea al Partidului Comunist Romn. 12 august 1969, pp.
350-357; Cuvntare la plenara Comitetului Central al Partidului Comunist Romn din 10-13 decembrie 1969,
pp. 515-575; vol. 5-Cuvntare la Plenara Consiliului Naional al Frontului Societii Socialiste. 27 martie 1970,
pp. 715-721; vol. 6-Cuvntare la Plenara Consiliului Oamneilor Muncii de Naionalitate Maghiar. 12 martie
1971, pp. 724-749; Expunere cu privire la proigramul PCR pentru mbuntirea activitii ideologice, ridicarea
nivelului general al cunoaterii i educaia socialist a maselor pentru aezarea relaiior din societatea noastr
pe baza principiilor eticii i echitii socialiste i comuniste. 3 noiembrie 1971, pp. 621-686; Expunere la
Plenara Consiliului Oamneilor Muncii de Naionalitate German. 19 februarie 1971, pp. 558-577; Cuvntare la
mitingul prieteniei romno-ungare.25 februarie 1972, pp.953-964; vol.12-Cuvntare la edina comun a
Consiliilor Oamenilor Muncii de Naionalitate maghiar i german.3 decembrie 1975, pp. 233-248; vol. 17-
Cuvntare la Plenara Consiliului Naional al Oamenilor Muncii. 20 decembrie 1978, pp. 355-370; vol.18-
Cuvntare la adunarea festiv din capital organizat cu prilejul mplinirii a 35 de ani de la eliberarea social
i naional antifascist i antiimperialist. 22 august 1979, pp. 575-610; vol. 19-Cuvntare de deschidere la
Congresul al XII-lea al Partidului Comunist Romn. 19 noiembrie 1979, pp. 175-179; Cuvntare la Congresul
al II-lea al Frontului Democraiei i Unitii Socialiste. 17 ianuarie 1980, pp. 353-380; vol. 29-Cuvntare la cel
de-al III-lea Congres al Consiliilor Populare. 10 septembrie 1985, pp. 43-70; vol. 30-Cuvntare la Congresul al
III-lea al Educaiei Politice i Culturii Socialiste. 17 august 1987, pp. 691-719; Cuvntare la edina comun a
Consiliilor Oamenilor Muncii de Naionalitate maghiar i german. 27 februarie 1987, pp. 368-415).
8
Cuvntare de ncheiere al Congresului al X-lea al Partidului Comunist Romn. 12 august 1969, vol. 4,
Bucuresti, Editura Politica, 1970, p. 353.
9
Pour la priode 1970-1975, le produit matriel net a grandi avec 11 pour cent par anne. Dans lindustrie a
grandi avec 14 pour cent et dans le transport et communication avec 11 pour cent (Ronald H. Linden, Socialist
Patrimonialist and the Global Economy in the Case of Roumania, n "International Organization", vol. 40, nr. 2,
Power, Purpose and Collective Choise: Economic Strategy in Socialist States, spring 1986, p. 352.)
241
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
1. Les symboles d'intgration et leur importance
Dans son tude, Language of politics. Studies in quantitative semantics, Harold D.
Lasswell a classifi les symboles par rapport la relation entre la pratique politique
(statement-maker) et le discours politique (utterance). Ainsi, il a identifi les trois types des
symboles par lesquelles la pouvoir politique communique avec la socit: demands, ces sont
les symboles qui dtermine le rcepteur davoir des prfrences, de demander telles choses au
pouvoir; identifications, les symboles politique qui contribue la disparition dun tre
singulier et unifie le soi-mme avec la pouvoir politique; expectations, qui sont des symboles
qui exerait une influence sur les attendes des individus par rapport au pouvoir 10. Lanalyse
de contenu que jai lai fait peut tre intgr dans lacception de Teun van Dijk. Alors, cette
mots-symboles ces sont intgr dans la structure rhtorique, a veut dire ces sont plus que les
simples figures de style11.
Les mots cls utiliss dans les discours avec une valeur de symbole taient les
pronoms possessif notre / nos, dans les expressions: notre pays, notre nation, notre peuple et
la substantif unit dans des expressions telles que l'unit ouvrire, l'unit de tous les
travailleurs, ou de complter les expressions ci-dessus: notre peuple entire, notre entire
nation. Si, au dbut de son gouvernement les expressions ont t utilises avec une frquence
de deux mots par page, dans les annes '70, elles taient prsentes avec une frquence de 5,5
ou mme 6 mots par page. Car Nicolae Ceausescu a mis l'accent sur son image externe, il sa
prsent soi-mme comme un leader fort qui a sous sa protection le peuple roumain. Le
peuple roumain tait prsent comme un peuple forte et unie, qui a la possibilit de se
identifi et de se rapport la valeur unique gnre par le parti. Dans ce contexte, le travail
tait la valeur qui doit unit tous les membres de la socit dans un seul corps social. Alors la
nation roumaine a devenu la mme chose avec le peuple travailleur. La valeur du travail tait
la valeur qui unifie les gens. Cela tait justifi par la politique duniformisation de la nation
qui a t gnr la fin des annes '60. Selon cette thorie, lEtat, puis le Parti-Etat tait un
lment de cohsion de la nation. Sa construction et son dveloppement justifie toute laction
dans la direction du politique sociale. Depuis le premier programme annonc lors du
neuvime Congrs12, Nicolae Ceausescu a dclar que l'Etat-Nation continuera exister
beaucoup plus longtemps. Par consquent, la question n'tait pas encore achev le processus
de construction du communisme. Mais l'effondrement de la Rgion Autonome Hongroise, en
1968, a t interprt comme une tape dans cette direction. Pour atteindre la socit parfaite,
on demande la cohsion sociale et ethnique ncessaire pour une pleine adhsion au dirigeant
politique. Pour viter de crer plus de problmes dans le domaine social, aprs l'abolition de
la rgion, le dirigeant roumain a utilis un discours sauveur qui a cach la ralit. Conscient
ou non que la population ne pouvait pas se contenter d'un discours qu'il a parl de l'unit et
l'uniformit, selon la preuve de l'existence de tensions et de troubles sociaux, Nicolae
Ceausescu a dvelopp une rhtorique discursif qui navait rien faire avec la vie
quotidienne.
10
Harold D. Lasswell, Nathan Leites, Language of politics. Studies in quantitative semantics, The M. I. T. Press,
1965, p. 13.
11
Teun A. van Dikj, Ideology. A Multidisciplinary Approach, London, Sage Publication Ltd., 2000, p.208.
12
Voir Rezoluia Congresului al IX-lea al PCR, n Congresul al IX-lea PCR, Bucureti, Editura Politic, 1965, p.
837.
242
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Conformment au schma dHarold Laswell, dans les discours de Nicolae Ceausescu
jai observ un mlange trs intressant des symboles didentification avec dattente. La
prsence de symboles d'attente est presque aussi norme que les symboles d'identification. Par
consquent, la rhtorique de l'intgration ne fonctionne pas toute seule, mais dans un contexte
qui fournit une finalit positive. On pourrait dire que cette rhtorique fonctionne par une
logique de la rcompense et de la stimulation positive. Cette logique n'est pas singulier ou
unique, il est spcifique dans le discours communiste gnral 13. Par consquent, les
expressions de notre parti et notre peuple apparaissent dans proximit de termes et des
expressions telles que la collaboration, tous (les personnes), tous (les nations) et l'unit. Le
mot unit tait un symbole de la demande et il a devenu beaucoup plus fort aprs 197114.
Avant cette anne le mot avait une frquence de 0,3 fois par page et aprs les thses de Juillet
1971, le mot a apparu avec une frquence de 2-3 fois par page. Cela dmontre que l'utilisation
plus frquente des expressions de le Parti tout entier et le peuple tout entier, demande une
augmentation des mots-symbole de la demande de l'unit. La combinaison des deux types de
symboles a eu un effet plus profond sur le public, parce quil offre dindividu la possibilit
dtre intgr dans un corps social et a fourni un but positif de cette action. Cette image de la
finalit a t donne aux mots symboliques de la demande, ce qui compense l'individu avec la
perspective de confort donn par l'intgration du corps social demand. Le mot unit ntait
pas le seul symbole de la demande. Tout en avanant, le discours du dirigeant roumain tait
enrichi avec des mots comme: la russite, le bonheur, les ralisations matrielles, le
dveloppement de la nation. Cette augmentation du nombre de symboles d'attente a clate
aprs labolition de la Rgion Autonome Hongrois. Dans ce moment-l a t cr le Conseille
Gnrale du Travailleur de Nationalit Allemagne et Hongrois comme un organisme
reprsentatif pour les minorits. Laction dabolition de la rgion a devenu ncessaire dans le
contexte de la ralisation de l'unit de la nation autour du parti. Le leader roumain voulait
obtenir une uniformit sociale et ethnique qui sengage faciliter la cration dune plateforme
des partisans.
2. Les significations motionnelles de termes: la nation, le patriotisme, l'unit
Selon les thories de la communication politique, le langage a une dimension
symbolique et une dimension pratique 15. L'analyse du discours de Ceausescu a rvl qu'il a
met sa communication dans une note plutt symbolique que pratique. Son message tend
indiquer une finalit et aucune action concrte, pratique. Par consquent, le clivage de l'image
cre par les discours et la ralit immdiate vient tre de plus en plus grande, dans la fin des
annes '80. Essayer de contrler les processus sociaux et conomiques dans le pays, le leader
roumain ctait plac dans un registre symbolique, en dfinir un sens de ses actions plutt que
d'apporter des solutions valables. L'enthousiasme suscit par son discours dopposition contre
l'invasion de Prague, en Aot 1968 tait vite tombe. Son discours a demand la cration
13
Un exemple de cette pratique, de stimulus positif a t la course socialiste. Aussi, Nicolae Ceausescu prenne
lattention dans les runions avec les instructeurs de la propagande quils nutilisaient pas suffisent les mthodes
du modle positive.
14
Les thses de Juillet 1971 ont affect la vie littraire des minorits, parce quils on l'exige une l'augmentation
des valeurs et des traditions roumains dans la littrature.
15
Voir Constantin Hariciu i Elena Banciu, Comunicarea politic, Bucureti, Ars Docendi, 2006, p. 133.
243
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
d'une autonomie politique par une cration de la cohsion sociale. Un autre l'objectif tait
d'obtenir un avantage vers son image extrieure. Mais ce discours sur l'unit et l'autonomie a
t construit au milieu de la dsintgration rcente de la Rgion Hongroise Autonome 16.
On connait que le but du rgime totalitaire est de se prsenter comme le seul et
lunique possibilit de l'individu de sintgrer dans la socit. Mais, afin dattribuer une
identit, le rgime doit dtruit tous les autres moyens d'intgration. L'objectif dclar
didologie communiste tait de fonder une socit plus juste, qui cherche atteindre les
meilleurs rsultats possibles en termes de dveloppement de la personnalit individuelle.
L'ide n'est pas originale, elle fonctionne travers les autres doctrines politiques. Mais
contrairement eux, le socialisme veut rorganiser ce nouveau monde d'une destruction totale
et de loisirs de l'ancien monde vers un autre monde. Suivant cette logique, Nicolae Ceausescu
a cr cette nouvelle socit sur le plan discursif, une unit de la socit entire de la socit
signifie l'adhsion la politique du parti. Le mot patriotisme dfinit une personne de point de
vue moral, mais il a devenu une condition pour l'intgration et la reconnaissance au sein de la
socit, aussi. Le patriotisme a devenu la modalit de dfendre la nation et le parti comme un
signe totalisateur de la socit.
Un autre aspect important dans en ce qui concerne l'attribution de significations
motionnelles de certains mots est l'utilisation dexpression les nations qui cohabit, au
dtriment de population minoritaire. Cela rvle le but de leader roumain de raliser une
galit au niveau du discours de tous les gens de la socit. Il peut tre interprt comme une
modalit dobtenir lintgration de tous les gens dans un seul corps social et ethnique, aussi.
Dans ce cas lexpression des nations qui cohabite est quivalent avec le mot symbole
notre/nos peuple.
La politique nationaliste de Nicolae Ceausescu a t estime au dbut de son
gouvernement. En 1965, dans les runions du Ministre de la Propagande et l'Agitation du
Comit Central, l'action des propagandistes a suscit des critiques, parce que la campagne de
clarification des concepts: d'tat, la nation, la nationalit, des peuples et la relation dentre
ces concepts, tait insuffisante promu. 17 N'est pas une concidence, que cette mission de
laction de la propagande a t vu comme ncessaire, en particulier, dans les rgions o il y
avait un pourcentage considrable des minorits, plus prcis dans la rgion centrale du pays.
Ceci est parfaitement explicable, en termes d'intention du discours nationaliste d'agir dans les
rgions avec des problmes rels ou potentiels. La clarification des concepts mentionns ci-
dessus n'tait pas justifi seulement de lobjectif de l'ducation civique de l'individu, mais par
la cration de contexte social ncessaire pour mettre en uvre les politiques sociaux de
Nicolae Ceausescu, aussi.
En 1975, dans le dictionnaire politique, le mot patriotisme tait dfini comme l'un
des hautes vertus morales du peuple roumain". 18 Attribuant ce processus historique de la vertu
de crer la conscience de la nation roumaine, le patriotisme a devenu une force de la lgitimit
politique du pouvoir communiste. En outre, le dictionnaire a mentionn la naissance du
16
La Rgion Autonome de Hongrois a fonctionn entre 8 Septembre 1952 Fvrier 1968.
17
Stenograma edinei cu instructorii teritoriali ai seciei de propagand i agitaie al CC al PCR din 5-6
august 1965, dans les Archives Nationales Historique Centrale, fonds Comit Centrale du Parti Communiste
Roumaine, Dpartement de la Propagande et de lAgitation, dossire no. 35/1965, f.6.
18
Coord. Ionel Achim, Dicionar politic, Bucureti, Editura Politic, 1975, p. 452.
244
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
patriotisme socialiste, ce qui signifie "un profonde attachement des ouvriers la patrie, au
peuple, au Parti Communiste; le systme socialiste assure le plus grand dveloppement du
pays vers le plus haut niveau de civilisation et du progrs".19 Donc, le patriotisme a t
transform dune valeur morale une ncessit conomique. Alors, le patriotisme a devenu
une force de lgitimit du pouvoir politique. La dfinition du patriotisme a attir lattention
sur la politique sociale, en indiquant que le patriotisme socialiste tait un facteur important
dans la politique "de mlange et de renforcement de la nation socialiste20." Pour lgitimer la
direction de la politique sociale, le processus d'homognisation de la nation a t attribu au
besoin de dveloppement et du progrs social. Pour ne sparer pas ce processus du
mouvement communiste international et du mettre sous son patronage, ont dit que "le
patriotisme socialiste est bien lie de l'internationalisme proltarien 21". Tous les deux assurent
une politique progressiste du communisme.
Donc, du point de vue du leader communiste roumain, la nation devient de plus d'une
richesse motionnelle quune conception rationnelle. En utilisant ce point de vue, Nicolae
Ceausescu a cr une image de la nation qui a exig plus dmotion au l'individu. Au fonde de
croissement conomique de pays et la rponse positif des tats dEurope louverture
diplomatique, la raction du people roumaine a t positive. Donc, pour la priode 1967-1972,
il y a des plusieurs lettres et des messages envoie par le people au dirigeant roumain. Dans ces
messages il y a des sympathies exprimes, mais aussi, des critiques ou des conseils pour la
modalit de gouvernement 22. Cest vrai que cette situation peut tre intgr dans la modalit
de communication tre le pouvoir et la socit, le processus dfini par Stephen Kotkin, parler
bolchevique23, mais la confiance et lesprit despoir pour un mieux avenir tait visible.
Alors, on peut conclure que pendant ce priode-l, le discours sur lunit tait un vrai
discours, plus proche dindividu et de la socit.
On sait que Marx et Engels ont dvelopp une thorie prcise de la nation. Leur point
de vue sur ce sujet est celui qui montre la nation comme un lment de transition en attendant
la socit parfaite.24 Lopinion du leader roumaine sur la question de la nation est au moins
contradictoire et droutante. Il a stipul que "dans le dernire stage du communisme, les tats
nationaux seront disparu, mais la nation continuera exister de soi-mme, comme une entit
distincte."25 Dans ce contexte, le leader roumain na pas identifi la nation avec l'tat ou un
groupe ethnique particulier, mais avec le parti lui-mme.
Le discours de Ceausescu a montr qu'il a utilis la notion de l'idologie comme un
lien entre le parti et la population. Le processus de la translation de Partie des Nation est
inhrent la ralisation de la socit totalisante. Cette socit totalisante dcline les
diffrences en intrieur de la socit, par une rupture dfinitive entre le gouvernement et le
19
Ibidem.
20
Ibidem.
21
Ibidem.
22
Dans lintervalle 1968 et 1969 le Secrtariat du CC a reu 5262 lettres, ou les gens ont t exposs les
problmes des diffrentes entreprises (Informare, n ANIC, fonde CC al PCR, Dpartement Chancelerie, dossier
no. 189/1969, f. 1).
23
Malte Griesse, Communiquer, juger et agir sous Staline. La personne prise entre les ses liens avec les proches
et son rapport au systme politico-idologique, Peter Lang, Franckort am Main, 2011, p. 27.
24
Voir lanalyse ralis par Horace B. Davis en Nationalism and Socialism. Marxist and Labor Theories of
Nationalism to 1917, Monthly Review Press, New York and London, 1967.
25
Voir Ionel Achim (coord.), op. cit., p.388.
245
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
people. Cette rhtorique a laiss seulement au discours public et politique, car lvolution du
gouvernement du Ceausescu a montr une coupure totale entre la pouvoir politique et la
population. Donc, les deux processus sont inversement proportionnels. Plus la coupure entre
la ralit et le discours politique devient plus grande, plus d'effort a t investi de construire
une puissance politique, au sens de prsenter un monde unifi, totalisant, sans distinction
entre le pouvoir politique et le peuple. Par consquence dtre un vrai patriote signifie d'tre
un roumain vrai, un dfenseur des valeurs de la patrie. Le discours ignore chaque possibilit
pour les membres des minorits de montrer la citoyennet, en dehors de l'adoption de
l'identit roumaine. Cette attitude conduit une sorte de chauvinisme.
En guise de conclusions, mon analyse a t place dans l'identification et l'analyse des
mcanismes internes de la politique sociale. Plus prcisment, en identifiant le langage
politique comme un instrument de pouvoir, lanalyse a rvl la construction du nationalisme
du Ceausescu rapport la politique des minorits. La politique sociale de Nicolae Ceausescu
a t mise sous limage dune nation unique par sa construction homogne et totalisante.
Limage a t utilise dans la propagande externe et interne, mais dnote une exaltation de la
puissance personnelle du leader de la Roumanie communiste. Les symboles didentification
utilise dans le discours du Ceausescu ne vise pas seulement assimiler les minorits dans la
nation roumaine, mais aussi de les assimiler aux lites politique, plus prcis au dirigeant
roumaine. Dans ce contexte, lidologie a devenu le principe qui a unifi la socit, qui a
dfini la nation roumaine. Nicolae Ceausescu sa dclar lui-mme le dirigeant de la nation
roumaine toute entire et non pas du travailleurs, seulement. Alors il a trahi le principe
lniniste. Les mots-symboles d'identification utilise ont devenu plus frquente avec la
ncessit d'obtenir une image externe et interne positive pour la Roumanie. En outre, aprs
1968 les tensions internes et les attentes de la population deviennent plus fortes et on a pu
prdire la politique duniformisation sociale et ethnique de la nation roumain. Par consquent,
le leader avait besoin dune augmentation de nombre des partisans et a mis cette action sur
leffet dun discours nationaliste. Les mesures de la pratique sociale contredit le discours.
Bibliographie
Informare, en ANIC, fonde CC al PCR, Dpartement Chancelerie, dossier no. 189/1969, f. 1.
Stenograma edinei cu instructorii teritoriali ai seciei de propagand i agitaie al CC al
PCR din 5-6 august 1965, dans les Archives Nationales Historique Centrale, fonds Comit
Centrale du Parti Communiste Roumaine, Dpartement de la Propagande et de lAgitation,
dossire no. 35/1965, f. 6.
Cuvntare de ncheiere al Congresului al X-lea al Partidului Comunist Romn. 12 august
1969, vol. 4, Bucuresti, Editura Politica, 1970.
Rezoluia Congresului al IX-lea al PCR, n Congresul al IX-lea PCR, Bucureti, Editura
Politic, 1965.
Achim, Ionel (coord.), Dicionar politic, Bucureti, Editura Politic, 1975.
Bergoffen, Debra B. The politic body: democratic metaphors, totalitarian practices, erotic
rebelions, en Philosophy Social Criticism, 16/1990, SAGE Publication.
246
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Ceauescu, Nicolae, Romnia pe drumul construirii societii socialiste multilateral
dezvoltate, vol. 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 11,12, 17, 18, 19, 29, 30, Bucureti, Editura Politic, 1969, 1970,
1972, 1973, 1974, 1975, 1979, 1985, 1987.
Davis, Horace B., Nationalism and Socialism. Marxist and Labor Theories of Nationalism to
1917, Monthly Review Press, New York and London, 1967.
Dikj, Teun A. van, Ideology. A Multidisciplinary Approach, London, Sage Publication Ltd.,
2000.
Edelman, Murray, Politica i utilizarea simbolurilor, Polirom, 1999.
Godin, Christian, La totalit. Prologue pour une philosophie de la totalit, Editions Champ
Vallon, Seyssel, 1997.
Hariciu, Constantin i Banciu, Elena, Comunicarea politic, Bucureti, Ars Docendi, 2006.
Lasswell, D. Harold, Leites, Nathan, Language of politics. Studies in quantitative semantics,
The M.I.T.Press, 1965.
Linden, Ronald H., Socialist Patrimonialist and the Global Economy in the Case of
Roumania, n "International Organization", vol. 40, nr. 2, Power, Purpose and Collective
Choise: Economic Strategy in Socialist States, spring 1986.
Malte, Griesse, Communiquer, juger et agir sous Staline. La personne prise entre les ses liens
avec les proches et son rapport au systme politico-idologique, Peter Lang, Franckort am
Main, 2011.
Plano, C., Jack, Riggs, Robert, Robin, S. Helenan, Dicionar de analiz politic, Bucureti,
Editura EcceHomo, 1993.
247
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ON THE POSTMODERNITY OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL DISCOURSE
Raluca STANCIU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu
Abstract: The exposition tries to capture the nature of the relationship between the sphere of
reality and the sphere of discourse engaged in a dynamics of construction where Reality
becomes Logos and Logos becomes Reality. What gives relevance to this relationship is the
isomorphism that does not leave room for any dominant position: discourse does not wear out
reality and reality does not wear out discourse, but there is a certain amount of
indeterminateness and incompleteness on one side, as on the other. The two spheres build up
a dynamic universe, where they play a sublime game of seduction and rejection, a game
through which experience needs to be articulated and intention needs to find its object.
Keywords: philosophical discourse, knowledge, reality, significance, concept
The space of discursivity is heteroclite and subject to metamorphoses through which
diverse correspondences between the axis of being (the on) and the one of the existing
(gegonos) are being tried.
The issue of philosophy as type of discourse is putting to rest the millennial principle
be it implicit or explicit of philosophy being the 0 zone of knowledge or the pure and
secret reasoning, that is only clinging to a material support solely for reasons connected to the
necessity or appropriateness of conveying ideas. This perspective can easily be declined
through various methods specific to the assumed theoretical conceptions. However, according
to A. Codoban, in the contemporary occurrence of philosophy as discourse, that is appearing
along with the new theme of language, communication and signification, there is also
something more to appear. Discourse is now the philosophical figure mirrored in its own
thematization. And the current in-depth study of philosophys image as discourse is its in-
depth study as significant practice 1. From the point of view of signification, this issue
receives a precise profile, since the decision referring to the assumed discursive form is not
extrinsic to the conceptual substance that is to be expressed; the philosophical ecriture, as
Rorty and Derrida have put it, is not the mere representation of a pure thought that exists
within and for itself, but rather contributes to the production of the semantic universe through
which the philosophical speculation is clarified and unfolded. Therefore, the semiotic
perspective directed towards the philosophical discourse cannot be an external inquiry; it has
to be a discursive investigation that is embarking on a quest for a thought of the text and not
a thought from the text.
Philosophical discursivity as a method and form of knowledge develops an effort that
is both in essence as well as in practice gnosiological. In this sense, it applies an
instantaneous act of revealing the strata of thought, of multiplicity and diversity of
phenomena, of the myriad of methodological perspectives and points of view, with the help of
concepts putting together a structure out of which ideas are self-propelling on a sequential
1
Aurel Codoban, Filosofia ca gen literar [Philosophy as a Literary Genre], Cluj-Napoca, Editura Dacia, 1992,
p.85.
248
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
trajectory finally leading to what Greeks have enclosed in the term epokh, meaning middle
dialog, where claimed ideas converge and collapse in a seeming or undoubted contradiction.
Conscience, as an ontological element, and reason as a gnosiological element interact with
reality, developing, expanding, incorporating and devouring their object of study inside a
continuous circle between the observed and the observant. Under the action of appropriation
of the otherness, of taming the rough fact and of limiting the entropy, reality seems to adapt,
adjust and respond to the conscience and essence of the episteme in the sense given by M.
Foucault.2 Thus, reality seems to withdraw, leaving space to the philosophical discourse. The
philosophical discourse renders what is beyond the borders of verbal representation but,
symmetrically, suggests and entails the idea that reality itself can be part of a vaster and more
comprising linguistic universe. Therefore, the trajectory of significance works in both
directions alternatively, being able to merge sign and significance, to split them or to implode
totally and irremediably.
Ever since Kant, philosophy - that is no more defined through its subject, but through
modality, therefore, as method is a discourse that speaks both about the essence of things
and about the meaning of instances of discourse it relates to. This becomes possible only
through a third party3, that is neither essence, nor pure significance, but a singular unit of
these two. If the history of philosophy begins with identifying the concept with Eternity
according to the parmenidian thesis, as Kojve4 believes, it ends along with Hegels thesis
by which the concept is identified with Time only it is not an indefinite cosmic time, or the
cyclic time of life, but with Time as History a time inscribed inside the human being, a time
that cannot be conceived outside this status. The history of philosophy thus appears as a
progressive reduction of the Concepts transcendence. This reduction shakes the interior
balance of the concept that is equally sense and essence, determining at the level of
philosophical discourse the primordiality of sense and the secondarity of essence. Therefore,
the concept becomes the historical process of transformation of the objects universe into the
universe of discourse. Becoming aware of itself (by discourse) , philosophy must eventually
state that the Concept is nothing else but Time, and Time is nothing else but Concept.
Philosophy cannot dismantle the truth of this double identification without disassembling
itself as Discursive Truth.5
With Kojve, the philosophical discourse is unfolded in a structural triplicity: as
phenomenological discourse describing the world as perceived duration, as ontological
discourse that accounts for the objective reality of phenomena, and as energological
discourse that indicates what the objective reality should be, so that the object of discourse
can at the same time be what we say and appear as we say it is.
For Kojve, the philosophical discourse develops as explanation of the sense of a
concept that represents the constitutive element of discursive development. Since the degree
2
With Foucault, the notion of episteme or epistemological points to a historical a priori that is the
foundation for knowledge and discourse of knowledge, or to the conditions that enable the emergence of some
theories and debates, by means of a specific practice of reading. Michel Foucault, Les Mots et les Choses, Paris,
Gallimard, 1966, p. 13.
3
B.Hesbois, Prsentation, in Alexandre Kojve, Le concept, le temps et le discours. Introduction au systme
du savoir, Paris, Gallimard, 1990, p.10.
4
Ibidem, p.11
5
A. Kojve, op.cit. p.300.
249
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
of explanation of a sense of a notion can grow ad infinitum 6, this development represents an:
absolute maximum of explanation or a philosophical optimum that is reached through the
closure of its circular route, or returning to the starting point (the given notion), so that the
result or conclusion coincides with the origin or the prerequisite. 7 As constitutive elements of
the philosophical discourse, the concepts are not given as fixed starting points, invariable and
perfect; they are reaffirming their self, they are reactivating or re-dimensioning themselves by
the very discursive practice, therefore they are not the elements, but events of reasoning. The
philosophical discourse is therefore constructivist and establishing 8, and in this quality has
two complementary aspects but with differing natures, according to Deleuze and Guattari 9.
One first aspect is the creation of concepts that embody the infinite movement of reasoning,
and the second is the drawn plane, the medium or horizon that encompasses this movement.
The authors highlight the paradoxical nature of the second aspect, that cannot appear unitary
other than through the particular instances generated by the specifics of reasonings
movement. Therefore, the plan is the object of an infinite specification, which determines it
to seem not to be One-and All, other than in each case made particular by the choice of
movement.10
Starting from the prerequisite that philosophy means enunciation in the name of truth,
on condition of admitting this truth solely as a discursive truth, Kojve concludes that the
discursive truth philosophy is looking for is no more or less than the act of putting in relation
Time and Concept. Philosophy is nothing else but the progressive introduction of Concept in
Time. 11 Since knowledge as Logos (meaning discursive by definition), that establishes or
builds a philosophical system is nothing else than a meeting between Concept and Time, and
the history of philosophy is the history of progressive penetration of the notion of Time inside
the one of Concept, it can be affirmed that philosophy in its whole is revealed like an
introduction of the Concept in Time, introducing Time in the Concept. 12
If the process by which philosophical enunciation is instituted refuses any dissociation
between the operations by which discourse develops its content and the operations by which
the frame being presupposed and at the same time structured by the discourse is instituted, we
can consider the philosophical discourse as a constitutive discourse in the terms used by
Maingueneau a discourse that is founding without being founded by any instance other
than itself.13 This enterprise dictates the conceptualization of philosophical discourse as
discursive institution, which points to the understanding of philosophical discourse as an
event of renunciation. The reflection over the philosophical discourse as a constitutive
discourse is necessarily performed on two inseparable dimensions: the dimension of action
6
A. Kojve, op.cit. p.45.
7
Ibidem, p.46.
8
Etienne Souriau in his research Linstauration philosophique, Paris, Alcan, 1939, highlights the fact that all
human actions, without any discrimination, create a just situation of instauration; thus, Souriau is trying to
rehabilitate reason as an instrument of ontic knowledge, performing a problematic transition from gnosiology to
ontology.
9
Gilles Deleuze, Flix Guattari, Ce este filosofia? [What is the philosophy], Trgovite Ed. Pandora, 1999, p 36.
10
Ibidem, p.40.
11
A. Kojve, op.cit. p.61.
12
Ibidem, p.80.
13
D. Maingueneau, Lnonciation philosophique comme institution discursive, Langages, vol. 29 119, Paris,
Larousse, 1995 p.14.
250
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
through which the discourse builds its own emergence from the inter-discursive field and the
dimension of the process by which the elements of discourse are brought together, forming a
textual entirety, fit for a discursive coherence and cohesion. But the philosophical discourse
can not be understood as a content allowing the more or less derailed expression of ideologies
and mentalities. Since we cannot dissociate the universe of silent things and actions from
the universe of their representations, we can state that philosophy itself is an activity of
generating its own presence in the world and not merely a mediator between a fact and its
representation. Through discourse philosophy is managing its presence in the world, its
institution, the conditions of enunciation of the philosophical text being indefectibly entwined
inside its meaning14
It can be inferred from here that the philosophical sentence builds up under the sign of
impossibility of isolation from the historical frame and even less from the philosophical field
with all the norms and representations associated with its status. In essence it is about a
reference performed on the scale of problematic issues, with various and often confusing
nuances covering the whole spectrum, from acceptance to questioning. Paradoxically, both
extremes of problematization tend towards zero or towards non-problematization: the extreme
of acceptance can be judged as absolute inclusion of the frame into the philosophical
discourse. But, as shown above, discourse itself is not and can neither be a copy (a double) of
the frame, nor its absence, which confers it a paradoxical and even parasitical location that
Maingueneau calls paratopia. In other words, the philosophical discourse has the status of
an avatar, its manifestation being a permanent route of positioning and stabilization, 15 a
permanent negotiation between frame and non-frame.
In the analysis of the discourse, Marc Angenot16 enunciates two axioms he considers
applicable to the entimematic 17 discourse of knowledge, through which a phenomenon is put
in relation, with a conceptual complex that integrates it, and that makes up a surface which
can appear as incomplete, with missing spaces, but which is submitting to a discursive
coherence of profundity. One first axiom points to the necessity of an adjusting principle
that Angenot calls place(topo, in Aristotle) out of which this putting in relation
necessarily derives. In fact, this adjusting principle determines the discursive production, yet
surpassing the field of discourse pertinence. The second axiom affirms the teleological
character of the discourse of knowledge, which derives from its undisputable functionality
and from its orientation towards a cognitive finality. These axioms can be applied to each
discourse of knowledge that necessarily integrates the places in its discursive construction,
enclosing the whole discursive universe inside the very discourse. Therefore, the discourse
of knowledge (inside which Angenot integrates the philosophical and the scientific discourse)
develops on the surface its profound structures, spreading out in a vast tautology to which
nothing can be added any more that may not be already implicitly contained. 18
14
Ibidem, p.16.
15
If stabilization can be recognized and admitted as an impulse and tendency of that which is created, the
stability can only be valued within the space of ideal.
16
Marc Angenot, La parole pamphltaire. Contribution la typologie des discours modernes, Paris, Payot,
1982.
17
Angenot metaphorically defines the entimema as a link in a chain of thought whose positioning is neither
aleatory, nor reversible, but determined by a general strategy of a cognitive nature. Ibidem, p.31.
18
Ibidem, p.32.
251
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
For philosophy, the supreme value is essentially discursive, and has as a result the
development of discourse in a system of knowledge. The dogmatism of a philosophical
system is nothing else than the transformation of the first principles into discursive evidence,
that is concepts. By definition, philosophy is a quest for discursive wisdom that does not have
a zero degree (a sum of origin meanings that render reality in a way the least perverted by the
interference of rhetorics) it relates to, a different one besides the one it proposes and promotes
itself. In the case of philosophic discourse, this special relation between the zero degree and
error admits no intermediaries. The philosophic discourse is its own zero degree that is, the
sense and significance of concepts start with it, or better said, with the definitions of the
themes basic concepts that the philosophical discourse sets in circulation. In other words,
philosophy exists as philosophy, through the language, thus it exists as philosophical
discourse, as a re-statement of facts to the use of conscience and reason. Still open in a
disquieting way remains the problem of pasting together and inflation of the philosophical
language, as highlighted by Hottois, who places philosophy (especially the contemporary one)
under the sign of a profound metamorphosis that is leading it towards the universal
hermeneutics towards poetry, literature, criture or textualism, which determines philosophy
to declare that the symbolic answer remains the only possible and legitimate answer from a
human point of view.19
By manifestation of the autonomy towards an object, the philosophic discourse affirms
its uniqueness to the detriment of univocalness, defying any limit of interpretation. The act of
reception becomes the equivalent of an act that is creating new senses and significances, and
its uniqueness constitutes the very rationale of interpretation.
Bibliography
Angenot, Marc, La parole pamphltaire. Contribution la typologie des discours modernes,
Paris, Payot, 1982.
Codoban, Aurel, Filosofia ca gen literar [Philosophy as a Literary Genre], Cluj-Napoca,
Editura Dacia, 1992.
Deleuze, Gilles, Guattari, Flix, Ce este filosofia? [What is the philosophy], Trgovite Ed.
Pandora, 1999.
Hottois, Gilbert, Weyembergh, Maurice, Richard Rorty ambiguts et limites du
postmodernisme, Paris, Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1994.
Foucault, Michel, Les Mots et les Choses, Paris, Gallimard, 1966.
Kojve, Alexandre, Le concept, le temps et le discours. Introduction au systme du savoir,
Paris, Gallimard,1990.
Maingueneau, Dominique , Lnonciation philosophique comme institution discursive,
Langages, vol.29 119, Paris, Larousse, 1995.
Souriau, Etienne, Linstauration philosophique, Paris, Alcan, 1939.
19
Gilbert Hottois, Maurice Weyembergh, Richard Rorty ambiguts et limites du postmodernisme, Paris,
Librairie Philosophique J. Vrin, 1994, p. 174.
252
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE STRUCTURAL-SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF SOME CAUSATIVE VERBS IN
THE MEDICAL LANGUAGE
Simona Nicoleta STAICU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Victor Babe University of
Medicine and Pharmacy, Timioara
Abstract: The analysis undertaken in our work illustrates the possibilities of using the
method of semic revealing and emphasizing of the combinatory potential of terms in
medical terminology too. It is actually a substantiation of the possibility of combining the
onomasiological approach, mainly found in this field, with the semasiological approach,
in particular with the techniques of semantic disintegration of medical terms. Thus, it was
acvhieved a full description of the terms on the two semantic dimensions of the lexical
system the paradigmatic and the syntagmatic axes, with detailed information about the
semantic structure of the terms examined. Syntactical distribution and especially the
lexical-semantic one, highlights the differences in content of the words submitted to
structural-semantic analysis (a case study: to indroduce).
Keywords: lexical, semantic, lexeme, sememe, term, medical
Selectarea i mbinarea cuvintelor dup anumite tipare bine structurate poate
conduce spre o comunicare eficient, elaborat i, nu n ultimul rnd, productiv. Fiecare
enun este rezultatul seleciei elementelor sale din varietatea de uniti ale limbii. Aceast
selecie este determinat de relaiile paradigmatice existente n limb ca sistem i care,
desigur, rmn dincolo de coninutul concret al enunului.
n semantica modern se manifest un interes aparte pentru studierea proprietilor
sintagmatice ale cuvintelor, fapt motivat, printre altele, de valoarea relevant a
potenialului combinatoriu al cuvintelor [Buc 1987: 134-141]. Se acrediteaz tot mai
mult ideea c cercetarea proprietilor sintagmatice ale cuvintelor reprezint o metod
obiectiv de descriere a sensurilor lexicale. Potrivit acestei teze, cuvintele din aceeai
paradigm lexical au proprieti sintagmatice comune.
Intercondiionarea acestor dou tipuri de relaii sistemice este evident: pe de o
parte, cuvntul ca membru al unei paradigme poate intra numai n anumite legturi
sintactice, adic poate s se combine doar cu anumite clase semantice de cuvinte, iar pe
de alt parte, totalitatea relaiilor sintagmatice ale unui cuvnt i determin locul lui n
paradigm. Se poate afirma c sintagmatica este implicit prezent n limb i explicit n
vorbire, iar paradigmatica este implicit prezent n vorbire i explicit evideniat la
nivelul limbii. Astfel, cercetarea unui tip de relaii ntotdeauna presupune i analiza
celuilalt tip, deoarece ele reprezint principalele axe ale sistemului lexico-semantic.
Dei exist aceast legtur strns i condiionare reciproc a acestor dou
aspecte ale manifestrii relaiilor de sistem din vocabular, uneori doar din raiuni
metodologice ele sunt examinate separat n vederea evidenierii specificului fiecreia. O
astfel de abordare am ncercat n lucrarea de fa.
253
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Relaiile sintagmatice ale cuvintelor se concretizeaz, cum am precizat anterior, n
(1) tipurile de poziii sintactice n care ele se ntrebuineaz i n (2) clasele semantice de
cuvinte cu care se combin. Pentru desemnarea posibilitilor de mbinare a cuvintelor i
realizarea acestora n diverse poziii sintactice, n varii lucrri de specialitate se propun
termeni precum: colocaie, distribuie, valen. Valena cuvntului este determinat de
coninutul lui semantic, fiind o trstur universal a acestuia.
La baza relaiilor sintagmatice stau conexiunile cu termenii nvecinai n fluxul
vorbirii. Cuvintele se nlnuie n cadrul enunului ndeplinind rolul de elemente
constitutive ale acestuia. Din punctul de vedere al raporturilor dintre ele, n cadrul unei
sintagme, cuvintele pot fi de dou feluri: cuvinte care joac rolul de termeni guvernani;
cuvinte care sunt termeni de expansiune ai termenilor guvernani.
Relaiile sintagmatice ale cuvintelor depind de diferii factori lingvistici i
extralingvistici. Factorii lingvistici sunt raportai la complexitatea sistemului limbii, la
locul pe care-l ocup n acest sistem, la apartenena la diferite pri de vorbire, categorii
lexico-gramaticale, clase lexico-semantice. Factorii extralingvistici fac posibil alturarea
cuvintelor n sintagme ca reflex al alturrii similare a realiilor, ca reflectare a
conexiunilor din realitate. Aceast ultim condiionare este mult mai pregnant evideniat
n domeniul terminologiei tiinifice.
n analiza structural-semantic pe care o efectum dintr-o perspectiv didactico-
tiinific, demersul preliminar este jalonarea unui cod comun de referin cu care s se
poat descrie coninutul lexemelor selectate. Acest cod, un fel de lingua mentalis,
conine, aa cum arat Anna Wierzbicka 1, un numr limitat de termeni cu un nalt grad de
abstracie, foarte general, denumit METATERMEN. Cu ajutorul unor asemenea
metatermeni, avnd valoare de universalii lingvistice, por fi descrise toate cuvintele unui
cmp lexical, ale unei micro- sau macroparadigme lexicale. Dealtfel, aceti metatermeni
cu statut de arhilexeme constituie un vocabular fundamental de rangul I, care trebuie
achiziionat n primul rnd de cei care nva o limb pentru a putea dobndi competena
de a realiza puntea mental de echivalene ntre limba matern L1 i limba nou
achiziionat L2. Sub raport strict semantic aceti metatermeni, n terminologia utilizat
de noi se rentlnesc sub denumirea de arhiseme sau seme comune (vezi infra, aplicaiile
efectuate).
n cercetarea noastr am plecat de la premisa c fiecare cuvnt polisemantic sau
monosemantic constituie un lexem i c fiecare sens al acestuia reprezint un semem, iar o
component minimal a sensului lui este un sem. Sememul poate fi vzut ca un fascicul
de componente semantice (seme) care particularizeaz un lexem monosemantic. Cu alte
cuvinte, am admis posibilitatea dispunerii semantice a termenilor medicali, n cazul
nostru, n mod ealonat pe trei nivele: lexemic, sememic i semic.
Pentru a cerceta coninutul unui termen, din punct de vedere structural sau
semantic, este necesar s ptrundem n structura lui la nivelul sememelor i s efectum
1
Cf. Semantic primitives, Frankfurt, 1972, apud Richard Srbu, 2003: Modele de analiz contrastiv, n vol.
Probleme de filologie slav XI, Timioara, p. 95-98.
254
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
analiza la nivelul semelor, procedeu denumit n lingvistic analiz semic sau
componenial2 [Srbu 1987].
Acest tip de analiz semic se folosete frecvent n cadrul abordrii semantice a
limbilor la nivelul lexicului specializat, utilitatea ei fiind recunoscut de mai muli
specialiti ai domeniului terminologic, mai ales n privina studiilor comparate [Depecker
2002: 45-46; Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 59-62].
Dac aplicm aceast metod, termenul medical este analizat la nivelul sistemului
lexical ca o unitate singular, autonom, a crei semnificaie este incorporat n structura
sa semantic, separat de legturile pe care le-ar putea manifesta cu ali termeni
poziionai n acelai cmp lexico-semantic.
Am admis aplicarea analizei semice n investigarea structurii semantice a
termenilor medicali plecnd de la premisa c semele reprezint generalizarea i
reflectarea n sistemul semantic al limbii a nsuirilor obiective ale termenilor selectai.
Totalitatea semelor incorporate n sfera unui termen conduc spre caracterul distinctiv,
denominativ al semnului lingvistic, dar i spre cel relaional. Semele indic diferite
caracteristici importante ale unei anumite noiuni, aducnd un aport semnificativ la
conturarea sensurilor unui cuvnt n sistemul limbii. Exist seme comune care se
poziionez la baza alctuirii unui cmp lexical, repetabile pentru toi membrii cmpului
de termeni i seme specifice care sunt cel mai greu de reperat n cadrul analizei semice
[Bidu-Vrnceanu 2008: 23-24].
Analiza semic presupune descompunerea unui lexem n componente minimale i
relevarea numai a acelor trsturi semantice care sunt definitorii pentru lexemele
cercetate [Srbu 1977: 90]. De aceea, n analiza aplicat de noi termenilor medicali, n
inventarul de componente ale unui termen, nu am considerat necesar s cuprindem
absolut toate caracteristicile poteniale din coninutul termenilor investigai. Numrul de
seme care definesc un termen trebuie s fie minimal, dar s includ suficiente
caracteristici pentru individualizarea fiecrui lexem.
Dar dac, totui, inventarul semelor nu trebuie s fie exhaustiv, el trebuie s fie
suficient de relevant pentru individualizarea semantic a termenilor. Pentru a testa
relevana semelor stabilite este suficient s substituim chiar i un singur sem din structura
unui lexem cu un alt sem, pentru a-i modifica semnificaia. De exemplu, substituind
semul concret cu semul abstract din formula semic a lexemului A INOCULA, vom
prefigura o alt semnificaie (un alt semem al acestui cuvnt: a inocula ceva abstract: o
teorie, o mentalitate, pasiune, sentiment etc., rezultnd un cuvnt sinonim cu A
INSUFLA). La fel, n formula de coninut a lexemului A IMPLANTA, nlocuind semul
obiect dur cu semul lichid, potrivit legii izomorfismului dintre planul expresiei i cel
al coninutului, se prefigureaz semnificaia semului A INJECTA.
2
Privind analiza semic (componenial) a se vedea i: Pottier, Bernard, 1964: Vers une smantique moderne n
Travaux de Linguistique et de Littrature I, 1, Strasbourg p. 107-137; Pottier, B., 1965: La dfinition
smantique dans les dictionnaires n Travaux de Linguistique et de Littrature 3, p. 33-39; C. Maneca, 1969:
Analiza semic a lexicului (Cu aplicare la lexicul de origine latin al limbii romne), n LR, XVIII, nr. 1; A.
Bidu-Vrnceanu, 1970: Une modalit de description paradigmatique au niveau de lexique, n Rvue Roumaine
de linguistique, XV, nr. 6, p. 545-568; A. Bidu-Vrnceanu, 1976: Systmatique des noms de couleurs. Recherche
de mthode en smantique structurale, Editura Academiei RSR, Bucureti.
255
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
O alt modalitate de descriere a coninutului termenilor cercetai, mai ales a
arhilexemelor (arhisememelor) grupurilor, este cea bazat pe cuvinte axiom de tipul
predicatelor cu rang inferior, de exemplu, A CAUZA, i a predicatelor de rang variabil
ca: A NCEPE, A SE AFLA, A AVEA, A FI etc., cu pronominalizri (CEVA, CINEVA,
UNDEVA, CNDVA, CUMVA) i negaii (NU) sau ali conectori. De exemplu, A DA =
A CAUZA + A NU NCEPE + A AVEA; A INTRA = A MERGE + A NCEPE + A SE
AFLA N X.
n analiza noastr aceast metodologie ne ajut la configurarea arhilexemelor
grupului lexico-semantic (GLS) analizate. Astfel, coninutul termenilor care exprim
aciunea de A INTRODUCE l-am ncadrat n urmtoarea formul: A CAUZA + CA
CEVA + S SE AFLE + N X (indicator circumstanial = N INTERIOR). Formula
semic este redat prin metatermeni lingvistici, cuvinte cu o mare frecven i importan
n vocabularul limbii romne, avnd un coninut general, dar cu un ridicat rang de
acoperire semantic. Pentru asemenea metatermeni s-a propus n semantica modern
denumirea de primitive semantice [A. Wierzbicka, op. cit., apud Srbu 2003: 98].
Tehnica prin care se selecteaz semele n cadrul analizei componeniale const n
interpretarea propriu-zis a definiiilor lexicografice, fiind i o modalitate eficient de
caracterizare a unei terminologii [Bidu-Vrnceanu 2007: 71-103]. n lucrarea de fa
informaiile ne-au fost furnizate, n primul rnd de textele de specialitate medical, apoi
am apelat la dicionarele explicative, dicionare medicale. n aceste lucrri am gsit
coninutul noiunilor formale, dar i descrierea cuvintelor n termenii contextului
lingvistic. Drept urmare, pentru stabilirea inventarului de componente semice ale
termenilor medicali supui analizei, am recurs la asemenea lucrri, pentru confruntarea
definiiilor, n special, dar i pentru nregistrarea colocaiilor specifice. Complementar,
am valorificat i numeroasele informaii de strict specialitate (teorie, mostre de idiolecte)
obinute prin interviurile realizate cu medicii specialiti.
Coninutul sememic al lexemelor cu arhisemul A INTRODUCE a fost stabilit pe
baza definiiilor acestor termeni din Dicionarul Medical (sub litera I). n analiza grupului
lexico-semantic (GLS) de verbe s-a urmrit n principal cauzalitatea aciunii de A
INTRODUCE, i anume, A CAUZA CA CEVA S SE AFLE N X: N INTERIOR.
a implanta = a introduce n organism o serie de substane, materiale n diferite scopuri:
protezare, terapeutic, diagnostic i experimental [DM 2007: 585].
a infecta = a cauza/ a face s ptrund n organism (un agent patogen: virus, bacterie,
ciuperc, parazit) [DM 2007: 595].
a infesta = a cauza/ a face s ptrund un parazit n organismul gazdei (pentru
artropodele ectoparazite) [DM 2007: 595].
a ingera = a introduce pe cale bucal i nghiire dup mestecare, a hranei, a buturilor, a
unor medicamente sau uneori (de regul accidental) a unor substane toxice [DM 2007:
597].
a injecta = a introduce un ac ntr-o zon a organismului pentru a injecta un medicament
[DM 2007: 599].
a inocula = a introduce un agent infectant ntr-un mediu viu sau inert, acelular; a
introduce n organism o substan, un ser, un vaccin, pentru precizarea diagnosticului
unei boli, experiene, imunizare [DM 2007: 599].
256
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
a insemina = a introduce instrumental sperm n vaginul unei femei apte pentru concepie
[DM 2007: 599].
a insera = a introduce, a ataa o structur anatomic pe o alt structur anatomic [DM
2007: 600].
a intuba = a introduce, pe cale oral, o sond care are rolul de a asigura permeabilitatea
cilor respiratorii superioare, de obicei pentru respiraia artificial [DM 2007: 607].
a inunda = a cauza/ a face s ptrund un lichid ntr-un tub sau organ [DM 2007: 607].
a invagina = a cauza/ a face s ptrund, la nivelul tubului digestiv, dintr-un tub flexibil
n tubul nsui: 1. I. apendicular, ptrunderea apendicelui n cavitatea cecal; 2. I.
cecocolic, ptrunderea cecului i apendicelui n cavitatea cecului i apoi n colon; 3. I.
colocolic, ptrunderea unui segment de colon n segmentul subdiacent; 4. I. ileocolic,
ptrunderea ileonului terminal n cavitatea cecului; 5. I. intestinal, ptrunderea unui
segment de intestin n segmentul subdiacent [DM 2007: 607].
a infiltra = a introduce prin puncie, la nivelul unui esut, a unui medicament n cantitate
mai mare, n vederea unei resorbii ndelungate [DM 2007: 595].
257
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
I. DESCRIEREA PARADIGMATIC. ANALIZA SEMIC
Tabel. Formula semic (inventarul de componente minimale semantice n domeniul medical*)
SEME Lichid Cale
Organ/ Instrument/
A CAUZA Medicament Agent (fiziologic,
Tranzitiv/ segm. Aliment Material Parazit
INTRAREA (lichid/solid) patogen seminal
Cauzativ organ dur Oral Cutanat Alta
LEXEME .a.)
*A
INTRODUCE + + + + + + + + + + + +
a implanta + + + _ _ _ _ + + +
a infecta + + _ + _ _ _ + + + +
a infesta + + _ + _ _ _ + + + +
a ingera + + + _ _ + + _ +
a injecta + + + _ _ + _ _ + +
a inocula + + + + + +
a insemina + + + + +
a insera + + +
a intuba + + + +
a inunda + + _ _ + _ _ _ +
a invagina + + + +
a infiltra
+ + + + +
258
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
*Suntem pe deplin convini c metodologia abordrii termenilor medicali pe baza analizei
semice presupune i un grad de subiectivitate din partea cercettorului n stabilirea
inventarului de componente semice minimale pe baza propriei experiene lingvistice. Dar
avnd n vedere c aceste trsturi distinctive s-au elaborat prin consultarea, pentru fiecare
caz n parte, a specialitilor din domeniu, suntem convini c aceste inventare semice au
dobndit un grad semnificativ de obiectivitate tiinific.
INVENTAR SEMIC [+ / trsturi caracteristice]:
a. Seme comune ntregului GLS: a cauza intrarea, tranzitiv-cauzativ
Aceste seme prefigureaz HIPONIMIA grupului LS (hiperonimului A INTRODUCE
i corespund toate hiponimele analizate n tabel: A IMPLANTA, A INFECTA, A INGERA,
A INJECTA, A INOCULA . cl.);
b. Seme comune unui grup mai restrns de termeni: medicament, agent patogen, cale
oral, alte ci.
Aceste seme prefigureaz SINONIMIA n interiorul GLS: A INFECTA, A INFESTA:
+ a cauza intrarea + tranzitiv-cauzativ + agent patogen + parazit; A INJECTA, A
INOCULA au ca seme comune: + a cauza intrarea + tranzitiv-cauzativ + medicament
+ lichid + cale cutanat + alte ci;
c. Seme specifice, care individualizeaz un termen, ori un numr restrns de termeni: semul
+ aliment este specific pentru lexemul A INGERA; semul + instrument este caracteristic
lexemelor A IMPLANTA, A INTUBA; semul + parazit se ntlnete doar n cazul
lexemelor A INFECTA, A INFESTA.
II. DESCRIEREA SINTAGMATIC. ANALIZA DISTRIBUIONAL a unitilor
terminologice (UT)
Din textele medicale de specialitate au fost extrase urmtoarele uniti frazeologice,
tipuri de sintagme, supuse analizei morfosintactice:
1. VERB act. tranz. + SUBST. concr. inanimat Ac. + COMPL. circ./ COMPL. circ. instr.:
a implanta + CD: [dinte, esut, medicament, hormoni, electrozi stimulatori] + COMPL. circ.:
[n maxilar, n old, n organe];
a infecta + CD: [organismul] + CI: [cu virus, bacterie, ciuperc, parazit];
a infesta + CD: [organismul gazd] + CI: [cu parazii];
a ingera + CD: [mncare, alimente, medicamente, subst. toxice] + COMPL. circ.: [pe gur];
a injecta + CD: [lichide, medicamente] + COMPL. circ.: [n mn, n ven];
a inocula + CD: [agent infectat] + COMPL. circ.: [n organism, n embrion, n culturi
celulare];
a insemina + CD: [sperm] + COMPL. circ.: [n vagin];
a insera + CD: [o struct. anatomic] + COMPL. circ.: [ntr-un vector de clonare, ntr-o alt
structur anatomic];
a inunda + CD: [un tub sau organ, un segment de organ] + CI: [cu lichid, snge];
a intuba + CD: [un conduct natural] + COMPL. circ. instr.: [tub, sond];
a invagina + CD: [o poriune dintr-un tub flexibil (apendice, cec, colon, ileon)] + COMPL.
circ. instr.: [n tubul nsui (segment subdiacent)];
a infiltra + CD: [medicament, o soluie] + COMPL. circ: [n esut, prin puncie].
259
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
2. VERB reflex. + SUBST. concr. inanimat N = CI/ COMPL. circ. instr.:
a se infecta [organismul] [cu virui, cu bacterii, cu parazii];
a se infesta [organismul] [cu parazii animali sau vegetali];
a se injecta [un medicament, lichid] [cu seringa];
a se inunda [un organ] [cu snge];
3. VERB reflex. + SUBST. concr. inanimat N + COMPL. circ.:
a se implanta [un stimulator cardiac] [pe inim];
a se ingera [alimente] [prin gur, n stomac];
a se inocula [un ser/ un vaccin] [pentru imunizare n organism];
a se insemina [lichid seminal masculin] [n vagin];
a se insera [un implant dentar] [n alveol];
a se intuba [o sond] [n trahee];
a se invagina [apendicele] [n cavitatea cecal];
a se infiltra [un medicament] [prin puncie la nivelul unui esut];
4. VERB pasiv + SUBST. concr., animat Ac = COMPL. de agent:
a fi implantat de chirurg, de terapeut;
a fi injectat de medicul specialist; de kinetoterapeut; de asistentul medical;
a fi intubat de ctre medicul specialist;
5. VERB pasiv + SUBST. concr., inanimat Ac. = CI/ COMPL. circ. instr.:
a fi infectat cu virui, cu bacterii streptococi;
a fi infestat cu parazii;
a fi injectat cu suspensie medicamentoas;
a fi inoculat cu un agent infectant;
a fi inseminat instrumental cu sperm;
a fi inundat cu lichid sanguin;
a fi infiltrat cu soluii medicamentoase.
a fi intubat cu o sond;
6. VERB pasiv + SUBST. concret inanimat Ac. COMPL. circ.:
a fi ingerat pe cale bucal, prin nghiire;
a fi inserat un ligament pe os;
a fi intubat pe cale oral;
a fi invaginat printr-un segment din intestin;
Investigaia noastr a relevat urmtoarele proprieti sintagmatice ale UT examinate:
a. Sintagmatica sintactic
- VERB act. tranz. + SUBST. concr. inanimat Ac. + CI/ COMPL. circ./ COMPL. circ. instr.;
- VERB reflex. + SUBST. concr. inanimat N = COMPL. circ. instr. (organ/ parte de organ,
instrument, lichid, medicament, agent patogen);
- VERB reflex. + SUBST. concr. inanimat N + COMPL. circ. (organ/ parte de organ,
instrument, lichid, medicament);
- VERB pasiv + SUBST. concr., animat Ac = COMPL. de agent: animat (medic, terapeut,
specialist);
- VERB pasiv + SUBST. concr., inanimat Ac. = CI/ COMPL. circ. instr.: inanimat (agent
patogen, medicament, lichid, instrument);
260
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
- VERB pasiv + SUBST. concret inanimat Ac. COMPL. circ.: inanimat (organ/ parte din
organ).
b. Sintagmatic semantico- lexical
Substantivele cu care se combin aceste verbe fac parte din urmtoarele clase semantice:
- medicamente: solide, lichide;
- organe, materiale cu consisten: structuri anatomice, organe;
- ageni patogeni: microbi, ciuperci, virui, bacterii;
- substane/ lichide: ap, snge, substane toxice, lichide seminale, ser fiziologic etc.;
- alimente: solide, hran;
- parazii: viermi intestinali, parazii propriu-zii, microorganisme patogene;
- instrumente: tub, ac, tij , sond, protez, stimulator cardiac (peacemaker) etc.;
- cale: oral, cutanat, alte ci.
Termenii analizai mai pot fi grupai n funcie de capacitatea lor de a se angaja n
construcii frazeologice de diferite tipuri i din punctul de vedere al sudurii dintre
constitueni, astfel:
- mbinri frazeologice ale cror componente sunt univoc legate (n acest caz numai
unul din termeni are valoare combinatorie restrictiv, apartinnd terminologiei de
strict specialitate, cellalt, sau ceilali constitueni avnd o colocabilitate
nerestrictiv): a ingera substane toxice/ alimente; a implanta un stimulator cardiac/
un dinte; a inocula un agent infectat n culturi celulare/ un ser; a fi infectat cu parazii/
virui .a.
- uniti frazeologice ale cror componente sunt biunivoc legate (n acest caz termenii
constitutivi sunt de strict specialitate, iar sudura semantic dintre ei este
considerabil, avnd o colocabilitate restrictiv, idiomatic): a se invagina apendicele
n cavitatea cecal; a invagina ileonul; a infesta cu un agent patogen; a se infecta
sinusurile nazale cu germeni; a se infecta amigdalele cu alergeni .a.
n concluzie se poate afirma c termenii constitutivi ai grupului analizat reprezint un
exemplu concludent privitor la relevana lexico-semantic a organizrii lor pe cele dou axe
sistemice ale vocabularului specializat medical. Din punct de vedere paradigmatic,
subansamblul de termeni examinai se grupeaz pe baza unor SEME (trsturi semantice
comune i distinctive) n subclase riguros delimitate. Cf. semele comune ntregului grup
arhisemele a face s intre/ s se afle n interior, a ptrunde, semele comune doar unui
grup mai restrns instrument, lichid, agent patogen, precum i seme distinctive:
material dur/ lichid, medicament/ agent patogen.
Se observ existena unui termen ARHILEXEM/ ARHISEMEM A INTRODUCE,
care poate fi reperat explicit sau implicit n toate definiiile celorlali termeni, i, de aceea,
poate fi considerat hiperonimul grupului lexico-semantic.
Dup ce, n prima etap a demersului nostru, prin analiza semic (componenial) am
delimitat coninutul semantic al sememelor examinate i le-am reprezentat matricial n
tabelul, am efectuat descrierea sintagmatic a lexemelor termeni, precizndu-le mai inti
formulele morfosintactice n care acetia pot s apar n lanul sintagmatic al realizrii lor i,
n cele din urm, am delimitat subclasele de cuvinte - substantive cu care acetia se combin
n discursul medical. S-a realizat astfel o descriere complet a termenilor pe cele dou
261
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
dimensiuni semantice ale sistemului lexical axa paradigmatic i cea sintagmatic, cu
informaii detaliate despre structura semantic a termenilor examinai.
n prima rubric din tabel apare specificarea LEXEM/ SEMEM, care trebuie neleas
astfel: fiecare cuvnt (lexem) este supus analizei ntr-un sens anume cel medical generic i
specific, categorial i chiar subcategorial, el reprezentnd, n terminologia adoptat de noi n
lucrare un semem, adic un cuvnt ntr-o anumit accepiune.
Distribuia sintactic i mai ales cea lexical-semantic pune n eviden deosebirile de
coninut ale cuvintelor supuse analizei structural-semantice. Astfel, verbul A INFESTA
selecteaz n combinaiile sale lexeme care relaioneaz n plan semantic cu artropode
ecoparazite, i prin aceasta se difereniaz n planul actualizrii lui contextuale de celelalte
lexeme; A INUNDA, conectat prin prepoziia cu, i altur ap, lichid, snge, puroi; A
IMPLANTA se combin, potrivit formulei sintactice artate n tabelul de mai sus, cu
substantive ca dinte, corp strin, precum i denumiri de alte materiale, substane sau obiecte
n diferite scopuri: protezare, terapeutic, diagnostic i experimental. Verbul A INGERA
selecteaz substantive ca alimente, substane, hran, buturi, substane toxice etc., precum i
indicatori circumstaniali de modalitate pe cale bucal, prin nghiire .a.m.d.
Analiza ntreprins ilustreaz posibilitile utilizrii metodei de decelare semic i de
relevare a potenialului combinatoriu al termenilor respectivi i n domeniul terminologiei
medicale. Este, de fapt, o demonstrare a posibilitii de combinare a demersului de tip
onomasiologic, preponderent ntlnit n acest domeniu, cu demersul de tip semasiologic, n
special cu procedeele de dezintegrare semantic a cuvintelor termeni medicali.
Asemenea descrieri au o deosebit valoare practic-aplicativ n activitile didactice,
n special cu studenii mediciniti strini, pentru care asemenea modele de analiz semic i
ajut s descifreze esena semantic a termenilor medicali, evitndu-se calea traducerii ntr-o
limb de circulaie, nu ntotdeauna bine sau n egal msur cunoscut de acetia.
Bibliografie
Bidu-Vrnceanu, Angela, Lexicul specializat n micare. De la dicionare la texte, Bucureti,
Editura Universitii din Bucureti, 2007.
Bidu-Vrnceanu, Angela, Cmpuri lexicale din limba romn. Probleme teoretice i aplicaii
practice, Bucureti, Editura Universitii din Bucureti, 2008.
Buc, Marin, Proprietile sintagmatice ale cuvintelor, n vol. Studii de limbi i literaturi
moderne, Timioara, TUT, 1987, p. 134-141.
Depecker, Loc, Entre signe et concept. Elments de terminologie gnrale, Paris, Presses
Sorbonne Nouvelle, 2002.
Srbu, Richard, Antonimia lexical n limba romn, Timioara, Editura Facla, 1977.
Srbu, Richard, Aspecte ale recurenei semice n sintagmatica lexical, n vol. Lexicologie
didactic, Timioara, TUT, 1987, p. 45-64.
Srbu, Richard, Modele de analiz contrastiv, n vol. Probleme de filologie slav XI,
Timioara, TUT, 2003, p. 95-100.
*** Dorlands Illustrated Medical Dictionary, 30th Edition, Philadelphia, Saunders, 2003.
Rusu, Valeriu, Dicionar Medical, (DM), Bucureti, Editura Medical, 2007.
262
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
TRANSCENDING MEDIA: ANALYSIS CONCERNING THE ADAPTATION OF
HARAP-ALB ROMANIAN FAIRY TALE IN COMIC FORMAT
Andreea-Nicoleta CATALINA, PhD Candidate, University of Bucharest
Monica BOTTEZ, Professor, PhD, University of Bucharest
Abstract: This paper examines the relationship between the Romanian fairy tale Harap-Alb and
its contemporary comic adaptation Harap Alb Continu. The popular misconception that
comics are children literature is nowadays outdated; reading has become an experience far
beyond that of words only. The graphic format is well-suited for this new paradigm and ready
to seize it, establishing at the same time a convincing connection with various age groups and
nationalities. Ion Creang's characters are perfect for a superhero comic. They possess
supernatural abilities, come from diverse backgrounds and have different addictions, defying
the concept of Ubermensch. Though, the style is different, digital-like, and the way in which the
characters are depicted is realistic, tracing no grotesque. Characters special skills are the
result of some personal drama, of mistakes committed in their youth, which is why the target
group of the adapted version are not only teenagers, but also adults with life experience, who
can easily identify with the characters, that are not completely positive or negative. The
narrative remains pseudo realistic, magic is a secondary phenomenon, and hence the
adaptation status of the story. This paper explores the connection with the original fairy tale in
three ways: content, structure and function. It explores the graphic use of anthropomorphism,
the manners in which stereotyping can be employed for narrative purposes, what is gained and
lost when a fairy tale is adapted into a graphic format, and how conventional narrative
elements can be disrupted for rhetorical effect using visual devices. These modern visual
storytelling techniques, due to advanced technology, both build on and alter the fairy tale
tradition. The paper also suggests that the comic format is an example of a unique form of tale
telling, which uses the visual framework to highlight aspects of the original work and opens
windows into fresh and even unexpected perspectives. The result is that readers are then able to
experience the story in new ways, with a broader understanding of and an increased
appreciation for both the original work and the new creation, which is why the paper will
conclude upon the benefits that would be brought to the educational field, too.
Keywords: Harap-Alb, comics, adaptation, Ion Creang, fairy tale
Introduction
The comic strip The White Moor Continues is a moral continuation of the classical
fairy tale by Ion Creang. This is not the first attempt to illustrate and adapt into a
different medium the well-known story, as there have previously been calendars, stamps,
coloring books, filmstrips, records, tapes, 3D animations, plays, films, ballet shows etc.,
all inspired by the original story. The fairy tale was illustrated over time by graphic artists
like Ary Murnu (1924), D. Stoica (1936), Sandu Florea (1979), Filimon Hamuraru (1985)
etc., each conveying his personal vision and style. The representations of the main
character relied each time on the period of time and the trend; the White Moor would have
either dark or fair hair, be either strong or frail, dressed as a medieval prince, as Robin
263
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Hood or even in peasant garments. The comic representation of The White Moor shows a
computer-game or fantasy movie-like character, bringing him closer to the modern
readers world. Unlike American common superheroes, The White Moors exceptional
features are not due to superpowers, but to his ability to overcome exceptional situations.
Ion Creangs characters make it perfect for a group of superheroes, but their success
relies deeply on creating a bound between the reader and the superhero. The modern
reader should identify with the heroes and heroes in return with the readers current
concerns (Florea 37-38). A fairytale is nothing but mirroring life in fabulous ways
(Clinescu). There is much to learn from The White Moors journey to maturity, even if
the fabulous prevails. He is nave and inexperienced, but at the same showing intelligence,
altruism, patience, adaptability, and loyalty (Ungureanu 40).
The other characters are carved following the American superhero pattern; they
have an extensive back story, inner conflicts and are often excluded from the community.
Changes operated in structure and content
Creang's story is retold in a contemporary style while maintaining the basics: the
characters, the storyline and the bildungsroman nature, altering and adding items to
augment the reality presented. In addition to retelling this story, the adaptation aims to
create an entire fantasy universe of Dacian origin. The adaptation is divided into four parts
and preserves the fairy tale basic narrative thread set by the Russian theorist Tzvetan
Todorov and used by Ion Creang: a state of equilibrium, a disruption of that order by an
event, recognition that the disorder has occurred, an attempt to repair the damage of the
disruption, return or restoration of a new equilibrium. The initial situation is disrupted by
the letter received from the Green Emperor. The letter is visually rendered in the comics
in its physical shape and, more than conveying an element in the story, it is both a symbol
and a narrative bridge, important because it is necessary that the rhythm, a visual
language, flows undisturbed (Eisner 17-19).
The range of characters in the adaptation slightly varies from the original tale.
They are identified by names and, parallel to the main narrative, there is also present a
background story for each of the White Moors companions, which explains their act ual
state and the source of their special ability. There is also an extra scene inserted - White
Moors short stay in the Purgatory, before being resurrected by the Red Emperors
daughter, who is also credited for obtaining the Living Water, unlike the original story.
The characters
The reader is introduced in the complex and supernatural elements-filled world of
the story even before getting to know about it through the act of reading; the cover of the
comic strips first issue abounds with armed characters, and except for a more down-to-
earth, displaying a thoughtful attitude one in the foreground, the others exhibit violence,
possess impossible weapons or physical features, such as having one eye only, a tail, blue
skin, flying, or casting spells.
Romanian mythological influences are mostly felt in presenting the story behind
the characters, and in the choice of character names: The White Moor is called tefan,
Red Emperors daughter - Mara, Flmnzil - Lardea, Geril Miron, Ochil Haiganu,
264
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Setil Mrza, Psri-Li-Lungil Baian, Sfnta Duminic Nedelia. By changing
their names, the characters are humanized, though preserving their fantastic features.
Each character has superpowers at least comparable to those of the American
comics heroes frosting breath, super-sight, super-stretching etc., with the major
difference that they are Romanian culture driven characters which deserve the best of the
Romanian public attention.
The main character, The White Moor, is representative for the myth of double
identity, frequently found in the original fairy tale. The choice of name for him, tefan,
can be explained by the etymology of the name. In Greek means crown. The
multitude of positive traits compensates his inexperience, though his naivety unleashes the
intrigue of the plot: the association with The Bald Man. Despite not having special
abilities, tefan is a native leader, easy going, whose physical appearance corresponds to
his moral portrait: tall, blond with blue eyes, athletic, excellent wielder of the sword and
dagger, skillful rider. These skills recommend him as a good strategist and king. The
authors acknowledge that Getica, by Vasile Parvan was the main source of inspiration in
shaping the graphic and narrative elements, some having Dacian and pre-Dacian origin,
such as the The White Moors sword, dagger and even small details, as his cloaks fibulae
(Ungureanu 40).
Mara, the Red Emperor's daughter possesses supernatural anthropomorphizing
powers. She has a rebellious, strong personality, defying traditional rules and customs.
Her clothes are red, denoting passion and eroticism. Her seductive outfit emphasizes her
status of femme fatale.
The Bald Man is a cunning character, with no moral principles, from the Moros
nation. He has a generally snaky aspect (yellow lenticular eyes, long and thin whiskers)
and a pronounced hissing, another similarity to this reptile. The Bald Man is a master of
disguise, and this helps him to mislead the White Moor and earn his confidence. The Bald
Man is a successful character, with a mysterious background, able to intrigue readers and
make them ask questions. His physique is an interesting combination of famous villains as
Lord Voldemort and Fu Manchu, other famous negative characters in the comics world.
Because Ion Creang was less generous in his description of Lardea (Flmnzil),
the comic authors have rethought the character, as a dwarf miner with an enormous
appetite. There is a similarity with the legendary gnomes of J. R. R. Tolkiens literature,
in the place of living and his incredible hunger. His favorite weapon is a modified clea ver,
an influence from the famous Lord of the Rings. The exaggerated appetite comes from
childhood, being caused by his peers. Frustrated and eager to assert, he begins to consume
everything in his way, which increases his height up to 2.8 meters. His parents are of
different races, and this is crucial for his personality development as well as for other
characters in the adaptation. Interracial conflicts are a problem widely addressed here.
They are the main cause of the action and wars in the story.
Miron, said Frost, is a dual origin character, with a father - man and a mother -
giant. His description is mainly influenced by the Norse mythology. His striking
appearance prevents him from properly integrating into the community and tefans
heterogeneous gang seems the perfect environment to show off his capabilities. Prior to
meeting tefan, he is a mercenary who spends his earning on toys for poor children,
265
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
evoking the myth of Santa Claus. Red haired, with white eyes lacking irises, Miron makes
a powerful opponent, heir of the Viking traditions. This character is the result of
combining Norse and Slavic mythology features.
The only deistic character, Haiganu, is a local omniscient Cyclops, perhaps the
most powerful in tefans gang. His origins trace back in the Dacian mythology, his father
being Gebeleizis, the god of lightning. After losing the war with Pleistoros, the god of
war, he is exiled to Earth. Banished from heaven, he learns to appreciate the friendliness
of people. He has a superiority complex, determined by its status as a god, so he finds it
difficult to accept the authority of others.
Visual devices and their rhetorical effect
As expected in the case of such a medium, the adaptation lacks many of the marks
of Creangs original style, as well as the typical humour, the proverbs, old sayings,
regionalisms and archaisms, authors direct intervention and his irony. Also, fairy tales
specific opening and closing phrases are missing, as well as the long dialogues and the
descriptive passages. Though, it is acknowledge that in any graphic representation the
artist is free to omit dialogue or narrative that can be clearly demonstrated visually, as the
background art is more than just stage setting; it is part of the narrat ion. The viewer can
supply by himself the dialogue evoked by the images; precise language doesnt come first
(Eisner 25).
While in the original fairy tale description is the main device intended to
specifically capture each detail, from sound to attitude and appearance, the acoustic
dimension is differently rendered in comics, through using plentiful onomatopoeic words,
whose style provides the desired emotional effect, adding thrill by thinning or thickening
letters, increasing or decreasing fonts size. Their purpose is to add sounds, a dimension
not really available to the printed medium, while symbols like ?!? are used as thoughts
rather than speech (Eisner 18).
For example, in the settings at the beginning of the comic series, the thundering
THUUU DOOM, is represented as two separate sounds, the first of a lower intensity than
the second. THUUU contains thinner letters compared to the bold and irregularly sized
DOOM. Other examples are the sounds of sword blades in battle CLING - CLANG,
vigorous combat sound AAAAARGH!!!, bears roar GRRROAAAARRR, Nedelias
scattering in a cloud of sand PFFFFF, some of them even employing additional
punctuation marks to enhance the intensity (see fig. 1.a).
The fonts style also plays an important role in speech and intonation, as well as in
marking key elements or characters in the story. THE GREEN EMPEROR, THE RED
MAN, THE BALD MAN, they are all written in bold. Also, when the oldest of the three
sons feels entitled to be sent on the coveted journey, he earnestly asks his father LET ME
GO; the bold me approaches the best to the naturalness of exclamation in free speech,
capturing the essence of both intonation and meaning.
266
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
a) b)
Fig. 1.a) The use of onomatopoeia (Harap Alb Continu Album) b) Normal vs. bold fonts
(Harap Alb Continu Album)
DONT KILL ME, SON! The desperate crying of the defeated emperor disguised in the
bear skin eventually invokes the key word son, as a mean of saving his life, even with the risk of
revealing his identity (see fig.1.b).
The size of the fonts is also employed to highlight the distance between characters within
a single panel1. The scene where the oldest son receives his fathers blessing for setting off the
journey is presented from the emperors balcony, from where he addresses his son, while his son
replies from the yard. In this case the emperors words are represented by larger size fonts than
those of his sons (see fig.2).
A special use of fonts occurs in the scene of tefans short passage through Purgatory
before him being resurrected by the Red Emperors daughter. Most of the fonts used in that scene
are coloured in red, while the ones addressed by greater entities are blue, thus delineating the three
worlds of the sacred, humans and death.
The arrangement and format of the panels and of speech balloons2 are other important
means of conveying ideas and meaning in the graphic adaptation.
There are panels which lack speech balloons, especially during action scenes, where speed
forces the reader to supply the dialogue. Also, the shape of the panel frame or its absence is used
not only as a stage for the action, but as a mean of involving the reader in the narrative,
emphasizing the sensory dimension.
Fig. 2. Use of different font size to emphasize distance (Harap Alb Continu Album)
1
Panel a box or frame which contains a different scene
2
Speech balloon the container of the text-dialogue spoken by character
267
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
A high panel reinforces the illusion of height as well as a long one the length, while a
character bursting out of the confines of the panel, an inviolable device in the comics,
highlights unleashed power (see fig. 3).
a) b) c)
Fig. 3. a) Long panel b) High panel c) Exceeded panel (Harap Alb Continu Album)
Open panels 3 are often used in order to narate the space, time and location, as in the
scene of tefans separation from his companions, before entering the Green Kingdom: the
images of both the place where they separate and the kingdom show the distance between the
two locations, inferring the short time that would take to reach the destination. Another use of
the open panels is to suggest the dimension of a place or situation (see fig. 4).
a) b)
Fig. 4. a) Open panel emphasizing distance and time b) Open panel revealing the
grandeur of the Red Emperors kingdom (Harap Alb Continu Album)
Facial expressions of astonishment (tefan amazed at the horse transformation), or
during crucial moments (the bear waking up in the salad garden), or affecting the narrative
(tefan shaking hands with Miron) - require close-up4, zooming (Eisner 21). This is a device
specific to photography, as well as blurring elements inside a panel which are not very
relevant for that particular scene (see fig. 5).
3
Open panel a frameless panel
4
Close-up a closer view or examination of something
268
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
a) b) c)
Fig. 5. a) Close-up panel of facial expressions b) Close-up panel of crucial moments
c) Blurred elements (Harap Alb Continu Album)
Time is an integrated dimension to comics. As in the human consciousness, it
combines with space and sound. Whereas in different forms of auditory communication
rhythm is related to the temporality, in graphics this experience is rendered by the use of
illusions, symbols and their arrangement (Eisner 28-30).
The notion of time is rendered in the adaptation through employing recognized
images taken out of familiar experience, which convey action - footprints, smoke, and time -
the moon, the sunrise (Eisner, 20) (see fig. 6).
Fig. 6. Graphic elements to render action and time: footprints, moon (Harap Alb Continu Album)
Also, the colours used in rendering the specificity of various kingdoms along with
their inhabitants (green, red), the middle sons waving cloak during his rushed horseback
riding in the speed stream, they all are narrative devices and are part of the adaptations visual
language (Eisner 25) (see fig.7).
a) b)
Fig. 7. a) Colours symbolism b) Speed stream as a narrative device (Harap Alb Continu
Album)
269
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The lettering inside the speech balloon and even the speech balloons own shape
reflect the nature and emotion of the speech, so they are mostly meant to capture characters
feelings. The normal speech balloon is the most common device found in the adaptation,
followed by the thought balloon, which contains unspoken speech and the jagged edges
balloon, which comprises loud and sharp sounds or desperate speech or howling (Eisner 27)
(see fig. 8).
a) b) c)
Fig. 8. a) Normal speech balloon b) Thought balloon c) Jagged edges balloon (Harap Alb
Continu - Album)
In addition, there are used different perspectives to manipulate the readers orientation
and to produce various emotional states, influenced by his position as a spectator: the eye-
level perspective to reinforce realism, whose purpose is to inform the reader; the over-head
perspective, which provides a clear view of the settings, the reader acting as an observer; the
ground-level perspective, which involves the reader in the impact of the action, inducing a
sense of smallness and fear (see fig. 9). The same way function narrow panels, suggesting
imprisonment, while wide panels make space, provide escape.
a) b) c)
Fig. 9. a) Eye-level perspective b) Over-head perspective c) Ground-level perspective
(Harap Alb Continu Album)
These are some changes operated by the authors in order to bring comics closer to its
readers. The revival and popularity enjoyed today by the medieval fantasy style helped the
adaptation to reach success, as it falls particularly in that genre.
270
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Conclusions
The first four comic strip issues have managed to cover the entire subject of the
original tale, while from the fifth issue, the intention is to present the true White Moor
Continues, with a more experienced tefan, visibly changed after the experience of death.
Unknowingly, the young reader undertakes the heros journey, experiencing the
reality of the facts which take him from ignorance and innocence to adulthood. The
fictional world in the fairy tale initiates the reader into the laws of the human
relationships, confronting existences and values. The world of the story is built on a
certain stereotype of characters and themes that the reader expresses sympathy or
antipathy for, binding or rejecting ethical models, hence, the effectiveness in educating
children. This educational character of the fairy tale is not downplayed in the comics,
though the main aim of the adaptation is bringing back the popular values and the sense of
adventure (Ionacu 2) in a form that better suits the taste of the new generation, by using
specific artistic devices and the conceptual universe of the modern readers (Ni 26). The
main stated target public was the 16 to 30 years old active youth, living in the urban areas,
with middle and above average incomes, sharing modern hobbies such as movies, internet,
computer games etc. The secondary target public was divided into two categories: 8 to 15
years old students willing to understand fairy tales other than by the traditional scholarly
means, and 30 to 56 years old nostalgic urban adults, movies, books and music consumers,
seeking any means of promoting national values (Harap Alb Continu Presentation leaflet
11). The statistics now show that the comic strip mainly reached the public aged 18 to 24
(see fig. 10).
The comic strip is illustrated in the DC Comics and MARVEL style, an
entertaining, accessible and comprehensible way for the modern audience to raise
characters to superheroes.
The effort of promoting this comic strip in important social media, creating a
website and adopting various other modern marketing methods, have made an important
contribution to its rapid spread among readers, as evidenced by the considerable number
of fans. (see fig. 10)
At the same time, it can be seen that the interest in this type of publication was
higher during the occurrence of numbers 1-4, which represented the fairy tale adaptation,
while the continuation of The White Moors adventures, starting with number 5 of the
comic strip, apparently did not enjoy the same success. However, the large number of fans
(approximately 97 000), within a relatively short time (September 2012 November
2013), shows that comics, especially the adaptations of classics, contribute as a proof of
the reaffirmation of our national literary values and of their immortality regardless of
changing technological times.
271
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Fig. 10. The impact of The White Moor Continues comics on Facebook
(https://www.facebook.com/revistaharapalbcontinua/likes)
If we relate this assertion to the pedagogical dimension, it can be stated that the
interest in comics could be exploited within literature classes in schools, of course only as an
alternative educational resource. In addition, as The White Moor fairy tale is found as an
obligatory literary work at the high school level in Romania, as well as in the Baccalaureate
syllabus, therefore the understanding of classics through as many media is welcome and not
to be neglected. Given that in America and Western Europe, comics are nowadays already
regarded as an alternative method of learning, in the process of or even already introduced as
part of the curriculum at all levels of education, there is no reason to diminish or exclude this
possibility in the Romanian educational system, too.
In the years 1890-2002 the interest in Creang's work was huge, and his editing will
definitely continue in the future too, in even more varied forms facilitated by the new
technologies, as a classic of literature will never cease to be read.
Bibliography
Clinescu, George. Estetica basmului. Bucureti, Editura pentru Literatur, 1965.
Creang, Ion, and Ionacu, Mihai. Harap Alb Continu. Album. Bucureti, RomPrintPaper, 2013
Eisner , Will. Comics and Sequential Art. Expanded Edition. Tamarac, FL: Poorhouse Press, 1985.
Florea, Sandu. Interviu cu Sandu Florea. Harap Alb Continu 1. Sept. 2012: 37-38. Print.
Ionacu, Mihai. Cuvnt nainte. Harap Alb Continu 1. Sept. 2012: 2. Print.
Ni, Dodo. Harap Alb The next generation!. Harap Alb Continu 1. Sept. 2012: 26. Print.
Ungureanu, Octav. De ce Harap Alb? Harap Alb Continu 1. Sept. 2012: 40. Print.
Todorov, Tzvetan. Introduction la littrature fantastique (1970), translated by Richard
Howard as The Fantastic: A Structural Approach to a Literary Genre, Cornell University
Press, 1973
Harap Alb Continu - Album, Bucureti, 2013.
Harap Alb Continu Presentation leaflet, Bucureti, 2012
Web sources
https://www.facebook.com/revistaharapalbcontinua/likes
272
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
LANGUAGE AWARENESS AND LINGUISTIC INTERFERENCE IN THE
DISCOURSE OF ROMANIAN IMMIGRANTS IN SPAIN
Paul BUZIL, Assistant, PhD Candidate, University of Bucharest
Abstract: Romanian immigration in Spain reached its peak towards the end of the 2000s
putting the Romanians on the first place amongst the immigrant communities in Spain and
thus creating the proper environment for language contact between Romanian and Spanish.
This linguistic reality has been studied only recently but conclusions arising from this
research already account for the existence of a new variety of Romanian, lately referred to as
Rumaol.
According to the first studies that dealt with the topic, Rumaol was a mixed variety used by
Romanian immigrants living in Spain and characterised by linguistic interferences. However,
some recent papers have shown that from a quantitative point of view this is highly debatable
since the amount of interference seems to be very low.
The present paper combines this quantitative criterion with a sociological view, by firstly
investigating the degree to which Romanian immigrants might be aware of Rumaol as a
distinct variety of Romanian, and secondly by aiming at identifying any possible correlation
between the awareness level and the amount of interference present in their discourse.
Keywords: sociolinguistics, language contact, linguistic interference, Rumaol, identity.
1. Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the validity of the newly coined term Rumaol
as an identity marker used by the Romanian immigrants living in Spain by analysing the
degree in which immigrants are aware of the existence of the concept and/or use it to identify
the Romanian variety that they speak. The sociological data consists of the answers of 92
informants from 6 areas in Spain to the questions Have you ever heard the word Rumaol?
and What is, in your opinion, Rumaol? These two questions were the last ones to be asked
in a series of guided conversations that were used to gather linguistic data on the Romanian-
Spanish language contact.
2. Romanian immigration in Spain and the term Rumaol
Presently, there are approximately one million Romanian immigrants living in Spain
and one of the aspects in which these people feel most strongly the cultural contact with the
Spanish society is their day to day communication. This situation is, undoubtedly, due to the
growth of Romanian immigration in Spain during the last twenty years. Romanian presence in
Spain can be tracked back to earlier dates but it used to be so low that Romanians did not even
show up in the statistics and it was only at the beginning of the 2000s when it became more
evident. Following the political regime change in Romania and a series of immigrant friendly
laws that were passed in Spain, Romanian immigration in Spain started to grow constantly
273
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
during the second half of the 90s and reached a boom during the 2000s1. The figures offered
by the National Institute of Statistics in Spain are extremely relevant. Back in 1999 there were
about 3.000 Romanians in Spain, which meant 0,4% of the total number of foreigners in the
country and thus, Romanian community was not even among the first 30 ethnic minorities. At
the beginning of 2008 the number of registered Romanian immigrants was 731.806 and the
Romanian community became the largest in Spain (Viruela Martnez 2006: 159). Around
these dates, when the effects of the economic crisis started to be felt in Spain as well, the
rhythm of immigration slows down and some of the immigrants even decide to move back to
Romania (Tamames 2008: 69-79). Nevertheless, the overall number has continued to grow
and has presently got to 925.140 which represent 16% of the total number of immigrants in
Spain, according to the figures offered by the General Secretary for Immigration and
Emigration, within the Ministry of Labor and Social Security in Spain 2.
The term Rumaol started to be used to designate the way in which Romanian
immigrants speak in Spain in 2005 when the Spanish journal El Mundo published in its
Sunday supplement an article written by the Spanish journalist of Romanian origin Alexandru
Emil Petrescu, in which the author used this term to refer to the mix of Romanian and Spanish
that he considered to be the jargon (jerga in Spanish) of the second generation of Romanian
immigrants (Petrescu 2005). The concept appeared afterwards several times in the media,
mostly in newspaper, radio and TV programs in different versions: romaniola (Mihalcea
2007), rumaniola (ziare.ro 2009), rumaniol (Dinu 2009) or romaol (Matea, 2010). In most
of these cases, the linguistic reality designated by these terms was mostly perceived
negatively and it was considered a badly spoken Romanian. It is also worth mentioning the
fact that in 2007 the Romanian government decided to implement a project by which classes
of Romanian language, culture and civilization started to be taught in schools where
Romanian kids are learning (Mae.ro 2012). This confirms and validates somehow the purist
attitudes of Romanian media. However, there were also several attempts to legitimize the
concept done by different Romanian associations in Spain such as the organization in
Torrelaguna of a debate on the topic, titled Copilul tu n ce limb viseaz? 3 in July, 2009,
with the participation of the Romanian Cultural Institute (ICR). It was the first time when
opinions about Rumaol that have previously appeared only in media met with the more
cautious and more documented ideas of some scholars, some of them linguists who were
working on the Romanian-Spanish language contact, such as Ofelia Mariana U Burcea, PhD
student at Universidad Complutense de Madrid or Diego Muoz Carrobles, researcher at the
same university. In spite of these efforts, the term Rumaol and the linguistic reality it refers
to are still the object of controversy. On one hand linguists do not share the radical ideas that
have appeared in the media according to which Rumaol would be a new language (Mihalcea
2007) or a new dialect of Romanian (Dinu 2009, Tercero 2010). On the other hand, there is no
agreement between those linguists who have written on the topic either.
1
More details on Romanian immigration to Spain in Caeiro Garca 2010, Marcu 2009, Pajares Alonso 2008,
Roesler 2007, Sandu 2009, Tamames 2008, Viruela Martnez 2006 y 2010.
2
Latest figures reflect the situation as of June, 30, 2013 and can be consulted on the official webpage: Ministerio
de Empleo y Seguridad Social http://extranjeros.empleo.gob.es/es/estadisticas/operaciones/con-
certificado/index.html
3
In what language does your kid dream?
274
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
There are not too many studies which deal with the Romanian-Spanish language
contact and those which do, use the concept with different meanings and do not manage to
clarify what it refers to. Thus, Munteanu Coln refers in an article from 2011 to the discourse
of Romanian immigrants by calling it a new linguistic means marked by Spanish interferences
which represent, in the authors opinion, early signs, but very likely to continue to the extent
that radical changes might take place in this variety, that can go as far as becoming another
type of pidgin, the so called rumaol, as it is jocularly and fondly referred to, distinct from the
variety spoken in Romania (Munteanu Coln 2011: 34). A more extended study, that of
Ioana Jieanu, states that Rumaol is the sociolect of Romanian immigrants in Spain,
characterized by cases of linguistic interference (Jieanu 2011: 191 199). Other papers have
the same approach, presenting and classifying the interferences that can be identified in the
Romanian oral (Roesler 2007; Schulte 2012; Brnz 2012) and written (U Burcea 2010;
Du 2012) discourse. However, most of them use the term Rumaol to name this linguistic
reality without investigating if this reality has indeed the characteristics of a new variety that
could be called differently and some papers even make some statements that, in our opinion,
are not demonstrated. Jieanu, for example, after making a detailed presentation of the
different cases of interference that can be found in the corpus she used, says that Rumaol can
be considered a Romanian sociolect because those cases can be found in the discourse of most
Romanian immigrants in Spain, and that most of them are aware of the fact that they speak a
different variety then that which is used in Romania and they call it Rumaol (Jieanu 2012:
195). That would mean that most of the Romanians use the term as an identity marker. We
believe that this is not entirely correct and will try to show in the next few chapters why.
3. Awareness of Rumaol among the Romanian immigrants in Spain
We have stated in previous papers (Buzil 2013b; Buzil 2013c) that the similitude
between various immigrant discourses is highly debatable as the quantitative data we analysed
revealed important differences in the amount of interference (ranging from 0,51% to 7,89%)
between various informants depending on the social variables involved. That is normal
because any language variety present a certain degree of variation but it also means that in
order to consider Rumaol a sociolect, we need to take into account the social variables
involved and better describe the possible Rumaol speaker. Identifying this with all Romanian
immigrants in Spain is too vague and premature.
On the other hand, the amount of interference in the discourse of the immigrants is
very low overall (1,49 at group level) and therefore it can be argued that the variety spoken by
the Romanian immigrants in Spain does not deviate so much from the standard as previous
studies suggest (Buzil 2013c). The quantitative data comes from only a small sample out of a
larger corpus we gathered in order to analyse the language contact situation and these figures
would need to be confirmed by analysing the whole corpus.
However, even if this proves to be right, it is still possible to consider Rumaol a
strong concept if we can prove that the term is used by the Romanian immigrant community
as an identity marker. In other words, it is not necessary that the new variety be so different
from the standard one as long as the speakers feel it like that and use a different name to refer
to the way they speak and if, at the same time, they use this name to individualize themselves
as a group. Without going into the details related to the different attitudes the immigrants
275
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
might have towards this new variety (some may feel it natural, some may reject it etc.) the
first step towards using the concept as an identity marker would be knowing it. Our intention
was to check if Jieanus assumption was right and if, indeed, most of the Romanians in Spain
use this term. In order to do that, we decided to ask at the end of the 92 guided conversations
we used to gather linguistic data, the following two questions: Have you ever heard the word
Rumaol? and What does Rumaol mean, in your opinion? If Jieanus assumption is
correct we would expect to get a lot of Yes answers for the first one. The second one is used
as a control question in order to make sure that the informants use the concept with the
meaning we have described. Figure 1 reflects the answers received for the first question and
shows the fact that the situation is rather different.
Figure 1 Awareness of Rumaol
It is evident that most of the informants have not heard the word before as 84
informants have answered NO to this question and therefore dont know what it may refer to.
Of the 8 informants who answered YES, 7 said that it refers to the mixture of Romanian and
Spanish and one informant used relatively precise linguistic terminology saying that it refers
to the linguistic interference phenomenon taking place in the Romanian communities due to
the fact that this informant was a PhD student in Humanities. The high percentage of
informants who are not aware of the concept nor of its meaning, points to the conclusion that
the fact that Romanian immigrants consider Rumaol a linguistic variety that define them as a
social group and differentiate them from the speakers in Romania is highly debatable. We are
dealing with a small sample, of course, but with a high degree of diversity (as it can be seen
from chapter 4) so we consider the results relevant.
However, the percentage of YES answers is higher than 0 so, even if at a group level
we cannot consider this new variety something that the immigrants identify themselves with,
it would be interesting to find out which are the social variables that contribute to Rumaol
being recognized and considered an identity label. By analysing the social variables involved
we intend to understand what social groups are more likely to acknowledge and use this
concept.
276
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
4. Awareness of Rumaol vs. social variables
There are seven social variables that were observed and analysed in order to determine
which are the relevant characteristics that favour the use of Rumaol as an identity marker by
the Romanian immigrants in Spain. Figure 2 present these variables and the respective scales.
Social variable Scale
Men
Sexo
Women
5-14
15-24
25-34
Age 35-44
45-54
55-64
64+
Dobruja
Moldavia
Origin Trans ylvania
(Region in Romania) Walachia
Romania(?) - Cannot remember
Spain - born in Spain
Alicante
Badajoz
Res idence Cas telln
(Spanis h province) Madrid
Mlaga
Tarragona
Completed in Romania
- Gimnaziu (Middle s chool)
- Liceu (Highs chool)
- nvmnt s uperior (Higher education)
Studies
Attending in Spain
- CEIP (Primary s chool)
- ESO (Secondary s chool)
- Educacin s uperior (Higher education)
Les s then 5 years (<5)
Time s pent in Spain Between 5 and 10 years (5-10)
More then 10 years (>10)
Late bilingualis m
Type of billingualis m
Early bilingualis m
Figure 2 Social variables and scales
These scales were used to calculate the awareness level for each group configured by the
social variables. The next sections present the result of this analysis.
4.1. Sex
Figure 3 Awareness vs. Sex
The split between YES and NO answers for this variable can be seen in Figure 3. YES
answers represent 8,16% in the case of women and 9,30% in the case of men. Although
women discourse tend to present a higher amount of interference (Buzil 2013b), women
informants dont seem to be more aware then men of the fact that they speak a different
variety. Judging by the similar percentages we can draw the conclusion that sex is not a
277
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
relevant variable in acknowledging Rumaol as a different linguistic variety and in using it as
an identity marker.
4.2. Age
Figure 4 Awareness vs. Age
Informants were divided in seven groups according to the variable Age variable, starting
from the lowest age considered in this study (5 years old) and going by decades. The results can be
seen in Figure 4. It can be noticed that the concept is not known at all by kids (5 14) nor by senior
informants (55 +). YES answers were only recorded in what could be called the active population
(25 54) with one exception in the 15 24 group. This is probably due to the fact that language
awareness in general does not usually appear at very early ages so awareness of a variety is even
less probable to appear in a kid. As for the 55+ informants, there are several aspects that have to be
mentioned here. First of all, more than 90% of the Romanian immigrants can be included in age
groups <54 (Tamames 2008: 30) so there are relatively few older immigrants in the first place.
Secondly, those who are older than 54 are in general less interested in dealing with the details of the
language contact situation triggered by the social contact. They are not active workers who plan to
spend a significant time in Spain but people who are about to retire (and most of them decide to go
back to Romania) or grandparents who have just moved to Spain to take care of other members of
their family and do not even speak Spanish. Besides being far fewer than those belonging to other
age groups senior immigrants are also the people that are least probable to debate on identity
matters.
4.3. Origin
Figure 5 Awareness vs. Origin
As mentioned in Figure 1, it was the historical-geographic regions in Romania where
the informants come from that were taken into account under this variable. However, as we
can already talk about an emerging second generation of immigrants, we had to account for
two more groups: those who were not born in Romania and those who were born in Romania
but left the country at very early ages so that they cannot remember where they come from.
We called these groups Spain and Romania(?).
278
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The results (Figure 5) are somewhat surprising. The only two groups where we got
YES answers are Transylvania (75% of those who heard about Rumaol) and Wallachia
(25%). If its normal not to get any YES answer in the last two groups, as they are mostly
made of kids under 15, it is somewhat surprising to have the same negative result for the
Dobruja and Moldavia groups. On one hand the total number of informants from these two
regions is lower but another possible explanation is related to the way that most of the
Romanians immigrated: through social networks (Tamames 2008: 31 35). These networks,
which at the beginning, are made of people from the same region in Romania, are very strong,
and besides being an infrastructure for mutual help, it also facilitates the flow of information.
Most of this is related to job opportunities and everyday needs but sometimes it can refer to
other aspects like language and identity. If a certain small group begin to be interested in such
aspects it is very probable that soon there will be more members of their social network
knowing about it. However, in order to be able to claim that a Transylvanian origin implies a
higher probability that a certain person use Rumaol to identify themselves, more informants
from other areas should be included in the analysis.
4.4. Residence
Romanians live all over the Spanish territory but for the
present paper we have interviewed immigrants living in
six different provinces. Figure 6 shows the results
according to the variable Residence. There are two
isolated cases of informants who know what Rumaol
refers to (both of them PhD students) from Alicante
and Tarragona and the rest of those who answered YES
are from Madrid. It can be assumed that this is because
Figure 6 Awareness vs. Residence Madrid acts as a centre from various points of view
and it is also the place where information flow has the
highest level, so regardless of social networks (or exactly because Madrid is an important
node in most of the social networks) someone living in Madrid is more likely to have
heard about other issues regarding the immigrants life than someone living in a small
village.
4.5. Education
A preliminary distinction needs to be made for this
variable. A considerable number of informants
have not concluded yet their formal education
which means that they are currently receiving it in
Spanish. Some of them started school in Romania
and are continuing it in Spain while others started
it directly in Spain. We identify this group as ESP.
On the other side, there is the big group of those
Figure 7 Awareness vs. Education who concluded their education in Romania before
(country) immigrating. We refer to them as ROM.
Therefore, a first comparison was done between
these two groups (Figure 7) showing that with only one exception, those who talk about
279
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Rumaol are members of the later which is not very surprising taking into account the fact
that ESP group is mostly made of kids under 15 years old and we have already seen in 4.2.
that this age group has no YES answer. Actually, the one exception mentioned above is a
young university student who graduated high school in Romania, prior to immigration
experience and, after a several years break, decided to continue go for a university degree as
well. This is one of the reasons for which we decided to look further only into the different
education levels that we can identify in the ROM group. The other reason is the fact that
education level works as a social variable only if education is concluded, if not, it is the
variable age that is relevant, like in the case of kids, and not the school level they are currently
attending. Therefore, Figure 8 presents the results of the analysis only for those informants
who graduated a school in Romania. The data suggests that the probability that immigrants
might be aware of the concept of Rumaol is directly proportional with the number of formal
education years attended. Thats why no informant
having graduated only secondary school knows about
Rumaol, but 2 high school graduates and 5
informants with Higher Education have heard of it
and know what it refers to. If we consider the
percentages these numbers represent, the trend is even
more obvious. The 2 high school graduates represent
6,89% of all the informants in their group the 5
Figure 8 Awareness vs. Education University graduates represent 27,7%. It is, therefore,
(level) obvious that knowing and talking about Rumaol as a
different Romanian variety and considering it an identity mark are issues that tend to be
related to immigrants with higher education.
4.6. Time spent in Spain
This variable is usually a relevant one when
analysing language contact situations as it influences
the amount and type of interference that appear in the
discourse of Romanian immigrants. It is, therefore,
interesting to check if it also influences the level of
linguistic awareness. The results presented in Figure 9
seem to point to the conclusion that it is less probable
Figure 9 Awareness vs. Time spent that an immigrant having lived less than 5 years in
in Spain Spain could have heard about Rumaol whereas any
period greater than that favours this kind of
awareness. This can be explained by the fact that newcomers usually spend some time in
acquiring the local language, even if Romanians learn Spanish earlier than immigrants of
other origins (Tamames 2008: 89 88), and only after that, the newly acquired language
begins to influence their Romanian. On the other hand, they usually deal with several other
problems at the beginning such as finding a job and a home, doing the necessary paperwork,
and they focus their efforts on finding information about those burning issues rather than
abstract discussions about how the language they speak changes or not.
280
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
4.7. Type of bilingualism
This variable is used to account for the differences that exist between what could be called
generational groups. However, we avoid using the term generation because there is actually no
second generation of Romanian immigrants in Spain in proper sociolinguistic terms, but rather an
emerging one, as most of the members of this group are still under 15 years old. However, there is
a noticeable higher amount of interference that can be recorded in this second group and in order
to account for it a variable had to be used. From this linguistic point of view, the differences
between generations are actually linked to the way
and the moment in which the two languages that are in
contact are acquired. Therefore, it is relevant to make
the distinction between those who acquired Romanian
first and, then, as adults, immigrated and acquired
Spanish as a second language and those who were born
in or moved to Spain at an early age and acquired
Romanian and Spanish at the same time. We will use
Figure 10 Awareness vs. Type of the terms late and early bilingualism4. The data
bilingualism presented in Figure 10 reveals a clear tendency of those
immigrants with early bilingualism to not be aware of the concept of Rumaol as there is only one
informant in this group who has heard of it. It is relevant the fact that this exception is due to a
young university student (different from the one mentioned in 4.5). That shows that, rather than
one social variable, we should consider a mix of several such variables if we want to understand
which elements favour the linguistic awareness of Rumaol. Among them, age and education
seems to play an important role.
By putting together data from sections 4.1. 4.7. and by looking at the factors that favour
awareness of Rumaol as a distinct linguistic variety, we can construct a composite profile of the
Romanian immigrant most likely to have heard of and use Rumaol to refer to the way he/she
speaks. Thus we will see that there is a higher probability that a Romanian immigrant uses this
term as an identity marker if he or she (sex proved to be irrelevant) is at an active age (25 54), is
original from Transylvania, leaves in Madrid, has graduated a higher education institution, spent
more than 5 years in Spain and present a late bilingualism, that is, belongs to the first generation
of immigrants. Figure 11 summarizes this data.
Sex Irrelevant
Age Active age (25 - 54)
Origin Transilvania
Residence Madrid
Education Higher Education (ROM)
Time spent in Spain >5
Type of Billingualism Late
Figure 11 Composite profile of a Romanian immigrant aware of the concept Rumaol
4
Myers-Scotton, from whom we took the definitions of the two concepts, use the terms late and child
bilingualism (Myers-Scotton 2005: 324-325).
281
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Some final remarks need to be made here as the analysis that has just been presented
might create the impression that Rumaol is indeed an identity label for the group of people
who match the description above. We believe it is not entirely so and thats why we repeat
that someone having the features presented in Figure 11 is more likely but not sure to have
heard of and use the term Rumaol. Actually, in the case of each variable we could see that
the percentage of people answering YES is rather low even in those groups that we use for the
composite. Moreover, we considered relevant the fact that some of the groups that had the
most YES answers (e.g. Higher Education; Late bilingualism) seems to be the same groups
that proved to have the discourse with the lowest amount of interference as resulting from
another study (Buzil 2013b). Therefore we decided to calculate the total amount of
interference for the two groups, those who answered
YES and those who answered NO, regardless of the
social variables involved. If Rumaol is indeed an
identity marker for those who speak it we would
expect to find a correlation between YES answers and
a high amount of interference. As the linguistic data
that was recorded for each informant has not yet been
transliterated in totality we could only calculate this
for the first 16 informants. By recalculating the
Figure 12 Awareness of Rumaol in YES/NO split (Figure 12) only for those 16
a smaller sample used to calculate informants we can notice a higher percentage of YES
the amount of interference answers compared to the results presented in chapter
3 but most of them are still those who answered NO
so the trend is the same. By calculating the amount of interference 5 for the two groups, we get
a somehow surprising result (Figure 13). The discourse of the 25% of informants who know
the concept and use it to refer to a way of talking by mixing Spanish and Romanian has only a
0,65% of linguistic interference while the discourse of the 75% of informants who have never
heard of Rumaol present a higher amount of interference, that is 2,35%. Apart from the fact
that the amount of interference is very low in both cases, the one thing that stands out is the
fact that Rumaol seems to be more suitable to describe the discourse of those who have
never heard of it while those who use it to individualize their have a discourse that hardly
deviates from the standard. From this point of view Rumaol, as a concept, seems to be more
of a fancy abstraction created by educated first generation immigrants, mostly from Madrid
who, wishing to individualize themselves, turn to linguistics in order to find a concept that
might offer some weight to their effort. The true linguistic reality the true Rumaol is
actually present more in the discourse of those who have never heard of it and it takes the
form of a linguistic variety only slightly deviated from the standard one and marked by a
rather low amount of linguistic interference.
5
The methodology used for calculating the amount of interference is presented in Buzil 2013b
282
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
YES NO
% of Informants 25% 75%
Amount of interference 0,65% 2,35%
Figure 13 Awareness of Rumaol vs. Amount of linguistic interference
5. Conclusions
In this paper we discussed the validity of the term Rumaol used as an identity marker
and the extent to which the concept is used by the Romanian immigrants living in Spain by
analysing the degree in which immigrants are aware of the existence of the concept. The data
gathered from 92 informants who live in six different regions in Spain point to the fact that
this concept is only known by a minority of immigrants. The analysis of the social variables
involved helped us identify the characteristics of the members of this minority and construct a
composite profile of such a Romanian immigrant who is aware of the concept. Finally, by
correlating this analysis with the amount of interference that the discourse of the informants in
the two groups present, we argued that Rumaol can be seen either as a false identity marker
as it has no real corespondence in the linguistic reality of the minority who use the term or as
a linguistic variety only slightly different from standard Romanian but which is not used as
identity marker by those who speak it. The last group si also the majority.
References
Brnz, M. 2012. Transferencias lingsticas en el habla de los rumanos residentes en
Espaa, Ctlina Iliescu Gheorghiu (editor), Traduccin y (A)Culturacin en la era global,
Editorial Agua Clara, Alicante.
Buzil, P. 2013a. Remarks on the study of the Romanian-Spanish language contact, 15th
Annual Conference of The English Department, University of Bucharest, 68 June, 2013, to
be published.
Buzil, P. 2013b. Existe el rumaol? Un anlisis cuantitativo de la interferencia lingstica
en el habla de los inmigrantes rumanos de Espaa, Conferina Noi direcii n cercetarea
textelor i discursurilor romneti, Universitatea tefan cel Mare, Suceava, 27-28 septembrie
2013, to be published.
Buzil, P. 2013c. Rumaol The adaptation of Romanian to the Spanish linguistic context,
Adaptation Unbounded: New Directions, New Agendas International Interdisciplinary
Conference, Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iai, 31 October 2 November, 2013, to
be published.
Caeiro Garca, J.L. 2010. La inmigracin rumana reciente en el ayuntamiento de Coslada,
Migraciones & Exilios. Cuadernos AEMIC, no. 11/2010, p. 83 106,
http://www.aemic.org/assets/articulos/200/original/Jos%C3%A9_Luis_
Caeiro_Garc%C3%ADa._Migraciones_Exilios_11-2010.pdf?1314465532, ltima consulta:
27.12.2012.
Edwards J. 2009. Language and Identity: An Introduction. Key topics in sociolinguistics,
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK
Jieanu, I. 2012. Interferene lingvistice romno-spaniole, Iai, Lumen.
283
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Jieanu, I. 2012. Interferene lingvistice romno-spaniole n comunicarea virtual,
Simpozionul Internaional de Lingvistic, Ediia a V-a, 27-28 septembrie 2013, Institutul de
Lingvistic Iorgu Iordan Al. Rosetti al Academiei Romne.
MAE.RO (2012), Proiectul privind predarea cursului de Limb, cultur i civilizaie
romneasc n uniti de nvmnt din Spania, Pagina Ambasadei Romniei n Regatul
Spaniei, http://madrid.mae.ro/node/798, ultima accesare: 26.12.2012.
Marcu, S. 2009. Del Este al Oeste. La migracin de rumanos en la Unin Europea: evolucin
y caractersticas, Migraciones Internacionales, vol.16, El Colegio de la Frontera Norte
Mxico, http://www2.colef.mx/ migracionesinternacionales/revistas/MI16/n16-155-191.pdf ,
ltima consulta: 13.01.2013
Moreno Fernndez F. 1998. Principios de sociolingstica y sociologa del lenguaje, Ariel,
Barcelona, 4-a edicin, 2009.
Munteanu Coln, D. 2011. Can the Romanian spoken in Spain become a new linguistic
means?, Analele Universitii din Bucureti. Limbi i literaturi strine, LX (1), p. 19 36.
Myers-Scotton, C. 2005. Multiple Voices. An Introduction to Bilingualism, Blackwell
Publishing, Oxford.
OPI 2012. Extranjeros residentes en Espana a 30 de septiembre de 2012 - Resultados
Generales, Informe del Observatorio Permanente de la Inmigracin,
http://extranjeros.empleo.gob.es/es/estadisticas/operaciones/con-
certificado/201209/Principales_resultados_30092012.pdf, ltima consulta: 26.12.2012.
Pajares Alonso, M. 2008. Comunidades inmigradas de la Europa del Este. El caso del
colectivo rumano en Espaa, REVISTA CIDOB d'AFERS INTERNACIONALS, no. 84:
Migraciones y redes transnacionales: Comunidades inmigradas de Europa Central y del Este
en Espaa.
Roesler, P. 2007. La integracin lingstica de inmigrantes rumanos en Alicante, RedELE
Revista electrnica de didctica / espaol lengua extranjera, No. 11,
http://www.educacion.gob.es/dctm/redele/Material_RedELE/Revista/2007_11/
2007_redELE_11_08roesler.pdf, ltima consulta: 27.12.2012.
Sala, M. 1997. Limbi n contact, Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti.
Sandu, D. (ed.) 2009. Comunidades rumanas en Espana, http://fedrom.org/ statics/
uploads/SOROS.pdf, ltima consulta: 3.01.2013.
Schmidt, U. 2008. Language Loss and the Ethnic Identity of Minorities, European Center for
Minority Issues, Flensburg.
Schulte, K. 2012. La aparicin de nuevas variedades romances: el contacto lingstico entre
rumano, castellano y valenciano en Castelln de la Plana, Ctlina Iliescu Gheorghiu (ed.),
Traduccin y (A)Culturacin en la era global, Editorial Agua Clara, Alicante.
Tamames, R. (ed.) 2008. Saatchi & Saatchi - Estudio sobre la inmigracin rumana en
Espaa, Madrid, Castellana Cien, http://fedrom.org/statics/uploads/Estudio Saatchi.pdf,
ltima consulta 27.12.2012.
U Burcea, O.M. 2012. El habla de los rumanos de Espaa. Trazos de espaol en el rumano
escrito. La construccin creativa: El rumaol, Prodan, Delia y Catalina Iliescu Gheorghiu
(eds.), El papel de la traduccin en el discurso de la rumanidad desde una perspectiva
diasprica, Alicante: Aguaclara. p. 95-110.
284
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Viruela Martnez, R. 2006. Inmigrantes rumanos en Espaa: aspectos territoriales y procesos
de sustitucin laboral, Scripta Nova. Revista de Electrnica de Geografa y Ciencias Sociales,
Vol. X, nr. 222, Universidad de Barcelona, http://www.ub.edu/geocrit/sn/sn-222.htm, ltima
consulta: 5.09.2011.
Viruela Martnez, R. 2010. Movilidad geogrfica de los rumanos (Estructura territorial de las
migraciones interiors en Espaa), Empiria. Revista de Metodologa de ciencias sociales, no.
19/2010, enero-junio, Universidad Nacional de Educacin a Distancia, p. 157 181,
http://www.colectivoioe.org/ uploads/ d70e92469ea5d534c31d5b25acaf48ae0c593b25.pdf,
ltima consulta: 28.12.2012.
Ziare.ro. 2009. Rumaniola, noua limb a romnilor din Spania, ziare.ro, 27 februarie, 2009,
http://www.ziare.com/diaspora/romani-spania/rumaniola-noua-limba-a-romanilor-din-spania-
683505, ultima accesare: 7.01.2013.
285
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
STUDYING RARE LINGUISTIC PHENOMENA WITH CORPORA
Nadina CEHAN, PhD Candidate, Babe-Bolyai University of Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: The study sets out to investigate the plupluperfect structure, which is a relatively
rare nonstandard feature found in counterfactual conditionals. It looks into this
constructions geographical spread using available corpora. As the study unfolds, the
strengths and weaknesses of the method come to the fore, as well as the limits of this kind of
empirical linguistic analyses.
Keywords: corpus linguistics, plupluperfect, nonstandard English
Introduction
Due to relatively recent technological developments which have allowed for large
amounts of data to be stored and easily searched, corpora can now be used to collect
information about both common and rare linguistic phenomena. One such rarity is the so-
called plupluperfect (cf. Christophersen 1986, Declerck 2006) construction which appears in
past counterfactual conditionals, as exemplified here:
(1) The thought crept into him that it would have been better if there had have been
trees outside. (BNC, ADA, W_fict_prose)
(2) If it had have been, if we'd have known we'd have pulled the tables further, pulled
the tables further across that way. (BNC, HYD, S_meeting)
(3) So if you hadn't have been prepared, you wouldn't have been lucky. (COCA, 2003,
SPOK, Ind_Oprah)
(4) But hey, you can't buy this kind of publicity. If I hadn't have gotten it, maybe
somebody else might've. (COCA, 2011, FIC, FantasySciFi)
(5) I would have worked harder if I had have known that life could be so soon over.
(Strathy, 1945, NF, StreamRunsFast)
Apart from the third conditional, no other environments are known to trigger the doubling of
the perfect. This nonstandard lives alongside the intrusive would after if, in contexts such as:
(6) If more would have gone back then the strike would have come to an end quicker.
(BNC, HMM, S_interview_oral_history)
Whereas would is also expected after if where if can be replaced by whether, as in:
(7) I don't know if it would have been there in Flaubert's day. (BNC, G1A,
W_fict_prose)
no such possibility exists for the plupluperfect. In other words, it will never follow in
sentences introduced by I wonder if, I dont know if and others alike.
When contracted, had is identical in form with would, and both auxiliaries are possible
after conditional if in nonstandard English. Therefore, the contracted form d was ignored and
only the full form of the plupluperfect was introduced as a search term in the available
corpora. The aim was to reveal the frequency and spread of the plupluperfect in the different
extant varieties of English, both at a national and international level. Four easily accessible,
online corpora were used: the BNC (http://corpus.byu.edu/bnc/), COCA
286
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
(http://corpus2.byu.edu/coca/), Strathy Corpus of Canadian English
(http://corpus2.byu.edu/can/) and GloWbE (http://corpus2.byu.edu/glowbe/), all hosted by
Brigham Young University. The same platform is used to access all of them, meaning that
they can be inquired in an identical manner, introducing the same search phrases every time.
This is highly advantageous, as once the search syntax is learnt and decided upon, the
researcher can confidently expect similar results to be returned across the corpora.
Accessing the corpora
In order to enhance search ease, the corpora have been annotated with CLAWS 7
(Constituent Likelihood Automatic Word-tagging System), a descendant of the first part-of-
speech tagger used to annotate the LOB (Lancaster-Oslo-Bergen) corpus in the 1980s. There
are many benefits in having access to an annotated corpus, as the following brief discussion
will show, yet certain limitations are also worth pointing out.
A relevant particularity of the CLAWS 7 tagset is that it differentiates between verbs
which can be auxiliaries and lexical verbs. Be, do and have are each treated separately and
given unique tags for each of their forms. Consequently, when looking for the past participle,
the search term [vvn] will only return the past participles of so-called lexical verbs, such as
studied and come. Been, done and had are excluded. This is somewhat surprising, since they
too can be lexical verbs in certain contexts. The instances where they behave as auxiliaries are
well-defined within larger grammatical patterns and in addition an end-user may always input
the exact form, rather than the tag, as a search term, which makes the [vbn], [vdn] and [vhn]
seem useless (for a detailed explanation of the tags, visit CLAWS part-of-speech tagger for
English and UCREL CLAWS 7 Tagset websites; for an in-depth discussion on tagging, see
Leech, Garside and Bryant 1994 and Garside 1996). In practice, what needs to be done is to
include a wildcard, that is to type [v*n] so as to retrieve all past participles.
Complex systemic structures are not easy to analyse in corpora, since they typically
involve quite a few variables and are subject to syntactic transformations, such as inversion.
Nevertheless, they would be nearly impossible to identify and analyse if the corpus were not
annotated. For the structure in question, it does not make much of a difference if as search
terms we introduce if * had have or if * had have [v*n], since the had have group is already
abnormal in an if-clause, but some possible irrelevant cases are nevertheless avoided.
However, one could not properly identify standard third conditional clauses without the [v*n]
tag, since if * had would inevitably include if-clauses of the second type where had can be
followed by any noun phrase. Moreover, the possibility to search for any past participles is
useful when looking for inversion of the plupluperfect structure, by keying in had * have
[v*n], which rids final results of hundreds of irrelevant entries.
Because the tagger couples each word with a part-of-speech category, certain higher-
level analyses cannot be run in a straightforward manner, but rather require the researcher to
be creative and pattern-aware. The plupluperfect, as a construction, can be minimally coded
as if [Subject] had have [past participle], if [Subject] had not/nt have [past participle], and
for inversion had [Subject] have [past participle], had [Subject] not have [past participle].
While for the past participle there is a tag, the syntactic function of Subject is not signaled in
any way. Nevertheless, it can be expressed by nouns and personal pronouns, as well as by
more complex noun phrases. If does not usually allow anything to come between it and the
287
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Subject, with the exception of words such as only, by chance and perhaps. Taking these and
the plupluperfect structure together is not necessary, since both if by chance and if perhaps are
rare enough to allow for a quick check of all the entries where they appear. Subjects expressed
by a single word can be searched for with only a wildcard, while Subjects expressed by noun
phrases can be searched for with * [nn*], where the wildcard is expected to retrieve any
article, determiner, possessive pronoun or adjective that may come before any noun, as given
by [nn*]. In order to check for even more complex, three-element noun phrases, all is needed
is the addition of a wildcard before the noun tag, due to the robustness of the if [Subject]
pattern. Personal pronouns could also form part of a multi-word Subject (e.g. If pitiful me had
known), which requires the use of the [pp*], instead of [nn*]. Finally, entering if * [nn*] /
[pp*] had have [v*n] and their variants will also show instances with if only.
It may also be worth pointing out that punctuation is not treated in the same way in the
considered corpora. In some cases it seems to be ignored completely, as in the BNC, in others
it is not. Usually, the wildcard (*) by itself does not return any punctuation marks, but in
GloWbE it does. This has no serious effect on the analysis, but it does mean that even more
useless results need to be ignored in the final tally.
The British National Corpus
The BNC, compiled in the 1990s, contains a wide variety of texts which together
amount to around 100 million words, 10 million of which are spoken language. Of these,
approximately half come from naturally occurring conversations (i.e. less than 5% of the
entire corpus). The search for the plupluperfect construction (with had full form, not
contracted to d), yielded a total of 40 instances, 10 of which came from written sources and
30 from spoken situations. This result reinforces the idea that nonstandard forms are a lot less
likely to be encountered in writing.
The BNC provides the opportunity to see who the speakers were in terms of age,
gender, occupation and dialect. Unfortunately, the records are not complete for all and the
dialect could not be identified for 13 of them. For the rest, the regional distribution is the
following (the list is in alphabetical order):
Dialect / Accent Number of speakers
Central Midlands 2
Central Northern England 2
East Anglian 1
Home Counties 1
Irish 4
Lancashire 2
London 1
Lower south-west England 1
Merseyside 1
South Midlands 1
Welsh 1
Table 1. Regional varieties of British English where the plupluperfect is found.
288
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The list documents the fact that the nonstandard plupluperfect is widely spread in the
British Isles. Although it does not seem to be able to provide a clear picture, the strength of
the analysis can be verified in other ways. For instance, since Scottish is not on the list, one
can use the SCOTS (http://www.scottishcorpus.ac.uk/) corpus to verify whether the
plupluperfect is found in the region, an inquiry which returned no results.
If the above returns of the plupluperfect should appear disappointing in any way, it is
worth remembering that standard conditionals are in themselves rare structures, as compared
to others (cf. Biber 1993), and the nonstandard form is expected to be even rarer, since most
corpora, the BNC included, rely heavily on published, edited material. Moreover, dialect can
be ascertained only when interviewing native speakers, and in this particular case, there was
only a fraction of the corpus available for study and incomplete records.
The Corpus of Contemporary American English
More than 450 million words in length, COCA is a monitor corpus which was released
in 2008. The number of plupluperfects found was quite low: a total of 42 instances of the
construction were identified, 33 of which belong to the spoken part. This is very close to what
the BNC returned, which is quite unexpected given the difference in size. Unfortunately, the
BNC and COCA cannot be compared, since the spoken component of COCA consists of
transcripted naturally occurring language from TV and radio shows. In such situations, people
tend to be more careful with their language and their contributions are influenced by the
format of the show they appear on. Very little personal information is ever shared (cf.
Lindquist 2009). Nevertheless, the low frequency of plupluperfects may in fact be
characteristic of American English.
It is impossible to find out the backgrounds of the speakers. Hence, not even a
tentative picture of the nonstandards geographical spread in the USA can be given. It may be
the case that it has diffused throughout the country, or that there are a few pockets of tight
communities using it. It may also be worth mentioning that of the entries which appear in the
written news section of the corpus, most plupluperfects appear within quoted discourse,
suggesting that the reporters either did not edit the speech, or that they did not notice the
nonstandard so as to correct it (cf. Ishihara 2003 on the nonstandard third conditional with
would which is typically overlooked by native speakers).
The Strathy Corpus of Canadian English
Geographical spread can be considered on a smaller or a larger scale, at a national or
international level. Should the nonstandard plupluperfect be found in other native-English
speaking countries, such as Canada, it would contribute to the evidence that this construction
is old, as it travelled with British-born immigrants within the growing Empire, and has spread
the world over. Strathy is a 50 million word corpus of Canadian English in which a total of 11
instances of the construction were found, 5 of which belong to the spoken component. The
smaller number of returns is unremarkable, given the size of this corpus.
As with COCA, there is no information available about the speakers backgrounds,
which impedes further analysis. Another similarity is that three of the results in the news
section evince the nonstandard within quotation marks, meaning that they could be accepted
289
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
as instances of spoken language. Furthermore, the searches indicated that there are some
glitches in the corpus construction, as the search for if * [pp] had have [v*n] returned
(8) they would be far fewer than -- than would have been present if --if they had have
been present as it were in -- in November. (Strathy, WalkertonInquiry, 2001)
This instance of the nonstandard did not show up when the phrase if * had have [v*n] was
typed in because the --if element is mistakenly analysed as a whole by the tagger.
Corpus of Global Web-based English
GloWbE is a 1.9 billion word corpus based on content taken from websites from
twenty English-speaking countries. It allows researchers to look at data for each country at the
same time, which makes it a very powerful tool. For the plupluperfect construction, only data
from the US, Canada, Great Britain, Ireland, Australia and New Zealand were compiled, with
the following results:
Country United States Canada Great Britain Ireland Australia New Zealand
Totals 62 22 192 45 106 24
Table 2. Plupluperfect total instances from GloWbE for each country.
It seems, then, that the nonstandard construction is alive and well in the former empire
and the Commonwealth. However, nothing more can be said about it, for a number of reasons.
First, it seems that each country component is different in size. For instance, the US
sample is larger than the Australian one. Moreover, there is no way of telling whether the
web-texts that make up the components are balanced in terms of style and genre. This makes
any kind of comparison irrelevant, as the frequency of the construction in any one country
may be accounted for by a number of unknown factors. Thus, to say that the plupluperfect is
more frequent in the British Isles than in Australia would be completely hazardous at this
point. In addition, since the backgrounds of the writers are not known, with web material it
may be the case that the authors are non-natives and they might not even live in that country
to which the web-domain belongs.
Further difficulties in relying on Web-data, although in this case careful selection and
compiling has already taken place, arise when multiple entries are encountered and when the
results evince questionable language. This entry, for example, makes no sense and had to be
disregarded when the total figures were put together:
(9) shouted out not where they expect the good word. Most mr car insurance online
had spaceship builders have been Scott said in a like the KDL and forestall the others
(GloWbE, cesl.arizona.edu, US G)
Results returned by GloWbE require careful inspection in order to ensure validity. (For an in-
depth discussion on working with Web material for linguistic research, cf. Hundt 2013).
Conclusions
Corpora cannot answer all questions researchers might have. Each corpus has a
number of particularities which resulted from the conditions in which it was compiled. Thus,
while it cannot be contended that the BNC, COCA and Strathy are each representative of their
national varieties, in their own right, they do not seem to be comparable. Their size, overall
290
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
makeup and genre balance are different. Moreover, although most plupluperfects were found
in the spoken sections, these corporas respective spoken components are very different in
terms of sources. In addition, the corpora cover different time spans: Strathy covers 1920s to
2000s, but the BNC has material only from the early 1990s. Although corpora compiled from
top level domains are certainly representative of national varieties of English (cf. Cook and
Hirst 2012), GloWbEs national components are also different in size, which makes
comparison difficult, again.
Putting together all the instances of the plupluperfect found in three of the major
national varieties of English, the results are the following:
Variety British English American English Canadian English
Corpora BNC W BNC S GloWbE COCA W COCA S GloWbE Strathy W Strathy S GloWbE
Instances 10 30 192 9 33 62 6 5 22
Totals 232 104 33
Table 3. The number of plupluperfect instances found for three major English varieties. W and
S stand for the written and spoken components of a corpus.
Unfortunately, the question remains whether these numbers are actually indicative of
the frequency with which the nonstandard is met, although one may suggest that the
plupluperfect is most frequently encountered in British English. More information is needed
in order to statistically confirm such a claim.
The data presented here also seems to suggest that Australian English is closer to
British English (see the results for GloWbE), while Canadian English is a lot closer to
American English. It would be interesting to correlate the results for the plupluperfect with
other nonstandard constructions or language features. Furthermore, given the dispersion of the
plupluperfect on the British Isles (see the results for the BNC), it would be worthwhile to see
whether such data can be correlated with the historical demographics of the former Empire.
Bibliography
Biber, Douglas. 1993. Representativeness in Corpus Design in Literary and Linguistic
Computing 8(4). pp 243-257.
Christophersen, Paul. 1986. A history of the plupluperfect in English Today 8(2). p 36.
CLAWS part-of-speech tagger for English, available online at http://ucrel.lancs.ac.uk/claws/.
Cook, Paul and Graeme Hirst. 2012. Do Web Corpora from Top-Level Domains Represent
National Varieties of English?, available online at
http://www.cs.toronto.edu/~pcook/CookHirst2012.pdf
Declerck, Renaat. 2006. The Grammar of the English Verb Phrase. Volume 1: The Grammar
of the English Tense System. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Garside, R. 1996. The robust tagging of unrestricted text: the BNC experience in J. Thomas
and M. Short (eds.). Using corpora for language research: Studies in the Honour of Geoffrey
Leech. Longman, London. pp 167-180.
291
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Hundt, Marianne. 2013. Using web-based data for the study of English in Krug, Manfred
and Julia Schlter (eds.). Research Methods in Language Variation and Change. Cambridge:
CUP.
Ishihara, Noriko. 2003. I Wish I Would Have Known!: The Usage of Would Have in Past
Counterfactual If- and Wish- Clauses in Issues in Applied Linguistics 14(1). pp 21-48,
available online at http://escholarship.org/uc/item/5wd0w3sz.
Leech, G., R. Garside and M. Bryant. 1994. CLAWS4: The tagging of the British National
Corpus in Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Computational Linguistics
(COLING 94) Kyoto, Japan. pp 622-628.
Lindquist, Hans. 2009. Corpus Linguistics and the Description of English. Edinburgh:
Edinburgh University Press.
UCREL CLAWS7 Tagset, available online at http://ucrel.lancs.ac.uk/claws7tags.html.
292
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE FRUIT OF THE TREE: EDITH WHARTONS DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVE ON
SOCIAL AND MORAL CONFLICTS
Oana Alexandra ALEXA, Assistant Lecturer, PhD Candidate, Alexandru Ioan Cuza
University of Iai
Abstract: Critics have categorised Edith Wharton, first and foremost, as a novelist of
manners, and her most famous novels are, indeed, about the world she knew best: drawing-
room Old New York. There are plenty of social and moral conflicts hidden there, behind the
unruffled curtain of appearances.
But The Fruit of the Tree (1907) is an interesting departure from Whartons most successful
novels, like The House of Mirth (1905) or The Age of Innocence (1920). Its two major themes,
social reform and the morality of euthanasia, fit into the pattern established as the focus of
my research, but they represent an exception from Whartons usual choices of plot, setting
and characters. Critics agree that, while it is overall a good novel, the two separate themes
give the impression that the book is actually made up of two stories brought together rather
artificially. The author clearly wanted to write about events that were very much topical in
the early 1900s and, indeed, the labour movement was gaining social and legal ground, while
euthanasia, after much debate, remained outside the law. What she lacked was a deeper
insight into these two issues, the kind of understanding she had of upper-class New York.
The aim of this paper is to go beyond the negative criticism of this novel and to focus on its
main themes, social and moral, which make up Whartons story, since this is the only one of
her novels which deals with the two explicitly. In the process, I will show that, despite its
inconsistencies, The Fruit of the Tree manages to provide the reader with a deeper knowledge
of the authors principles and literary agenda: those which prove that there is an underlying
social and moral conflict in each characters life and, by extrapolation, in all human
existence.
Keywords: social conflict, moral conflict, reform, euthanasia, Edith Wharton
1. Introduction. The Critical reception of The Fruit of the Tree
Critics have not rated The Fruit of the Tree (1907) favourably, mainly because of its
broken structure due to Whartons treatment of two major themes (social reform and
euthanasia), her superficial knowledge of the subjects and her declining sympathy for her
characters (especially Amherst) through the novel. It stands out, like The Valley of Decision
(1902), as more of a literary experiment, partially failed in comparison to Whartons
masterpieces because, despite of her attraction to the subject of reform, she didnt quite
manage that insight on the true nature of the working class. She was not one of them and she
was in favour of a more conservative approach in giving power to the people.
The authors own social status influenced her views on the American economic
development and the relationship between social classes. The upper, educated class was to
continue to lead the way to modernity, hence both Amhersts and Justines leisure class
origins. The novel also allows Edith Wharton to express her pragmatic view of ethics as a
293
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
continually shifting question involving ones own immediate relation to life. 1 In Justine
Brents own words, life is not a matter of abstract principles, but a succession of pitiful
compromises with fate, of concessions to old tradition, old beliefs, old charities and old
frailties.2
Blake Nevius thinks that, like some other second-rate productions,3 The Fruit of the
Tree is to a high degree characteristic and revealing of its author.4 In other words, it not
only allows expression of Whartons views on social order and ethics, but it also shows her
own self through Justine Brent, who becomes the leading character in the novel. Nevius
qualifies The Fruit of the Tree as an earnest, rather dull and unsuccessful novel, 5 but he
praises the depiction of Justine as an exponent of the authors personal traits:
Justine, on the other hand, is singularly aware of herself both as she is in fact and
as she appears to others; she provides her own firm center of belief. She has, I
repeat, all the traits which are apparent to a marked degree in her creator. She
confronts life stoically and expresses her view of it ironically. We are told that she
felt with her brain, and this is the objection most frequently voiced by critics of
Mrs. Wharton. She has the same independent spirit that enabled Edith Wharton to
make a career for herself in opposition to her family and her class.6
Indeed, Justine is a far more successful character than Amherst. She ties the two plots
together and gradually becomes the focus of the novel. In the end, she alone realizes that
Bessys building plans were not intended for Westmore and decides to reconcile with
Amherst since she now knows that compromise lies at the basis of both life and marriage. She
never feels guilty for what she has done, and recent critics, like Elizabeth Ammons, Deborah
Carlin and Susan Goodman have shifted the moral issue away from euthanasia to Amhersts
reaction to it. The fact that Justine did not feel bound to seek his approval for the euthanasia
after they become a couple is a critique of the institution of marriage and Amhersts reaction
is seen as unjustified. So, instead of social reform and euthanasia, the novel is seen to be
really about the victimization of women by men. But this seems to me rather far-fetched. And
so is the idea that the moral analysis in The Fruit of the Tree is rigid and absolutist. In fact,
Wharton stresses that both absolute freedom for factory workers and absolute moral principles
cannot really be put into practice because society will not accept them as a general rule. As
Tuttleton puts it, Edith Wharton had, in fact, immersed herself in the skeptical sciences,
especially in evolutionary Darwinism, and she understood both manners and morals to be
evolved products of slowly altering social and ethical conventions. 7
The title of the novel appears thus as the gaining of knowledge about good and evil in
the context of those complex human relationships. Social life and moral life are sometimes so
different in practice from what one learns in theory that the realization of such discrepancies
can prove to be destructive. After working with titles like The Cup of Mercy, The Shadow
1
Tuttleton, op. cit., 167.
2
Edith Wharton, The Fruit of the Tree (New York: Scribners, 1907), 188.
3
Blake Nevius, Edith Wharton: A Study of Her Fiction (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1976), 104.
4
Nevius, Idem, 104.
5
Nevius, Idem, 99.
6
Nevius, Idem, 104-105.
7
Tuttleton, op. cit., 165.
294
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
of a Doubt, The Chariot of the Gods and Justine Brent, Wharton decided on the Biblical
association with the original sin. Justine failed to see that even though what she had done was
perfectly justified by the circumstances, a person like Amherst, who might have agreed with
her in theory, may still be subject to old conventions of feeling when dealing with the killing
of his own wife. 8
In the end, regardless of the other novels, an overall look at the Fuit of the Tree tells us
that, even though the inconsistencies and contradictions that Whartons literary critics have
signalled in terms of plot and characterisation are present, dividing the book between the two
major themes, it is also indicative of the authors ability to capture the contradictory
responses to characters involved in complex situations as well as her official stance in relation
to the possibilities of changing a system structurally grounded in inequality. 9 In fact,
Wharton herself criticizes the construction of her novel in her personal correspondence: I
conceive my subjects like a man that is, rather more architectonically & dramatically than
most women - & then execute them like a woman; or rather, I sacrifice, to my desire for
construction & breadth, the small incidental details that women have always excelled in, the
episodical characterisation, I mean. 10 This confession leads us to believe that even though
she may have failed in terms of construction and plot, Wharton had at least succeeded in
defining her style and incorporating the realities of her time, the constant interplay between
morality and its social interpretation and offering a hint of where the author stands in relation
to them.
2. Whartons Social Theme
In writing a labour novel, Edith Wharton followed a long line of popular realist fiction
dealing with industrial problems like W.D. Howells Annie Kilburn (1889), Elizabeth Stuart
Phelps The Silent Partner (1871), H.F. Keenans The Money-Makers (1885), Lincoln
Steffens The Shame of Cities (1904), Mary Wilkins The Portion of Labour (1901), and
Upton Sinclairs The Jungle (1906). And for someone known as a chronicler of drawing room
society, Wharton had also dealt quite extensively with poverty and its effect on the human
spirit.
For Wharton, writing is a form of social action through its critical approach. In a letter
dating from December 5, 1905, she states: [T]he more I have considered it [my trade], the
more has it seemed to me valuable & interesting only in so far as it is a criticism of life
Social conditions as they are just now in our new world, where the sudden possession of
money has come without inherited obligations, or any traditional sense of solidarity between
the classes, is a vast and absorbing field for the novelist.11 The author, just like her character,
Amherst, obviously thinks in favour of the factory owners responsibility towards their
employees, but all to a certain extent.
8
Tuttleton, Idem, 166.
9
Teresa Tavares, New Women, New Men, or What You Will in Edith Whartons The Fruit of the Tree Edith
Wharton Review, No. 1, Volume XXI, Spring 2005, 2.
10
apud Clare Colquitt, Susan Goodman, Candace Waid, eds. A Forward Glance: New Essays on Edith Wharton
(Cranbury, N.J: Associated University Presses, 1999), 17.
11
apud Teresa Tavares, New Women, New Men, or What You Will in Edith Whartons The Fruit of the Tree
Edith Wharton Review, No. 1, Volume XXI, Spring 2005, 2-3.
295
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
In her book, Edith Whartons Politics of Race, Jennie Kassanoff analyses The Fruit of
the Tree in terms of Whartons class-based strategy of social control. 12 She starts from the
premise that Wharton feared the ill-bred, foreign and poor would overwhelm the upper-
class elite and destroy the countrys well-established, tradition-based moral and social codes.
In this light, her third novel is singularly concerned with the reproduction of a natural elite
capable of dominating Americas rising proletariat and newly ascendant middle class. 13
Indeed, the issues concerning the poor workers at Westmore are presented in relation to
characters of genteel origin who sympathise with them through constant proximity rather than
personal experience.
The emergence of monopolies was much criticized in American history. Workers were
not only in danger of losing their lives, but also their jobs. The possibility that workers
would soon be displaced by a newly mechanized industrial order controlled by newly rich
capitalists was, of course, the source of widespread concern in Whartons lifetime.14 But
however difficult it was to do business outside monopolies and however sympathetically is
Dillons case presented in The Fruit of the Tree, Wharton found the concentration of power in
the hands of the working class an intolerable prospect.15 A friend of Theodore Roosevelts,
she shared his belief that a strong hand was needed to steer the American economy. Both the
workers and monopolies were not fit to serve the nation and his criticism mainly turned
against the middle-class industrialist, characterised by the greed for profit.Wharton saw in
Roosevelt a great leader and she shared his distaste for the corporate nouveau riche. Like the
President, she believed that a well-chosen (and therefore well-born) executive could rein in
the greedy machinations of a middlebrow corporate elite. Only a powerful patriciate could
control the excesses of Americas unregulated market place. 16
So even if Wharton made a self-conscious effort to portray working-class problems
(like the small wages, lack of education and leisure opportunities, the feeling of helplessness)
in novels like The Fruit of the Tree, Ethan Frome (1911) or Summer (1917), she was bound
by her own leisure class origins and the general feeling is that she didnt succeed in capturing
the essence of the poor, or rather that it shows that she wasnt good at it. Claire Preston states
that Whartons writing about this group generally has the brittleness of a banker taking his
typist to dine,17 thus making it a mere excursion out of ones class, 18 since there is always
that comforting thought at the back of ones mind that, at the end of the day, one goes back
home to the old ways.
After a first look at The Fruit of the Tree, one may argue that it is not really a novel
about social reform, though the first chapters are definitely concerned with it, because it lacks
the insight in the real life of the workers, their thoughts and emotions and the realistic
description of their lives. There is no actual rendering of a visit to their homes, no dialogue
among Dillons peers and no depiction of the factory life through their eyes. In this light, we
12
Kassanoff, op. cit., 69.
13
Kassanoff, Idem, 69-70.
14
Kassanoff, Idem, 66.
15
apud Kassanoff, op. cit., 66.
16
Kassanoff, op. cit., 68-69.
17
Claire Preston, Edith Whartons Social Register (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000), 53.
18
Janet Flanner, New York Letter, New Yorker, 2 March 1929 (Yale) apud Preston, Edith Whartons Social
Register, 53.
296
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
may hardly say that Wharton had actually seen any industrial town. Indeed, the only
description is that of the interior of the mill during Bessys visit, when she learns that factory
owners crowd the space to obtain more profit, and it is clear from there that the authors input
is just that: an opinion based on a short visit rather than deeper knowledge gained through
close contact and personal experience. Due to her own financial and social status, Wharton
couldnt have had any other perspective on things. And this shows in the construction of her
plot and characters.
It is worth mentioning that she felt the need to endow both Amherst and Justine with
genteel origins. This justifies their lack of true communion with the workers, since it is only
based on close contact rather than personal experience. This limited perspective on the social
component leads us to doubt about the rendering of the social theme here. Instead, what
Wharton manages to bring forth in this novel is some understanding of the relationship
between owners and workers and the failure of the former to see the whole picture and pursue
the matter further. Indeed, some reforms are put into practice (like building bigger homes for
the workers, a hospital and a gymnasium and even enlarging the factory building), but they
are constantly delayed and some are even abandoned, not only because Bessy refuses to spend
her money on them, but also because even Amherst and Justine often linger in the serenity
and comfort of upper-class life. Much as they criticize the upper-class ways, it seems they
always manage to shut out anything unpleasant. If the company was dull, muses Justine, it
was at least decorative; and poverty, misery and dirt were shut out by the placid
unconsciousness of the guests as securely as by the leafy barriers of the garden. 19 For a nurse
dealing with incessant suffering, this is like an analgesic for the mind. Throughout the novel,
at times of hardship and suffering, they both long for the easy life they have accused Bessy of
living.
Bessys family is an exponent of the entire upper-class attitude towards money and
their source. As long as they can live comfortably and fund their conspicuous
consumption,20 they are not to be bothered with pecuniary issues. It was part of the modern
code of chivalry that a lovely woman should not be bothered about ways and means. 21 And,
for a leisure class man like Mr. Gaines, the proposed innovations at the mill were to be
regarded as new fashions in mill management and to be adopted for the same cogent
reasons as a new cut in coat-tails.22 In other words, Bessys family and friends may agree to
some improvements only to satisfy their ego as fashionably charitable people. But in doing so,
they would not consent to any reduction in their usual monthly income. The likes of Westy
Gaines, Blanche Carbury and even Bessy Westmore live the kind of life that is based on
conspicuous consumption, a pleasure-seeking, comfortable and fashionably luxurious lifestyle
that is sometimes appealing even to John and Justine. However, it is also completely ignorant
of all evils in the world. This is the same type of society that Wharton criticizes in all her
novels and this is the world she knows best. Its members had never been asked to think about
the poor, except for some occasional charity work, and thus the subject is unpleasant and even
19
Wharton, op. cit., 44.
20
Thornstein Veblen, The Theory of the Leisure Class (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).
21
Wharton, op. cit., 53.
22
Wharton, Idem, 34.
297
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
annoying to them: No one could expect me to come here now could they, Mr. Tredegar?
Bessy enquires. It all depends, he replies, how large an income you require. 23
It seems that the upper-class owners need constant reminders of their duty towards the
source of their money. At the beginning of the novel, the relationship between owners and
workers is practically non-existent. Bessy had never even visited the mills and we are inclined
to think that the deceased Dick Westmore had only done so when hiring the manager, Mr.
Truscomb. As long as the mills were managed properly, that is they brought good profits, no
further contact between the two was needed. Indeed, all the mean desolation of an American
industrial suburb24 was as common at Hanaford as it was anywhere else (except for those
few places that had recently adopted the new reforms), but a known fact about the upper-class
was that it resisted to the sort of change that would upset their comfortably laid lives. Their
detachment from the unpleasant is evident in all the talks Amherst has with Bessy, Mr.
Langhope or Mr. Tredegar and business is the word to cover anything that is ugly or
uncomfortable.
In fact, it is Amherst himself who summarizes the type of relationship established
between the master and his workers:
John Amherst was no one-sided idealist. He felt keenly the growing complexity
of the relation between employer and worker, the seeming hopelessness of
permanently harmonizing their claims, the recurring necessity of fresh
compromising and adjustments. [] The disappearance of the old familiar contact
between master and man seemed to him one of the great wrongs of the new
industrial situation. That the breach must be farther widened by the ultimate
substitution of the stock-company for the individual emloyer a fact obvious to
any student of economic tendencies presented to Amhersts mind one of the
most painful problems in the scheme of social readjustment. 25
In other words, Amherst (like Wharton) was not a socialist, he was not keen on giving
full power to the people, but he rather wanted the master to treat his subjects with more
compassion and to act upon a sense of duty. The novel makes it clear early on that this new
management clearly cannot be in the hands of the workers. Dillon, the mill worker who lost
his hand, is symbolically castrated and rendered impotent politically in the very first
chapter.26 A tighter relationship did not mean reversed roles, but rather a way to bring the
master closer to his workers. Till he entered personally into their hardships and aspirations
till he learned what they wanted and why they wanted it Amherst believed that no mere law-
making, however enlightened, could create a wholesome relation between the two.27
Unfortunately, the Westmores are so ignorant of the current social developments and so keen
on not upsetting the established state of affairs, that the only hope Amherst has to make them
aware of things is through an appeal to their compassion.
23
Wharton, op. cit., 13.
24
Wharton, Idem, 8.
25
Wharton, Idem, 17.
26
Robin Peel, Apart From Modernism: Edith Wharton, Politics and Fiction Before World War I (Cranbury, NJ:
Rosemont Publishing and Printing Corp., 2005), 73.
27
Wharton, op. cit., 17.
298
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The final chapter does, however, bring some closure to the novel of reform and the
relationship between John and Justine. Compromise is the key to both. With the inauguration
of the new pleasure-palace gymnasium, concert-hall and museum for the recreation of
the mill-hands,28 at Hopewood, we get the feeling that most of Amhersts ideas have been (to
a smaller scale at least) put into practice. The results now confirmed that however achieved,
at whatever cost of personal misery and error, the work of awakening and freeing Westmore
was done, and that work had justified itself. 29 And now, finally, the workers are humanized
to some extent, since they were beginning to understand the meaning of their work, in its
relation to their own lives and to the larger economy. 30 Kassanoff notices that the factory
workers in the novel are metonymically referred to as the mill hands or simply the
hands.31 Up to this point, Wharton doesnt mention anything about their thoughts on the
reform, but it seems that they finally come to see Hanaford as their home for the future.
3. The Euthanasia Debate
Euthanasia refers to the practice of intentionally ending a life in order to relieve pain
and suffering. Two elements are to be taken into account when defining euthanasia: the
existence of suffering and of intentionality (for a merciful death.) In a medical context, the
term was first used by Francis Bacon in the 17th century to refer to an easy, painless, happy
death, during which it was a physicians responsibility to alleviate the physical sufferings of
the body.32 Then, in 1870, Samuel Williams, who was a politician in the United States House
of Representatives, was the first person to suggest the idea of using anaesthetics and morphine
to deliberately end a patients life.
Edith Wharton introduced the issue of euthanasia in The Fruit of the Tree for two
main reasons. It had become quite a subject for debate during that time and it was in fact one
of her friends, Charles Eliot Norton, a Harvard professor, who was asked by Anne E. Hall to
write an article in favour of mercy killing. A rich Cincinnati widow and the daughter of an
Arctic explorer, she had watched her mother die after a prolonged battle with cancer. In 1905,
Hall intended to put a resolution before the American Humane Association in Philadelphia
requesting their approval of the practice of physicians to administer an anaesthetic in the cases
of hopeless suffering. Nortons mother had also died in similar circumstances and he, too,
supported euthanasia. The resolution went down in defeat, but it didnt mark the end of this
debate.
Even though Wharton herself insisted to Scribners that her latest novel was not a
thesis for or against euthanasia, her private letters disclose her feelings about the topic when
refering to similar cases of long suffering in her circle of family and friends. In fact, her belief
was that a peaceful death is infinitely better than a gradual failure of body and mind. 33
In The Fruit of the Tree, Wharton not only argues that suffering must be ended
through euthanasia, but also that prolonging the patients life through the use of drugs which
28
Wharton, Idem, 187.
29
Wharton, Idem, 188.
30
Wharton, Idem, 188.
31
Kassanoff, op. cit., 65.
32
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euthanasia#Beginnings_of_the_contemporary_euthanasia_debate
33
letter to John Hugh Smith, March 9, 1910 apud Kassanoff, op. cit., 77.
299
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
strengthen the body, and thus allow for even more pain, is unacceptable.Wyant personifies the
malefic doctor who sacrifices his patient in the name of science. He sees Bessy as a beautiful
case but, since he is a drug addict, his opinion is questionable. On the other hand, Justines
relationship with the patient, combined with the absence of both Mr. Langhope and Amherst,
increase the emotional strain and the effect of Bessys suffering on her. After seeing such
cases of prolonged suffering among her family and friends, Wharton has no doubt about the
question of euthanasia, and nor does Justine. Throughout the text, she insists that she
wouldnt have done it differently. Both the authors and Justines conviction comes from
direct experience, while Amhersts is rather artificial and idealistic.
As she admits several times in the novel, Justine Brent never questions the
righteousness of her deed. That is because she has not administered the fatal dose of morphine
on an impulse, but based on a long-established belief that, in such cases, death is better than
incessant suffering. But Justine seems to be searching for a confirmation that her opinion is
justified. At some point, there is a discussion between Wyant, Miss Brent and Tredegar which
sheds light on the three main points of view in this case. On the one hand, there is the
ambitious doctor who strives to keep this beautiful case for as long as science permits it.
Wyants passionate description of the case and his efforts focused on prolonging life
indefinitely is the opposite of what Justine, as a nurse, and even Mr. Tredegar think. The two
realise that, in Wyant doing so, increasing pain hardly justifies a few more weeks of life.
However, when asked about death being preferable, the lawyer does not hesitate in his
answer: Human life is sacred! [] Society decreed it not one person. [] Its the universal
consensus the result of the worlds accumulated experience. Cruel in individual instances
necessary for the general welfare.34 Mr. Tredegar already knows what Justine has yet to find
out: life within a social group means one has to obey its rules, regardless of their failure to
apply in certain cases and not even if the patient itself required it. Indeed, even Bessy herself
once or twice [] turned her dull eyes on Justine, breathing out: I want to die.35 but, at the
same time, there were no signs of contact with the outer world 36 and we must ask ourselves
if she was really conscious when making this request.
But Justines final argument is indirectly offered by Amherst himself. She finds some
of his notes on a book and, given their discussion in the first chapter, she takes them as an
assurance: La vraie morale se moque de la morale We perish because we follow other
mens examples Socrates used to call the opinions of the many by the name of Lamiae
bugbears to frighten children 37 she reads. It is interesting to notice that the first quotation
is somehow different from the following two. Basically, it says that real life challenges the
abstract rules of morality, a conclusion Justine will also reach at the end of the novel. The
other two justify Amhersts way of life and his permanent struggle with the social
conventions of the leisure class. Thus, we may interpret the three notes as following: real life
may not be a matter of abstract principles, as there are a lot of exceptions to the rule and
dilemmatic situations, but the fact is that human beings necessarily live within a community
which will judge ones actions according to the same abstract moral code.
34
Wharton, op. cit., 122.
35
Wharton, Idem, 124
36
Wharton, Idem, 124.
37
Wharton, Idem, 126.
300
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
As a consequence, Justines act can be perfectly reasonable: No! Her motive had
been normal, sane and justifiable completely justifiable.38 but, in the eyes of the society,
abstract principles cannot be bent, at least when somebody else but themselves is to blame.
The fact that Justine is afraid to tell John the truth shows that, deep down, she knows he is just
like anyone else: Her fault lay in having dared to rise above conventional restrictions, her
mistake in believing that her husband could rise with her.39
An article which appeared in the New York Times shortly after the novels publication
indicates that the public opinion, inoculated with the same moral code as everyone else of
Whartons readers, cannot perceive Justines act as something understandable and even
representative for the type of character that she is:
but when she tries to make us believe that any young woman, above all a woman
of Justines Brent intellect and temperament, could do the thing she is represented
as doing, Mrs. Wharton offends the mind, and something else, deep-seated within
our little citadel of self. [] The idea is abhorrent, and all Mrs. Whartons genius
cannot make Justines affable self-justification other than abhorrent. It may be that
she meant to make of Justine a study in human responsibilities and human ideals
of duty; but to the plain mind the question needs no study and admits of no
argument.40
The criticism is in radical terms and indeed shows that the euthanasia debate, though
popular at the time, was not to be given a favourable vote from the general public. In choosing
this theme for The Fruit of the Tree, we have to wonder what Whartons plan was after her
success with The House of Mirth.
Indeed, Whartons final message in the book is, as Justine realises, that life is not a
matter of abstract principles but a succession of compromises with fate. I must share James
Tuttletons opinion that this is a story about a woman eating the fruit of the tree and
understanding the complexity of life and human relations.
4. Conclusions
Overall, Wharton achieved her purpose to depart from the drawing-room society she
grew up in and wrote about in The House of Mirth, and she turned her attention towards some
controversial topics in her time. But in doing so, she also moved away from her usual
acuteness of perception and mastery of the literary means. In my opinion, Justine Brent is the
most successful character in the novel, not Amherst (like some of her critics proclaimed), but
this in itself is not enough to rescue the entire composition. Whartons depiction of social and
moral conflicts is most successful when it is only implied and not overtly ridiculed. Her irony
is usually hidden under the mask of perfect conventionality. In the case of The Fruit of the
Tree, she is not convincing because small-town industrial America is not her place to be.
38
Wharton, op. cit., 157.
39
Wharton, Idem, 157.
40
The Fruit of the Tree. Mrs. Whartons Latest Novel a Powerful Study in Modern Life Expert Satire in
Frosty Brilliance. Central Element Repels. Euthanasia as a Moral Problem Appears as New Element in Fiction.
Editorial. New York Times Oct. 19 1907,
http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10D14FB3B5A15738DDDA00994D8415B878CF1D3
301
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Of the two major themes, I think that the morality of euthanasia is better illustrated.
The first chapter of the novel starts well with the social component, but the relationship
between leisure-class Bessy and former gentleman turned assistant manager Amherst quickly
takes over the scene. Labour issues become secondary. In this respect, the moral component
and its impact upon human and class relations is better illustrated and followed through.
However, the last chapter of the book brings the social theme back into the readers attention,
but, this time, through Justines eyes. She is happy to see all the improvements her husband
had managed to put into practice, but there is also that personal regret that their earlier
communion, both in business and in feelings, was lost.
In the end, the particularity of Whartons novel stands in her personal views on the
two topics and in the way she chose to illustrate them through her characters. She was
definitely a moderate advocate of social reform because she saw the need for well-bred
educated leaders to guide the lower classes through the social and political changes of that
time. And she was also experienced enough to see that peoples perception of morality may
be relative, but it is still the weapon used by society to safeguard its status quo. The novel is
thus an expression of what the author believed in and a reflexion of the way society changed
in the early years of the 20th century.
Bibliography
Ammons, Elizabeth. Edith Whartons Argument with America. Athens: University of Georgia
Press, 1980.
Colquitt, Clare, Goodman, Susan, Waid, Candace, eds. A Forward Glance: New Essays on
Edith Wharton. Cranbury, N.J: Associated University Presses, 1999.
Dr. Norton on Euthanasia. Editorial. New York Times Jan. 6, 1906,
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60C1EF73D5A12738DDDAF0894D9405B
868CF1D3
Kassanoff, Jennie A. Edith Wharton and the Politics of Race. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2008.
Nevius, Blake. Edith Wharton: A Study of Her Fiction. Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1976.
Peel, Robin. Apart From Modernism: Edith Wharton, Politics and Fiction Before World War
I. Cranbury, NJ: Rosemont Publishing & Printing Corp., 2005.
Preston, Claire. Edith Whartons Social Register. London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000.
Tavares, Teresa. New Women, New Men, or What You Will in Edith Whartons The Fruit of
the Tree. Edith Wharton Review, No.1, Volume XXI, Spring 2005.
The Fruit of the Tree. Mrs. Whartons Latest Novel a Powerful Study in Modern Life
Expert Satire in Frosty Brilliance. Central Element Repels. Euthanasia as a Moral Problem
Appears as New Element in Fiction. Editorial. New York Times Oct. 19 1907,
http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10D14FB3B5A15738DDDA00994D8415B
878CF1D3
Tuttleton, James W. Justine: The Perils of Abstract Idealism. The Cambridge Companion to
Edith Wharton. Ed. Millicent Bell. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
302
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Veblen, Thornstein, The Theory of the Leisure Class. New York: Oxford University Press,
2007.
Wharton, Edith. A Backward Glance: An Autobiography. New York: Touchstone Simon and
Schuster, 1998.
Wharton, Edith. The Fruit of the Tree. New York: Scribners, 1907.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euthanasia#Beginnings_of_the_contemporary_euthanasia_debate
303
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
CIORAN ENTRE LA TRADUCTION ET LORIGINAL : LE CAS DE LA
TRADUCTION FRANAISE DES LARMES ET DES SAINTS
Andreea Maria BLAGA, PhD Candidate, Babe-Bolyai University of Cluj-Napoca /
Universit Jean-Moulin Lyon 3
Abstract: The analysis of Emil Ciorans French translations does not only contribute to the
translation studies, but it also underlines the evolution of his writing in time. Ciorans
translators and Cioran himself, who participated directly in the translation of Tears and
Saints and presumably in that of On the Heights of Despair, molded his Romanian work
accordingly to his French style. Important parts of the text were cut out, descriptive passages
removed, as well as explosive metaphors, or words which were followed by other synonymous
terms and formulations, all defining of Ciorans earlier creation. They tried to mold it after
its aphorisms and the concise writing he practiced later on. These differences that separate
the original from the translation will most likely show us the evolution of Ciorans image in
time: sentimental at first, he then became a very lucid writer repressing his poetic side.
Keywords: Cioran, translation, rewriting, repetition, reformulation
Traduction, auto-traduction, ou rcriture ? Difficile de discerner avec prcision entre
ces termes dans le cas de la traduction franaise Des Larmes et des saints1, faite par Sanda
Stolojan en collaboration avec Emil Cioran lui-mme. Dun ct, on remarque la prsence des
pratiques employes dans les traductions proprement dites et qui tmoignent dun vrai travail
de traduction : traduction directe littrale ou mot--mot : Frica este o moarte de fiecare
clip. (p. 26)/ La peur est une mort de chaque instant. (p. 294), traduction oblique
quivalences idiomatiques, transpositions : ar fi scos de mult pe Dumnezeu din circulaie
(p. 61)/ Aurait vite fait de mettre Dieu au rancart (p. 303), a trage chiulul morii (p.
34)/ tricher avec elle (p. 295) ; explicitations et paraphrases : Nu-i gsesc goluri nspre
care s arunc puni. (p. 70)/ Je ne lui trouve aucun point faible qui me permette de
lapprocher et de le comprendre. (p. 304), Un Shakespeare cu inim de fecioar (p.
7)/ Un Shakespeare frapp dinnocence (p. 289). Mais ces procds restent assez rares et
isols, il est plus facile de trouver, au contraire, des exemples qui tmoignent dun travail de
rcriture radical, tche qui incombe le plus probablement lcrivain lui-mme. En analysant
les divergences qui loignent les deux textes de faon manifeste, nous allons observer trois
axes dominants, interconnects, qui rgissent la plupart des transformations de la traduction
franaise et qui sont galement rvlateurs de lvolution stylistique que les textes cioraniens
ont subie au fil du temps.
1. Comme dans les autres traductions de Cioran que nous avons analyses, notamment
celle de Sur les cimes du dsespoir, nous pouvons observer une tendance flagrante de rduire
lexcs verbal, les rptitions, les redoublements synonymiques, les explications trop
1
Emil Cioran, Lacrimi i Sfini, Bucureti, Humanitas, 2008. / Emil Cioran, Des Larmes et des Saints, in
uvres, Paris, ditions Gallimard, 1995. Toutes les rfrences au texte roumain et franais sont rapporter ces
ditions.
304
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
longues. En roumain, les mots, les expressions, et les phrases mmes sont redoubls et se font
cho lintrieur du texte. Dans lexemple suivant, Cioran dit presque la mme chose, mais
de trois faons diffrentes, en franais cependant une seule occurrence semble tre suffisante :
Vrsta inocenei a lui Reynolds i arat c viaa n-ar fi avut dect o ans:
eternizarea copilriei. Cu ct priveti tabloul pictorului englez, cu att i dai
seama c am intrat cu toii ntr-o ratare fatal i necrutoare, c nu exist
dect o ratare: a nu mai fi copil2. (p. 133)
Lge de linnocence . Plus on contemple les tableaux de Reynolds, plus on se
persuade quil ny a quun seul chec : cesser dtre un enfant. (p. 321)
Le projet dcriture du texte original, ainsi que celui de la traduction, sesquissent trs
clairement dans ce passage, lcrivain reprend une ide travers des paraphrases, des
reformulations : le tableau de Reynolds tapprend que tu avais une seule chance : dterniser
ton enfance, que nous nous trouvons tous dans un chec fatal et implacable (autre
redondance), et quil ny a quun seul chec : celui de cesser dtre un enfant. Il tourne donc
cette ide sur tous ses cts, jouant sur lantonymie des mots : chec-chance, terniser-cesser,
remplaant des mots par des synonymes : fatal-implacable, on se persuader-on nous montre
et arrive une formule finale, caractre de sentence : il ny a quun seul chec : cesser
dtre un enfant . Lcrivain retient justement cette dernire formule, gommant les tentatives
prcdentes dexpression, le processus par lequel une certaine expression prend forme. En
roumain, on demeure avec limpression que lcrivain entend puiser ainsi toutes les
possibilits dexpression, quil fait le tour de lide. Ce qui peut tmoigner dune volont de
se faire comprendre, de faire passer son message, mais cest notamment le dsir de se librer
dun contenu non-verbalis, de lui donner une forme, que ces citations semblent traduire. Les
exemples abondent en ce sens :
Buddha a fost un optimist provocator. Cum de n-a observat el c nu numai tot ce
este e durere, ci i tot ce nu este? Chinul definete fiina tot att ct nefiina3.
(p. 153)
Bouddha tait un optimiste. Se peut-il que quil nait pas observ que la douleur
dfinit ltre comme le non-tre ? (p. 324)
mpria cerurilor se ntinde n golurile vitalitii. Neutralitatea biologic sau un
zero vital sunt obiectivele imperialismului ceresc. (p. 10)
Le royaume des cieux gagne petit petit les vides de notre vitalit. Limprialisme
cleste a pour objectif le zro vital. (p. 290)
Ces exemples sont assez loquents, ils soutiennent lhypothse que nous avancions
prcdemment de la libration dune pense qui navait pas encore de forme, travers une
expression ample et redouble. Dans la dernire citation, en roumain, nous voyons assez
clairement quil y a une ide qui obsde lauteur, quil essaie de lui donner une contenance
2
Les mots souligns marquent les passages supprims dans la traduction franaise, tandis que les mots en
caractre gras reprsentent les lments qui se redoublent, les paraphrases.
3
Bouddha tait un optimiste provocateur. Comment se fait-il quil na pas observ que la douleur se trouve
non seulement dans tout ce qui est, mais aussi dans ce qui nest pas ? Le tourment dfinit ltre comme le non-
tre. (trad. littrale)
305
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
linguistique travers les trois occurrences successives, considrant quune seule de ces
occurrences naurait pas eu la mme force dexpression. En franais, ce processus est moins
visible, parce que seulement deux occurrences sont traduites, et elles sont places une
certaine distance. Le jeune crivain voudrait donc se librer de ce contenu en lui assignant une
forme matrielle adquate et qui lui correspondrait parfaitement. Nous arrivons donc une
autre possible interprtation, connexe la premire, qui vise la recherche du mot juste.
Lcrivain semble avoir du mal trouver une expression assez forte pour transcrire son ide,
cest pourquoi, ne pouvant pas aller directement lessentiel, il fait le tour de lide, il la
place la croise de ces multiples expressions. Cette thorie du mot juste nest videmment
pas nouvelle, ayant fait le sujet de plusieurs tudes, comme celle de Jacqueline Authier-Revuz
que nous pourrions citer ici : Ce manque du mot que nommerait parfaitement la chose vise
se trouve aussi reprsent par le jeu de deux mots, et des trajets dont ils ouvrent lespace entre
eux. 4. Cette citation parle justement dune insatisfaction, du manque dun mot, insaisissable
mais qui se trouverait inscrit dans lespace qui se cre entre deux occurrences 5. Mais cest
probablement Cioran lui-mme qui dcrit le mieux cette preuve trs difficile pour lui de
trouver le mot qui convient le mieux ses contenus intrieurs : Le talent, cest la capacit
de combler lintervalle qui spare lpreuve et le langage. Pour moi, cet intervalle est l,
bant, impossible remplir ou escamoter. Je vis dans une tristesse automatique, je suis un
robot lgiaque. 6. Dans cette citation qui date depuis sa priode franaise, Cioran touche du
doigt justement cette dimension de son criture de jeunesse que nous entendions surprendre
par les exemples prcdents. La source de cette qute infructueuse serait, selon lcrivain, un
manque de talent, le talent de la posie, nous le verrons plus loin, manque avec lequel il
semble stre rconcili et qui ne justifie plus cette qute frntique de sa jeunesse.
Par contre, celle-ci est trs prsente dans ses uvres roumaines, et nous pouvons
donner encore un dernier exemple assez convaincant :
n echilibrul organic, suntem la acelai nivel cu lumea. i de aceea nici nu suntem.
Cutarea suferinei pleac n primul rnd dintr-o dorin de a scpa din lumea
obiectelor [...]. Durerea a frnt identitatea naturii. nainte de a o cunoate cu toii
eram natur. Cci eram n rnd cu existena. Dar durerea ne-a pus la pas cu
Dumnezeu... 131-132
Dans cet exemple, nous saisissons le travail fait par le jeune Cioran sur lexpression :
il reprend la mme ide quelques lignes distance, remplaant une colocation avec une autre :
A fi la acelai nivel n rnd la pas : tre de mme niveau avec lexistence tre de plein
pied avec lexistence marcher cte cte avec Dieu. Cest la recherche dune expression
4
Jacqueline Authier-Revuz, Deux mots pour une chose : trajets de non-concidence , in P. Anderson, A.
Chauvin-Vileno, M. Madini, Rptition, Allitration, Reformulation, Colloque international 22-24 juin 1998,
Presses Universitaires Franc-Comtoises, 2000, p. 52.
5
Cest le mme trait que Linda Collinge identifie chez Beckett, mais cette fois-ci cest dans lauto-traduction
anglaise que Beckett utilise ce procd et non dans la version originale franaise ! : Un autre type de rptition
consiste employer deux synonymes dans la traduction l o ne figurait dans la version originale quun seul
mot, donnant limpression que Beckett est la recherche du mot juste. Alors que la rptition empche
habituellement davancer, ce procd permet de progresser ttons. , Linda Collinge, Beckett traduit Beckett,
De Malone meurt Malone Dies limaginaire en traduction, Droz, Genve, 2000, p. 133.
6
Cioran, Cahiers 1957-1972, Paris, Gallimard, 1997, p. 70.
306
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
toujours plus percutante que Cioran semble entreprendre dans ce passage dont lide sera
rebattue souvent dans cette partie du livre, ce qui constitue probablement la raison pour
laquelle il a t supprim de la traduction.
Mais, alors, nous pourrons invoquer galement la thorie de Lancan de lalangue ,
qui reprsente un excs verbal, une ncessit intime de dire plus et quil dfinissait ainsi :
partant dun mot choisi intentionnellement pour nommer la chose et qui en libre un autre
dont il tait gros : trajet dun mot dans les couches de rsonance de lalangue, do revient
en cho un autre mot. 7. Cest le phnomne pendant lequel une expression entrane
spontanment une autre qui lui est attache, par des rsonances phontiques et, nous
ajouterions, smantiques. Cest donc une criture spontane, que cette thorie nous rvle et
qui marque une divergence importante par rapport lcriture aphoristique que Cioran
pratiquera en franais.
Finalement, pour nommer une autre interprtation possible, nous considrons que cet
aspect de lcriture de Cioran est susceptible de nous montrer le processus de la cration : il
permet de tracer le chemin quune expression fait pour saccomplir, la faon dont une image
sarrondit au cours des reprises successives. Cela est manifeste dans les exemples ci-dessous :
Dar moartea, moartea... S m lege de ea numai un dor ascuns, un regret vegetal, o
ncovoiere de plant mhnit sau o conspiraie secret cu ondulaiile funebre ale
naturii? (p. 154)
La mort Ny suis-je li que par une aspiration secrte, un regret vgtal, une
complicit avec les ondulations funbres de la nature ? (p. 325)
On devine facilement que la premire occurrence, le flchissement dune plante
morne, portait en elle, quelle tait grosse de loccurrence suivante, les ondulations
funbres de la nature, quelle a inspir lauteur cette autre image plus abstraite et sublime
en quelque sorte.
Calea spre extaz i experiena vidului presupun un efort de tabula rasa, o strduin
spre un alb psihic, spre un incolor n care se pot comunica vibraii fr
tangene materiale. (p. 73)
Toutes les deux supposent une volont ardue de table rase , un effort vers un
blanc psychique (p. 306)
Dans la dernire citation, par exemple, la deuxime occurrence, un effort vers une
rgion incolore o des vibrations sans tangences matrielles peuvent tre communiques, est
une explication de la premire, mais aussi une variation partir de celle-ci, une image
engendre par la force expressive de la premire.
Avant de passer au deuxime axe, nous pouvons observer que, parfois, il y a une
phrase entire qui est reformule en roumain et qui essaie de fixer une image dans notre
esprit. Comme nous nous sommes dj habitue, la traduction franaise ne conserve quune
occurrence : Scufundarea n el este un refugiu de propria noastra individualitate.
Imersiunea n abisul divin ne scap de ispita existenei proprii. (p. 76) / Plonger en lui
Jacqueline Authier-Revuz, Deux mots pour une chose : trajets de non-concidence , in P. Anderson, A.
7
Chauvin-Vileno, M. Madini, Rptition, Allitration, Reformulation, op. cit., p.57.
307
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
est un refuge par rapport notre propre individualit. (trad. littrale) Limmersion dans
labme divin nous sauve de la tentation dtre ce quon est . (p. 306). Cet exemple nous
permet de voir galement lvolution stylistique qua eu lieu dune formulation lautre, que
la deuxime occurrence est plus synthtique, que les mots sont mieux choisis : plongement
immersion, et quelle a un effet plus grand sur le lecteur. En bref, cest une expression plus
aboutie, que la traductrice/lcrivain choisit de garder au lieu de montrer cette qute de
Cioran, son effort descamoter le manque dun mot juste.
2. Ensuite, outre cette tendance dentraver le dbordement verbal de lcrivain, en
supprimant les doublets synonymiques, nous pouvons observer une autre, qui va dans le
mme sens, celle de rorganiser et de contraindre les paragraphes du texte original. Parfois, la
traductrice, mais cest le plus probablement lcrivain qui opre ces modifications, garde
seulement la phrase de dbut, autrefois il retient seulement les exemples ou la formule finale
et trs souvent il fait une sorte de collage partir de plusieurs bouts de phrase. Comme dans
lexemple ci-dessous :
Ei aveau stil n ndoieli. Cum se aplecau tomnatic asupra lumii, ntr-o expresie de
fericire dezabusat, cu o participare cald, fr resentiment, ca ntr-o atingere fr
consecine ! Scepticismul umbra delicat a spiritului i nflorire a tuturor
asfiniturilor de cultur [] (p. 52)
Leurs [les Anciens] doutes empreints dune douceur automnale et dun bonheur
dsabus avaient du style, comme toutes les choses dlicates leur dclin. (p. 300)
Lcrivain retient pour la version en franais seulement quelques expressions et mots
isols quil agence diffremment. La volont de rduire le texte roumain, de le ramener une
forme minime y est flagrante. Dans une autre citation, il coupe une phrase entire, mais il
retient un mot, quil insre dans la phrase prcdente. La deuxime phrase, celle qui est
supprime en franais, est une reprise sur le plan subjectif du vcu de lauteur, de lide
nonce prcdemment, qui de cette faon est prolonge et mene plus loin :
Cum s nu-i urti pe ngeri, pe sfini, pe Dumnezeu, si pe toata leata paradisului
care ntrein i provoac o sete bolnvicioas dup alte umbre i lumini, dupa alte
adposturi i ispite ? ! Va veni o vreme cnd m va cuprinde ruinea de pasiunile
mele cereti, de leinul religios care e sfinenia, i de senzualitatea transcendent
care e mistica. (p. 58-59)
Comment ne pas honnir toute lengeance du paradis, qui provoque et entretient
cette soif maladive dombres et de lumires, venues dailleurs, de consolations et
tentations transcendantes ? (p. 302) Il viendra une poque o je serai saisi par la
honte cause de mes passions cleste, de mon vanouissement religieux quest la
saintet, de la sensualit transcendante quest le mystique. (trad. littrale)
En roumain, les grands passages dont ce livre est compos, se constituent autour dune
ide, dune image ou dune sensation, qui est analyse, exemplifie, regarde de plusieurs
points de vue et exploite au maximum. Dans lexemple suivant, Cioran renforce son
affirmation initiale en anticipant une possible remarque Le renoncement ? , en la reprenant
et la reformulant du point de vue de la dimension humaine de Dieu Jsus est un hros
seulement dans la mesure o il est homme. , de sa dimension divine Par son ct divin
308
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
il sinspire dune lchet surhumaine. , du point de vue de sa cration Tout ce qui est
sublime dans la chute de la crature drive de lhrosme et de nouveau de celui de la
Divinit... En franais, il ne reste, souvent, quune formule lapidaire, une phrase elliptique qui
rappelle ses uvres franaises. Lide y est nonce avec un minimum de mots et de dpenses
rhtoriques, les phrases ont un caractre de sentence et sont suspendues en lair :
ntre divin i eroi nu exist nici o legtur. Cci Dumnezeu n-are nici un atribut de
erou. Renunarea? Dar Isus este erou numai n msura n care este om. Prin ceea ce e
divin se insipr dintr-o laitate supraomeneasc. Tot ce e sublim n cderea creaturii
deriv din eroism. Dumnezeu nu este dect antipodul lui. (p. 106)
Rien ne lie le divin et lhroque. Car Dieu na aucun des attributs du hros. La
lchet surnaturelle de Jsus (p. 314)
Pour voir de faon plus claire et dtaille la stratgie que Cioran emploie pour
rorganiser son texte, nous analyserons un paragraphe, un peu plus long, mais trs loquent :
Meritul cretinismului fa de nelepciunea antic consist n a fi depreciat
resemnarea prin iubirea suferinei. Din punct de vedere cretin, un lepros care-i
iubete lepra e superior unuia care-o accept [...] Prin legitimarea febrei,
cretinismul a adugat lumii o calitate de emoie pe care n-o avea n contemplaia
antic. Sfinenia a fost consecina imediat a acestei legitimri. Temperatura lansat
de Isus este singura favorabil unei culturi de sfini. A fcut apologia suferinei i
termometrul a trecut de 400. Cretinismul a ridicat temperatura omului, ca acesta s
nu mai diferenieze percepia de vis. [...] ...De aceea, nu exist cunoatere n sens de
absolut, fr boal. Dar oamenii sunt prea puin recunosctori. S-a gndit cineva s
ridice un monument tuberculozei, ca s nu amintesc de sifilis, epilepsie i de toate
celelalte, de melancolie, de plictiseal sau de tristee? [...] (p. 130)
Est suprieur, du point de vue chrtien, le lpreux qui aime sa lpre, celui qui
laccepte [...] En legitimant la fivre, le christianisme a cr les conditions
favorables une culture de saints. Il a lev la temprature de lhomme... (p. 321)
Parmi les choses supprimes par lcrivain nous pouvons observer : la comparaison
christianisme/sagesse antique qui est voue mettre en relief cette ide du chrtien qui aime
sa souffrance, donc un lment redondant dans la logique du texte franais, qui semble
trancher tout aspect rhtorique. Mais, ce qui est le plus rvlateur dans les deux paragraphes
compars, cest la suppression de la digression sur la maladie. Tandis que, en franais, la
traductrice/lcrivain garde seulement lide dune fivre abstraite, en roumain, Cioran ouvre
une parenthse, poussant lide dans le concret : Il a fait lapologie de la souffrance et le
thermomtre a dpass les 40 degrs. [] Cest pourquoi il ny a pas de connaissance dans le
sens absolu sans la maladie. Mais les hommes sont trop peu reconnaissants. Quelquun a-t-il
pens lever un monument la tuberculose, pour ne pas rappeler la syphilis, lpilepsie,
etc. ? (trad. littrale). Dailleurs, la maladie est un sujet qui revient souvent sous la plume
de lcrivain. En consquence, Cioran sanctionne le laisser-aller de son texte roumain qui
sloigne du propos mis en discussion, qui reprend un sujet rebattu dans ses uvres, qui
rabaisse une image abstraite dans le concret et la pousse trop loin avec cette ide dun
monument rig la tuberculose. Un autre courant qui traverse la traduction est donc celui qui
309
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
tranche les images et les termes radicaux, vhments. Finalement, nous observons que le vide
laiss par ses suppressions est ravaud par un collage des mots et syntagmes pris ici et l
et qui semblent tre facilement permutables.
Nous allons retenir que dans sa tentative dpuiser une ide, aprs stre servi des
reformulations, des paraphrases, des reprises successives, ne pouvant plus prolonger son ide
dans labstrait, Cioran passe dans le registre du concret, voire du prosaque, trouvant un
exemple quotidien qui clarifie les choses et leur donne un sens dfinitif. Par exemple, dans un
passage il parle de lide dun souvenir primordial, qui est Dieu et qui est accessible
seulement aux Saints, mme sans leur savoir. Le sens y est assez fragile, assez instable, cest
pourquoi lcrivain passe sur un terrain plus stable, celui du concret, rapprochant des mots
issus des catgories trs loignes. Ce fragment est compltement supprim en franais :
Pourquoi tous les fous parlent de Dieu, ou se croient Dieu ? [] Cest la mme chose avec
livresse. Lhomme se sole pour se rappeler Dieu ; peut-tre cest pour cela quil devient fou.
En tout cas, cest srement pour cela quil devient saint. 8 (trad. littrale).
3. Nous arrivons, finalement, au dernier axe, qui intervient dans la traduction
franaise : celui de la suppression des images artistiques et des descriptions lyriques. Tout
en continuant lanalyse de la faon dont les diffrentes ides sorganisent dans le texte
original, nous allons montrer le rle que jouent les images lintrieur de celui-ci. Comme
nous lavons dj partiellement dit, un paragraphe peut commencer avec une affirmation
gnrale et avancer vers le particulier, ou au contraire, il peut dbuter avec un exemple, une
sensation, une impression et finir dans une formule caractre gnral, mais presque chaque
fois il dbouche sur une image trs plastique qui est supprime dans la traduction :
Inaderena la via creeaz un gust pentru geometrie. ncepem s vedem totul n
forme fixe, n linii ngheate, n contururi moarte. [...] Cu ct eti mai trist cu att
lucrurile stau, iar la temperatura cea mai sczut a tristeii ele nghea. Depresiunile
insensibilizeaz optica la via, inima devine o transparen rece de mineral, iar
vinele goale ngroap ecouri de criv. (p. 144)
Linadhrence la vie engendre un got pour la fixit. Nous commenons voir le
monde dans des formes rigides, des lignes arrtes des contours morts. [] Plus
vous tes dprim, plus les choses se figent, en attendant quelles se glacent. (p. 322)
Ct vreme umbli pe strzi, parc lucrurile tot ar mai exista. Dar cnd priveti pe
fereastr pe orice fereastr , totul devine ireal. Oameni, arbori, animale, conspir
n nefiin. [...]. Uitndu-te la via, ncepi s o uii. De aceea, n orice cafenea istoria
e ridicol. Ceea ce se petrece afar, dincolo de geam, n-are sens i realitate. [...]
ajungi la sfrit s nu mai deosebeti dect nimicul exterior de cadavrul lui
Dumnezeu din inim. (p. 146)
Quand vous arpentez les rues, le monde semble exister tant bien que mal. Mais
regardez par la fentre et tout devient irrel. Comment se fait-il que la transparence
dune vitre nous spare ce point de la vie ? [] force de regarder la vie, on finit
par loublier. (p. 323)
8
Pentru ce aproape toi nebunii vorbesc de Dumnezeu sau se cred, chiar? [] Este acelai caz cu beia. Omul
se mbat ca s-i aduc aminte de Dumnezeu; poate de aceea nnebunete. Iar c devine sfnt, o face sigur
pentru aceasta. (p. 21)
310
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
De nouveau, nous observons que dans le premier exemple lcrivain joue sur lide de
la temprature. Dans une citation prcdente il partait dans une digression trs concrte sur la
maladie. Dans celle-ci, il cre une mtaphore file partir de lide du froid. Dailleurs, il est
assez facile de retracer le chemin quil a fait pour arriver cette image. Le qualificatif fig
entraine un autre qui le redouble glac qui est remplac dans le texte franais avec
lignes arrts qui engendre toutes ces variations lyriques autour du thme du froid : la
temprature la plus basse de la tristesse , le cur devient une transparence froide de
minral , les veines creuses enterrent des chos de vent glacial (trad. littrales) et
transforme labstrait en plastique, englobant tout le paragraphe dans une mtaphore finale.
Ensuite, nous observons que ces mtaphores finales qui viennent complter les propos
que Cioran avance ici, qui closent de faon percutante les deux paragraphes, disparaissent
compltement. Mais, il y a deux courants visibles dans ces exemples : celui qui supprime le
caractre abstrait que les mtaphores confrent au texte on arrive la fin ne plus
distinguer le rien extrieur du cadavre de Dieu quon porte dans le cur , et celui qui
limine les aspects concrets retrouvs dans les exemples Cest pourquoi, dans tout caf
lhistoire devient ridicule . Ce qui reste donc cest le ct idatique, le problme soulev par
Cioran, sans les variations lyriques, ou les exemplifications clairantes.
Cependant, parfois, le concret, le prcis est prfrable au mtaphorique, lcrivain/la
traductrice remplaant une image trs subjective avec une explication trs claire : Dou mii
de ani de fric ne-ar fi spnzurat de noi nine. (p. 55)/ Deux milles ans de terreur nous
auraient acculs limpasse ou au suicide. (p. 301).
Les premires images supprimes sont les images apocalyptiques qui transcrivent des
vcus intenses, explosifs, qui sont une marque de luvre roumaine de Cioran et, notamment
de Sur les cimes du dsespoir, mme si dans la version roumaine Des Larmes et des Saints
elles sont dj beaucoup plus tempres. Tous les lments de lunivers se dchanent et
changent de fonction et de proprits : les rochers fondent, les glaciers sembrasent, les toiles
blmissent, la solitude accablante pourrait engendrer une larme empoisonnant lunivers entier:
Cunoti tu pornirile de furie care topesc stnci, aprind gheari i opresc valurile mrii
ntr-o nemrmurire crispat? Ura nesfrit, care face din via o cascad ngheat...
o Niagara alb i tcut, peisaj de groaz i simbol al creaturii9. (p. 162)
Scrba de Dumnezeu la un om religios ajuns n stadiul final al suferinei determin o
singurtate att de copleitoare, c, de-ai putea scpa o lacrim, ea ar otrvi ntreg
pmntul, stelele s-ar nvinei, iar soarele ar rspndi o lumin ofticoas i
sfietoare. i n jurul acelei lacrimi ar ncepe atrii s se nvrt, i lumini noi s-ar
crea din acel punct iniial al dezndejdii cosmice 10.(p. 163)
9
Connais-tu ces lans de colre qui font fondre les rochers, qui embrasent les glaciers et contiennent les
vagues de la mer dans une immobilit crispe ? La haine infinie, qui transforme la vie dans une cascade glace
une Niagara blanche et muette, paysage de terreur et symbole de la crature (trad. littrale)
10
Le dgot de Dieu chez un homme qui se trouve dans le stade final de la souffrance dtermine une solitude
si accablante que, si tu pouvais faire couler une larme, elle empoisonnerait toute la terre, les toiles blmiraient,
et le soleil disperserait une lumire faible et dchirante. Les astres commenceraient tourner autour de cette
larme et des lumires nouvelles sengendreraient partir de ce point initial du dsespoir cosmique. (trad.
littrale)
311
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Nous observons trs bien travers les images supprimes que cette posie frntique,
cette expansion lyrique du jeune Cioran, forme dune accumulation dlements cosmiques
qui incarnes ses vcus les plus intenses, est difficile grer par lcrivain franais dsabus et
revenu de son enthousiasme. Il rejettera plus dune fois son criture roumaine dailleurs il
critiquera les formules franaises aussi Je viens de lire quelques pages que jai crites en
roumain il y a plus de vingt ans. Mauvaise posie sil en fut. Une sorte de frmissement
continuel qui me donne la nause. [] Se garder de la posie comme de la peste. Ou alors
crire carrment des pomes. 11. Ce rapport difficile quil a avec son propre texte serait d
galement une frustration de Cioran quil dplore souvent, celle de ne pas pouvoir tre
pote, malgr son lyrisme inhrent : je suis un robot lgiaque dira-t-il dans une citation
que nous avons voque plus haut. Le lyrisme savre tre donc un point nvralgique pour
Cioran, lobligeant un trop grand dpouillement de lui-mme et le mettant devant son
inaccomplissement.
Ayant analys les trois axs, le temps est venu de faire le bilan de notre analyse et de
rpondre la question que nous avons pose au dbut de notre tude. Nous pouvons donc
conclure que la traduction de Des larmes et de Saints est une rcriture du texte original, les
preuves en ce sens tant indubitables. Le grand nombre de suppressions, visant le lyrique,
ainsi que le concret et le terrestre, met en exergue un vrai effort de lcrivain de rprimer une
partie importante du texte original. Toutes les marques de son criture de jeunesse sont
gommes lune aprs lautre : les images extrmes et vhmentes, le lyrisme dbordant,
lcriture spontane et dchane qui a un effet cathartique pour le jeune crivain, ses qutes
lexicales et stylistiques. On remarque, par contre, une tentative de resserrer le texte, de le
contraindre dans des formules, les ellipses, linsertion du silence et les phrases suspendues,
qui font partie dune stratgie dcriture compltement oppose et qui sera celle de ses uvres
aphoristiques franaises. Cette analyse comparative entre la traduction et loriginal nous aura
permis donc de mieux mettre en vidence lcart qui existe entre les premires uvres de
Cioran et celles plus tardives, entre limage roumaine dun Cioran potique et sentimental
et limage franaise dun Cioran lucide, refoulant son penchant potique.
Bibliographie
AUTHIER-REVUZ, Jacqueline, Deux mots pour une chose : trajets de non-concidence ,
in P. Anderson, A. Chauvin-Vileno, M. Madini, Rptition, Allitration, Reformulation,
Colloque international 22-24 juin 1998, Presses Universitaires Franc-Comtoises, 2000.
CIORAN, Emil, Lacrimi i Sfini, Bucureti, Humanitas, 2008.
CIORAN, E. M., Des Larmes et des Saints, in uvres, Paris, ditions Gallimard, 1995
[ditions de lHerne, 1986].
CIORAN, Cahiers, Paris, ditions Gallimard, 1997.
COLLINGE, Linda, Beckett traduit Beckett, De Malone meurt Malone Dies limaginaire en
traduction, Droz, Genve, 2000.
11
Cioran, Cahiers 1957-1972, op. cit., p. 187.
312
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ANALYSE DES TRADUCTIONS EN ROUMAIN DE LA PIECE LA CANTATRICE
CHAUVE DE LA PERSPECTIVE DE LA DOUBLE LECTURE
Violeta CRISTESCU, PhD Candidate, tefan cel Mare University of Suceava
Abstract: The paper focuses on the importance of translation and retranslation in the process
of reception of dramatic work, especially for the text La Cantatrice chauve and some of its
translations into Romanian. For an audience that prefers to read translations rather than
original works, their importance for Romanian must be evaluated taking into consideration
their place in national literature, because the corpus of the translations of classical authors,
as well as that of contemporary authors, merges in the horizon of expectations of the actual
audience. The analysis that we propose takes into consideration the difficulties that la
double lecture presupposes for the dramatic text for the scene and for reading, the reader
dealing with a text whose theatricality doesnt expose itself through reading only. The study
of different published versions into Romanian at a distance in time allows us to discover if, in
the vision of translators, the predominant text is for lecture or a discourse for the spectator.
In the opinion of Michel Ballard, retranslation is a technique that proves the fleeting and
incomplete aspect of translation, because the act of translation is included in the always new
circuit of a culture-language to another. La Cantatrice chauve and its different
translations into Romanian are a good example.
Keywords: translation, retranslation, dramatic text, theatricality
I. Une perspective thorique sur la traduction/retraduction du discours dramatique
Malgr les orientations et les perspectives diffrentes embrasses par les
traductologues du dernier temps, ils ont tous soulign la ncessit et limportance dune
rflexion sur la traduction littraire. La retraduction sintgre dune manire naturelle
lhistoire de la traduction, lmergence des nouvelles versions dune uvre dj traduite dans
une langue rpondant des besoins divers. Aussi la recherche traductologique accorde-t-elle
cette problmatique une attention particulire le dernier temps. Du point de vue du lectorat
auquel les traductions et les retraductions sont destines, il est utile de rappeler lopinion de
Gelu Ionescu (2004 : 91) selon laquelle, pour une public qui lit plutt des traductions que des
uvres originales, limportance des traductions du franais vers le roumain doit tre value
galement par rapport leur place au sein de la littrature nationale, car le corpus des
traductions dcrivains classiques comme des auteurs contemporains sintgre dans lhorizon
dattente du public actuel.
La traduction littraire envisage galement les diffrences supposes par la double
lecture du texte thtral lune pour la lecture et lautre pour la scne. Le lecteur se confronte
avec un texte et non pas avec un discours et, pour lui, les didascalies, les points de suspension,
les points dexclamation, les onomatopes, les interjections, les silences comptent beaucoup.
En change, le spectateur na pas faire tous ces lments dramatiques qu travers la mise
en scne, le jeu des acteurs, les effets scniques. Lun lit surtout, lautre coute, voit et ragit.
Il faut remarquer que, sur la scne, les personnages changent des rpliques comme dans une
situation de communication relle, mais ces locuteurs fictifs ne font quarticuler voix haute
des noncs qui sont dailleurs pr-ordonns par un auteur. Cet auteur, nomm linstance
313
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
nonciative qui reste derrire les personnages et organise les dialogues, est, en ralit, le
vritable metteur des paroles prononces sur la scne, cest pourquoi, Michael Issacharoff
(1985 : 48) lappelle larchi-nonciateur. Le but de larchi-nonciateur est, videmment, la
communication avec les lecteurs/spectateurs. Mais cette communication nest jamais directe,
larchi-nonciateur parle par lintermdiaire des comdiens assists par un metteur en scne,
un scnographe, un clairagiste, etc., donc il ne se veut pas le responsable des paroles
prononces sur la scne. Cette responsabilit est attribue, comme nous avons dj prcis,
dautres voix. Le discours thtral, en tant que discours de cet archi-nonciateur, est un
discours immdiatement dessaisi de son je, dun sujet qui se nie en tant que tel, qui saffirme
comme parlant par la voix dun autre ou de plusieurs autres, comme parlant sans tre sujet : le
discours thtral est discours sans sujet (Anne Ubersfeld , 1977 : 264). Le discours thtral
repose sur lessence contradictoire du sujet de la parole qui est la fois absent et omniprsent,
tant par nature une interrogation sur le statut de la parole : qui parle qui ? Et dans quelles
conditions peut-on parler ? (Anne Ubersfeld, op. cit.: 265).
Au thtre, on a affaire un double destinataire, une double rception aussi : dune
part, les personnages changent des propos, leurs messages tant destins des interlocuteurs
intra-scniques, dautre part, le vritable destinataire est le lecteur/spectateur qui na pas la
possibilit de ragir verbalement. Selon Magda Jeanrenaud (2012 : 120) la spcificit du
texte thtral - considr une forme littraire hybride - est construite autour dun support
extralinguistique encadr dans la catgorie des textes scripto-sonores et demande le choix
des mthodes de traduction en mesure de produire un texte dont leffet soit identique celui
que provoque loriginal face au public qui lentend en langue source. Dans la traduction du
thtre, la fidlit dpend des contextes : lnonc thtral est spcialement conu dans le
cadre de ces contextes, puisquil est toujours fonction dun public donn (Georges Mounin,
1976 : 162). Il est souligner que tous ces contextes se retrouvent aussi dans les autres
textes, mais, pour le thtre, on parle, dune part, de lassociation du texte crit et de toute une
gamme dlments visuels et auditifs qui sont spcifiques au spectacle, dautre part, dun
caractre instantan qui vient de linteraction entre le public et le texte. Cest dans ce sens que
la spcificit du texte thtral doit tre cherche, le texte mme constituant seulement une
composante du spectacle, et la raction du spectateur tant toujours instantane et diffrente
de celle du lecteur. Nous nous rallions lide de Dominique Maingueneau (2007 : 57) qui
considre que la lecture doit tre conue comme une stratgie et non pas comme un
modle linaire, donc un processus soumis aux phnomnes danticipation et de retours au
texte, de rajustement permanent et de suppression, et cela correspondrait mieux encore au
parcours rel du lecteur. Il ne faut pas oublier que tout mot dispose a priori dun noyau fixe
qui sest impos suite ses multiples emplois. Le simple emploi dun mot peut dterminer
lapparition de tout lunivers auquel il appartient. En ouvrant de nombreuses directions, les
mots dun texte enrichissent les moyens dont le lecteur dispose pour construire son monde
imaginaire (Dominique Maingueneau : op. cit. : 60). Pour le thtre, le mot est prononc dans
un dcor, tant associ une mimique, des jeux de scne, mais sa duplicit reste le trait
le plus important. Par consquent, dans une premire situation dnonciation, un auteur
sadresse un public par la reprsentation dune pice, lacte de lnonciation tant donc
constitu par la reprsentation. Dans une deuxime situation, cest--dire la situation
reprsente, un nombre de personnages portent un dialogue dans un cadre nonciatif
314
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
considr autonome par rapport la reprsentation de la pice (Dominique Maingueneau : op.
cit.: 185). Le spectateur assiste une situation bizarre qui se ressent tout au long de la
reprsentation ; on lui envoie des noncs en palimpseste : les paroles de la scne semblent
tre dcales, doubles par la variante crite. Le spectateur entend Mme Smith, par exemple,
mais il entend aussi un nonc dIonesco. Cest exactement cest instabilit nonciative qui
annonce une nouvelle difficult : la double lecture de luvre dramatique.
II. La double lecture du texte dramatique
Il est utile de savoir si, au moment o lauteur crit une pice, il envisage la lecture ou
la, mise en scne. Nous considrons que chaque auteur aimerait voir que les choses quil crit
peuvent prendre forme. Vlad Zografi, traducteur, romancier et dramaturge, considre que
Jouer des pices de thtre est une horreur magnifique. Quand jcris du thtre, les
personnages jouent une pice imaginaire dans ma tte et jcris la pice que les personnages
me dictent. Le premier spectacle se passe dans ma tte et javoue que cest le plus important
pour moi (affirmation faite loccasion de la XVIIIe dition du Salon du Livre Francophone
de Beyrouth : 2011). Mais la traduction du thtre est un combat. Elle doit rester ouverte,
permettre le jeu mais ne pas en dicter un, tre anime par un rythme mais ne pas en imposer
un. Traduire le thtre, cest vaincre toutes les rsistances sourdes, inavoues, quune
culture offre sa pntration par une autre (Georges Mounin, op.cit. : 163).
Si jusquau XVIIe-XVIIIe sicles, on a observ une grande expansion de ladaptation,
lthique traductive tant fonde sur le droit dadapter le texte tranger aux gots et aux
habitudes de la culture cible au prix de la dilution des rapports entre le texte original et le
texte traduit, au XIXe sicle, ladaptation est associe linfidlit et la trahison
(Magda Jeanrenaud, op.cit. : 117) du texte original. partir du XX e sicle, on assiste la
valorisation de lefficacit de la communication (Magda Jeanrenaud, op. cit. : 118) et
lapparition de nouvelles thories de pense en traductologie. Ces thories soutiennent la
ncessit dadapter les techniques de traduction au type du texte traduire et leffet quil
doit produire auprs du public cible, comme celle du Skopos (Katharina Rei, 2002 : 57).
Il faut admettre la double rception, le double destinataire et le double sens dune
pice de thtre. Noublions pas qu partir du XIX e sicle, de nombreuses pices ont t
destines la lecture : Lorenzaccio, dAlfred Musset (1834), avec les 39 tableaux, na pas
t conue, ds le dbut, pour la scne. Le mme auteur publiera, entre 1833 -1834, quelques
pices ayant le titre Un spectacle en fauteuil (Dominique Maingueneau, op. cit.: 188). Par
rapport au spectateur, le lecteur a accs aux didascalies, cest--dire toutes les informations
que lauteur offre en vue de la mise en scne ou de lactualisation de son discours. Ces
lments du mtadiscours varient en fonction dpoque, genre, auteur. Le texte dramatique ne
peut tre actualis dans la reprsentation que par lintermdiaire dune troisime personne, le
metteur en scne, qui assure la relation du texte avec la diversit des contextes de rception.
Le texte reste une pice virtuelle, qui peut recevoir une infinit dinterprtations. Dans le
mme nonc, le spectateur peut percevoir trois actes dnonciation simultans : lacte qui lie
lauteur au public virtuel ; lacte qui lie le metteur en scne au public spcifique ; lacte qui lie
le personnage un autre personnage. Mais il arrive que le spectateur ne veuille entendre ni
lauteur (Ionesco), ni le metteur en scne (Victor Ioan Frunz) ni mme le personnage (Mme
Smith), mais la comdienne (Virginia Mirea, couronne du prix La meilleure comdienne
315
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
pour un rle principal, 2011). Cette structure nonciative particulire du texte thtral a un
effet dstabilisateur sur les noncs produits sur la scne, car ils ont deux destinataires
distincts : linterlocuteur de la scne et le public. Le mme discours fonctionne
simultanment sur deux plans : il agit sur linterlocuteur immdiat, mais aussi sur le
destinataire indirect (il doit lmouvoir, le faire rire, etc., en provocant toutes les ractions qui
font partie de la catgorie des lments qui font plaisir au public ). Par consquent, ltude
des dialogues thtraux doit avoir en vue une double lecture des noncs : la conversation
entre deux personnages et lnonc de lauteur adress au public. Il sagit dune autre
difficult du discours thtral : la technique du double sens (Dominique Maingueneau, op.
cit. : 190) qui permet doffrir une autonomie apparente aux personnages et de raliser une
liaison invisible avec le spectateur. Au moment o lauteur crit du thtre, il envisage un
personnage qui fait quelque chose tandis quil parle (il a une intention, une direction, il sy
trouve grce une raison), le discours dramatique, par rapport dautres types de discours,
tant attach la situation scnique.
Mme sil est possible de dramatiser aussi dautres types de textes, lcriture
dramatique suppose autant une bonne connaissance de la scne et du mtabolisme des
acteurs que la dcouverte du plaisir de vivre dans le thtre ou de penser/repenser le monde
comme le thtre (Alina Nelega, 2010 : 61). Selon Irina Mavrodin, la lecture plurielle qui
valorise luvre, se retrouve en traduction littraire. Cela veut dire que la traduction tmoigne
de la lecture avertie du traducteur, marque par la mentalit, la culture, lunivers
pistmologique, lhorizon dattente de ce dernier, ainsi que par sa sensibilit propre, mais
tributaire dune sensibilit collective. Elle pose la traduction en tant que faire (en tant
quaction jamais acheve), posis, comme toute vritable cration, toutefois limite par des
contraintes inexorables.
Pour se rapporter au fonctionnement de la communication au thtre, il est utile de
revenir une ide de Notes et contre-notes, o Ionesco propose une dfinition du langage au
thtre : Tout est langage au thtre, les mots, les gestes, les objets, laction elle-mme, car
tout sert signifier (1966 : 116). Cette affirmation semble confirmer lexistence dun
amalgame de langages : parole, geste, mouvement, mimique, maquillage, masque, costume,
accessoire, clairage, musique, bruitage, dcor. Dans son livre devenu classique sur le
langage dramatique (Le langage dramatique. Sa nature, ses procds, 1997), Pierre
Larthomas parle dun seul langage dramatique compos dun ensemble dlments verbaux et
para-verbaux. Pour Anne Ubersfeld, le syntagme discours au thtre a deux acceptions :
1. Le discours thtral est lensemble organis de messages dont le producteur est lauteur de
thtre et 2. Le discours est lensemble de signes et de stimuli (verbaux et non verbaux)
produits lors de la reprsentation et dont lauteur est pluriel (auteur, metteur en scne,
comdiens). Nous adaptons lhypothse de lexistence des multiples langages au thtre et, en
mme temps, lide que la parole nest quun langage possible. Il nest pas moins vrai que
tout dialogue de thtre est une langue crite qui se donne des airs doralit en accentuant
certains traits quelle emprunte la langue orale, la part dimplicite ou de rptition, par
exemple (Magda Jeanrenaud, op. cit. : 178). On dit que le texte thtral nexiste qu moiti
sil nest pas prsent sur la scne. Il y a beaucoup de textes qui narrivent pas franchir la
barrire de la littrature (du mot crit). Ces textes se prsentent sur la scne tout comme des
textes soumis une lecture collective (celle des spectateurs). La traduction, tant vue comme
316
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
un choix du lecteur averti, quest le traducteur, sera frappe de dsutude cause du
changement des mentalits, de lhorizon dattente du public et de lvolution de la langue,
do la ncessit des retraductions. Lpreuve dcisive qui vrifie la thtralit dun texte
nest pas donne par la reprsentation proprement dite, mais exactement lenvers, labsence
de reprsentation. Cest dans ce sens que Shakespeare, Molire, Goldoni, Goethe, Byron,
Tchekhov, Caragiale, Pirandello, Gorki, Jarry, Brecht, Ionesco ont t considrs de vrais
rformateurs du style scnique.
Il est vident que la lecture doit tre vue comme un modle stratgique et non pas
comme un modle linaire. Dun ct, lauteur doit faire des hypothses pour pouvoir
dchiffrer le texte, il doit aussi supposer avoir des codes communs (culturaux et linguistiques)
avec le lecteur auquel il pense. Dautre ct, le lecteur doit construire une certaine
reprsentation du texte, ayant en vue lhypothse que lauteur respecte certains codes. Il y a,
des deux cts, des jeux danticipation complexes. Lacteur principal du discours littraire
nest pas le lecteur, mais le texte mme, conu comme un dispositif qui organise la lecture.
Dans lanalyse des (re)traductions dramatiques, il faut tenir compte de la diffrence entre la
littrature imprime et la littrature joue (qui na pas de sens que si la pice a t joue).
III. Traduire et retraduire La Cantatrice chauve en roumain
Lanalyse que nous proposons sarrte en particulier sur les difficults que suppose la
double lecture du texte thtral pour la scne et pour la lecture, le lecteur se confrontant avec
un texte dont la thtralit ne se rvle pas ncessairement la lecture. Ltude des versions
diffrentes parues en roumain avec un certain cart temporel permet de dceler si, dans la
vision des traducteurs, ce qui domine est un texte pour la lecture ou un discours pour le
spectateur.
Tout en rflchissant lhistoire et lhorizon de la traduction, aux clichs et aux
dogmes de la traductologie, aux piges traductionnels, ainsi quau march ditorial et au
contexte culturel dans lequel lactivit traduisante sexerce, en essayant de cerner les
universaux de la traduction, Magda Jeanrenaud retrouve et dcrit, dans le cycle dramatique
Chiria, de Vasile Alecsandri, les techniques de traduction proposes par Vinay et Darbelnet.
Pour les personnages du cycle Chiria, comme pour les personnages de La Cantatrice chauve,
communiquer ne suppose plus un change de messages, mais un change de signifiants
vids de toute signification (Magda Jeanrenaud, op. cit. : 87). Le personnage principal du
cycle Chiria nhsite pas recourir lemprunt, au calque, au mot--mot, une
roumanisation du franais, une francisation du roumain dans un jargon franco-roumain
hilarant (Magda Jeanrenaud, op. cit. : 77). Ces pratiques traduisantes, aux effets comiques
chez Alecsandri, deviennent tragiques chez Ionesco qui, dans sa leon de traduction, intgre
dans La Cantatrice chauve, nous propose un monde o tous les signifiants sont quivalents
et concomitamment sannulent rciproquement, un monde o, la limite, la communication
interhumaine na plus de sens, ni raison dtre (Magda Jeanrenaud, 2006 : 85). La
proccupation dEugne Ionesco pour lacte de la communication se reflte dans sa propre
affirmation: En ralit, jai surtout combattu pour sauvegarder ma libert desprit, ma libert
dcrivain. Il est vident quil sest agi, en grande partie, dun dialogue de sourds, car les murs
nont pas doreilles et les gens sont devenus des murs les uns pour les autres : personne ne
discute plus avec personne, chacun voulant de chacun faire son partisan ou lcraser (1966 :
317
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
54). Il a mme dfini ses comdies des anti-pices, des drames comiques et ses drames, des
pseudo-drames ou des farces tragiques. La prsence des sous-titres aide le lecteur dans sa
rception. Il arrive que le sous-titre soit prsent sur laffiche qui annonce le spectacle et, dans
cette situation, il a le rle dattirer lattention au spectateur aussi. Il faut observer que pour la
plupart des metteurs en scne il est difficile dexploiter le comique absurde et de mettre en
vidence sa profondeur tragique. Dans ce sens, le dcor, les costumes, les clairages ont un
rle particulier. Il reste souligner que les comdiens reprsentent la cl pour la transmission
de la conception du metteur en scne.
En 1943, Ionesco crivait, en roumain, la pice Englezete fr profesor (le texte na
t publi quen 1965, par Petru Comarnescu), inaugurant une nouvelle forme de thtre qui
aurait pu disparatre si la pice navait pas t traduite en franais. La Cantatrice chauve,
pice crite en 1948, est considre une adaptation russie du texte Englezete fr profesor
et, en mme temps, le dbut de lactivit thtrale pour Ionesco. En 1950, La Cantatrice
chauve a vu la rampe au Thtre des Noctambules de Paris. Aprs un an, Ionesco proposait
dj la pice La leon, continuant de prsenter, chaque anne, une nouvelle pice. Mais,
lpoque, le nombre limit de reprsentations de ses deux premires pices parle dune
rception rserve de la part du public. Cest en 1952 que le Thtre de la Huchette de Paris
prsentait toutes les deux pices pour la premire fois et, partir de ce moment, elles
continuent dtre joues avec le mme succs. Chez nous, la tradition du thtre parisien a t
reprise par le metteur en scne Victor Ioan Frunz, du Thtre de Comdie de Bucarest. En
1992, Tompa Gbor, metteur en scne au Thtre Hongrois dtat de Cluj-Napoca, ralisait
lui aussi un spectacle mmorable avec La Cantatrice chauve, mont ensuite Limoges
(1996), repris plus tard New Castle (2004), revenu Cluj, au Thtre National Lucian Blaga
(2008/2009). Anticipant les possibles commentaires lis aux remakes, ce metteur en scne a
expliqu son choix: le discours de cette pice est parfait, cest comme la musique, cest
pourquoi il doit tre trait comme une symphonie laquelle on revient comme le chef
dorchestre revient travailler avec dautres instrumentistes (Observator cultural : 2013). En
1954, les ditions Gallimard ont publi un premier volume de thtre dIonesco, suivi
dautres six volumes qui ramassent toute la dramaturgie de lcrivain.
Qualifie par lauteur lui-mme danti-pice, La Cantatrice chauve est sans nul doute
son uvre emblmatique, comptant nos jours plus de 10.000 reprsentations. La pice a t
(re)traduite en roumain par Radu Popescu et Dinu Bondi ; Dan C. Mihilescu ; Vlad Russo et
Vlad Zografi Les deux derniers traducteurs ont traduit en roumain le thtre complet
dEugne Ionesco (volumes I-XI, publis aux ditions Humanitas, 2003-2010). En 1998, a t
publi en Roumanie, aux ditions Univers, le dernier volume de la srie de cinq volumes
(Eugne Ionesco, Thtre complet, ditions Gallimard, 1954, 1963, 1966, 1970, 1972, 1974,
1975, 1981, pour lensemble du thtre publi) du thtre ionescien, traduit par Dan C.
Mihilescu (1994-1998).
Le phnomne de (re)traduction en roumain des uvres dEugne Ionesco a fait
lobjet de beaucoup de recherches. Nous allons nous rapporter dans ce qui suit uniquement
quelques aspects relatifs la traduction des didascalies, des onomatopes, des interjections du
traducteur de deux des versions roumaines de La Cantatrice chauve, scne I, celle de Dan C.
Mihilescu et celle de Vlad Russo et Vlad Zografi. Dans notre dmarche nous nous proposons
318
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
danalyser les stratgies que les traducteurs ont utilises dans leur travail et le but quils ont eu
en vue : une traduction pour la lecture et/ou une traduction pour la scne.
III.1. Traduire les didascalies
Il faut rappeler quune des fonctions du paratexte dramatique est daider le lecteur
replacer le texte dans son contexte spectaculaire Conscient que la destination premire du
texte lu est la scne, le lecteur de thtre doit faire un effort dimagination pour se reprsenter
le spectacle et apprcier les effets dramatiques leur juste valeur. La disparition du spectacle
fait partie des difficults de lecture qui peuvent empcher la bonne rception du texte et que le
commentateur se doit de lever.
Les didascalies ont une importance capitale dans les pratiques des dramaturges, des
acteurs et des diteurs, participant en effet au dveloppement dune mise en scne propre au
thtre, avec largument, la liste des personnages et la division en actes et scnes. Elles ont
une vritable utilit dans lconomie du dialogue, leur efficacit reposant sur leur brivet et
leur raret. Invitant mettre en relation pratiques scniques et pratiques ditoriales, les
didascalies ont le rle de jeter un clairage original aussi bien sur la fabrique de la
reprsentation que sur les modalits de la lecture. Elles sont envisages dans leur double
fonction, au service de la reprsentation et de lecture, laquelle correspondent des formes
stylistiques et typographiques qui leur assurent une efficacit simultane auprs des acteurs et
des lecteurs. Leur rle fondamental est dintroduire des rfrents et des informations
accessibles aux personnages sur la scne et aux spectateurs/lecteurs, le cadre spatio-temporel,
les interlocuteurs et linteraction elle-mme constituant des points dancrage disponibles tout
au long de linteraction. Les trous du texte sont combls par un apport dordre narratif qui fait
le lien entre les scnes, met au jour la motivation des personnages et le cheminement de leur
rflexion, claircit les situations de parole. La didascalie cumule la valeur explicative du
commentaire et la valeur dramatique dun adjuvant spcifique la lecture du thtre,
cherchant liminer tout risque dinterprtation. Elle est porteuse dinformations qui
fonctionnent comme points dancrage darrire-fond, mais reste un pur discours technique,
destin la fois au lecteur et au comdien. Traduire pour la scne nest pas tordre le texte en
vue de ce quon espre montrer, du produit fini imagin. La traduction pour la scne ne se
propose pas de devancer une mise en scne, cest plutt rendre celle-ci possible. Les
didascalies facilitent le travail du metteur en scne, pour le texte jou, et la lecture, pour le
texte lu. La traduction dun texte des fins de thtre doit tre aussi orale et gestuelle que
possible. Cest imaginer des corps en action, entendre des voix qui disent lil qui coute
- lequel nest pas celui de la lecture - (Jean-Michel Deprats, 1999 : 62).
Chez Ionesco, les didascalies sont souvent des facteurs dambigut et nassurent plus
dans leur qualit de co-lments de lnonciation des personnages, la comprhension des
messages mis par ceux-ci. Lexemple qui suit prouve ces observations :
319
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Intrieur bourgeois anglais, Interior burghez englezesc, Interior burghez englezesc,
avec des fauteuils anglais. cu fotolii englezeti. Domnul cu fotolii englezeti. Sear
Soire anglaise. M. Smith, Smith, englez, n al su englezeasc. Domnul Smith,
Anglais, dans son fauteuil et fotoliu englezesc i cu pantofi englez, n fotoliul lui
ses pantoufles anglais, fume englezeti, i fumeaz pipa englezesc, nclat cu papuci
sa pipe anglaise et lit un englezeasc i citete o englezeti, fumeaz din pipa
journal anglais, prs dun feu gazet englezeasc, lng sa englezeasc i citete un
anglais. Il a des lunettes emineul n care arde un foc ziar englezesc lng un
anglaises, une petite englezesc. Poart ochelari emineu englezesc n care
moustache grise, anglaise. englezti i mustacioar sur, arde un foc englezesc. Poart
ct de lui, dans un autre englezeasc. Alturi de el, ochelari englezeti,
fauteuil anglais, Mme Smith, ntr-un alt fotoliu englezesc, mustcioar crunt
Anglaise, raccommode des Doamna Smith, englezoaic, englezeasc. Alturi de el,
chaussettes anglaises. Un crpeste ciorapi englezeti. ntr-un alt fotoliu englezesc,
long moment de silence Lung moment de tcere Doamna Smith, englezoaic,
anglais. La pendule anglaise englezeasc. Pendula crpeste ciorapi englezeti.
frappe dix-sept coups englezeasc bate englezete Moment prelungit de tcere
anglais. (Eugne Ionesco, La de aptesprezece ori. englezeasc. aptesprezece
Cantatrice chauve). (traducteur, Dan C. bti englezeti de pendul
Mihilescu). englezeasc. (traducteurs,
Vlad Russo si Vlad Zografi).
Nous remarquons des diffrences dans les traductions du texte source. La phrase :
Soire anglaise a t omise par Mihailescu, tandis que Russo et Zografi ont prfr la
traduire ( Sear englezeasc ). Vu ce choix, nous pourrions dire que ces deux traducteurs
respectent lengagement enracin dans le pacte du type : Je mengage dire ce que dit le
texte original (Magda Jeanrenaud, op. cit. : 19). Nous observons aussi lomission de
ladjectif possessif. Ainsi, pour ses pantoufles , Mihilescu donne lquivalent cu pantofi
et Russo et Zografi choisissent nclat cu papuci . Les traducteurs ont prfr des
quivalents diffrents mme pour le mot pantoufles (qui est devenu pantofi , chez
Mihilescu, et papuci , chez Russo et Zografi). Le fait que ces deux traducteurs choisissent
un quivalent prs du sens que le Micro Robert donne pour le mot pantoufle ( chaussure
dintrieur, en matire souple ) nous conduit dire que Russo et Zografi pfrent la fidlit
de la traduction. La phrase fume sa pipe est traduite i fumeaz pipa (Mihilescu) et
fumeaz din pipa sa (Russo et Zografi). Mme le mot journal a t diffremment
traduit ( gazet , chez Mihilescu, ziar , chez Russo et Zografi). Le syntagme
un feu anglais devient emineul n care arde un foc englezesc , chez Mihilescu, qui
choisit larticle dfini pour larticle indfini de la langue source, et un emineu englezesc n
care arde un foc englezesc , chez Russo et Zografi , qui prfrent doubler larticle indfini.
Le syntagme une petite moustache a comme quivalent mustcioar dans les deux
traductions analyses, tandis que pour ladjectif grise Mihilescu donne lquivalent
sur et Russo et Zografi choisissent ladjectif crunt . La phrase : Un long moment de
silence anglais a des quivalents diffrents : Lung moment de tcere englezeasc
(Mihilescu) et Moment prelungit de tcere englezeasc (Russo et Zografi) ; la phrase :
La pendule anglaise frappe dix-sept coups anglais devient : Pendula englezeasc bate
320
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
englezete de aptesprezece ori (Mihilescu) et aptesprezece bti englezeti de pendul
englezeasc (Russo et Zografi). En gnral, on traduit le sens de la phrase, daprs les
donnes du contexte dramatique dans lensemble, mais lorsque le sens a trs peu
dimportance, comme pour Ionesco, cest encore plus difficile. Dans le cas de la traduction
pour la scne, il sagit moins de traduire pour le thtre que de traduire du thtre
(Jean-Michel Deprats, op.cit. : 63).
Les traducteurs ont pour mission de rvler ltre du texte original, mais la vrit de
luvre originale ne peut advenir dans la culture traduisante quau terme dun cheminement
progressif, dune translation (Magda Jeanrenaud, op. cit. : 190). La premire traduction
dune uvre reste
imparfaite et impure : imparfaite parce que la dfectivit traductive et limpact des
normes sy manifestent souvent massivemet, impure parce quelle est la fois introduction et
traduction (Antoine Berman, 1995 : 84). Selon Antoine Berman, la traduction se joue dans
la retraduction, et mieux encore, dans les retraductions successives ou simultanes.
III.1.1.Rptitions et dimension du texte
Nous observons, ds le dbut de la pice, la rptition obsessionnelle du mot
anglais/anglaise qui anticipe le verbiage strile et inutile des personnages, en suggrant une
atmosphre de famille anglaise . Cette rptition est dlibre, intentionnelle, contribuant,
dans un registre mtaphorique, la cohrence du message narratif (Magda Jeanrenaud , op.
cit. : 141). Cette ide de cohrence est soutenue par la prsence du mot anglais/anglaise 16
fois dans la traduction de Mihilescu et 18 fois dans la traduction de Russo et Zografi, tandis
que, dans le texte source on observe 14 emplois. Nous constatons que le problme des
rptitions peut tre examin, comme tout problme de ponctuation, dun point de vue
statistique : si tel terme ou telle ponctuation ne comportent quun nombre rduit
doccurrences, qui ne correspondent pas la mme intentionnalit, alors on peut observer des
glissements dans lopration de la traduction. Nous nous rallions lide que lindice de
frquence reprsente une bonne unit de mesure dans les dcisions traductives concernant tant
le systme des rptitions que celui de la ponctuation. Les quivalences rapportes aux
traductions doivent tenir compte de ce facteur de calcul et respecter dans la traduction leur
poids tel quil se manifeste dans le texte source, autrement les consquences pourraient tre
imprvues, sinon imprvisibles, et contradictoires, en crant des effets rhtoriques injustifis
ou en pratiquant un aplatissement par banalisation.
Il est utile de rappeler lobservation dHenri Meschonnic lie au rythme des
rptitions : le rythme du parler na pas peur des rptitions, au contraire, le rythme, cest
aussi le rythme des rptitions (apud Magda Jeanrenaud, op. cit. : 144). Meschonnic a
mme critiqu les traducteurs qui acclrent le dialogue et suppriment les redondances. La
distinction entre la rptition involontaire et la rptition volontaire est essentielle non
seulement dans la mise en valeur des rseaux de symboles, mais aussi pour rester fidle
lintentionnalit du texte source.
Dans son ensemble, La Cantatrice chauve a t nomme la parabole de la non-
communication dun monde bizarre et inexplicable dans lequel les personnages sont en dehors
de toute communication cohrente. Ce sont des personnages alins, qui vivent dans un
espace clos, des individus enferms dans leur propre solitude, spars du monde et deux-
321
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
mmes. Ils ne se rendent pas compte de labsurdit de leurs opinions, leur comportement
langagier pouvant tre rapproch de celui des malades mentaux. Le couple Smith, comme
dailleurs tous les personnages de la pice, vit dans un univers o le vide et lalination ont
dtruit toute possibilit de communication, les phrases une fois profres perdent toute
substance et sont articules sans aucune raison apparente. Pour Mme Smith, laffirmation et la
ngation dun mme nonc ne produisent aucun trouble, comme si, une fois prononcs, les
noncs taient oublis et passaient inaperus par le personnage. Il est vident quil ny a pas
de logique ou dintrigue dans le thtre ionescien, mais lauteur fait passer des messages et
des opinions travers sa pice. Par exemple, le fait que les personnages sont incapables de
communiquer entre eux rvle lopinion dEugne Ionesco sur la bourgeoisie. Le ridicule
rsulte de lutilisation de la rptition, des concidences, des clichs, des contradictions. Le
fragment que nous avons choisi pour lanalyse (la scne I de La Cantatrice chauve) prouve
pleinement cette ide.
III.2. La traduction des interjections, des onomatopes et de la ponctuation
Les conversations conventionnelles, lexpression protocolaire, la politesse exagre ne
font que diminuer limportance du message dans la communication. Le dialogue du couple
Smith (qui rassemble au dialogue de Msieu Lonida avec Efimitza) se droule dans une
atmosphre dennui et dindtermination temporelle marque par les coups de pendule. Il est
vident que chaque rplique a une valeur et avec chaque rptition cette valeur est
dveloppe, amplifie, valide ; en mme temps, chaque omission finit par roder
lintentionnalit qui sous-tend lchafaudage narratif de la pice. Plus nous avanons dans la
lecture de la pice, plus nous observons la diminution, jusqu la disparition, de la cohrence
du dialogue. Il est remplac par un discours automatique, pel, des vers en monorime, des
onomatopes, un rythme vif qui essaie de suggrer un dnouement qui narrive pas se
produire. Pendant que Mme Smith passe en revue les plats quelle vient de consommer, M.
Smith ne participe point la conversation, il continue sa lecture faisant claquer sa langue
devant le monologue interminable de sa femme, qui donne des dtails dans une monotonie
absolue qui nengage pas lintrt de son mari :
Mme SMITH DOAMNA SMITH : Ia uite, DOAMNA SMITH : Uite c
Tiens, il est neuf heures. e ora nou. Am mncat sup, s-a fcut ora nou. Am
Nous avons mang de la pete, cartofi cu slnin, mncat sup, pete, cartofi
soupe, du poisson, des salat englezeasc. Copiii au cu slnin, salat
pommes de terre au lard, de but ap englezeasc. n seara englezeasc. Copiii au but
la salade anglaise. Les asta am mncat bine. Asta ap englezeasc. n seara
enfants ont bu de leau fiindc locuim n asta am mncat bine. i asta
anglaise. Nous avons bien mprejurimile Londrei, iar fiindc locuim la marginea
mang, ce soir. Cest parce numele nostru e Smith. Londrei iar numele nostru e
que nous habitons dans les Continundu-i lectura, Smith.
environs de Londres et que Domnul Smith plescie din Continundu-i lectura,
notre nom est Smith. limb. Domnul Smith plescie.
M. SMITH, continuant sa DOAMNA SMITH : Cartofii DOAMNA SMITH :
322
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
lecture, fait claquer sa snt foarte buni cu slnin, iar Cartofii sunt foarte buni cu
langue. uleiul de la salat n-a fost slnin, uleiul de la salat
Les pommes de terre sont rnced. Uleiul de la bcanul nu era rnced. Uleiul de la
trs bonnes avec le lard, din col este mult mai bun bcanul din col e de calitate
lhuile de la salade ntait dect uleiul de la bcanul de mult mai bun dect uleiul
pas rance. Lhuile de vizavi, ba chiar mai bun dect de la bcanul de vizavi, ba e
lpicier den face, elle est cel de la bcanul din vale. mai bun chiar si dect uleiul
mme meilleure que lhuile Asta nu nseamn c uleiul de la bcanul din capul
de lpicier du bas de la celor doi ar fi prost. strzii. Dar nu vreau s spun
cte. Mais je ne veux pas Continund lectura, Domnul ca uleiul lor a fost prost.
dire que leur huile eux soit Smith plescie din limb. Continundu-i lectura,
mauvaise. DOAMNA SMITH : i Domnul Smith plescie.
M. SMITH, continuant sa totui, uleiul de la bcanul din DOAMNA SMITH : i
lecture, fait claquer sa col este mult mai bun totui, uleiul bcanului din
langue. Continundu-i lectura, col ramne cel mai bun
Mme SMITH Domnul Smith plescie din Continundu-i lectura,
Pourtant, cest toujours limb. Domnul Smith plescie.
lhuile de lpicier du coin DOAMNA SMITH : De data DOAMNA SMITH : De
qui est la meilleure asta, Mary a fiert bine data asta Mary a fiert bine
M. SMITH, continuant sa cartofii. Ultima dat i-a lsat cartofii. Ultima dat nu i-a
lecture, fait claquer sa mai cruzi. Nu-mi plac dect fiert destul. Mie nu-mi plac
langue. cnd snt fieri bine. dect bine fieri.
Mme SMITH Continundu-i lectura, Continundu-i lectura,
Mary a bien cuit les Domnul Smith plescie din Domnul Smith plescie.
pommes de terre, cette fois- limb. DOAMNA SMITH : Petele
ci. La dernire fois elle ne DOAMNA SMITH : Petele era proaspt. M-am lins pe
les avait pas bien fait cuire. era proaspt. M-am lins pe buze. Am luat de dou ori.
Je ne les aime que buze. Am mncat dou porii. Ba nu, de trei ori. De-asta
lorsquelles sont bien cuites. Ba nu, trei. Ceea ce m-a fcut m tot duc la closet. i tu ai
M. SMITH, continuant sa sa m duc cam des la W.C. i luat de trei ori. A treia oar
lecture, fait claquer sa tu ai mncat trei porii. Numai ns tu ai luat mult mai
langue. c a treia oar ai cerut mai mult. n seara asta am
Mme SMITH puin dect de celelalte di, n mncat mai mult dect tine.
Le poisson tait frais. Je timp ce eu am luat mai mult Cum i explici ? De obicei,
men suis lch les babines. la a treia porie. n seara asta tu eti cel care mnnc mai
Jen ai pris deux fois. Non, eu am mncat mai mult ca mult. Nu pofta de mncare
trois fois. a me fait aller tine. Cum de-a fost posibil ? i lipsete ie.
aux cabinets. Toi aussi tu en De obicei, tu eti cel care Continundu-i lectura,
as pris trois fois. Cependant mannc mai mult. Nu te poi Domnul Smith plescie.
la troisime fois, tu en as plnge de lipsa poftei de DOAMNA SMITH : i
pris moins que les deux mncare. totui, supa era poate un pic
premires fois, tandis que Domnul Smith plescie din prea srat. Avea mai mult
moi jen ai pris beaucoup limb. sare ca tine. Ha ! ha ! ha ! i
323
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
plus. Ce nest pas lapptit DOAMNA SMITH : Totui, n plus avea prea mult praz
qui te manque. poate c supa a fost puin cam i prea puin ceap. mi
M. SMITH, fait claquer sa srat. Avea mai mult sare pare ru c nu i-am sugerat
langue. ca tine. Ha ! ha ! ha ! Avea lui Mary s pun i-un pic
Mme SMITH prea mult praz si prea puin de anason. Data viitoare tiu
Cependant, la soupe tait ceap. mi pare ru c nu i- ce-am de fcut.
peut-tre un peu trop sale. am spus lui Mary s mai Continundu-i lectura,
Elle avait plus de sel que adauge puin anason. Data Domnul Smith plescie.
toi. Ah, ah, ah. Elle avait viitoare am s in minte asta. DOAMNA SMITH :
aussi trop de poireaux et pas Continundu-i lectura, Bieelul nostru ar fi vrut s
assez doignons. Je regrette Domnul Smith plescie din bea bere, o s-i plac s
de ne pas avoir conseill limb. trag la msea, cu tine
Mary dy ajouter un peu DOAMNA SMITH : seamn. L-ai vzut cum
danis toil. La prochaine Bieelul nostru ar fi avut sttea cu ochii lipii de
fois, je saurai my prendre. chef de-o bere. O s-i cam sticl? Dar eu i-am turnat n
M. SMITH, continuant sa plac s trag la msea : i pahar ap din can. i era
lecture, fait claquer sa seamn. L-ai vzut la mas sete i a but. Helen
langue. cum ochea sticla ? Numai c seamn cu mine: e bun
Mme SMITH eu i-am turnat ap. i era sete gospodin, econom, cnt
Notre petit garon aurait i a but-o. Elena mi la pian. Nu cere niciodat
bien voulu boire de la bire, seamn mie : e-o bun bere englezeasc. E la fel ca
il aimera sen mettre plein la gospodin, chibzuit, cnt la fetia noastr cea mica, ea
lampe, il te ressemble. Tu as pian. Nu cere niciodat bere bea numai lapte i nu
vu table, comme il visait englezeasc. E ca nepoica mnnc dect terci. Se
la bouteille ? Mais moi, jai noastr, care nu bea dect vede c n-are dect doi ani.
vers dans son verre de lapte i nu mnnc dect gri O cheam Peggy [].
leau de la carafe. Il avait cu lapte. Se vede c nu are Continundu-i lectura,
soif et la bue. Hlne me dect doi ani. O cheam Domnul Smith plescie.
ressemble : elle est bonne Peggy []. (traducteurs, Vlad Russo et
mnagre, conome, joue du Domnul Smith, continund Vlad Zografi).
piano. Elle ne demande lectura, plescie din limb.
jamais boire de la bire (traducteur, Dan C.
anglaise. Cest comme notre Mihilescu).
petit fils qui ne boit que du
lait et ne mange que de la
bouille. a se voit quelle
na que deux ans. Elle
sappelle Peggy [].
M. SMITH, continuant sa
lecture, fait claquer sa
langue. (Eugne Ionesco, La
Cantatrice chauve).
324
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Les interjections forment une classe marginale, peu tudie en linguistique. Elles ont
un statut part dans le systme de la langue cause de lincertitude de leur dfinition : un
cri authentique ou un langage improbable . (Magda Jeanrenaud, op. cit. : 172). Si nous
les considrons comme lexpression de lattitude affective du locuteur, alors elles
transcendent la langue et forment une sorte de langage quasi-universel. Dans cette situation, la
traduction des interjections est inutile. Positionne, en gnral, au dbut de la squence
discursive, linterjection condense et anticipe ce que le discours va dvelopper par la suite,
ayant un rle essentiel dans lintensification du contact phatique. Son omission ou son
explicitation dilue le segment quelle introduit, au lieu den accrotre limpact auprs du
rcepteur. Nous remarquons que le monologue de Mme Smith commence par limpratif du
verbe tenir, forme qui exprime ltonnement. Chez Mihilescu, ce tiens devient ia uite
, tandis que Russo et Zografi pfrent uite c . Pour linterjection ah , le Micro Robert
donne lexplication suivante : elle marque 1. un sentiment vif (plaisir, douleur, admiration,
impatience, etc.) 2. interjection dinsistance, de renforcement . Elle est rpte trois fois dans
le texte source (ah, ah, ah), ce qui souligne le plaisir que le personnage ressent par rapport
ce quelle dit et non pas par rapport quelle a mang : [] la soupe tait peut-tre trop
sale. Elle avait plus de sel que toi. Ah, ah, ah . Chez Mihilescu, cette squence devient :
[] poate c supa a fost puin cam srat. Avea mai multa sare ca tine. Ha ! ha ! ha ! , tandis
que chez Russo et Zografi elle devient : [] supa era poate un pic prea srat. Avea mai
mult sare ca tine. Ha ! ha ! ha ! . Il est vident que lemploi de cette interjection soutient
non seulement un effet de style, mais aussi une fracture, et que celle-ci transmet au dialogue
plus de vivacit et dauthenticit. Nous considrons que les traducteurs ont prfr
linterjection ha pour ah pour mettre en vidence lironie du personnage, car Mme Smith ne
fait que se moquer de son mari.
Le rseau des signes de ponctuation remplit une double fonction : dune part, il
soutient le dynamisme de laction, dautre part, il contribue nuancer le portrait des
personnages. Il reste souligner que, dans le texte source, on dlimite lemploi de
linterjection par une virgule ( ah, ah, ah ), tandis que pour le texte cible, on a prfr le
point dexclamation ( ha ! ha ! ha ! ). Le tableau ci-dessous dmontre la tendance au
nivellement de la traduction, manifeste par une puration du systme de ponctuation
dorigine.
Points Points Points Points de Virgules Deux points
dinterrogation dexclamation suspension
TS TC TS TC TS TC TS TC TS TC TS TC
1. 2. 1. 2. 1. 2. 1. 2. 1. 2. 1. 2.
41 39 35 2 2 2 0 3 3 1 1 1 34 20 19 1 2 1
Le nombre de virgules du texte source (TS) a t rduit dans le texte cible (TC)
presqu la moiti, autant chez Mihilescu (1), que chez Russo et Zografi (2), tandis que pour
lemploi des points, nous observons une diminution dans la traduction de Mihilescu, ce qui
offre un plus de clart au message. Les points dinterrogation ont t employs tels quels,
tandis que pour les deux points, nous remarquons une diffrence dans la traduction de
Mihilescu. Comme nous avons dj prcis, les deux traducteurs ont prfr les points
dexclamation aprs chaque emploi de linterjection, ne respectant pas lorthographe du texte
source, mais ladaptant la grammaire de la langue cible. Ces techniques entranent la
325
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
modification des rapports entre le systme affectif et le fonctionnement du discours,
confirmant la tendance gnrale de la traduction lexplicitation.
Il faut tenir compte du fait que la traduction thtrale faite pour tre joue doit traiter
le texte original dune telle faon quon se trouve toujours en prsence dune adaptation que
dune traduction. Cela suppose tre fidle la thtralit dans son pays dorigine ; traduire la
valeur proprement thtrale avant de se soucier den rendre la valeur littraire ou potique ; ne
pas traduire louvrage (crit), mais la pice (joue). Cest pourquoi le traducteur dune uvre
thtrale recourt aux procds les moins textuellement fidles, comme, par exemple, la
transposition, la modulation, lquivalence, ladaptation, car il traduit non seulement des
noncs, mais des contextes et des situations quon puisse immdiatement comprendre au
point de rire ou de pleurer. Selon Jean-Michel Deprats, le traducteur du thtre a un seul
guide dans le ddale de contraintes : lcoute dune voix dont il cherche trouver linflexion
(Jean-Michel Deprats, op.cit. : 53).
Pour conclure
Le nom dEugne Ionesco a t associ quelques autres auteurs dont Beckett et
Adamov. Leur point commun est dexposer sur scne une vision absurde de la condition
humaine. Cette vision traduit une philosophie propre celle de Sartre et Camus qui dtruit
lide du personnage et le traite plutt comme un pantin. Ionesco sinscrit aussi parmi les
crivains qui ont signal une crise de la civilisation, du langage, de la littrature, en prfrant
Caragiale et Urmuz comme modles de la culture nationale. Il a renouvel les formes
thtrales : une autre conception de la thtralit, du personnage, de lintrigue. Mais le texte
reste une pice virtuelle qui peut recevoir une infinit dinterprtations. Pour ltude des
dialogues thtraux, nous devons tenir compte de la double lecture des noncs (la
conversation entre deux personnages et lnonc adress au public), la double rception, le
double destinataire, le double sens.
Le fait que La Cantatrice chauve est joue depuis une cinquantaine dannes avec le
mme succs nous conduit conclure que le succs ou lchec dune reprsentation thtrale
se dcide dans son espace temporel de celle-ci, dans le fait que la pice passe ou ne passe pas
la rampe. En mme temps, chaque traduction a une seule et unique chance de survie si et
seulement si elle parat au bon moment - le moment idal , qui nest souvent quun idal
entre le moment de la parution du texte original et une certaine configuration du texte cible,
seul capable doffrir louverture ncessaire pour quelle soit accepte, en lui donnant la
chance, qui, une fois rate, peut ne plus jamais soffrir (Magda Jeanrenaud, op. cit. : 190).
Au bout de notre analyse comparative, o nous avons tudi surtout la traduction des
didascalies, des interjections, des onomatopes, de la ponctuation, des rptitions et la
dimension des textes, nous trouvons que Vlad Russo et Vlad Zografi offrent plutt un texte
pour la scne car il se situe plus prs de ce que la thtralit reprsente.
Bibliographie
Blita, Raluca, 2009, Le discours thtral dEugne Ionesco. Lnonciation entrave,
Institutul European, Iai.
Berman, Antoine, 1995, Pour une critique des traductions : John Donne, Gallimard, Paris.
326
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Cntec, Oltia, 2013, Trio cu Cntreaa cheal , in Observator Cultural no. 698 du
08.11.2013.
Constantinescu, Mugura, 2009, La traduction littraire en Roumanie au XXI e sicle :
quelques rflexions, in Meta : journal des traducteurs/Meta : Translators Journal, volume
54, no. 4, p. 871-883.
Constantinescu, Mugura ; Steiciuc Elena-Brndua (responsables du numro), 2011, Atelier
de Traduction, no.15, Dossier : La traduction caduque, retraduction et contexte culturel (en
diachronie), Editura Universitaii din Suceava.
Constantinescu, Mugura ; Steiciuc Elena-Brndua (responsables du numro), 2012, Atelier
de Traduction, no.17, Dossier : Lhistoire de la traduction en question(s), Editura
Universitaii din Suceava.
Deprats, Jean-Michel, 1999, Traduire Shakespeare pour le thtre , in Palimpsestes no. 1,
Presses de la Sorbonne Nouvelle.
Ionesco, Eugne, 1966, Notes et contre-notes, Gallimard, Paris.
Ionescu, Gelu, 2004, Orizontul traducerii, Institutul Cultural Roman, Bucureti.
Issacharoff, Michael, 1985, Le spectacle du discours, Librairie Jos Corti, Paris.
Jeanrenaud, Magda, 2012, La Traduction l o tout est pareil et rien nest semblable, EST
Samuel TASTET diteur.
Maingueneau, Dominique, 2007, Pragmatica pentru discursul literar, Institul European, Iai.
Mounin, Georges, 1976, Linguistique et traduction, Dessart et Mardage, Paris.
Nelega, Alina, 2010, Structuri si formule de compoziie ale textului dramatic, Editura
EIKON, Cluj-Napoca.
Palimpsestes, no.1, 2009, Traduire le dialogue. Traduire les textes de thtre, Presses de la
Sorbonne Nouvelle.
Rei, Katharina, La critique des traductions, ses possibilits et ses limites, Artois Press
Universit, Arras, 2002.
Ubersfeld, Anne, 1977, Lire le thtre I, ditions sociales, Paris.
Zografi, Vlad, 2011, Je connais le prix de la libert , interview ralise par Zeina Antonios
loccasion de la XVIIIe dition du Salon du Livre Francophone de Beyrouth, consulte sur
le site : www.icr.ro/files/items/8978_2_zografi.pdf.
Corpus
Ionesco, Eugne, 1954, La Cantatrice Chauve, ditions Gallimard, Paris.
Ionescu, Eugen, 1965, Englezete fr profesor in Secolul XX, no.1, p. 52-66.
Ionesco, Eugne, 1998, Cltorie n lumea morilor, Teatru V (Macbett. Ce formidabil
ncurctur. Omul cu valizele. Cltorie n lumea morilor. Nepoata-soie. Vicontele.
Cntreaa cheal.), traducere si not asupra ediiei de Dan C. Mihilescu, Univers, Bucureti.
Ionesco, Eugne, 2010, Cntreaa cheal. Lecia. Scaunele. Regele moare, traducere din
francez de Vlad Russo i Vlad Zografi, Humanitas, Bucureti.
327
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE PREPOSITIONAL REGIME OF VERBS
Anamaria PREDA, Assistant Professor, PhD, University of Craiova
Abstract: We have tried to describe the following concepts: the syntactic government,
phrasal government and phrasal formant of the verbs, while arguing for registering of the
verbs with phrasal formants in the Romanian explanatory and normative dictionaries.
Keywords: syntax, government, verb, formant, phrasal
1.1. n lucrri de lingvistic, se ntlnesc sintagme ca: regim sintactic, termen regim,
regim verbal, prepoziie-regim, conjuncie-regim, regim de acuzativ (genitiv, dativ), regim
cazual, regim prepoziional, reguli de regim, trsturi de regim, regimul verbului, regim
monovalent / bivalent / trivalent, regim tranzitiv / intranzitiv. Cel mai adesea, sintagma regim
sintactic este utilizat ca sinonim al unuia dintre termenii: reciune, constrngere, restricie de
form i vizeaz restriciile de form flexionar de caz, impunerea unei anumite prepoziii sau
conjuncii de ctre termenul regent subordonatului su. Dicionarele romneti de tip
explicativ (DEX, MDA, NODEX, DEXI, DN, MDN) prezint, n mod identic, accepiunea
acestui termen n lingvistic, ca desemnnd un raport de dependen ntre dou cuvinte,
dependen care se manifest prin forma impus termenului dependent de ctre regentul su.
Genul proxim raport de dependen face posibil echivalarea lui regim cu relaie de
subordonare sau relaie de dependen. Diferena specific referitoare la restricia de form
nu este de natur s opereze necesara delimitare a termenului regim de relaie de
subordonare.
Constatrile expuse mai sus i analiza efectuat asupra modului n care sunt
ntrebuinate sintagmele care conin termenul regim conduc la concluzia c e necesar o
definire a acestuia.
1.2. Din punctul meu de vedere, regimul sintactic reprezint capacitatea de guvernare
exercitat de un cuvnt asupra altuia, capacitate manifestat printr-un sistem de norme sau
reguli pe baza crora se construiete enunul i care vizeaz impunerea, respectiv
restricionarea unei anumite forme (cazuale, prepoziionale, conjuncionale) a termenului
subordonat de ctre termenul regent. Regimul verbal include toate restriciile sintactice i
semantico-sintactice impuse complementelor i circumstanialelor, datorit crora se
realizeaz coeziunea grupului verbal. Printre acestea se afl i restricionarea prepoziional.
Oricare centru de grup sintactic impune, aadar, restricii de form (caz, prepoziie,
conjuncie) i de rol tematic argumentelor, respectiv actanilor si. n calitatea de centru de
grup verbal i nucleu al enunului, verbul impune anumite configuraii sau organizri
sintactice (de ex., cineva+a pretinde a cere+cuiva+ceva: Brbatul a pretins casierei o
sum de bani. sau cineva +a pretinde a cere+ceva: Individul a pretins bani. i cineva+a
pretinde a susine+ceva: Cineva a pretins c vrea despgubiri / s fie despgubit.).
Organizarea sintactic i semantic a enunului se datoreaz, aadar, regimului verbal.
Clasificarea sintactic a verbelor se bazeaz pe cteva criterii: numrul i tipul de
328
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
complemente (verbe zerovalente: Ninge., monovalente: Cad frunzele., bivalente: Maria
citete un roman., M doare mna., El conteaz pe tine, Ea e inteligent., l cheam Luca.,
trivalente: Primria a atribuit contractul unei firme de cas., Tata m-a ntrebat ceva., L-au
supus unor chinuri inimaginabile.), prezena sau absena complementului direct (Cere un
pix., Fuge pe strad.), prezena sau absena poziiei de subiect (El scrie., Plou.) .a.
1.3. Consider c alturi de criteriul prezenei / absenei unei anumite poziii sintactice
strns legate de verb (GBLR, 277) i de cel al prezenei / absenei formantului reflexiv
(ibidem, 279) poate fi adugat criteriul prezenei / absenei formantului prepoziional.
Formantul prepoziional este, n opinia mea, prepoziia obligatorie, nesuprimabil, deci
constitutiv a unui verb, plasat de regul dup acesta: Se preteaz la orice., dar i nainte,
ndeosebi n enunuri interogative sau emfatice: La ce se preteaz?, La orice se preteaz,
dac vrea ceva. Verbele cu regim prepoziional se construiesc, n mod obligatoriu, cu
prepoziie: Succesul depinde de munc., Au atentat la siturile arheologice., A recurs la un
gest extrem., Se bazeaz pe relaii., Mita consta n bani. .a., dar i facultativ cu prepoziie:
Vine la tine., Vine de la curs., Merge pe strad., Intr n clas. Determinantul obligatoriu al
primei serii de verbe este un complement prepoziional, care are fie realizare lexico-
gramatical: Rezultatul depinde de tine., fie propoziional: Rezultatul depinde de ce se va
hotr n comisie. Determinantul celei de-a doua serii de verbe construite prepoziional este,
de regul, un circumstanial: A ajuns la gar., Cltorete cu trenul., S-au mutat la Braov.
Cu privire la valoarea prepoziiei considerate formant verbal (n comunicarea
prezent), Gabriela Pan Dindelegan noteaz c are sens foarte abstract, funcioneaz ca
marc actanial, adic de legare a diverilor actani nominali de centrul (capul) de grup,
fiind impus fie de regimul centrului (un centru verbal: apeleaz la, const n, conteaz pe,
depinde de, se nvecineaz cu, se repercuteaz asupra, se teme de; un centru adjectival: apt
de, capabil de, contemporan cu, gelos pe, invidios pe, predispus la, sigur de / pe, similar cu
sau cu unul substantival: frate cu, prieten cu, recurgerea la, suprarea pe), fie de anumite
forme din paradigma centrului (pasivul, de exemplu, alege pentru introducerea Agentului
prepoziiile de i de ctre: Ion este ales de (ctre) colegi. (Dindelegan, Elemente de
gramatic. Dificulti, controverse, noi interpretri, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas
Educaional, 2003, p. 166).
1.4. Exist i alte clase lexico-gramaticale cu regim prepoziional. C prepoziia este
formant al unor verbe o demonstreaz faptul c se transmite i derivatelor verbale: a depinde
de, dependena de, dependent de, independent de, dpinderea de; a participa la, participarea
la, participant la; a se baza pe, bazarea pe, bazat pe .a.m.d.
1.4.1. Substantivele derivate din verbe prepoziionale motenesc prepoziia de la baza
verbal: dependena de droguri (< a depinde de), participarea la conferin, asistarea la
natere, ataarea de tine, axarea pe principii, complacerea n aceast situaie, accesul la
informaie, instigarea la nesupunere, apelul la clemen, chiulul de la edin, recurgerea
la violen, ncadrarea n schem. Pe lng acestea, i altele impun frecvent modificatorului
o anume prepoziie: cur de slbire, catedr de limbi clasice, fel de mncare, gen de
comportament, mod de prelucrare, grad de rudenie, nivel de corupie .a. Adaug
substantivele provenite din adjective, care apar n tiparul din nebunul de paznic (modificabil
n paznicul nebun), amrta de femeie, prostul de prezentator, deteptul de coleg, idiotul
de ofer, amrtul de ran, bietul de el, sracul de el.
329
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
1.4.2. Participiile i adjectivele derivate din aceste verbe prefer aceeai prepoziie ca
baza lor: abuzat de procurori, acomodat cu noile condiii, adaptat la cerinele pieei, ahtiat
dup bani, alctuit din dou capitole, asociat cu o firm privat, axat pe aceast ofert,
bazat pe principii, decis asupra temei, deczut din drepturile printeti, abonat la internet,
ameninat cu dosar penal, anexat la dosar, asemuit cu un actor, date referitoare la excursie,
pretabil la recompartimentare, dependent de droguri, hus adaptabil la i-pad, echivalent
cu acest pre, asemntor cu sacoul tu, asortabil cu orice, asortat cu costumul .a.
Asemenea lor, adjectivele propriu-zise sau derivate ale unor verbe neprepoziionale
manifest preferine pentru anumite prepoziii: bun de plat, bun la orice, apt de munc,
lipsit de iniiativ, plin de energie, leit cu prinul, dttor de speran, strin de aceste
activiti, aductor de noroc, alergic la medicamentul acesta, atent la explicaii, avid de
reclame, butor de bere, beteag de picioare, binecuvntat de Dumnezeu, bolnav de
reumatism, bucuros de oaspei .a.
1.4.3. i anumite adverbe apar nsoite de prepoziii. Gramatica tradiional considera c
cele mai multe grupuri formate dintr-un asemenea adverb i o prepoziie au statut de
locuiuni prepoziionale: alturi de, dincolo de, nainte de, aproape de, departe de,
deopotriv de, aidoma cu, apropo de, conform cu, dimpreun cu, mpreun cu, laolalt cu,
primprejur de, totuna cu, vizavi de .a. Dintre toate acestea, doar nainte de mai are, n
DOOM2, statut de locuiune prepoziional. Cu privire la aceste grupuri, autorii GBLR
propun urmtoarea soluie ori de cte ori exist mcar un context n care cuvntul
(n.n.adverbul) poate s apar i singur, fr subordonai, el se va califica drept adverb
(+complement), iar dac nu exist context n care s apar singur, el se va califica drept
prepoziie [] nainte este adverb (adverb+complement: nainte de Crciun), dar naintea
[] este prepoziie (naintea Crciunului) (op.cit., 313). Extinznd raionamentul, rezult
c grupurile de mai sus nu sunt locuiuni prepoziionale, ci adverbe care impun numai
prepoziiile respective: alturi de, nu *alturi din, dincolo de, nu *dincolo cu, nainte de, nu
*nainte pe, departe de, nu *departe dintre, deopotriv de, nu *deopotriv sub .a.m.d. Tot
astfel, notez cteva exemple de adverb+prepoziia de, dintr-o serie foarte bogat, care
funcioneaz unitar drept circumstanial cantitativ cu sau fr semnificaie suplimentar
superlativ, avnd un regent adjectival sau adverbial: teribil de, formidabil de, excesiv de,
fantastic de, grozav de; att de, ct de, destul de, sufficient de, orict de .a.
1.4.4. Anumite numerale cardinale impun prepoziia de: douzeci de, douzeci i unu de,
o sut cincizeci de .a.m.d.
2. Ca i tranzitivitatea, regimul verbal prepoziional are grade de manifestare:
a. forte (a depinde de, a consta n, a recurge la, a adera la, a asista la, a se axa pe, a
se baza pe, a beneficia de, a se bizui pe, a cadra cu, a se complace n, a se compune din,
a concura la, a se confrunta cu, a consta n, a conta pe, a contribui la, a (se) converti n,
a se crampona de, a culmina cu, a da de, a da peste, a deborda de, a se deosebi de, a
deposeda de, a se desolidariza de, a se dezice de, a predispune la, a priva de, a ndemna
la .a.);
b. mediu (a complota, a (se) roi, a ofta, a condiiona, a (se) debrana, a (se) defini,
a degenera, a (se) detaa, a (se) plictisi, a (se) obinui, a se luda, a lipsi, a se logodi, a
ntrzia, a se ncumeta).
330
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
3. n cele ce urmeaz, semnalez dou situaii n care formantul prepoziional, singur sau
mpreun cu cliticul reflexiv sau pronominal, funcioneaz sau nu ca dezambiguizator.
3.1. Doar formantul prepoziional are rol dezambiguizator n exemplele urmtoare: El a
abolvit a terminat liceul. vs L-au absolvit de au iertat de rspunderea penal.; I-a adus
a oferit flori. vs Vecinul tu aduce cu seamn cu Tom Cruise.; A ajuns a sosit la
gar. vs Oameni buni, ajunge cu ncetai cu mizeriile!; A atrnat a agat harta pe
perete. vs Mandatul lui atrn de depinde de decizia parlamentului., Apeleaz-m sun-
m dac ai nevoie de ceva! vs Trebuie s apeleze la cear ajutorul colegilor., Ascult
audiaz, aude muzic. vs El ascult de ia n considerare, respect prini., Sistemul
asist urmrete, monitorizeaz oferii n trafic. Vs Asist la ia parte la slujb., Aspir
trage, absoarbe praful. vs Aspir la nzuiete, tinde spre, dorete fotoliul de la
Cotroceni., Pentru mine, conteaz are nsemntate ncrederea ta. Vs Contez pe m
bazez, m bizui pe tine., El a concurat a participat la concurs pentru obinerea titlului. vs
Mai muli factori concur la tind spre sigurana rutier., Cum decurge se desfoar
operaia de salvare? vs Temerea decurge din rezult din ignoran.
3.2. Att prepoziia, ct i formantul reflexiv sau cliticul pronominal schimb sensul
verbului n exemplele: I-a apucat a prins mna. vs S-a apucat de a nceput pictur., A
ataat a anexat adeverina. vs S-a ataat s-a apropiat sufletete de acel cine., Acoper
a nvelit casa cu igl. vs Se acoper de s-a njosit ruine., A agat a atrnat paltonul
n cuier. vs Se aga de se cramponeaz putere., A ajuns a sosit acas. vs Nu s-a ajuns
la nu s-a convenit, n-a rezultat nicio soluie., A ales a preferat costumul rou. vs Nu s-a
ales cu nu i-a rmas nimic., Ateapt st s ntmpine tramvaiul. vs Nu se atepta la
nu prevedea acest deznodmnt., A atrnat a agat tabloul pe perete. vs Viaa lui
atrn de depinde de tine., Focul arde e aprins mocnit. vs Nu-i arde de nu-i convine
nimic.
4. Mai semnalez i situaiile n care verbul i pstreaz aceeai semnificaie att n
construcia prepoziional, ct i n cea neprepoziional, formantul prepoziional, singur
sau mpreun cu cliticul reflexiv, neavnd rol dezambiguizator: El achit datoriile. cf El se
achit de datorii.; A aflat vestea cea mare. cf A aflat de(spre) vestea cea mare.;
Promisiunea lui ne-a amgit. cf Ne-a amgit cu promisiunea fcut.; Scandalurile anim
peisajul. cf Spaiul se anim cu lume bun.; Cehia i apr titlul. cf Se apr de
adversari.; Apas butonul! cf Apas pe buton!; Apuc bara! cf Se apuc de bar.; M
doare gtul. cf M doare n gt.; Ungaria delimiteaz zonele cu acces interzis. cf Partidul
s-a delimitat de declaraiile senatorului.; A deprins arta gtitului. cf S-a deprins cu un orar
constant al somnului.
5. Exist i situaii cnd verbul, att n construcia personal, ct i n cea impersonal-
pasiv, pstreaz formantul prepoziional i semnificaia: Abuzeaz de funcie. cf Se
abuzeaz de funcie., A aflat de voi. cf S-a aflat de voi.
6. Formantul prepoziional al unui verb poate avea realizri diferite: Accede la titlu
olimpic., Echipa accede n semifinal., Accede pe o treapt superioar.; Fotbalitii se
331
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
acomodeaz cu terenul., Copilul nu s-a acomodat la grdini.; Textul abund n greeli.
cf Piaa neagr abund de arme.; L-au acuzat de delapidare., L-au acuzat pentru avizul
dat proiectului Roia Montana.; Candideaz la parlamentare., Candideaz pentru un nou
mandat.; Se concentreaz asupra drepturilor minoritilor., Se concentreaz pe reelele de
socializare., Se concentreaz la alte lucruri.; Nu mai contenete cu laudele, Nu mai
contenete din ludat, Nu mai contenete n ludarea actorului.; Au descins la Avicola.,
Au descins n biroul procuroarei.; S-a calificat n semifinal., Nu s-au calificat la
Campionatul Mondial., Cine s-a calificat pentru final?
7. Exist situaii cnd construcia prepoziional e sinonim cu cea n care verbul i
ataeaz un nominal n dativ: Se acomodeaz cu noile condiii. cf Se acomodeaz noilor
condiii.; Finanele din Maramure vor aparine de Direcia Regional a Finanelor
Publice Cluj. cf Propunerea aparine unui parlamentar.; Cele mai multe exemple ns sunt
cele n care construcia prepoziional cu la este echivalent cu dativul. Cele dou
construcii nu sunt variante sintactice, deoarece [...] nu asistm la o neutralizare a
opoziiilor gramaticale de tipul obiect direct / obiect indirect sau obiect direct / obiect
prepoziional i obiect secundar / obiect prepoziional. Structura de tipul la +acuzativ este
determinat contextual din raiuni de ordin semantico-stilistic. (Bogdan Oprea 2011: 46).
Iat asemenea exemple: Se adapteaz la noul stil de via. cf Se adapteaz noului stil de
via.; Se afiliaz la PPE. cf Se afiliaz moiunii opoziiei.; S-a conformat deciziei. cf Un
ordin este autorizat dac se conformeaz la tradiie.; Singurtatea omului se contrapune
triumfului noii ere globale. cf Singurtatea omului se contrapune la triumful noii ere
globale.; Datoreaz mult la bugetul de stat. cf datoreaz mult bugetului de stat.
8. Un caz special este cel al verbelor simetrice, care presupun reciprocitatea. Prima
situaie semnalat este cea a acestor verbe cu sau fr clitic reflexiv. Dac aceste verbe cu
reciprocitate intrinsec sau dobndit au un subiect-nominal la plural, prezena
construciilor pronominale reciproce precedate de prepoziia cu este facultativ: Ei se apr
(unul pe altul); Voi v-ai certat (unul cu cellalt); Ei au divorat (unul de cellalt), Prerile
nu concord (unele cu celelalte); Ei s-au confruntat (unul de cellalt); Pedepsele nu se
contopesc (una cu alta); S-au desprit (unul de cellalt); Cele dou aspecte contrasteaz
(unul cu altul). Dac subiectul acelorai verbe este un nominal la singular, prezena grupului
prepoziional este obligatorie (nu neaprat i realizat): El se apr de critici; Ea s-a logodit
cu tine.; El a divorat de Maria.; Opinia mea nu coincide cu a ta.; El colaboreaz cu tine.;
Compar sacoul tu cu al lui.; Prerea mea nu concord cu a ta.; Pedeapsa asta nu se
contopete cu celalt.; Un aspect contrasteaz cu cellalt.; Ion se desparte de Vasile.
Concluzii:
1. Regimul sintactic reprezint capacitatea de guvernare exercitat de un cuvnt asupra
altuia, capacitate manifestat printr-un sistem de norme sau reguli pe baza crora se
construiete enunul i care vizeaz impunerea, respectiv restricionarea unei anumite forme
(cazuale, prepoziionale, conjuncionale) a termenului subordonat de ctre termenul regent.
2. Exist o categorie de verbe cu regim prepoziional, care includ n matricea sintactico-
semantic anumite prepoziii, numite aici formani prepoziionali. Complementul realizat cu
ajutorul acestora se numete complement prepoziional.
332
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
3. Dicionarele au obligaia s includ formantul prepoziional obligatoriu n verbul-titlu:
a depinde de, a se apuca de, a abunda n / de, a se baza pe, a consta n, a recurge la .a.m.d.,
iar pe cel facultativ, n interiorul articolului respectiv. Modelul poate fi cel al nregistrrii
verbelor cu formant reflexiv n noul DOOM: bizui (a se ~).
4. Am evideniat, pe de o parte, rolul dezambiguizator al formantului prepoziional:
Prietenul ei aduce cu Robert Redford. vs Fondul Proprietatea aduce profit acionarilor., iar,
pe de alt parte, sinonimia sintactic a construciei prepoziionale cu cea neprepoziional a
aceluiai verb: A aflat de rezultatul meciului. cf A aflat rezultatul meciului.
5. Majoritatea adjuncilor verbali se construiesc prepoziional. n exemplul: Vine la tine
mpreun cu Maria, cu maina, la ora 17., verbul a veni are patru adjunci construii
prepoziional.
6. Utilizarea de prepoziii diferite dup acelai verb se nscrie ntr-o tendin mai veche,
de nnoire a legturilor prepoziionale, semnalat de Alexandru Niculescu (Niculescu 1963:
316).
Bibliografie
Avram, Mioara, Consideraii asupra dinamicii limbii i asupra studierii ei n romna actual,
n vol. Aspecte ale dinamicii limbii romne actuale, vol. al II-lea, Bucureti, Editura
Universitii, 2003, p. 15-23.
Bogdan Oprea, Helga, Ipostaze ale variaiei lingvistice n domeniul gramaticii. Studiu de caz:
variantele morfologice, n Limba romn. Ipostaze ale variaiei lingvistice, Bucureti, Editura
Universitii din Bucureti, 2011, p. 29-57.
Cuni, Alexandra, prepoziia, abordri vechi i noi n lingvistica romneasc, n Tradiie i
inovaie n studiul limbii romne, Bucureti, editura Universitii din Bucureti, 2004, p. 79-87.
Draoveanu, D.D., Legturi sintactice de la stnga la dreapta, CL, anul XIV, nr. 2, 1969, p.
241-246.
GALR = Gramatica limbii romne, vol. I Cuvntul, vol. II, Enunul, Bucureti, Editura
Academiei, 2008.
GBLR = Gramatica de baz a limbii romne, Bucureti, Editura Univers Enciclopedic Gold,
2010.
Gean, Ionu, Lexiconul verbelor construite prepoziional, n Limba romn. Teme actuale,
Bucureti, Editura Universitii din Bucureti, 2009, p. 103-109.
Gean, Ionu, Din nou despre prepoziiile semilexicale, n Limba romn. Controverse,
delimitri, noi ipoteze, Bucureti, Editura Universitii din Bucureti, 2010, p. 75-83.
Gean, Ionu, Tipare sintactico-semantice de verbe construite prepoziional, n Limba
romn. Dinamica limbii, dinamica interpretrii, Bucureti, Editura Universitii din
Bucureti, 2008, p. 55-61.
Moldoveanu, Mona, Situaii de postpoziii n limba romn, n Limba romn. Aspecte
sincronice i diacronice, Bucureti, editura Universitii din Bucureti, 2006, p.147-153.
Nicula, Irina, Cristinel Sava, Mariana Gherghina, Anca Motoroiu, Monica Dumitrache, Un tip
special de codificare a argumentelor: tiparul syntactic M doare gtul / M doare n gt, n
Limba romn. Structur i funcionare, Bucureti, Editura Universitii din Bucureti, 2005,
p. 161-173.
333
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Pan Dindelegan, Gabriela, Elemente de gramatic. Dificulti, controverse, noi interpretri,
Bucureti, editura humanitas Educaional, 2003.
Dicionare
DEX 1996, 1998, 2009, 2012= Dicionarul explicativ al limbii romne, Bucureti, Editura
Univers Enciclopedic Gold, 1996 (1998, 2009, 2012).
DOOM2 = Dicionar ortografic, ortoepic i morfologic al limbii romne, ediia a II-a revzut
i adugit, Bucureti, Editura Univers Enciclopedic Gold, 2010.
DE= Marcel D. Popa, Alexandru Stnciulescu, Gabriel Florin-Matei, Anicua Tudor, Carmen
Zgvrdici, Rodica Chiriacescu, Dicionar Enciclopedic, Bucureti, Editura Enciclopedic,
1993-2009.
DN = Florin Marcu, Constant Maneca, Dicionar de neologisme, Bucureti, Editura
Academiei, 1986.
DS= Mircea i Luiza Seche, Dicionar de sinonime, Editura Litera Internaional, 2002.
DSL = Angela Bidu-Vrnceanu, Cristina Clrau, Liliana Ionescu-Ruxndoiu, Mihaela
Manca, Gabriela Pan Dindelegan, Dicionar de tiine ale limbii, Bucureti, Editura
Bnemira, 2001.
MDA = Mic dicionar academic, Bucureti, Editura Univers Enciclopedic 2002.
MDN = Florin Marcu, Marele dicionar de neologisme, Bucureti, Editura Saeculum, 2000.
334
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE INFLUENCE OF GRAMMATICAL GENDER ON SEMANTIC JUDGEMENT.
AN INVESTIGATION OF ROMANIAN AND HUNGARIAN
Anca NEME, Assistant, PhD Candidate, Dimitrie Cantemir University Trgu Mure
Abstract: This paper aims to investigate whether grammatical gender influences the semantic
judgements of Romanian speakers as opposed to Hungarian speakers, in terms of the
imaginary gender that individuals tend to ascribe to everyday objects. Using two different
tests, one involving a purely linguistic task, while the other implied visual input as well, we
proved that in the case of Romanian native speakers, grammatical gender is a strong
predictor of the imaginary gender subjects tend to attribute to concrete nouns. For Hungarian
speakers, imaginary gender was not assigned randomly, but followed a pattern consistent
with an earlier research, which proved that speakers of Hungarian tend to quantify immediate
reality in terms of usability, while speakers of Romanian are more inclined to first process
their surroundings based on aesthetic characteristics.
Our results also lead to the secondary conclusion that visual input and emotional affiliation
reduce the extent of the influence of grammatical gender on cognition.
Keywords: linguistic relativity, bilingualism, grammatical gender
1. An overview of the linguistic relativity hypothesis
The theory of linguistic relativity (also known as the Sapir Whorf hypothesis) is,
simply put, the view that there is a strong interdependence between the languages one uses
and ones thought patterns and outlook on the world. In other words, ones spoken languages
act as a set of coloured lenses, mediating the speakers interaction with the surrounding
reality, while at the same time limiting his/her perception to the spectrum of colours visible
through those lenses. As such, in the absence of non-verbal thought, individuals are only able
to conceptualise the world within the limits of the linguistic material offered by their spoken
languages and, in order to perceive a new reality, one needs to learn the way to name it.
Although the starting point of this idea can be traced back to the early 19 th century, it
was only in the last few decades that researchers succeeded in proving the significant
influence that language exercises on thought. The vocabulary and grammatical structure of a
certain language focuses on some aspects of external reality rather than on others, considered
to be less relevant in that societys existence; this determines individuals to form specific
thinking patterns. In the words of Edward Sapir, the total vocabulary of a language is the
complex inventory of all the ideas, interests and occupations which retained the attention of a
community1. It is the case of the anecdotal high number of words for snow that Eskimo
languages have, in response to the fundamental reality of their world. Also, some languages
possess the category of the politeness pronoun, thus directing their speakers to be more
focused on the age or social status of the person they are addressing, whereas speakers of
1
Sapir, E. (1921). Language. An Introduction to the Study of Speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace, p. 103
335
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
languages without a pronoun of politeness must make a conscious effort, in another language,
to discern the category of people this pronoun applies to.
Each language focuses on its specific set of information, thus forcing its speakers to
frequently think about that information. When a certain language constrains its speakers to
give increased attention to certain aspects of external reality every time they have a
conversation, this will lead to the formation of patterns in their thinking processes, which
ultimately has consequences on memory, perception, associations or practical abilities. 2
1.1. Grammatical and imaginary gender
The grammatical category of gender is a purely formal classification of nouns in two,
three or even more categories. These categories are often named feminine, masculine, or
neuter. Grammatical gender is a concept used solely for the purpose of linguistic
classification; it is a different notion than biological or social gender, and these two sides are
often found in a relationship of paradoxical opposition. It is for instance the case of the noun
Mdchen in German, which means girl, but is grammatically neuter in gender.
Although in most cases one can see a correspondence between grammatical gender
and the natural gender of animate beings, when it comes to abstract concepts or inanimate
nouns, their grammatical gender is assigned entirely arbitrarily, as these objects obviously do
not possess any intrinsic feminine or masculine features.
Even so, recent studies carried out by Lera Boroditsky3 suggest that, within languages
that have the grammatical category of gender, this has a significant influence on the feminine
or masculine features that individuals tend to associate with inanimate nouns. For example,
sin is depicted as a man in Russian painting, but as a woman in German art. Spanish speakers
will describe a bridge as strong or imposing, (inherently manly characteristics), whereas
German speakers will describe an image of the same bridge as supple and elegant,
(obviously female attributes). All these instances of genderisation are due to the grammatical
masculinity or femininity of the noun in question.
The correlation between grammatical and imaginary gender is amply mirrored in
literature. Irina Petra4 claims that gender differences work upon the anthropomorphic
perspective, so that the humans view of the world is imposed by the words (sub)conscious
gender. For example, as the seasons are all feminine in the Romanian language, they are
inevitably depicted as females in Romanian poetry5: Toamna e-att de rumen n trg / cu
flori n pr, rocate (B. Fundoianu), Toamna, femeia cu privirea fumurie / A intrat
suspect i umil (Ion Minulescu).
2
Deutscher, G. (2010). Through the language glass: why the world looks different in other languages. New
York. Metropolitan Books, p. 152
3
Boroditsky, L. (2011). How language shapes thought. Scientific American, 304(2), pp. 63-65.
4
Petra, I. (2002). Feminitatea limbii romne: Genosanalize. Cluj-Napoca. Casa Crii de tiin, p. 90
5
Petra, I. (1999). Limba stpna noastr: ncercare asupra feminitii limbii romne. Cluj-Napoca. Casa
Crii de tiin, p. 116
336
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
2. Description of the research
A total number of 71 individuals took part in the research, 40 of whom were of
Romanian ethnicity and 32 Hungarian, both lots being residents of Romania. Each of the two
tests was conducted individually, in the subjects native language.
Test 1 The animation film
For this test, the subjects were given a list of 48 nouns belonging to the basic
vocabulary, with the following instructions: Imagine you are producing an animation film. If
the following items were to become characters in your film, what name would you give
them? In this noun list, arranged in alphabetical order, we inserted 8 control nouns denoting
beings; their grammatical gender obviously coincided with their natural sex (man, woman,
boy, girl, king, bride, ogre and ballerina). The remaining 40 nouns, denoting inanimate
objects and animals, were selected in such a way that, in Romanian, 21 would be masculine
and 19 feminine in their singular form. The purpose of inserting the control nouns was to
validate the test by ensuring the participants had understood and followed the instructions.
Therefore, we expected a 100% degree of correlation between grammatical and imaginary
gender in both tested groups, in the case of the control nouns.
The hypothesis of the experiment was that, in the case of native Romanian speakers,
the names they would give each object would be consistent with the grammatical gender of
said object, whereas no correlation would be noted in the case of Hungarian speakers. The test
was applied in the subjects native language, i.e. either Romanian or Hungarian. After
performing the test, a brief interview was conducted with the subjects, in order to gain more
insight into the motivations of their name choices.
Test 2 The theatre play
For this task, the subjects were presented two sheets containing images of human
faces: 8 males on one of the sheets and 8 females on the other. The sheets were accompanied
by a list of concepts representing the four seasons, as well as other natural phenomena (wind,
snowflake, rain, snow, fog). The instructions given to the subjects were as follows: Imagine
you are the director of a fantasy play. The people in the photographs are the actors applying
for the roles, and the concepts on the list are the roles in which you must distribute them.
Please choose the person you consider most suitable for each role, then motivate your choice
briefly. You do not need to use all the actors, and you can use the same actor twice, if you
wish. We hypothesised that Romanian native speakers would choose females for all the four
seasons, as well as the natural phenomena the grammatical gender of which is feminine,
whereas the choices of the Hungarian speakers would be random or based on entirely
different motivations. This test was also applied in the subjects native language, i.e. either
Romanian or Hungarian. After performing the test, a brief interview was conducted with the
subjects, in order to gain more insight into the motivations of their choices of actors.
3. Interpreting the results
Test 1
The first step in interpreting the results of this experiment was to check the correlation
between grammatical and imaginary gender for the control nouns. As expected, the man,
woman, boy, girl, bride and king received names consistent with their sex in 100% of the
337
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
cases, for both subject groups. The surprising and amusing exception resided in the fact that
two Hungarian speakers and one Romanian considered a womans name to be fit for an ogre.
Also, two Hungarians and one Romanian gave the ballerina a mans name. Despite the minor
exceptions, the results convinced us that an analysis of the other 40 nouns would yield valid
results.
Proceeding to this analysis, we found that the main hypothesis was confirmed:
Romanian speakers mostly gave masculine names to nouns of masculine gender, and feminine
names to nouns which were grammatically feminine. This was not true in 100% of the
responses, but, as the figures below show, each of the nouns on the list received an
overwhelming majority of names consistent with its gender.
Fig. 1 The distribution of names for feminine nouns in the Romanian lot
Fig. 2 The distribution of names for masculine nouns in the Romanian lot
Responses received from the Hungarian lot obviously show a much less pronounced
tendency for such coordination. In the case of feminine nouns, the distribution is reasonably
close to 50%, with names for masculine nouns being slightly more consistent with the gender
of their equivalents in Romanian. Had both groups of nouns received from Hungarian
speakers names mostly consistent with their gender in Romanian (but not to such a degree of
accuracy as in the case of the Romanian group), we could have concluded this to be the
influence of the Romanian language, since all of the subjects in the group live in Romania and
are bilingual. However, since this phenomenon only occurred in the case of masculine nouns,
this could be attributed either to coincidence or to the fact that the masculine noun list
contained multiple words (such as knife, axe, sausage, elephant, spider, wallet etc) which are
338
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
associated with masculine traits or activities in most human cultures, regardless of the
existence of grammatical gender.
Fig. 3 The distribution of names for feminine nouns in the Hungarian lot
Fig. 4 The distribution of names for masculine nouns in the Hungarian lot
However, in the case of Hungarian speakers, name distribution was not random at all.
Although it obviously did not follow gender considerations, the post-test interview revealed
that in many cases subjects attributed names according to the functional characteristics of the
object that certain word denoted. If the object was more likely to be used by a female, then it
would receive a feminine name and vice versa. For example, a ladle would be named Robert
or Patrick by a Romanian speaker, since it was a masculine noun, but it would receive a name
such as Ilona or Margit from Hungarian speakers, as it is traditionally considered to form the
appanage of female activity. A similar thing happened to the noun boot, which, being
grammatically feminine, was seen by most Romanians as a high-heeled item of the female
wardrobe. But Hungarian speakers associated the boot, as well as the hat, to the traditional
Hungarian costume, and consequently gave it not only masculine names, but traditional
masculine names at that, such as Bla or Janos. It is also interesting to note that for almost
70% of the Hungarian speakers, the sun seems to be perceived as feminine, probably due to
its warm, life-giving nature (again, a possible mental reference to its function).
Test 2
In the case of Romanians, in this test, the correlation between grammatical and
imaginary gender was maintained, but not as strongly. In all cases, the roles of the seasons
339
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
were given to females, but the correlation weakened for the other phenomena. As the figures
below show, gender correlation won again, but this time by a small margin, nowhere near as
decisively as in the first test.
Fig. 5 Role distribution for feminine nouns in the Romanian lot
It is interesting to note that two nouns (sun and cloud) also appeared on the list used in
Test 1. In the first test, the sun was given a masculine name in 77.5% of the cases, while the
role of the sun was given to a male candidate in only 60% of the cases. The same happened to
the cloud, which received a male name in 82.5% of cases, while in the second test, it was
considered to be a male role by only 61% of participants.
Fig. 6 Role distribution for masculine nouns in the Romanian lot
Two baffling exceptions occurred as well: the fog, a feminine noun, was perceived as
a role suited for a man and conversely, the snowflake, a masculine noun, was given to female
candidates in the majority of the cases. The possible causes of this are discussed below.
No significant correlations were found in the case of the Hungarian participants, and
the interview revealed a multitude of reasons for making role choices: likeability of a face, the
340
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
fact that it reminded the subject of a significant person or event in their lives etc. Most
Hungarians seem to agree however that the seasons are feminine, with the exception of
winter.
Fig. 7 Role distribution for feminine nouns in the Hungarian lot
It is interesting to note that this time also, the sun was perceived to be feminine, like in
the previous task.
Fig. 8 Role distribution for masculine nouns in the Hungarian lot
4.1. Exceptions and limitations
When Romanians were asked why they had not given, for instance, the notebook a
feminine name, most exclaimed but it could never be a woman! However, these interviews
revealed that in many cases, emotional affiliation overrides linguistic conditioning. There
were some nouns in which grammatical imaginary gender correlation won by a smaller
margin that in the other nouns. For instance, when asked to give the sun or star a name,
subjects who had children tended to fill in those boxes with their childrens names, regardless
of whether the childs sex and the grammatical gender of the word sun or star coincided.
341
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The words cockroach or mole elicited a similar response, as many subjects filled in the
corresponding box with the name of a person they disliked or despised, regardless of that
persons sex. A few of the subjects even felt the need to apologise to the interviewer, stating
that they were aware they had filled in the wrong name, but that they felt they needed to do
so.
The limitation of the second test resided in the introduction of a visual stimulus
alongside the verbal one, which has also been found to reduce the influence of grammatical
gender on perception. Confronted with the task of choosing the person most visually suited
for a certain role in the play, the subjects were overwhelmed by a variety of considerations:
giving equal share of the roles to males and females; hair, skin and eye colour matching a
certain season or the likeability of a certain face. Faced with possible visual representations of
the concepts, forced to reflect on their defining characteristics, the Romanian subjects
managed to escape linguistic conditioning to a certain extent, thus reaching the conclusion
that, even though the word snowflake is grammatically masculine, its delicate, fragile
nature made it suited to become a womans role and, similarly, that a man had better play the
role of the gloomy, confusing, dangerous (but grammatically feminine) fog. Still, when asked
verbally, most Romanian speakers agreed that the seasons are definitely girls. The
weakening influence that visual stimuli exercise over the influence of grammatical structures
on perception also resulted from a previous research, which serves as further proof. 6
4. Possible applications of the findings
4.1 Language teaching
Nowadays, in the language learning process, language is no longer the only thing
which needs to be taught. This is due to the fact that not only vocabularies and grammatical
structures differ, but also the concepts expressed by them. There are also cases when both
language and concept differ between languages. There are numerous cases when a language
learner must acquire a new concept, corresponding to a reality his native linguaculture has no
means of encoding or expressing. Even the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages was forced to acknowledge the existence of such circumstances when language
learning is not merely learning a new word for a universal concept.
If language significantly influences cognition, if thought patterns differ as much as
languages and if language learning is an essential requirement of modern life, then language
teaching must evolve so that it overcomes the boundaries of merely determining the learner to
use new words for naming realities and communicating with others. It should become a
central task of language teaching to identify the respects in which speakers of different
languages think differently, to determine whether these are able to be taught, and ultimately to
design ways to teach them.
4.2 Translations
It is true that languages encode and represent the world differently. But it is equally
true that human beings have the ability to grasp and express anything that usually occurs only
6
Neme A., Jula G., Ormenian C., Oprean D. Consecine cognitive ale genului gramatical, n Academica
Science Journal, Studia series, No. (2) 1 2013, p. 73-79
342
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
in other cultures than their own. Therefore, translation is not at all impossible, but its
truthfulness heavily depends on the translators knowledge of the source culture and linguistic
connotations. To this end, study of linguistic relativity can serve to further expand such
knowledge, to the benefit of intercultural communication.
Knowledge of linguistic units takes second place to knowledge of their correct
application. The Russian psychologist Vygotsky was aware of the importance of linguistic
relativity in translation. He used a very eloquent example, specifically dealing with imaginary
gender, referring to two different translations of Heinrich Heines poem, Lyrisches
Intermezzo - 33. Ein Fichtenbaum steht einsam. The original poem deals with two
metaphorical representations of trees: Der Fichtenbaum (pine tree), which is masculine in
German, and Die Palme (palm tree), a feminine noun in German. The pine tree, personified,
is presented in a state of lonely longing for the palm tree standing on a distant sunny shore.
Due to the poets use of opposing genders, Vygotsky7 claims that one tree stands for the
masculine principle and the other for the feminine principle, thus the poems theme being
revealed as erotic. One Russian translator, being aware of the poems meanings, ran into a
problem, since both pine and palm are feminine in Russian. Thus, in order to preserve the
poems theme, he chose to turn the pine tree into a cedar (masculine in Russian), sacrificing
literal precision in favour of deeper meaning. Another Russian translation of the same poem,
as well as the Romanian version by tefan Augustin Doina suffer from the common flaw of
literal translation, giving the translated poem an entirely different, much more abstract and
general meaning. Here is how a seemingly minor change (or preservation) of a grammatical
detail may lead to a complete transformation of meaning, and implicitly of perception. The
reader of the translation, conditioned by different thought patterns arising from the
grammatical structure of his own language, will view the same text in an entirely different
light.
Concepts are universal; their conceptualisation is most definitely not. That is why it is
the translators job to achieve cross-cultural transfer of meaning as faithfully as possible,
while at the same time being aware of all the connotations, be they conscious or unconscious,
for the mind of the target audience, of the linguistic forms he or she may choose to employ.
The translator must therefore be intimately acquainted with cultural and subcultural
knowledge, as well as the language-conditioned thought patterns of the source and target
cultures.
4. Conclusions
The perception of imaginary gender is only a small part of the constellation of
manifestations of linguistic relativity. On a daily basis, humans are unwittingly subject to the
shaping, directing and sometimes limiting effect which the languages they speak exert on
their outlook. Individuals do not just think in a language, they think through that language,
and the consequences of that are seen in every facet of human life, from everyday choices to
international communications, to literary expression. Continued research in this vast and
7
John-Steiner, V., (2007). Vygotsky on thinking and speaking. In Daniels, H.; Cole, M.; Wertsch, J. Cambridge
companion to Vygotsky (pp. 136-155). New York. Cambridge University Press, p. 145
343
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
insufficiently explored field is essential for a better future understanding of the way humans
think and communicate.
5. References
Boroditsky, L. (2011). How language shapes thought. Scientific American, 304(2)
Deutscher, G. (2010). Through the language glass: why the world looks different in other
languages. New York. Metropolitan Books
John-Steiner, V., (2007). Vygotsky on thinking and speaking. In Daniels, H.; Cole, M.;
Wertsch, J. Cambridge companion to Vygotsky (pp. 136-155). New York. Cambridge
University Press
Neme A., Jula G., Ormenian C., Oprean D. Consecine cognitive ale genului gramatical,
n Academica Science Journal, Studia series, No. (2) 1 2013
Petra, I. (2002). Feminitatea limbii romne: Genosanalize. Cluj-Napoca. Casa Crii de
tiin
Petra, I. (1999). Limba stpna noastr: ncercare asupra feminitii limbii romne, Casa
Crii de tiin, Cluj Napoca
Sapir, E. (1921). Language. An Introduction to the Study of Speech. New York: Harcourt,
Brace
344
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
BLUE AND ITS TINTS IN THE ENGLISH AND RUSSIAN LANGUAGES:
COMPARATIVE DICTIONARY AND CULTUROLOGICAL ANALYSIS
Arina POLOZOVA, PhD Candidate, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai
Abstract: The present article focuses on the colour terms denoting blue colour in two
languages: blue, azure, indigo, navy, sapphire, and turquoise and their Russian counterparts
siniy, goluboy, lazurny, lazorevy, biriuzovy, ultramarin, indigo, nebesny. We shall
concentrate first and foremost on the way the colour under discussion is perceived in the
English and Russian cultures. The aim and purpose of this article is to confront the two
conceptual and language views of the world. It goes without saying that when it comes to the
translation of a text of verbal art some difficulties may be faced since what we deal with is not
a mechanic word-for-word rendering of the same idea. The translators goal is to transfer
and transpose this idea not only in another language and culture, but also in another world-
view. It follows from what has just been said that it is of great importance to study in detail
those elements of an artistic text which may be perceived differently in the original language
and the language of the translation. Obviously, one of the major difficulties here is colour in
general and colour terms in particular. The results of the dictionary analysis (based on the
confrontation of English and Russian explanatory and bilingual dictionaries) presented in
this article can be used by translators, culturologists and specialists in comparative stylistics.
Keywords: colour terms, blue, tints of blue, comparative analysis, dictionary analysis
I. The blue colour as a cultural phenomenon
The present article focuses on the comparative analysis of the colour terms denoting
the blue colour in two languages English and Russian in order to reveal the differences in
colour perception in these two languages and cultures. Colour in general and colour terms in
particular have proved to be highly connotative; the numerous associations they acquired in
course of history are among the characteristic features of any culture. Obviously, the blue
colour is no exception the colour of the sky and the sea, along the centuries it has always
been one of the basic colours in human life. That is the reason why before turning to the
dictionary analysis of colour terms, we thought it useful to concentrate on the blue colour as
such and its perception in various periods of history1.
In the Ancient world blue did not have any particular symbolic meaning (in contrast to
the triad white black red), but it was viewed in connection with its closest (in terms of
colour) counterpart. Thus, blue was closer in its associations to black and, therefore, seen as
the colour of night sky, oblivion, darkness and death as well as witchcraft and magic. These
associations were acquired by blue in quite a number of ancient cultures for instance,
Ancient India and China. In Ancient Egypt, on the contrary, it was the colour of truth as well
as the sky colour, the colour of gods. In Ancient Greece and Rome it was also connected with
1
Here we shall sum up the vast material on colour from the following sources: Ammer, Christine. (1992) Seeing
red or tickled pink: color terms in everyday language. London: Penguin Books; Korsakov, S.V. (2009)
Etnokoloristika. Moskva: Granitsa; Matveeva, N., Mirkovskaya, A., Ananyeva, E. (2009) Siniy. Moskva:
KITONI.
345
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
the main Olympic gods, being Zeus and Heras colour (Jupiter and Juno in the Roman
tradition). It denoted loyalty and purity.
At the same time, the blue colour was also associated with some less appealing
concepts. The early Britons and the modern Maori both tattooed themselves in blue, which
they considered to be the colour of sacrifice. The Britons went even further and used a blue
paint (called woad) as war paint, since going to war was interpreted as sacrificing oneself.
Interestingly enough, in folklore blue was regarded as a magical colour because of its
association with water, which startles people with its depth.
In Christian tradition, blue has always been the colour of constancy and faith, as well
as that of the heavens and the oceans. It was often used by painters as the colour of Virgin
Marys robe, which is the reason why blue is also associated with home, trust and mothers
love. Blue has also been perceived as a mystic colour. Among other associations it has
acquired are revelation, revival, eternity, wisdom and spiritual meditation 2.
In art, blue has always been a highly emotional colour. As far as the art of stained
glass is concerned, here blue is a colour of truth, calming and pure faith, the penetration of the
transcendent world into the church (as opposed to red being the colour of eternal fire). In
Christian icon painting, it is a colour of sky and meditation. However, for impressionists blue
was one of the colours of shade and darkness. Picassos blue period was a period of
melancholy, suffering, poverty and death, the main characters being the poor, prostitutes and
the drunk.
In poetry, blue is widely used in the sea and sky metaphors, as well as in expressing
sentiments and romantic dreams. In the XIX century romanticism it was a symbol of dreams
and aspirations for unearthly ideals. Thus, Novalis made Blaue Blume the symbol of the
whole epoch in his novel Heinrich von Ofterdingen.
As a clothing colour, blue appeared in Europe in the XV century. However, the dye
was very expensive, thus it was worn only by noblemen. It was also worn by knights as a
symbol of faith and loyalty to a Lady. Its mass production began only in 1882. In Russia,
however, siniukha was widely used in everyday clothes trousers and sarafans.
The colour under discussion is also widely used in room decoration. Its main
characteristics are cooling and calming, thus blue is widely used in hot climates and crowded
areas. Moreover, there is an existing stereotype that blue is the boys colour (whereas pink is
the girls one): the boys rooms tend to be decorated in blue.
In heraldry blue is called azure and signifies chastity, loyalty, and fidelity. Today
azure is principally a poetic word for blue.
Let us now look more closely at the tints of blue since they also possess their
particular associations. The tints of blue we are going to discuss are expressed by such tint
colour terms as turquoise/biriuzovy3, sky-colour/nebesno-goluboy, pale blue/bledno-
goluboy, ultramarine/ultramarin, indigo/indigo and navy/temno-siniy.
2
These associations appeared not only in Christianity. For example, in Islamic tradition it is also perceived as a
colour of spiritual practice and wisdom. In some religions it is associated with the better world and the transition
to nonexistence.
3
The names of colour are given in two languages English and Russian.
346
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Turquoise (biriuzovy) the name of the colour term stems from the name of the stone.
Its tints vary from light green to light blue. First and foremost it is associated with river flows
and sea waves. Because of yellow which is present in this colour, it becomes more active and
dynamic than blue. Its associations are twofold: it is the colour of individuality as well as that
of arrogance and reserve.
Sky-colour (nebesno-goluboy) is the colour of clear sky, atmosphere and air. In
Russian it is sometimes called (azure). This colour is produced by mixing blue with
white or translucent. Sky-colour is a light colour, the colour of spiritual aspirations and
inspirations, but at the same time it can be associated with light-heartedness and absent-
mindedness. It symbolizes tranquillity and consent.
Pale blue (bledno-siniy) is the lightest tint of blue. It seems to be transparent and
weightless. This tint is associated with dreaminess and helplessness. Pale blue is very close to
white. It is a neutral and calm colour.
Ultramarine (ultramarin) can be translated as the purest colour of the sea. It is a rich
blue colour mixed with green. Its common name in Russian is tsvet morskoy volny. The tints
of ultramarine vary from bluish-green to bluish-black.
Indigo (indigo) is a tint of blue mixed with violet. Since the late sixteenth century, it
has been the name of a blue dye obtained from a plant that also is called indigo. Then, in
1704, Sir Isaac Newton used the name indigo for one of the seven colours of the spectrum,
between blue and violet. It is a dark colour, a deep violet-blue or dark grey-blue. Indigo is
often called royal blue. This colour is deep and full of mysteries, being at the same time a
symbol of power and might.
Navy (temno-siniy) is produced by mixing blue with black. It has always been
perceived as the colour of meditation. Navy is often used in uniforms because it does not
irritate the eye and is more delicate and mild than black.
Thus, from what has just been said we may conclude that, generally speaking, the blue
colour abounds in cultural-historical associations. These are mainly positive: it is the colour of
purity and wisdom. However, in some cases blue was perceived negatively (as, for example,
by the early Britons). As far as the tints of blue are concerned, the lighter tints of blue (as, for
example, sky-colour and pale blue) are largely associated with sky, purity and spirituality,
whereas its darker tints (namely, ultramarine, indigo and navy) are associated with wisdom,
power and might.
347
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
II. The presentation of blue and its tints in English explanatory dictionaries
Our next step is the confrontational study of the dictionary aspect of the colour terms
denoting the colours under discussion. First let us look more closely at the way blue is
presented in the English explanatory dictionaries. In what follows (Table 1) we present the
definitions and the illustrations contained in the dictionary entries of the Longman Dictionary
of Contemporary English4, Longman Exams Dictionary5, Oxford Advanced Learners
Dictionary6 and Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary7.
Table 1. Blue in English explanatory dictionaries
Longman Dictionary of Longman Exams Dictionary Oxford Advanced Cambridge
Contemporary English Learners Dictionary Advanced
Learners
Dictionary
Blue, adjective Blue, adjective Blue, adjective: Blue, adjective:
1 having the colour of the sky 1 having the colour of the 1 having the colour of a 1 of the colour of
or the sea on a fine sky or the sea on a fine day clear sky or the sea/ocean the sky without
day (navy, navy blue): (navy, navy blue): on a clear day: clouds on a bright
the blue waters of the lake the blue waters of the lake piercing blue eyes day, or a darker or
dark/light/pale/bright blue dark/light/pale/bright blue a blue shirt lighter type of
a dark blue raincoat a dark blue raincoat 2 (of a person or part of the this:
2 informal sad and without 2 informal sad and without body) looking slightly blue a faded blue
hope [= depressed]: hope: in colour because the shirt
I've been feeling kind of I've been feeling kind of person is cold or cannot pale blue eyes
blue. blue. breathe easily: Her hands were
3 informal blue jokes, stories 3 informal blue jokes, stories Her hands were blue with blue with cold (=
etc are about sex, in a way that etc are about sex, in a way cold. slightly blue
might offend some people that might offend some 3 (informal) sad because of the
4 argue/talk etc till you're people He'd been feeling blue cold).
blue in the face informal to blue movie all week. 2 showing or
argue, talk etc about 4 argue/talk etc till you're 4 films/movies, jokes or mentioning sexual
something a lot, but without blue in the face informal to stories that are blue are activity in a way
achieving what you want: argue, talk etc about about sex: that offends many
You can tell them till you're something a lot, but without a blue movie people:
blue in the face, but they'll still achieving what you want: 5 politics (of an area in the a blue joke
do what they want. You can tell them till US) having more people a blue
5 blue with cold especially you're blue in the face, but who vote for movie/film
British English someone who they'll still do what they the Democratic candidate His humour is a
is blue with cold looks want. than the Republican one bit too blue for
extremely cold 5 blue with cold especially blue states/counties my tastes.
6 go blue British English if British English someone do something till you are 3 informal feeling
someone goes blue, their skin who is blue with cold looks blue in the face or showing
becomes blue because they are extremely cold informal to try to do sadness:
cold or cannot breathe 6 go blue British English if something as hard and as He's been a bit
properly someone goes blue, their long as you possibly can blue since he
7 talk a blue streak American skin becomes blue because but without success: failed his exams.
English informal to talk very they are cold or cannot You can argue till you're
quickly without stopping breathe properly blue in the face, but you Blue, noun
7 talk a blue streak won't change my mind. 1 a blue colour
Blue, noun: American English informal 2 a person who
1 the colour of the sky or the to talk very quickly without Blue, noun: has played a sport
4
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Third edition. (2001) Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
5
Longman Exams Dictionary. (2006) Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
6
Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary. Seventh edition. (2005) Oxford: Oxford University Press.
7
Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary. (2003) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
348
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
sea on a fine day: stopping 1 the colour of a clear sky for Oxford
She nearly always dresses in or the sea/ocean on a clear University against
blue. Blue, noun day: Cambridge
the rich greens and blues of 1 the colour of the sky or the bright/dark/light/pale University or for
the tapestry sea on a fine day: blue Cambridge
2 blues a slow sad style of She nearly always dresses The room was decorated University against
music that came from the in blue. in vibrant blues and Oxford
southern US: the rich greens and blues of yellows. University, or the
a blues singer the tapestry She was dressed in blue. title given to them
3 the blues informal feelings 2 blues a slow sad style of 2 British English a person for this
of sadness: music that came from the who has played a
A lot of women get the blues southern US: particular sport for Oxford
after the baby is born. a blues singer or Cambridge University; a
4 out of the blue informal if 3 the blues informal title given to them:
something happens out of the feelings of sadness: He's an Oxford rugby
blue, it is very unexpected A lot of women get the blue.
a bolt from/out of the blue blues after the baby is born. She won a blue for
5 Blue British English 4 out of the blue informal if rowing.
someone who has represented something happens out of 3 Australian English, New
Oxford or Cambridge the blue, it is very Zealand
University at a sport, or the unexpected: English, informal a
title given to such a person a bolt from/out of the blue mistake
6 the blue literary the sea or at bolt 4 Australian English, New
the sky 5 Blue British English Zealand
someone who has English, informal a name
represented Oxford or for a person with red hair
Cambridge University at a 5 Australian English, New
sport, or the title given to Zealand
such a person English, informal a fight
6 the blue literary the sea or
the sky
The lexicographic picture of blue would not be complete unless we referred to the
material of Longman Dictionary of Language and Culture8:
Table 2. Blue in Longman Dictionary of Language and Culture
Longman Dictionary of Language and Culture
Blue
In the US and UK it is very common for clothes to be blue. Navy blue (=very dark blue) is a
common colour for uniforms such as those worn by sailors and the police, and formal clothes
worn for work: a navy blue suit. On the UK, blue is the colour of the Conservative Party.
There is a joke that old ladies who support this party have a blue rinse, which means that
they have their white or grey hair dyed a pale blue colour. The expression blue-collar is used
to talk about social class. A blue-collar worker works in a factory, repairs machines etc. Blue
is connected with coldness. If you say that someone is blue with cold, you mean that they are
very cold. Pale blue is associated with baby boys, who are traditionally dressed in this colour.
Today many parents avoid dressing their boys in blue because they think that it strengthens
sexual stereotypes. People who belong to royal families are said to be blue-blooded. This
suggests that they are special, and different from ordinary people, who have red blood.
As can be seen from the phrases registered in the dictionaries, the connotations
associated with blue are diametrically opposite. Some of them are markedly meliorative in
those cases when blue is associated with the sky, beauty and purity. Quite a few others,
8
Longman Dictionary of Language and Culture. Third Edition. (2005) Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
349
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
however, are pejorative when blue is associated with things like depression, disease or dark
mystery. Moreover, the wide range of connotations is further extended to include social
political associations with the Conservative Party and the Royal Family. Here the origin is
quite obvious: it is the regularly reproduced association of blue with the highest social circles
the blue blood of the English aristocracy.
Of special interest here, too, is the material of Christine Ammers book Seeing red or
tickled pink: color terms in everyday language9 where the author concentrates on the
phraseological aspect of blue. This may be used as a valuable additional material in our
study:
Table 3. The phraseological aspect of blue.
Christine Ammers book Seeing red or tickled pink: color terms in everyday language
- blue sky and a blue day (=clear weather)
- the blue (=the sky)
- to vanish into the blue (=a mysterious disappearance to one knows not where)
- out of blue (=an equally mysterious arrival)
- a blue streak (=lightning)
- to feel blue (=to feel melancholy)
- the blues (=depression, used in that meaning since the eighteenth century or even
earlier)
- to look blue (=to be affected with fear or dismay, used from the sixteenth century
on)
- blue devils (=a baleful demon, melancholy)
- blue-eyed (=beauty and goodness)
- a blue-haired lady (the practice of using blue rinses to prevent white hair from
taking on an unattractive yellowish tinge became prevalent in the 1930s; a couple of
decades later the practice was so closely associated with a conventional middle-class
woman of a certain age that the term became a general descriptive one for this type
of person)
- blue baby (=an infant with congenital cyanosis)
- blue film (=an indecent movie)
- blue joke (=an obscene joke)
- blue blood (=high or noble birth; the term has nothing to do with blood deprived of
oxygen, it is rather a translation of the Spanish sangre azul, which was used to
describe Spains pure-blooded aristocrats, those whose ancestors had not
intermarried with the Moors; consequently such persons were fairly light-skinned,
and their veins showed bluer through the skin than Spaniards of mixed blood)
- blue collar (=manual or industrial labor and those employed in it; originated in the
United States shortly after World War II; the blue may have originally referred to
blue denim, long a material for work clothes, but soon was more generally applied to
any kind of job requiring special garments)
- blue laws (=the enactment of laws to enforce church rulings on religious observance
and morals dates from colonial times; originated in late-eighteenth-century America;
the blue here means puritanical or morally strict).
9
Ammer, Christine. (1992) Seeing red or tickled pink: color terms in everyday language. London: Penguin
Books, pp. 46-62.
350
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The material adduced in Christine Ammers book serves to support the conclusion we
have already made on the basis of the dictionary material. Blue can be used either positively
(as, for example, in blue sky, blue-eyed, blue blood) or negatively (to feel blue, blue baby, the
blues).
So much then the for the colour term blue as such. Let us now concentrate on its tints:
azure, indigo, navy, sky-blue and ultramarine as well as the indirect turquoise. First comes the
material of the dictionary entries.
Table 4. Colour terms denoting tints of blue in English explanatory dictionaries
Oxford Advanced Longman Dictionary of Longman Exams Dictionary Cambridge Advanced
Learners Dictionary Contemporary English Learners Dictionary
Azure, adjective, noun: Azure, adjective, noun: Azure, adjective, noun: Azure, adjective, noun:
bright blue in colour like having a bright blue colour having a bright blue colour (having) the bright blue
the sky like the sky like the sky colour of the sky on a sunny
The sun shone out of a day:
clear azure sky. The once azure skies of
Athens have been ruined by
atmospheric pollution.
Indigo, adjective, noun: Indigo, adjective, noun: Indigo, adjective, noun: Indigo, adjective, noun:
very dark blue in colour a dark purple-blue colour a dark purple-blue colour (having) a bluish purple
an indigo sky colour
Navy blue, adjective: Navy blue, adjective: Navy blue, adjective: Navy, adjective:
very dark blue: very dark blue: very dark blue in colour: dark blue:
a navy blue sweater a navy blue sweater a navy blue suit He was wearing a navy
sweater.
Navy, noun: Navy, noun: Navy, noun: Navy, noun:
1 the part of a country's 1 the part of a country's 1 the part of a country's 1 the part of a country's
military forces that fights military forces that fights at armed forces that fights at armed forces which is
at sea: sea: sea, and the ships that it trained to operate at sea:
the British Navy the British Navy uses My brother is an officer in
in the navy in the navy the British and German the Navy.
Is your brother still in Is your brother still in the navies Gabriel joined the navy in
the navy? navy? He's joined the navy/the 1997.
He joined the navy He joined the navy Navy. a navy ship/vessel
during the war. during the war. an officer in the navy/the
Navy 2 dark blue
2 a very dark blue colour: 2 a very dark blue colour: The navy is/are
The jacket is available in The jacket is available in considering buying six new
navy, green, or brown. navy, green, or brown. warships.
2 navy blue
Turquoise, noun: Turquoise, noun: Turquoise, noun: Turquoise, noun:
1 a valuable greenish-blue 1 a valuable greenish-blue 1 a blue or greenish-blue a bluish green precious
stone or a jewel that is stone or a jewel that is made semi-precious stone: stone which is often used in
made from this: from this: a turquoise brooch jewellery
turquoise earrings turquoise earrings 2 a greenish-blue colour
2 a greenish-blue colour: 2 a greenish-blue colour: Turquoise, adjective:
The room was painted in The room was painted in Turquoise, adjective: bluish green in colour:
turquoise. turquoise. a turquoise dress the clear turquoise water
of the bay
351
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Turquoise, adjective: Turquoise, adjective:
a clear turquoise sea a clear turquoise sea
Sky-blue, adjective: Sky-blue, adjective: Sky-blue, adjective: Sky-blue, noun, adjective:
bright blue in colour, like bright blue, like the colour bright blue, like the colour bright, light blue
the sky on a clear day of the sky when there are no of the sky when there are no
clouds clouds
Ultramarine, noun: Ultramarine, noun, Ultramarine, noun, Ultramarine, adjective,
a bright blue colour adjective: adjective: noun:
a very bright blue colour a very bright blue colour (of) a bright blue colour
Table 4 shows that the tints of blue under discussion (namely, azure, indigo, navy,
turquoise, sky-blue and ultramarine) do not possess pejorative connotations. They are mostly
associated with the sea, the colour of which varies from brighter to darker tints of blue. The
colour term navy is in a class by itself since it is widely used to describe the colour of
clothing. As far as the indirect colour word turquoise is concerned, it stems from the names of
a precious stone and, as can be seen from the dictionary entries, is usually associated with the
colour of clothes and again the sea (a turquoise dress, a turquoise sea).
III. The presentation of blue and its tints in Russian explanatory dictionaries
Our next step here is to look closer at the Russian counterparts of the colour terms
denoting blue and its tints. First we shall adduce the dictionary entries from two Russian
explanatory dictionaries S.I. Ozhegov, Slovar russkogo yazyka 10 and Slovar Russkogo
Yazyka (The Academy of Sciences of the USSR, the Institute of the Russian Language) 11.
Table 5. Blue and its tints in Russian explanatory dictionaries.
S.I. Ozhegov, Slovar russkogo yazyka Slovar Russkogo Yazyka (The Academy of Sciences of the USSR,
the Institute of the Russian Language)
Siniy Siniy
1. An object of one of the basic colours of Being of one of the basic colours of the spectrum that between blue and
the spectrum that between violet and violet; of the colour of cornflower. Blue eyes. The air is clear and fresh
green. Blue sky. Blue cornflowers. like a childs kiss; the sun is bright, the sky is blue. Lermontov, Princess
Mary. The colour of the sea becomes summer-blue even when it rains. It
2. About skin: very pale, having this tinge. seems that if you put your hand into water up to the elbow, your shirt will
Cold blue hands. Blue face. Blue lips. become blue. Pavlenko, Happiness. || With the tinge of this colour (about
complexion and body). Having grasped the glass, he had a sip of wine,
Bluestocking (pejorative) about a choked and, curving with cough, begain to shake crimson, blue,
woman immersed in books and intellectual absolutely mean. . Gorky, Lamentations. A naked cold-blue boy pulled
work, lacking femininity. a net along a low broom-shaded shore. averin, Two captains.
Ni sin porokha (net, ne ostalos) (old) Bluestocking (translation from English) about a woman lacking
nothing at all. femininity, totally absorbed by scientific research.
Goluboy Goluboy
1. Light blue, of the colour of forget-me- Having the colour of one of the basic colours of the spectrum between
not. Blue sky. Blue eyes. Blue blood (about green and blue; the colour of clear sky; light blue, azure. Blue eyes. Blue
aristocratic origin; old). Blue mains (about forget-me-nots. he sea is moving there with magnificent mantle Under
large rivers). Blue fuel (about gas). Blue the blue sky. Pushkin, Rainy day died out; the shadow of rainy night.
screen (about TV-sets).
Blue blood (old, now ironical) about someones aristocratic origin.
10
Ozhegov, S.I. (1989) Slovar russkogo yazyka. Moskva: Russkiy yazyk.
11
Akademia nauk SSSR, Institut Russkogo Yazyka. (1981) Slovar Russkogo Yazyka. Moskva: Russkiy Yazyk.
352
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
2. figuratively Idyllic (spoken, ironical).
Blue dream. Blue role (an expressionless Blue fox a species of arctic fox of a greyish-smoky colour.
role of a positive character). Blue
characteristics (exclusively positive). Blue coal
3. Gay (spoken). Blue screen television screen.
Lazurny Lazurny
Azure, light blue. Azure sky. Azure coast Light blue, of the colour of clear sky; sky-blue. I saw around me only the
(near a worm Southern sea). Azure dreams immense azure sea. Turgenev, Azure kingdom. Immense azure space
(figuratively: idyllic, unreal). could be seen not far away, behind the trees. Gladkov, The story about
childhood.
Lazorevy Lazorevy
In folklore: light blue, azure. Azure flower. In folklore: azure. Gvidon is sitting under the window And is looking
silently at the sea: It is neither noisy, nor stormy, The water is hardly
moving, And in azure distance Some ships appeared. Pushkin, The
fairytale about Tzar Saltan.
Biriuzovy Biriuzovy
1. see also biriuza 1. Adjective of biriuza. Turquoise stone. || Made of turquoise; with
2. Greenish-blue, of the colour of turquoise. Turquoise ring. Turquoise earrings.
turquoise. Turquoise sea. 2. Light-blue, of the colour of turquoise. Turquoise sky. Turquoise sea.
Biriuza Biriuza
Mat precious stone of blue or greenish Mat mineral of blue or bluish-green colour used as a precious stone for
colour. various decorations.
II adj. biriuzovy. Turquoise ring (with
turquoise).
Ultramarin Ultramarinovy
Blight blue paint. 1. Adjective of ultramarin. Ultramarine workshop.
2. Bright-blue, of the colour of ultramarine. Still and unnoticeable, with
pale face and blight ultramarine eyes, Pushkin proved to be an energetic
tireless worker. Azhaev, Far from Moscow.
Ultramarin
Bright blue paint.
Indigo Indigo
1. Dark-blue paint made either out of the A dark-blue paint obtained chemically (in the past it used to be made out
juice of some tropical (indigo) plants or of the juice of some tropical plants).
synthetically.
Indigovy
2. Dark-blue. The colour of indigo. 1. Adjective of indigo. Indigo production. Indigo painting.
2. Dark-blue, of the colour of indigo. There was nothing around apart
II adj. indigovy (the 1st meaning). Indigo from the indigo sky, the sea, the sun and yellow grass. Paustovsky,
colour. Restless youth.
Nebesny Nebesny
1. see also nebo. 1. Adjective of nebo. Vault of heaven. Heavenly blue. A lark is
trembling in heavenly depth. Gogol, The Fair at Sorochyntsi. || Being in
2. Beautiful and elevated (old). Heavenly the interstellar and interplanetary space. Celestial body.
figure. Heavenly features (about face). 2. According to religious conceptions, coming from the sky as a place of
Heavenly soul (clear, pure). divinity. May you be subjected to the heavenly court, A cruel brother, a
treacherous and envious person! Lermontov, Izmail-Bey.
3. Light-blue, of the colour of clear sky. 3. Figuratively, in folklore: beautiful, pure, unearthly. Years passed. The
restless gust of storm Shattered former dreams, And I forgot your tender
voice, And your heavenly features. Pushkin, I remember the wonderful
moment. If I knew To sing so well as one well-known For all of us
artist-grasshopper! If I had a heavenly Voice, how well I would
sing! Polonsky, Grasshopper-musician. || Elevated, pure. [Don Juan:] Is
there no hatered in our heavenly sould, Donna Anna? Pushkin, The
Stone Guest. If I still value my life, I do it only because of the fact that
353
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
I still hope to meet a heavenly figure that would revive me, purify me and
elevate me. L. Tolstoy, War and Peace.
4. Spoken, old. Bright blue, like the sky. He wore a blue sky-coloured
hussar jacket trimmed with black laces along all the seams. Grigorovich,
Cart roads. And telling him this, the stranger gave Nikolka a blue letter. -
-- Without any date, a phrase was written on a sky-blue sheet: Dear,
dear Lenochka! Bulgakov, White guard.
As can be seen from these dictionary entries, the colour terms siniy and goluboy
possess different cultural associations and different connotations. Siniy is not infrequently
used negatively, as, for example, sinie ot holoda ruki cold blue hands, siniy chulok
bluestocking etc. The negative connotations of siniy occur when describing cold, illness and
defects. As far as goluboy is concerned, its connotations are largely positive it is perceived
as the colour of cloudless sky, ones aspirations (golubaya mechta blue dream) and a mark
of aristocracy (golubykh krovey blue blood), while its negative meaning concerning a
particular sexual orientation appeared much later. The same can be referred to other light tints
of siniy their connotations are either neutral, or positive; these tints are generally used when
referring to the sky or the sea.
Of special interest here are the conclusions drawn by A.P. Vasylevich in his book
Katalog nazvaniy tsveta v russkom yazyke 12. The author gives us a brief description of the
origins of the colour terms siniy and goluboy in the Russian language. According to the
author, siniy originally comes from the Old Indian language where the respective word
cyamas meant dark, black. Initially, at the earlier stages of language development, cherny
(black) and siniy (blue) were not distinguished. In the XI century literature the colour term
siniy had very few collocations: among them there were only those connected with water and
some natural phenomena. Interestingly enough, the same meaning was acquired by the words
zekry (about the colour of eyes and stones) and sizy (the colour of feathering). However, in the
course of time it was the word siniy that became universal. In the end the word zekry
disappeared and the word sizy acquired a narrower meaning.
The origin of the colour term goluboy is not very clear: either it originated from the
word golub pigeon, or the word golub itself originated from goluboy. The word appeared
rather late, and even in the XIV-XV centuries it denoted the colour of animals coat. For some
unknown reason it became widely used; now it is one of the main colour terms.
In the book Yazykovaya kartina mira. Metody issledovania i prikladnye aspekty13
Vasilyevich points out that Russian is practically the only European language where the blue
colour is rendered with the help of two separate colour terms. He suggests that it can be
explained by some associations that used to be connected with these terms. Siniy was
originally seen as the colour of water, inhabited by evil creatures. Interestingly, too, in the
Russian language the devil was euphemistically referred to as sinets. The original pejorative
connotation that became inherent in the word siniy could not but affect its use: it was
somehow tabooed14.
12
Vasilyevich, A.P. (2002) Katalog nazvaniy tsveta v russkom yazyke. Moskva: Smysl, p. 12.
13
Vasilyevich, A.P. (2003) Yazykovaya kartina mira tsveta. Metody issledovania i prikladnye aspekty. Thesis
abstract. Moskva, pp. 53-54.
14
The pejorative connotations of the colour term siniy have already been mentioned above they can easily be
found in the entries of Russian explanatory dictionaries
354
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
This, however, refers only to the colour term siniy. On the contrary, a lighter tint of the
colour denoted by this colour term had markedly positive associations: it was widely used in
traditional festive clothing. Initially this tint was referred to as lazorevy, lazurny. But in the
XV-XVI centuries the colour term goluboy came into use. Since the XIX century lazorevy has
been perceived as a poetic and, therefore, a stylistically marked word; it ceased to appear in
everyday speech being replaced by the colour term goluboy.
Vasilyevich also points out in his research that the frequency of the words denoting
dark blue (siniy, tausinny) has always been lower than that of the words denoting light blue
(lazorevy, goluboy). Even though at the present moment the associations siniy acquired are no
longer present in the native speakers minds (moreover, it has become the main colour term
for this part of the spectrum) the frequency of goluboy is only a little lower than that of siniy
and the use of the lighter tint of the latter remains emotionally-marked.
IV. Conclusions
The confrontational study of the colour terms denoting blue in the English and
Russian languages has shown that there are some differences in colour perception in these two
languages and cultures. In English colour terms denoting blue and its tints tend to be
perceived both positively and negatively they are usually associated with the sky, beauty,
purity and, at the same time, with depression, disease or dark mystery. However, in the
Russian language there is a clear distinction between the colour terms denoting the darker and
the lighter tints of blue siniy occasionally reveals its pejorative connotations (the colour of
cold, illness and defects), whereas the connotations of goluboy and other lighter tints of blue
are exclusively meliorative. These differences may create additional difficulties for translators
since translation is by no means a word-for-word rendering of the original text it is the art of
transferring associations, connotations and emotions meant by the author into another
language and another world-view. What has just been said is relevant first and foremost to the
translation of colour terms which have already been shown to be among the most emotionally
marked elements of an artistic text. That is the reason why the comparative analysis of colour
terms in two languages is of great significance for translation studies.
List of references
Akademia nauk SSSR, Institut Russkogo Yazyka. (1981) Slovar Russkogo Yazyka. Moskva:
Russkiy Yazyk.
Ammer, Christine. (1992) Seeing red or tickled pink: color terms in everyday language.
London: Penguin Books.
Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary. (2003) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Korsakov, S.V. (2009) Etnokoloristika. Moskva: Granitsa.
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Third edition. (2001) Harlow: Pearson
Education Limited.
Longman Dictionary of Language and Culture. Third Edition. (2005) Harlow: Pearson
Education Limited.
Longman Exams Dictionary. (2006) Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
Matveeva, N., Mirkovskaya, A., Ananyeva, E. (2009) Siniy. Moskva: KITONI.
355
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary. Seventh edition. (2005) Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Ozhegov, S.I. (1989) Slovar russkogo yazyka. Moskva: Russkiy yazyk.
Vasilyevich, A.P. (2002) Katalog nazvaniy tsveta v russkom yazyke. Moskva: Smysl.
Vasilyevich, A.P. (2003) Yazykovaya kartina mira tsveta. Metody issledovania i prikladnye
aspekty. Thesis abstract. Moskva.
356
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
LEGAL TRANSLATION AS AN INTERSPACE OF LANGUAGE AND LAW
BALZS Melinda, Assistant Lecturer, Sapientia University Trgu-Mure
Abstract: Our paper explores the dimensions of legal translation being concerned primarily
with the nature of equivalence in legal translation and the difficulties of attaining it. The
paper argues that legal translation requires an interdisciplinary approach today on account
of the manifold judicial contexts in which it occurs, the characteristics of legal language as a
type of specialized language and the responsibility of the translator regarding the future
interpretation(s) of the translated text. If translations are to produce the same legal effects as
their originals, translators need to be familiar with the essential competences of the legal
translator, the communicative purpose of the source text and the future status of the
translated legal text.
Keywords: interdisciplinarity, (un)translatability, equivalence, ambiguity, receiver-
orientation
Introduction
Legal texts represent one of the most translated types of texts in todays world as a result
of the processes of unification of Europe and economic globalisation. However, it was not until
very recently that researchers in Translation Studies started to give due attention to it.
Legal texts represent an instance of pragmatic texts since their aim is essentially to
convey information without aiming to produce aesthetic effects as it is the case with literary
translation. Legal texts are realized through the use of legal language, which is a special-
purpose language or an LSP according to Cao (2007) and on this account legal translation can
be termed an instance of specialized translation. It is at the same time the type of translation that
has the closest affinities with general translation as reflected by this paper.
The title advances a widely held view in the literature today, namely that legal
translation is halfway between language and law. In legal translation language is the tool, the
process and the product. Both language and law are social phenomena; although legal language
is a specialized language, it is also part of the common language since in legal language
common words often acquire a legal or specialized meaning. This is called the parasitic
(Shauer quoted in Cao 2007) or composite nature of legal language (Jean-Louis Sourioux and
Pierre Lerat quoted in Sferle 2005). In other words, legal language, similarly to other
specialized languages, is parasitic on ordinary language. According to Vinnai (2010) both
language and law are stochastic systems unlike mathematics or physics, for example. This
means that, although legal language is considered to be precise and clear, the truth value of a
statement in language or in law can be ascertained only by reference to a given context or
situation. The same author looks at the legal procedure in crimes as a continuous intralingual
translation from ordinary language to common language and vice versa, thus, providing further
evidence of the symbiotic relationship between language and law: the layperson relates their
incident in ordinary language, which is put down in the minutes in legal language; throughout
357
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
the trial the story is treated in the same legal language whereas in the final stage of verdict
delivery it is backtranslated into the layperson language.
As a recognition of this symbiotic relationship, legal translation is nowadays treated as
an interdisciplinary field both by the profession and by theorists. The disciplines that can
provide help to legal translation are jurilinguistics, comparative law and translation studies.
Jurilinguistics was initiated in the French-speaking world by Grard Cornu, Jean-Claude Gmar
and Louis Jolicoeur having as its object of study legal terminology and legal discourse.
Comparative law studies the individual legal systems, therefore, it can be an indispensable tool
for legal translation in its search for equivalents across legal systems. The importance of
translation studies cannot be overlooked either since being a linguist or a lawyer does not
suffice as neither can successfully substitute the routine and special competences of a translator.
The Nature of Equivalence in Legal Translation
From the above considerations on the symbiosis between language and law it follows
that the legal lexicon in any language contains culturally loaded words that reflect the history
and traditions of that people (Gmar 2002). Since culturally marked texts present real
translation difficulties for the translator and given that legal texts require equivalence on three
levels equivalence of meaning, effect and intent this raises doubts about the translatability of
legal texts and the degree and nature of equivalence in legal translation.
Gmar (2002) defines the legal text as un texte normatif disposant dun style et dun
vocabulaire particuliers [emphasis in the original]. This means that legal texts have a
normative-prescriptive nature being aimed at modifying the behaviour of the parties through the
imposition of obligations, rights, permissions etc. This also means that they have a specific style
which can be termed as formal, impersonal or even archaic at times. The third characteristic that
marks them off from other specialized texts is, of course, vocabulary, which accounts for what
Sferle (2005) calls the paradoxical nature of law: it is a social phenomenon but at the same time
it is inaccessible to the average person. While it is expected that legal texts be precise and clear,
they also need to correspond to the criterion of generality and necessary ambiguity or vagueness
in order to fit possible future situations.
In the light of the above scholars unanimously agree that equivalence in legal translation
is something aleatoric, a myth, a compromise (Gmar 2002) or a futile search (Cao 2007).
This implies that the kind of equivalence to be looked for in legal texts is necessarily a
functional one. Functionalism presupposes that translators do not translate literally as this has
already proved to be impossible on account of the incongruity of legal systems. From word
meaning the emphasis is shifted to global meaning and this entails that the unit of translation is
the text itself. Concepts are incongruous and unique to each legal system a major obstacle to
equivalence , therefore, they need to be defined separately in a first phase of the translation
process.
Fidelity is no more with the source text, though many lawyers still think even today that
literal translation is the best approach. However, the urge for comprehensibility as well as the
diversity of legal contexts and legal texts make it necessary for the translator to take into
account the receiver, the purpose and the status of the target text. Monjean-Decaudin (2010)
lists four possible contexts in which legal translation might occur: public international law,
private international law, judicial context and scientific context.
358
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
In the case of the first category legal translation takes place in international institutions
and organisations (EU, UN etc.) and it refers to the translation of international instruments like
treaties, agreements, conventions etc. In this case simultaneous drafting also exists alongside
translation, which is part and parcel of the legislative process. Simultaneous drafting also occurs
in bilingual and multilingual countries like Canada and Switzerland, where all language
versions have the status of originals. Private international law refers to transnational private
relations and it involves the translation of commercial contracts and authentic legal documents
like marriage certificates etc. Translation is needed because the parties speak different
languages and in order to guarantee equal treatment. The third type of legal translation is carried
out for courts and tribunals as part of the civil, criminal or administrative procedure. It is
primordial for the translator to be aware of the stakes and legal effects of this type of translation.
Finally, the scientific context refers to the translation of both doctrinal and normative texts
(constitutions, laws, codes etc.). In this case translation serves the purpose of promoting
knowledge.
A diversity of legal texts can be related to the above-mentioned legal settings each
employing a distinctive terminology and phrasing. As to the purpose of the translation, this can
be informative, normative or both. The translation of a monolingual countrys legislation serves
mere descriptive functions whereas in a bilingual country the translation has a prescriptive
function and the citizen has to abide by it. However, this same authoritative text can serve
informative purposes for citizens of a third country.
Translation difficulty is related to the affinity of the legal systems first of all and then to
linguistic differences as well. Cao (2007: 3031) describes four possible situations:
(1) when the two legal systems and the languages concerned are closely related, e.g.
between Spain and France, or between Denmark and Norway, the task of translation is
relatively easy; (2) when the legal systems are closely related, but the languages are
not, this will not raise extreme difficulties, e.g. translating between Dutch laws in the
Netherlands and French laws; (3) when the legal systems are different but the
languages are related, the difficulty is still considerable, and the main difficulty lies in
faux amis, e.g. translating German legal texts into Dutch, and vice versa; and (4) when
the two legal systems and languages are unrelated, the difficulty increases
considerably, e.g. translating the Common Law in English into Chinese.
Once the text is translated equivalence is established arbitrarily in legal translation by
an external authority, which can be the judge, a notary, the law or a convention. In the case of
international instruments the 1969 Vienna Convention grants equal authenticity to all versions
of a treaty. Therefore, it seems that in the case of legal translation equivalence is ultimately
artificial. Naturally, the real test of the translation will be its ultimate interpretation and
application in practice (arevi 2000).
Characteristics of Legal Language
Legal language is a hypernym or an umbrella term covering a more or less related set
of legal discourses. It covers not only the language of law but all communications taking
place in a legal setting (Cao 2007).
Damette (2010) conceives of legal discourse as legal acts realised through language,
359
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
therefore, legal acts are legal language acts. They put into action the legal language-
system and expose a particular logic and way of reasoning that is typical to law and lawyers.
Given also the essential function of legal discourse to regulate, prescribe and set out
obligation, prohibition and permission we can conclude that legal language has a performative
character. This is evident in the extensive use of declarative sentences, modal verbs (shall,
may, shall not, may not) and performative verbs (declare, undertake, grant etc.).
Ambiguity, vagueness and indeterminacy characterize all the three disciplines
involved in legal translation: linguistics, translation theory and law. Languages internalize
more than they convey outwardly, argues Steiner (1977), therefore, translation is only an
approximate operation, desirable and possible but never perfect. Language indeterminacies
lead to legal indeterminacies in cases where the referent is not clearly defined in the text or
when several interpretations are possible due to an error in punctuation, for example, the
incorrect use of articles in English etc. To avoid misinterpretations, contracts usually contain a
separate section where the meaning of each term is defined as it is being used throughout the
document. Since total reading in the sense in which Steiner (1977) used this phrase is
impossible as languages are subject to mutation all the time and no two people ever interpret a
text in the same way because of differences in world and textual experiences, legal
contentions arise which the law, an indeterminate system itself, is called upon to solve.
However, ambiguity can be intentional also as in the case of international instruments
like agreements, for example, and in such cases it reflects a partial consensus. Ambiguity in
this case is the result of a compromise that was eventually achieved after a lengthy process of
negotiation. Therefore, any attempt on the part of the translator to clarify such ambiguities can
endanger or destroy the agreement. The ability to differentiate intentional ambiguity from
unintentional obscurities in the text is a measure of the translators professional competence.
Ambiguity is supported by polysemy in legal texts. Sferle (2005) distinguishes
external polysemy from internal polysemy. The former refers to words of ordinary language
that have acquired a legal meaning (amprent, incident, parchet, a achita, in Romanian,
or offer, consideration, remedy, performance, in English) whereas the latter relates to
legal terms that have acquired more than one meaning in law. A relevant example in English
taken over from Cao (2007) would be equity, which in legal usage can stand for one of the
two main bodies of law, namely Common Law and Equity, but it can also refer to justice
applied in circumstances covered by law yet influenced by principles of ethics and fairness.
In Romanian the term obligaie according to the Dictionary of Civil Law has the following
meanings: civil judicial report, debt to be paid by the debtor, commercial paper etc. (see
Sferle 2005 for other examples). In the case of external polysemy priority should be given to
the legal meaning whereas in the case of internal polysemy the context generally helps to
establish the correct meaning.
It is probably clear by now that the translator should have some knowledge of the
legal systems involved in the translation. Translation and negotiation phases being separate
from each other, the text-producer cannot be consulted most of the time so it is the translators
task to deal with ambiguities in the most appropriate way. System-bound terms (arevi
1997) that legal language abounds in represent further arguments in favour of the necessity of
acquiring this kind of knowledge. Telling examples are solicitor and barrister in Common
Law, which have no equivalent in other languages.
360
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The two major divisions in law are Common Law and Civil Law. Common Law has
developed in Anglo-Saxon countries and is inseparable from English language. Civil Law has
its roots in Roman law and cannot be associated with one particular language. Common Law
builds on analyzing previous cases and decisions by judges, which set a precedent, thus
leaving less room to judges for interpretations than Civil Law, which builds on interpreting
abstract principles that address unforeseen future situations, and applying them to concrete
situations. This preoccupation with leaving as little room for interpretations as possible as
well as the need for contracts to cover every foreseeable situation, event or contingency
explains the presence and obligatory use of archaic, alliterative and often redundant
expressions in English contracts. Examples include: made and entered into, by and
between, null and void, terms and conditions. Such expressions are often translated with a
single word because the literal translation could be misleading. An example given by Gmar
(1988) is terms and conditions, which refers to the conditions of a contract. The literal
translation into French would be termes et conditions, a mistranslation because termes
means words in French and not conditions. However, a loss of emphasis can be noticed in
these renderings as compared to the original.
The all-encompassing and self-contained nature of legal texts explains also the
tendency for complex and long sentences. Sentences often have the logical structure of an if-
clause, as noted by Cao (2007), conditional expressions and exceptions being frequently
employed: except, unless, in the event, in the case, if and so far as, if, but only if,
provided that, subject to and notwithstanding. Formal tone is supported by the extensive
use of passive voice. This construction has the added advantage of allowing lawyers to avoid
directly referring to the doer of the action. Of course, it is not obligatory to retain this
construction in the TL if the given language does not use passives with predilection.
English legal language is by far not homogeneous and this is the natural consequence
of the fact that English is official and officious language at the same time in several
organizations (EU, UN, NATO etc.). An interesting parallel to draw concerns Common Law
English and EU jargon. Although there are 23 other official languages currently in the EU,
English is by far the most widely used. The principle of multilingualism presupposes that all
legislative and non-legislative texts be translated into all the official languages of the EU. All
these versions have equal status. Consequently, translation equals law-making in the EU and
it often takes the form of simultaneous drafting. As a result translation mistakes in this context
can be regarded as drafting errors.
Translators in all translation departments of the EU work to the highest quality
standards on account of the responsibility attached to these documents, some of them being
binding and directly applicable in all Member States, but also in order to fulfill the explicitly
stated goal of helping citizens to understand EU policies1[italics added]. Binding documents
are regulations, directives and decisions. Non-binding EU documents are recommendations
and opinions. These two categories are known as secondary legislation being derived from
treaties constituting primary legislation. The EU is a unique supranational body that needs its
own unique tools that legitimate it and regulate its functioning. It is a federation of states each
1
Directorate-General for Translation European Union website, consulted at
http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/translation/translating/index_en.htm on 23 November, 2013.
361
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
having its own legal system. In order to make its discourse intelligible across its Member
States the EU needed to create its own legal language through a process of generalization,
simplification, standardization and necessary deculturalization that blurred the boundaries
between national legislations. This attempt to harmonize legal systems to make the language
of EU legislation easily understandable paradoxically risks to produce an opposite effect and
to lead to ambiguity. Here again the incongruity of legal systems and the so-called system-
bound terms represent the major translation difficulties. The most frequently used methods to
overcome this barrier are literal translation or formal equivalence (Nida and Taber 1982),
functional equivalence, descriptive equivalence or paraphrase, borrowing and calque. Literal
translation is to be used cautiously as it may lead to denaturalized equivalents or
mistranslations, especially in the case of false friends. Borrowing is taking over one word
without translation, therefore, the borrowed word is generally italicized. Although it seems to
be the most practical method, it cannot be used without taking into consideration the context,
the receiver who may not be familiar with the meaning of the foreign word, the target culture
and its conventions etc.
Finally, consistency is the order of the day in legal translation and it is especially so in
EU translation where it is at the same time a principal means of consolidating a language and
a terminology that is still in the making as each new Member State means an added challenge
to legal harmonization. Consistency here refers to terminology (translating a term with the
same word throughout the document), register and layout.
The legal translator and their competence
We have seen that behind each word there is the history and age-old (legal) customs of a
people. Moreover, words in legal language represent acts that can lead to facts in real life. All
this added to their social embeddedness and sanctification through use and custom explains
why in our opinion any tendency to reform or, more precisely, to simplify legal language has
limited chances of success. The binding nature of law implies that the legal translator has to
weigh each and every word consciously and with responsibility. Receiver-orientation the
current tendency in present-day legal translation (arevi 2000) means the translator must
have linguistic creativity to avoid using ST-oriented methods in translation and to be able to
achieve communicative equivalence in the TT. The requirement not to clarify intentional
ambiguities in the ST entails that legal translators should have a solid textual competence,
meaning familiarity with legal text-types including their terminology and format, the
legislative process and last but not least the specific context in which it was produced.
Irrespective of the genre of the legal text and the purpose of the translation we can claim that
the translator should generally have a better understanding of legal texts than laypersons in
order to be able to make other people understand as well. This double role of receiver and text
producer obliges the translator to have some kind of background in law, more exactly to know
the legal systems involved in the act of translation. However, as noted by Cao (2007), the
translator does not need to be a specialist in law. On account of their responsibility for the
later interpretation of the translated text, it is also important that translators dispose of legal
reasoning competence. Apart from intense reading and practice in translation, this type of
competence can be acquired through interaction with the judiciary (legislator, lawyer, scientist
362
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
etc.), an opening-up which, as a matter of fact, is highly encouraged and acclaimed by
scholars like Cao (2007), arevi (1997) or Monjean-Decaudin (2010). Isolation is indeed
detrimental for any discipline in the 21st century. Interaction between translators and domain
specialists is also motivated by the urge for accuracy, which is omnipresent in the field of
specialized translation.
In sum, legal translation is a form of translation where routine, specialization and
continuous training are not only welcome but highly recommended. This paper has sketched
the major translation difficulties that have to do with the multiplicity of texts and contexts in
legal translation as well as the characteristics of legal language. By exposing some of the
major implications of translating legal texts it is our hope that we have managed to raise
awareness of the most important pitfalls in this field.
Bibliography
Cao, Deborah (2007). Translating Law. Clevedon/Buffalo/Toronto: Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Damette, Eliane (2010). Enseigner la traduction juridique: lapport du franais juridique,
discipline passerelle entre le droit, la mthodologique du droit et la langue juridique.
Retrieved from
http://www.initerm.net/public/langues%20de%20sp%C3%A9cialit%C3%A9/colloque/Eliane
_Damette.pdf on 12 October, 2013.
Gmar, Jean-Claude (2002). Traduire le texte pragmatique. Texte juridique, culture et
traduction, in: ILCEA, no. 3, pp. 1138. Retrieved from http://ilcea.revues.org/798 on 16
October, 2013.
Gmar, Jean-Claude (1998). Les enjeux de la traduction juridique. Principes et nuances.
Retrieved from http://www.tradulex.com/Bern1998/Gemar.pdf on16 October, 2013.
Gmar, Jean-Claude (1988). La traduction juridique: art ou technique dinterprtation, in:
Meta : journal des traducteurs / Meta: Translators' Journal, vol. 33, nr. 2, pp. 304318.
Monjean-Decaudin, Sylvie (2010). Approche juridique de la traduction du droit. Retrieved
from
http://www.cejec.eu/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/smonjeandecaudin070110.doc on 14
October, 2013.
Nida, Eugene and Charles Taber (1982). The Theory and Practice of Translation. Leiden: E.J.
Brill.
Sferle, Adriana (2005). Limbajul juridic i limba comun. Retrieved from
http://www.litere.uvt.ro/vechi/documente_pdf/aticole/uniterm/uniterm3_2005/asferle.pdf on
10 November, 2013.
Steiner, George (1977). After Babel. Aspects of Language and Translation. New
York/London: OUP.
arevi, Susan (2000). Legal Translation and Translation Theory: a Receiver-oriented
Approach.
Retrieved from http://www.tradulex.com/Actes2000/sarcevic.pdf on 4 November, 2013.
arevi, Susan (1997). New Approach to Legal Translation. London: Kluver Law
International.
363
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Vinnai, Edina (2010). A jogi nyelv nyelvszeti megkzeltse, in: Sectio Juridica et Politica,
Miskolc, Tomus XXVIII. pp. 145171. Retrieved from
http://www.matarka.hu/koz/ISSN_0866-6032/tomus_28_2010/ISSN_0866-
6032_tomus_28_2010_145-171.pdf on 12 October, 2013.
364
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
FEATURES OF THE INTONATION OF INTERROGATIVES FROM IAI AND
BUCHAREST
Anca-Diana BIBIRI, Scientific Researcher, Andreea MIRONESCU, Scientific
Researcher, Adrian TURCULE, Professor, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai
Abstract: Our paper presents the specific intonational patterns that characterize the two cities
taken into account: Iai and Bucureti. The corpora contain prosodic dialectal investigations
at the level of the diatopic variants of the standard language, recorded during the surveys for
AMPER-ROM[NIA] LAtlas Multimdia Prosodique de lEspace Roman. The corpus used
for this study is made up of total interrogative sentences (yes-no questions) affirmative and
negative, having the syntactic structure of SVO (subject-verb-object) and also with adjective
and/or prepositional extensions in the case of the SVEO and SVOE syntactic structures; the
sentences considered in this paper have final oxytone and final non-oxytone structures. Our
aim is to systematize the intonational models used by the subjects who currently speak literary
variant of the language in the two cities and to carry out the comparative analysis. Our study
regards, on the one hand, the similarities and differences between the two cities and, on the
other hand, the differences in each case as compared to the models proposed for the standard
language.
Keywords: intonational patterns of interrogatives, multimedia prosodic atlas, acoustic
analysis, AMPER, AMPRom.
1. Introducere
Enunurile interogative se caracterizeaz, dup cum s-a constatat i n alte limbi,
printr-o mare diveristate a modelelor intonaionale pe care acestea le prezint (Cruttenden,
1994). n literatura de specialitate, intonaia interogativ este definit ca ridicare a tonului la
sfritul unei uniti independente (Gramatica, 1963), aceast ascensiune a tonului
manifestndu-se n partea terminal a conturului melodic al enunului. Modelele intonaionale
ale vorbirii standard au fost stabilite de Laurenia Dasclu-Jinga, interogativele avnd dou
tipuri de contur terminal: ascendent, atunci cnd se ia n consideraie finalul cuvntului ultim
al enunului oxiton sau neoxiton (n acest caz, cuvntul poart accentul frastic) i
ascendent-descendent, cnd ultimul cuvnt este neoxiton (i nu poart accentul frastic).
Proiectul AMPRom (Atlasul multimedia prozodic romn), aflat n plin desfurare la
Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza din Iai, are ca obiectiv prezentarea principalelor
modele prozodice (modelele intonaionale) ale varietilor limbii romne att la nivelul
variantelor diatopice ale limbii standard, ct i la nivelul variantelor dialectale. Atlasul va fi o
completare a atlaselor lingvistice romneti Atlasul Lingvistic Romn (ALR) i NALR
(Noul Atlas Lingvistic Romn), pe regiuni (NALR i ALRR) care nu au consemnat intonaia,
astfel nct realizarea unui atlas prozodic, care s cuprind principalele modele intonaionale
romneti, este o necesitate. Comunicarea de fa i propune investigarea i prezentarea
modelelor intonaionale la nivelul limbii literare din cele doua centre culturale: Bucureti i
Iai.
365
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
2. Metodologia cercetrii
Aria de cercetare se limiteaz la cele dou centre urbane unde au fost nregistrate
datele pentru AMPRom. Corpusul cercetrii reprezint o selecie din datele nregistrate cu
chestionarul AMPER-ROM. Am selectat apte enunuri interogative totale pozitive i apte
enunuri interogative totale negative, rostite de ctre subiecii din cele dou localiti,
rezultnd trei repetiii ntrgistrate n reprize diferite pentru fiecare subiect:
twki: / nevasta vede-un cpitan / twkm: / nevasta nu vede-un
cpitan /
twgi: / nevasta vede-un cpitan elegant/ twgm: / nevasta nu vede-un
cpitan elegant/
pwdi: /pasrea vede nevasta tinerea/ pwdm: /pasrea nu vede nevasta tinerea/
kwti: /un cpitan vede nevasta/ kwtm: /un cpitan nu vede
nevasta/
kwsi: /un cpitan vede nevasta frumoas/ kwsm: /un cpitan nu vede nevasta
frumoas/
twpi: /nevasta vede pasrea/ twpm: /nevasta nu vede pasrea/
twvi: /nevasta vede pasrea galben/ twvm: /nevasta nu vede pasrea galben/
n primele trei propoziii cuvntul final este oxiton, urmtoarele dou au final
paroxiton i ultimele dou au cuvintele finale proparoxitone. Trei perechi sunt formate din
cte o propoziie de tipul SVO (subiect-verb-obiect) simpl i cte una cu o extensie
adjectival a obiectului: SVOE. Am analizat cte 21 de enunuri pentru un subiect, 42 pentru
localitatea Bucureti i 63 de enunuri pentru localitatea Iai, n total 210 enunuri.
Am utilizat datele culese de la subiecii 5 (femeie:) i 6 (brbat) cu studii superioare,
vorbind n mod curent limba romn literar/standard. n localitatea Iai au fost nregistrate
cte dou informatoare din aceast categorie, notate cu 5 i 7. Siglele utilizate pentru
identificarea subiecilor sunt urmtoarele: pentru Bucureti: 9H05 pentru subiectul feminin i
9H06 pentru subictul masculin, iar pentru Iai: 9A05 i 9A07 pentru subiecii feminini i
9A06 pentru subiectul masculin.
Metodologia culegerii i prelucrrii acustice a datelor s-a fcut dup modelul AMPER,
care are drept obiectiv documentarea variaiei geoprozodice n cadrul limbilor romanice (la
nivelul dialectelor i a graiurilor, dar i al varietilor limbii de cultur), scopul final fiind
realizarea unei tipologii intonative a limbilor romanice.
Prelucrarea acustic a datelor nregistrate: instrumentele de analiz acustic utilizate n
prelucrarea materialului nregistrat n anchetele dialectale prozodice sunt: PRAAT/SCRIPT
PRAAT pentru AMPER (Antonio Romano, Albert Rilliard), Matlab, AMPER 2006, Interfaa
de calcul a curbei prozodice.
Enunurile sunt nregistrate n format digital (fiiere cu extensia .wav - Waveform
Audio File Format) i analizate acustic cu ajutorul unor instrumente software. Procesul de
analiz parcurge succesiv mai multe etape: schimbarea frecvenei de eantionare a undei
sonore din 48 kHz la 16 kHz (GoldWave); delimitarea enunurilor si etichetarea lor conform
chestionarului utilizat.
Cu ajutorul unui software PRAAT se face segmentarea si etichetarea elementelor
vocalice (n cazul diftongilor, cele dou timbre vocalice se iau mpreun), pe baza
366
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
oscilogramei, a spectrogramei i prin auz; astfel, se produc, pentru fiecare enun analizat, texte
n care se regsesc corelatele fizice ale vocalelor: durata, intensitatea i frecvena
fundamental (F0 n cele trei puncte ale vocalei). Pe baza acestor texte se obin, cu ajutorul
unor programe aplicate n cadrul Matlab, valorile medii (0.txt), graficele de durat, intensitate
i contururile melodice individuale, medii etc.
n cadrul cercetrii noastre vom prezenta modelele intonaionale nregistrate ale
interogativelor totale menionate, n funcie de conturul terminal (CT) al enunurilor supuse
analizei, lund n consideraie i accentuarea cuvntului final: oxiton, paroxiton, proparoxiton.
3. Modele intonaionale
3.1. CT pe cuvnt final oxiton
3.1.1. Ascendent:
Este conturul terminal care se ntlnete cel mai frecvent la vorbitorii celor dou
localiti investigate. La subiectul din Bucureti, f0 se menine aproape plat pn la finalul
enunului unde ultima silab accentuat poart accentul nuclear, tonul urcnd pe vocala
accentuat (cuvntul final prezint proeminen), n timp ce la subiectul din Iai, f0 prezint
accente tonale net reliefate pe silabele accentuate ale lexemelor constitutive ale enunului,
tonul final urcnd brusc (upstep):
350 350
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
a: a e. e. e/ a i / a:: a: ia e i ia/ a: i /e ia::
0 0
0 1.664 0 1.748
Time (s) Time (s)
Fig.1 9H05pwdi2 Fig. 2 9A07pwdi1
Conturul intonaional al interogativelor totale negative este similar cu cel al
interogativelor totale afirmative, negaia nefiind evideniat n mod special (uneori, tonul
coboar puin), accentele tonale sunt aplatizate pn la silaba final tonic cnd f0 urc i se
menine la un nivel nalt:
350 350
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
a ea u e e e a: a i e. ea:: a ea u e. a i ea:
0 0
0 1.859 0 1.833
Time (s) Time (s)
Fig. 3 9H05pwdm1 Fig.4 9A07pwdm3
La unii vorbitori, centrul informaional al enunului (focusul restrns) se afl pe verb
i este marcat prin intensitatea cea mai mare n enun (pe vocala tonic a verbului fig.5). F0
urc pe vocala final accentuat, dar se continu i pe nazala n, rmnnd la un nivel nalt (n
367
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
cazul cuvintelor finale oxitone: cpitan i elegant s-a luat n consideraie i nazala n, fr de
care CT ar fi fost incomplet.).
350 350
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
a: e iu i a:: n a: a u e iu i a: n
0 0
0 1.51 0 1.565
Time (s) Time (s)
Fig.5 9A06twki1 Fig.6 - 9H06twkm2
3.2. CT pe cuvnt final paroxiton
3.2.1. Ascendent extins:
Este conturul terminal care se ntlnete doar la subiectul masculin din localitatea
Bucureti, att la interogativele afirmative, ct i la cele negative. Ascensiunea tonului ncepe
pe silaba accentuat i continu, pn atinge maximul pe vocala posttonic, pe care f0 poate
cobor uor spre final, rmnnd la nivel nalt (vezi fig. 7 accentele tonale precedente
aplatizate).
350
350
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
u i a e a: a:: u i a u e. a: a::
0 0
0 1.324 0 1.483
Time (s) Time (s)
Fig.7 9H06kwti1 Fig.8 - 9H06kwtm2
3.2.2. Ascendent pe final:
Acest tip de contur terminal este prezent doar la subiectul feminin (9A07) din
localitatea Iai. F0 se menine plat la un nivel jos sau chiar coboar foarte puin i urc cu salt
pe silaba final (vezi fig.9 accentele tonale precedente sunt net reliefate). Insistena emfatic
asupra constituentului final are ca efect o modulare a tonului ascendent pe silaba final (vezi
fig.10 accentele tonale precedente sunt reliefate).
368
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
350 350
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
u . i a: e i ia a: a o:: : u . i a: e i a:: a:
0 0
0 2.095 0 1.803
Time (s) Time (s)
Fig.9 9A07kwsi1 Fig.10 9A07kwti1
3.2.3. Ascendent-descendent
Tonul urc pe silaba accentuat a cuvntului final, avnd vrful tonal maxim i
coboar pe silaba posttonic (vezi fig.11). Insistena emfatic pe cuvntul final face ca vrful
f0 s se produc n interiorul vocalei accentuate, cptnd o form convex (accent
circumflex); coborrea f0 ncepe n partea a doua a vocalei accentuate i continu pe silaba
urmtoare (vezi fig. 12).
350 350
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
u i a e e/ a: a u . i a u e i a a
0 0
0 1.395 0 1.73
Time (s) Time (s)
Fig.11 9H05kwti1 Fig.12 9A06kwtm3
3.3. CT pe cuvnt final proparoxiton
3.3.1.Ascendent-descendent
n varianta neutr tonul urc pe vocala accentuat final i coboar pe silabele
posttonice (vezi fig.13). Insistena emfatic pe cuvntul final face ca vrful f0 s se alinieze pe
vocala accentuat, cptnd o form convex (accent circumflex) la interogativele afirmative,
iar la interogativele negative, coborrea f0 ncepe pe prima silab posttonic i se continu pe
cea de-a doua silab posttonic, atingnd nivelul cel mai de jos (vezi fig.14). La subiecii din
Bucureti se observ reliefarea accentelor tonale ale enunului, dup care ncepe ascensiunea
pe vocala tonic a cuvntului final, urmat de coborrea lui f0 pe silabele posttonice (vezi
fig.15), iar vocala final posttonic la negativ prezint o modulare a tonului (vezi fig.16).
369
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
350
350
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
ie a a/ e a a ie a u e a . ea
0 0
0 1.466 0 1.591
Time (s) Time (s)
Fig.13 9A06twpi3 Fig.14 9A06twpm2
350 350
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
e a a e. e a a a e e a:: a u e. e a: a a
0 0
0 1.674 0 1.846
Time (s) Time (s)
Fig.15 9H05twvi2 Fig.16 9H05twvm3
3.3.2 Ascendent extins:
Acest tipar intonaional este caracteristic subiecilor din Bucureti. Se observ acelai
traseu al lui f0 att pentru interogativele afirmative, ct i pentru cele negative: tonul continu
s urce (cu salt pe consoana intermediar) pe silabele urmtoare i poate cobor uor la final,
conturul melodic este plat, cu reliefarea doar a primului accent tonal, CT este asemntor cu
cel al continuitii minore; emfaza interogativ coincide cu focusul informaional, vocala
final posttonic fiind cea mai lung n enunul interogativ.
350
350
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
a/ a a e/ a a: e a a u e a ea:
0 0
0 1.273 0 1.465
Time (s) Time (s)
Fig.17 9H05twvi2 Fig.18 9H05twvm3
3.3.3 Ascendent pe final:
Emfaza interogativ se poate plasa pe silaba neaccentuat final, fiind pregtit de o
coborre uoar a f0 pe vocala accentuat i pe vocala imediat urmtoare, dup care tonul
urc brusc pe ultima vocal posttonic i rmne la nivelul cel mai nalt.
370
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
350
350
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
e a: a e i a: a:: e a:: a. e. i a: a: e :
0 0
0 1.431 0 2.046
Time (s) Time (s)
Fig.19 9A07twpi1 Fig.20 9A07twvi1
4. Concluzii:
Analiza contururilor intonaionale neutre a reliefat existena a numeroase asemnri
ntre cele dou localiti cercetate, indiferent de modalitatea enunurilor analizate afirmativ
sau negativ. Enunurile interogative nu prezint diferene importante ntre cele dou
localiti, dar se evideniaz unele fenomene: n localitatea Bucureti ntlnim i modelul
intonaional ascendent extins, care nu se regsete la vorbitorii din Iai, iar n ceea ce privete
subiecii din localitatea Iai, cel cu indicele A07 se difereniaz de ceilali doi subieci prin
constana unui anumit model intonaional: n cazul cuvintelor cu final paroxiton, n timp ce
subiecii ieeni A05 i A06 utilizeaz consecvent modelul ascendent-descendent, subiectul
A07 are numai CT ascendent pe final.
Contururile interogativelor negative sunt similare cu cele ale interogativelor pozitive,
nu se observ o proeminen deosebit a adverbului nu, ci doar o uoar reliefare la subiecii
ieeni (emfatizarea negaiei nu este caracteristic enunurilor negative n limba romn).
Pentru corpusul utilizat n acest studiu, procentele nregistrate, conform diagramei din
Anexa 1, reliefeaz asemnrile si deosebirile modelelor intonaionale n distribuia lor din
cele dou localiti. La interogativele cu finalul oxiton, coeficientul de similitudine a
modelului intonaional ascendent este egal pentru cele dou localiti (43%). Un procent
apropiat se nregistreaz i n cazul enunurilor interogative cu final non-oxiton n ceea ce
privete modelul ascendent-descendent, urmat de conturul ascendent pe final.
Compararea vizual a contururilor arat c diferena dintre cele dou localiti este
mai mare n cazul interogativelor totale cu final non-oxiton, att pozitive, ct i negative, la
interogativele cu final oxiton fiind prezent un model comun: cel ascendent. O alt observaie
este linia melodic lipsit de variaii mai mari, caracteristic subiecilor bucureteni. Intonaia
neutral se reduce la marcarea strict, economic, a accentelor sintagmei nominale i a
modalitii interogative a enunului.
Chiar i numai la nivelul intonaiei neutrale, contururile melodice utilizate de
vorbitorii limbii standard din cele dou localiti prezint o mare diversitate. Limitndu-ne la
CT al interogativelor totale, pe lng cele dou modele tradiionale diferite relevate de L.
Dasclu Jinga: ascendent i ascendent-descendent, sunt prezentate nc dou contururi:
ascendent pe final i ascendent extins, cu mai multe variante/subtipuri, mai ales la nivelul
conturului melodic global. Una dintre cauzele acestei diversiti o reprezint persistena
deprinderilor intonative locale ale vorbitorilor i n rostirea literar.
371
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Bibliografie
*** Gramatica limbii romne (1963), vol. I-II, ed. a II-a, Editura Academiei Romne,
Bucureti.
*** Gramatica limbii romne (2008), vol. II, Enunul, Editura Academiei Romne, Bucureti.
Hrist, Daniel, Albert di Cristo (1998), Intonation Systems, A Survey of Twenty Languages,
Cambridge University Press.
Romano, A., Lai, J-P., Roullet, S. (2005), La mthodologie AMPER, Golinguistique, hors
srie 3, Universit Stendhal-Grenoble 3, Centre de Dialectologie.
Savino, Michelina (2012), The Intonation of Polar Question. Where is the rise?, n Journal
of the International Phonetic Association, No 42/1, p. 23-48.
Turcule, Adrian, Ana-Maria Minu. De la AMPER la AMPRom (2007), n Luminia Hoar
Cruu (coord.) Rezultate i perspective actuale ale lingvisticii romneti i strine, Editura
Universitii Al. I. Cuza, Iai.
Turcule, Adrian (ed.), (2008),, La variation diatopique de l'intonation dans le domain
roumain et roman, Editura Universitii Al. I. Cuza, Iai.
Turcule, Adrian Un nou atlas lingvistic romanic: AMPER (2007), n Studii i cercetri
lingvistice, 2007, ianuarie-iunie, Bucureti.
Turcule, Adrian, Oana Beldianu, Anca-Diana Bibiri (2012), Pentru un Atlas multimedia
prozodic romn (AMPRom), n Colocviul Internaional ,,Filologia modern: Realizri i
perspective n context european. Abordri interdisciplinare n cercetarea lingvistic i
literar, Academia de tiine a Moldovei, Institutul de Filologie, Chiinu.
http://amprom.uaic.ro/
http://w3.u-grenoble3.fr/dialecto/AMPER/amper.htm
372
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ANEXA 1
Distribuia modelelor intonaionale n localitile cercetate
Legend:
A: contur terminal ascendent
A-D: contur terminal ascendent-descendent
A extins: contur terminal ascendent extins
A final: contur terminal ascendent final
373
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE DIATOPIC AND DISTRATIC VARIATION IN THE TRANSLATION OF
DRAMATIC DIALOGUE
Ana-Cristina CHIRIL (ERBAN), PhD Candidate, tefan cel Mare University of
Suceava
Abstract: This article examines specific techniques in the translation of regional dialect and
sociolect, identified as distinct, essential marks of speakability in a dramatic text,
accounting for the definition of dramatic dialogue as created spoken discourse. The study is a
descriptive comparative analysis of several Romanian translations of Tennessee Williams
plays, where strategies such as compensation and pragmatic transposition reveal possibilities
for functional equivalence in instances in which translation enthropy seems inevitable.
Keywords: theatre translation, regional dialect, language register, translation loss,
functional equivalence
Analiza noastr este fundamentat de teza c specificitatea traducerii de teatru se
datoreaz trsturilor specifice discursului dramatic. Asumndu-ne ideea c finalitatea operei
determin structurarea discursului, am constatat c textul dramatic este caracterizat de relaia
de interdependen semic cu celelalte sisteme ale comunicrii teatrale, dubl enunare i
concretizarea condiiilor acesteia, densitate deictic i performativitate. Trsturilor
identificate li se adaug elementul esenial al oralitii dramatice, neles prin prisma
trsturilor conversaionale ale dialogului (caracter mimetic), dar i din perspectiva siturii
discursului la intersecia dintre canalul scris i cel vorbit (piesa de teatru constituind forma
tradiional de discurs vorbit n form scris). Ne propunem o analiz aplicat a mijloacelor
lingvistice de redare a oralitii scrise n traducerea dramatic, aceasta fiind considerat o
dimensiune esenial a fidelitii n transpunerea unei piese de teatru.
Discursul dramatic este caracterizat de un tip specific de oralitate, rezultat din
mbinarea trsturilor mimetic conversaionale cu trsturile textuale ale dialogului dramatic.
De fapt, piesa de teatru este considerat o form tradiional de discurs vorbit n form scris
sau discurs vorbit creat (Sproule, 1995: 12), n care, spre diferen de alte discursuri literare,
dialogul reprezint principalul mediu de comunicare i se constituie n discurs activ (menit s
fie pus n scen). Aceste trsturi converg spre problema general a autentiticitii n redarea
vorbirii n teatru, devenit provocare major n cazul traducerii discursului dramatic.
n corpusul studiului, am identificat, n primul rnd, elemente care in de problematica
general a captrii naturaleii stilului vorbit sau expresivitatea discursului vorbit n form
scris (de la traducerea interjeciilor sau a particulelor discursive la transpunerea fenomenelor
sintactice de elips sau suspensie i la pstrarea forei ilocuionare a enunurilor). n al doilea
rnd, am gsit relevante provocrile pe care vorbirea specific le propune traducerii. Acestea
374
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
fac obiectul unei analizei microtextuale pe care o aplicm unui corpus constituit din trei texte-
surs i patru texte-int 1.
Lumea dramatic a lui Tennessee Williams este exclusiv lumea Sudului American, a
crui vorbire dramaturgul o red cu competena lingvistic specific nativului (el fiind
originar din Mississipppi). Acesteia i se adaug o recunoscut miestrie n construcia
dialogului dramatic care, demonstrnd tendine naturaliste (combinate inedit cu simbolismul
poetic i expresionismul manifestat n construcia semiotic a piesei), atinge culmile
veridicitii artistice. Din perspectiva dimensiunii proairectice a discursului dramatic, se poate
spune c personajul i aciunea n piesele lui Williams se contureaz dintr-un tip de vorbire
specific, marcat la diverse niveluri ale variaiei lingvistice: dubl variaie dialectal, variaie
diastratic i diafasic (element definitoriu n construcia antitezei i a conflictului dramatic),
stiluri individuale (idiolect).
Prima marc a variaiei nregistrat de discursul dramatic al lui Tennessee Williams
este apartenena textului la sistemul limbii engleze americane. Walt Wolfram consider
Standard American English (SAM) un dialect al limbii engleze 2, cu variaii pe un continuum
care merge de la Formal SAM la Informal SAM. Variant standard informal a englezei
americane, engleza din Sudul Statelor Unite ale Americii (Southern American English)
constituie cel mai amplu grup dialectal (accent group), acoperind zona de sud a Golfului
Mexicului i Delta rului Mississippi. Subvariantele cele mai cunoscute i exploatate artistic
snt Virginia Piedmont, asociat cu vorbirea clasei proprietarilor de plantaii din Sud, East
Texas i African American Vernacular English, considerat a avea trsturi specifice grupului
(dei are statut de etnolect).
Aa cum au fcut i ali autori ai Sudului, precum William Faulkner sau Flannery
OConner, Tennessee Williams a reunit elemente subdialectale comune pentru a sugera
vorbirea specific Sudului. Cel mai renumit dintre acestea este variabila fonologic
1
Variantele analizate reprezint diverse ediii n limba englez ale pieselor A Streetcar Named Desire (abreviat
TS1, textul apare n The Northon Anthology of American Literature,Sixth Edition, Volume E, New York, 2003),
sursa fiind volumul The Theatre of Tennessee Williams (volume 1, 1971); a doua versiune a aceleiai piese (TS2)
face parte din volumul Tennessee Williams, Plays 1937-1955 (The Library of America, New York, 2000);
Orpheus Descending (Tennessee Williams, Plays 1957 1980, New York, The Library of America.2000) TS3
i respectiv The Glass Managerie (Tennessee Williams, Plays 1937 1955, New York, The Library of
America.2000) TS4. Versiunile romneti snt traducerea lui Dorin Dron (TT1), cuprins n volumul Teatru
american contemporan (1968), re-traducerea Antoanetei Ralian (TT2),inclusa in antologia Tennessee Williams
(2010), textul lui Mihnea Gheorghiu (TT3) i traducerea Andei Boldur (TT4), cuprinse n volumul Tennessee
Williams, Teatru (1978).
2
n general, n lingvistica anglo-saxon, se prefer termenul de variant a limbii engleze, pentru a diferenia
particularitile regionale ale uzului acestei limbi ntr-o manier care s nu atribuie valoare de standard sau
norm uneia dintre acestea i valoare de sub-standard celorlate. Since they are the expression of spatial distance
and consequent separation, there would be no reason for a hierarchical, subjective evaluation of this type of
variation. Due to its objective determination, it would be only normal to have a display of variation of the inter-
lingual type, in which all forms of the language involved are equally valid exemplars. The picture would be that
of a loose constellation of similarities that allow for mutual intelligibility, some of the dialects lying closer
together so as to show a higher degree of proximity and similarity. (Gleason, 1985: 334) n realitate, aa cum
arat studiile de pionierat ale lui William Labov (1972), vorbitorii atribuie conotaii sociale tuturor variantelor de
folosire a limbii (the principle of social determination in language variation), ceea ce nseamn ca anumitor
variante diatopice le poate fi atribuit valoare de prestigiu: Americans do not assign strong positive value to any
native American dialect (). If they do assign positive value it is to British English which thus becomes an
external norm, serving as a model for prestige. (Wolfram, 1998: 158)
375
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
cunoscut drept Southern drawl (vorbirea trgnat)3. n textele originale, autorul recurge la
un artificiu stilistic pentru a indica pronunia deviant: o red printr-o ortografie deformat,
care sugereaz trgnarea sau folosete figuri de stil precum sincopa sau apocopa pentru a
reda diverse alte variabile fonologice ale vorbirii din Sudul american. Vom oferi un scurt
inventar al acestor:
- neutralizarea diferenei dintre sunetele [] i [] naintea consoanelor nazale (numit
de William Labov the pin-pen merger) este redat n piesa Orpheus Descending prin
variante lingvistice precum : cincer (cancer), git packed (get), yit (yet), wint(went);
- Southern drawl (vocalele scurte [] i [] snt diftongate) :) Yais (Yes), haid(head),
caint (cant);
- R-dropping (sunetul [r] este vocalizat sau dispare din pronunie, n special dup o
vocal lung): Lawd (Lord), thew (threw), nawth (north), youself, Nigguh. Prin
aglomerarea fenomenelor de deviaie fonetic, enunul se poate prezenta cu forma:
You wint up youself?
- Diftongul [ai] este redus la [a:], mai ales nainte de consoane sonore nahs whaht rahs -
nice white rice (variant standard n unele zone i stigmatizat ca sociolect n altele).
Prin asociere, acelai fenomen de reducere a diftongului // poate fi recunoscut n
redarea interjeciilor din replici ale corpusului: Aw, Ill make myself scarce, in that
case (Oh); Naw, naw...( No, No);
- Variaia [o]- //: Dawg(Dog);
- Elidarea uneia dintre consoanele aflate ntr-o succesiune sonor: awright (all right),
facks(facts), ast (asked).
La un alt nivel de analiz, Walt Wolfram (1998: 179) identific drept trsturi morfo-
sintactice comune ale subdialectelor din Sudul American: dubla negaie, regularizarea
pluralului la substantive (deers), regularizarea formelor participului trecut (knowed, choosed),
regularizarea lui was ca form participal trecut a verbului to be, elidarea auxiliarului prin
asociere cu fenomenul fonetic R-dropping (you are dying youre dying you dying).
n corpusul nostru, discursurile personajelor secundare, care asigur decorul uman al
aciunii dramatice, snt impregnate cu astfel de structuri, combinate cu mrci ale variaiei
diastratice sau ale stilului funcional (aa cum se prezint, de altfel, variaia lingvistic n uzul
real). n scurta referire la calitile traducerilor romneti din Tennessee Williams, Rodica
Pioariu remarc n studiul su de receptare c [limitele] limbii romne conjugate cu
particularitile idiomatice ale englezei, sporite prin specificul stilului colocvial utilizat n
Sudul Statelor Unite, pot fi considerate rspunztoare de dificultile sau chiar poticnelile pe
care majoritatea traductorilor lui Tennessee Williams le-au ntmpinat(2004: 136). n acest
punct al analizei, noi ne vom limita la a aprecia c una din marile provocri ale traducerii
dramaturgului american este constituit de mbinarea caracteristicilor dialectale cu elementele
stilului familiar al limbii engleze n discursul unor personaje precum soiile unor mici
3
Slow way of speaking with long vowel sounds: breaking of the short front vowels in the words "pat", "pet",
and "pit": these develop a glide up from their original starting position to [j], and then in some cases back down
to schwa: // [j]; // [j]; // [j] (Websters Third New International Dictionary, 1993)
376
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
plantatori de bumbac din Mississippi (n Orpheus Descending) sau vecinii si vecinele din
cartierul muncitoresc al New Orleans-ului (n A Streetcar Named Desire). Oferim aici spre
exemplificare doar cteva din replicile i secvenele de replici care se supun ateniei
traductorului n etapele preliminare ale analizei, cu note asupra aspectelor pe care noi
considerm c acesta trebuie s le inventarieze n vederea producerii de efecte contextuale
similare prin traducere:
Steve: I told you and phoned you we was playing [dezacord rezultat din fenomen dialectal -
regularizarea formei was];
Eunice :This here is Elysian Fields [element dialectal, exprimare pleonastic prin repetarea
mrcii deictice, varianta corect fiind This is];
Eunice: What number you lookin for? [Elidarea auxiliarului din forma interogativ
(P(aux)+subiect+P(vb)); fenomen asociat cu R-dropping (forma standard fiind are you
looking), ns explicabil i din perspectiva economiei de mijloace a vorbirii spontane sau a
punerii n funciune a maximei cantitii];
Eunice: You dont have to look no further [dubla negaie specific grupului dialectal; n
varianta standard, negaia se actualizeaz printr-o marc unic ntr-o propoziie]; Beulah:
There wouldnt be no obligation; Stanley: She didnt show you no papers; I cant do
nothing with them; She didnt say nothing;
Beulah: It dont threaten nothing [dubla negaie, asociat cu dezacordul subiect-predicat,
derivat din fenomenul regularizrii formelor auxiliare folosirea unei singure forme verbale
pentru toate persoanele pronominale];
Beulah: Aint that the truth? Ha, ha. [structur dialectal regularizat pentru forma de prezent
negativ a verbului to be ; aici, nlocuiete variantele standard is not isnt];
Dolly: I seen you Beulah! [Elidarea auxiliarului have, ca efect al fenomenului de contragere (I
have seen, Ive seen) la fel ca n replicile : I never seen anything like it sau Who done these
decorations? ]
Beulah: Then come prohibition [ forma verbal de infinitiv scurt nlocuiete forma de
participiu trecut came, consecin a tendinei de regularizare a formelor ];
Lady: My papa, he turned to people, he made them a bow and said...[folosire pleonastic a
pronumelui, repetare a subiectului].
Pee Wee: Speak to Jabe, about them, slots [folosire pleonastic a pronumelui, repetare a
complementului]
Relevant este i co-textul replicilor, secvenele dialogale construindu-se deseori din opoziia
regional-standard, familiar-literar, marcat aici la nivel morfologic:
Eunice :This here is Elysian Fields.
B:They mustnt have understood what number I wanted...[forma verbal compus, expresie
standard a atitudinii aletice]
E: What number you lookin for?
377
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
B: Six thirty-two.
Eunice: You dont have to look no further. (TS1)
n privina lexicului, autorul american presar n discursul eroinelor sale doar cteva
cuvinte care s contureze portretul unor personaje metonimice pentru o categorie devenit
stereotip social: the Southern belle, model de feminitate i preiozitate ancorat n vremurile
coloniale ale Sudului. Snt lexeme cu implicaii culturale (care i pied relevana n traducere,
cu att mai mult cu ct folosirea lor n discursul literar supus analizei este ironic: Blanche (n
A Streetcar Named Desire), Amanda (n The Glass Managerie) si chiar Lady (Orpheus
Descending) triesc n trecut iar modul lor de a vorbi este expresia constant a deziluziei lor:
- papa (mprumut din francez pentru father; spre diferen de varianta diacronic
(spre exemplu, varianta din epoca victorian britanic), varianta diatopic
accentueaz prima silab: p-p);
Lady: My papa, he turned to people, he made them a bow and said - Tata s-a ntors spre
spectatori , a fcut o reveren i a spus ...(TS3)
Considerm c mprumutul (ca strategie de traducere) ar fi fost o alternativ relevant n
acest caz, termenul presupunnd eforturi de procesare minime pentru receptorul romn i
pstrnd implicaia cultural.
- beau, beaux (mprumut din francez, al crui sens contextual - inclusiv conotaia de
arhaic - este redat adecvat de toate cele trei variante n limba romn, n condiii
de inevitabil entropie a mrcii regionale) ;
Blanche: An old beau of mine (TS1) un vechi admirator al meu (TT1) - un vechi amorez de-
al meu (TT2); Amanda: Bates was one of my bright particular beaux! (TS4) - Bates era unul
dintre cei mai mai elegani curtezani ai mei (TT4);
- Why (particul discursiv specific vorbirii sudice a crei funcie pragmatic este
de ezitare sau fals nceput (well); n general, omis n variantele noastre de
traducere).
Blanche: Why, not yet, honey!
Blanche : Why, you precious thing, you! (TS1);
Amanda: Why, I remember one Sunday afternoon in Blue Mountain () One Sunday
afternoon in Blue Mountain your mother received seventeen! gentlemen callers! Why,
sometimes there werent chairs enough to accommodate them all. We had to send the nigger
over to bring in folding chairs from the parish house (TS4) ntr-o dup-amiaz, la Blue
Mountain, mama voastr a primit n vizit aptesprezece cavaleri. De multe ori nu ne mai
ajungeau nici scaunele. Trebuia s aducem pn i taburetele de la parohie (TT4).
Remarcm c inevitabila omisiune a mrcii discursive este dublat de decuparea
secvenei textuale send the nigger over (s trimitem sclavul s aduc), indicnd o
ndeprtare voit a traducerii de original, sub aspectul redrii aspectelor culturale.
378
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Structurile lingvistice redate ilustreaz dificultile cu care se confrunt traductorul
discursului marcat dialectal (diatopic sau diastratic), chiar atunci cnd acesta mbrac forma
expresiei artistice. Traducerea unei opere n care vorbirea personajelor are nuane diatopice
presupune recunoaterea de ctre traductor, pe de o parte, a structurilor n sine (ca instane
marginale ale uzului limbii) i, apoi, a implicaiilor ideologice ale discursului. n mod evident,
redarea caractonimului Dog ca Dawg n cadrul unor enunuri din Orfeu n Infern indic lipsa
percepiei unui artificiu stilistic de redare a variaiei fonetice.
Chiar presupunnd o percepie corect a variaiilor, aa cum se ntmpl n marea
majoritate a corpusului, redarea acestora impune decizii traductologice ce se ncadreaz n trei
tipuri de abordri, a cror legitimitate ne propunem s o evalum nainte de a arta care dintre
acestea snt asumate de traductorii lui Tennessee Williams:
1. Redarea dialectului/nuanelor dialectale din limba int cu un dialect/nuane dialectale
ale limbii surs;
Pe lng imposibilitatea stabilirii unui criteriu de selecie pentru a varietate sau alta,
echivalena comunicativ devine imposibil din consideraii de relevan sociolingvistic:
poziia unui dialect fa de varianta standard n cadrul unui sistem sociocultural i
valoarea de prestigiu/stigm atribuite acestuia nu pot fi redate de un alt dialect aparind
unui alt sistem. Mai mult, dac traducerea i propune s creeze o imagine a culturii surs
n cultura int, abordarea implic riscul de a suprapune dou identiti culturale: una
conferit de universul tematic redat i alta sugerat de limbajul folosit. Soluia dialect
dialect (practicat, spre exemplu, n traducerea pieselor lui Cehov in limba englez) risc
s creeze efecte neintenionate. n consecin, tendina nu se regsete n traducerile
romneti ale lui Tennessee Williams.
4
2. Uniformizarea sau neutralizarea variaiei diatopice si diastratice prin redarea
dialectului cu structuri standard ale limbii int;
Identitatea cultural, n acest caz, este elidat i prin aceasta, traducerea i pierde gradul
de fidelitate, neasigurnd producerea unuia din efectele mesajului surs: rendering ST
dialect by TL standard has the misadvantage of losing the special effects intended in the
ST (Hatim i Mason , 1990: 41).
n analiza tendinei la nivelul corpusului de studiu avem n vedere tehnicile
compensrii i transpunerii (neles aici, prin extindere de sens, ca transpunere a unei
structuri de la un nivel al limbii la altul). n consecin, nu ne vom raporta n acest punct la
frecventele instane n care actualizarea mrcii de variaie se realizeaz n alte locuri ale
TT dect cele din TS (la nivel propoziional, frazal sau textual). Vizam doar acele secvene
dialogale n care sensul rezid n variaia lingvistic nsi iar
standardizarea/uniformizarea discursului n traducere poate fi catalogat drept pierdere sau
grad inferior de echivalen traductiv, manifestat n :
4
Legtur remarcat n dialectologia britanic de renumitele studii ale cercettorului Peter Trudgill:the higher
one is on the social scale, the less regionally marked will be their accents(1987: 8).
379
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
- Neutralizarea efectului de antitez (ca trstur textual a dialogului dramatic);
n TS1, variaia lingvistic (asociat cu orientarea deictic analizat de noi anterior) este
semnificant textual al temei opoziiei dintre dou lumi (Blanche, profesoar de englez,
exponent a unei clase sociale privilegiate versus Eunice i Negresa, dou femei dintr-un
cartier muncitoresc al Sudului american). Am subliniat prin litere aldine cele cteva mrci ale
echivalenei regsite n cele dou versiuni romneti (TT1, respectiv TT2).
Eunice: This here is Elysian E: Aici snt Cmpiile Elizee! E: Asta-i strada Elysian Fields.
Fields.
Blanche:They mustnt have B: Atunci probabil c n-au neles B:Cred c ...n-au neles ei bine
understood what number I ce numr caut.... ce numr cutam.
wanted.
E: What number you lookin for? E: i ce numr caui? E: Ce numr caui?
B: Six thirty-two. (...) (...)
E: You dont have to look no E: Nu trebuie s mai caui. E: E chiar aici.
further.(...)
B (...): Im looking for my sister B (...): O caut pe sora mea (...) B (...): O caut pe sora mea (...)
(...) Mrs. Stanley Kowalski doamna Stanley Kowalski. doamna Stanley Kowalski.
E: Thats the party. You just E: Chiar aici st. Numai c a E: Ai nimerit exact... Numai c a
did miss her, though. plecat adineaori. plecat acum cteva minute.
B: This can this be- her home? B: Cum ...locuiete chiar n casa B: Asta...e ...casa ei?
(mrcile pragmatice, precum asta? (forma popular a pronumelui
pauza indicat grafic, atribuie
(chiar anulat ca posibil marc atribuit personajului cu limbaj
ultimului enun o not de
suplimentar de literaritate pe a diferenei de registru stilistic) standard)
care traducerile nu o
...
nregistreaz).
Femeia neagr: M duc s-i spun Negresa: M reped eu s-i spun
Negro Woman : Ill go tell her
c ai venit... c ai venit.
you come.
- Crearea de efecte nedorite precum ambiguitatea n percepia identitii
personajului; din perspectiva funciei proairectice a discursului dramatic, este
afectat coerena construirii personajului;
n Orpheus Descending, Beulah i Dolly, soiile unor plantatori de bumbac din Two River
County, Pee Wee i Dog, snt vocile prin care se contureaz simbolic un univers limitat
ideologic, lipsit de educaie, intolerant i meschin5. Modul lor de a vorbi construiete practic
5
n lumea nchis i sumbr a orelului american, noul Orfeu, emisarul tinereii i al unei existene libere,
exuberante, cntate cu patos (la chitar, care nlocuiete lira mitic) nu i gsete locul i este sortit unui sfrit
tragic.
380
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
decorul Sudului provincial. Dei, aa cum vom sublinia i mai jos, traducerea romneasc
gsete de cele mai multe ori soluii traductive compensatorii pentru a pstra savoarea
discursururilor individuale, considerm c exist instane textuale n care uniformizarea
afecteaz coerena i prin aceasta veridicitatea personajelor:
TS3 TT3
Pee Wee: I fed that one-armed bandit a Pee Wee: Automatul sta mi-a nghiit o sut de monede i a
hunnerd nickels and it coughed up five. scos afar numai cinci.
...
Pee Wee: Im gonna speak to Jabe about them Pee Wee: Am s discut eu cu Jabe despre automatele astea.
slots.
Beulah: I didnt know these olives had seeds in Beulah : Nu tiam ca mslinele acestea au smburi.
them!
Dolly: You thought they was stuffed? Dolly: Ai crezut ca erau umplute !
Beulah: Uh-huh. Bulah: h.
Beulah: I wint to see Dr Johnny about Dawgs Beulah : Am fost pe la doctorul Johnny n legtur cu starea
condition...an as I was leavin I ast him what lui Dawg...i la plecare l-am ntrebat cum st chestia cu
was the facks about Jabe Torrences operaia...Ei bine,...
operation...Well
Dolly: Whatd he tell you, Beulah? Dolly: Ei, ce i-a spus, Beulah? (...)
B: Nothina-tall....not a spoken word did he B: Absolut nimic, nu a scos din gura lui nici un cuvinel! S-
utter! He just looked at me with those big dark a uitat numai la mine ochii ia ai lui mari i tenebroi i a dat
eyes and shook his haid like this! din cap uite aa!
- Pierderea/diminuarea efectului contextual n construcia discursiv a atmosferei
dramatice.
Discursul personajelor Steve i Eunice n variante ca cele redate mai jos i pierd din
implicaiile de decor social (n special prin alegerea verbului sintetic a telefona):
TS1 TT1 TT2
E: Break it up down there... E: Vino odat sus!... E: Terminai odat, acolo jos!...
S: I told you and phoned you we S: i-am spus i i-am telefonat S: Doar i-am spus i i-am telefonat c
was playing. c jucm. azi jucm.
E: You never phoned me once. E: Nu mi-ai telefonat deloc. E: Nu mi-ai telefonat deloc.
3. Stabilirea unei echivalene funcionale prin preluarea funciei variaiei diatopice i
diastratice (variaie n funcie de utilizatori) de ctre forme ale variaiei diafasice
(variaie n funcie de utilizare).
Transpunere marc fonetic dialectal -
marc lexical de registru :
Dai fuga la gar (TT3) You all git down to th depot (TS3)
l-am intrebat cum st chestia cu....(TT3) I ast him what was the facks about ... (TS3)
Formele populare ale pronumelui
demonstrativ soluii compensatorii frecvente
pentru marca dilaectal fonologic sau
morfologic:
What was that package he thew at er? (TS1/2)
Ce era n pachetul la pe care i l-a aruncat? (TT2)
Ce era n pachetul la pe care l-a aruncat? (TT1) .......nothina-tall....he just looked at me with those big
381
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Absolut nimic. S-a uitat numai la mine ochii ia ai dark eyes .(TS3)
lui mari i tenebroi.
This here is Elysian Fields. (TS1/2)
Asta-i strada Elysian Fields (TT2).
Aint that the truth? Ha, ha! (TS3)
Asta chiar aa e,ha,ha, ha. ....(TT3)
Transpunere marc fonetic dialectal
procedee retorice/mrci ale oralitatii
Then one of them-gits-cincer or has a stroke or
Apoi, unul din ei s zicem c se mbolnvete de somethin?-The other one- (TS3)
ceva subit , sau are un atac de apoplexie sau ceva ,
ei? Cellalt... (TT3)
Transpunere marc morfologic dialectal-
marc lexical de registru stilistic:
M reped eu s-i spun c ai venit. (TT2) Negro Woman : Ill go tell her you come. (TS 1/2)
Marc fonetic suplimentar n traducere
(compensaie):
Astea sunt izact cuvintele ei ....(TT3) These are her exact words.(TS3)
Hatim i Mason (1990: 43) apreciaz c orice modificare a formei standard n limba
int compenseaz variaia lingvistic natural din limba surs. Soluia se aplic cu att mai
mult cazurilor de variaie diatopic, n care entropia este inevitabil: [Dialect] is one of the
literary genres which in translation necessarily suffer varying degree of loss of meaning
(Newmark, 1998: 194).
Prin modelul de analiz propus am ncercat s probm diversele dimensiuni ale fidelitii
traducerilor romneti ale lui T.Williams ntr-o abordare descriptiv care a investigat gradul
de echivalen funcional n redarea variaiei lingvistice de la nivelul dialogului dramatic, de
la instane de inevitabil entropie (datorate unor posibiliti sistemice inegale) la miestria
compensrii efectelor contextuale, de la diferene de percepie a inteniei auctoriale la soluii
dictate de funcia asumat a traducerii.
Am putut observa c formele variaiei n limba englez acoper un spectru larg, ceea ce
adaug greutate unui demers complex, cu implicaii socio-lingvistice. Reflectnd distana i
separarea regional, ierahia social sau structura activitilor sociale i a relaiilor dintr-un
sistem cultural, mrcile variaei impun strategii traductive care snt fundamentate de cteva
precondiii, pe care traductorii lui T.Williams le ndeplinesc cu certitudine: competen
lingvistic, dublat de cunotine enciclopedice (pentru percepii corecte), cunotine dar i
intuiie socio-lingvistic (pentru o evaluare i redare adecvat a sensurilor contextuale) i, nu
n ultimul rnd, competen strategic i creativitate (pentru a produce un nou text natural i
expresiv).
382
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Bibliografie
Gleason, J.B., C. Merrill (eds.), 1985. The Development of Language, London, Bell&Howell.
Hatim, B. i I. Mason, 1990. Discourse and the Translator, Londra si New York, Longman.
Labov, William, 1972/1991. Sociolinguistic Patterns, University of Pennsylvania Press.
Newmark, P., 1998. A Textbook of Translation. New York: Prentice Hall
Pioariu, Rodica, 2004. Dramaturgia american n Romnia, Cluj-Napoca, Risoprint.
Sproule, Kent Arthur,1995. Criteria for the effective translation of spoken discourse: the
evidence from selected
modern Spanish texts, University of Glasgow.
Trudgill, Peter, Hughes, Arthur, 1987. English Accents and Dialects, An Introduction to
Social and Regional Varieties of British English, Londra, Edward Arnold.
Websters Third New International Dictionary, 1993
Wolfram, Walt, Schilling-Estes, Nathalie, 1998. American English - Dialects and Variation,
Oxford, Blackwell.
Corpus de studiu
Williams, Tennessee, 1978. Teatru, Bucuresti, Editura Univers.
Williams, Tennessee, 2000. Plays 1937 1955, New York, The Library of America.
Williams, Tennessee, 2000. Plays 1957 1980, New York, The Library of America.
Williams, Tennessee , 2010. Un tramvai numit Dorin, trad. Antoaneta Ralian, Bucureti:
Art.
*** Teatrul american contemporan, 1968. Editura pentru literatur universal, Bucureti.
The Norton Anthology of American literature, 2003. vol.E, New York, Norton and Company.
383
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
CHANGING LANDSCAPES IN TRANSLATION AND INTERCULTURAL
COMMUNICATION
Olga COJOCARU, PhD Candidate, Dunrea de Jos University of Galai
Abstract: The paper intends to raise awareness on the most recent advances in the fields of
Translation Studies and Intercultural Communication and to underline the important
influence of globalization in developing new approaches to the study of translation and to the
training of translators. Here, we focus on a particular type of texts that require adaptation to
new cultural contexts, namely vocative texts; and we analyze different translation strategies
involved in the process, without disregarding the important role of the translator. The hands-
on approach involves several types of vocative texts, from advertisements and instructions for
use to political propaganda.
Keywords: Globalization, translation, intercultural communication, cultural mediator,
vocative texts.
Introduction
One of the most important concepts that arise nowadays when discussing the new
trends in translation studies and intercultural communication is globalization. Many definition
have been provided for the term, all depending on the topic of research, but we aim to use it in
its wider sense, as 'the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant
localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles
away and vice versa" (Giddens, 1994:64) or, in other words, as a concept that encompasses all
cultural and social phenomena and manages to undermine cultures and societies in their
struggle for power and identity (Beck, 1999:28).
In the new global village translation plays a crucial part. Firstly, the growing interest
in the field is generated by the need to gain viable insights and access to the unknown
languages; and secondly, because of the rather new approach to translation as part of a
cultural process.
Another concept that creates confusion, culture is regarded as a "fuzzy subset of the
set of mental and public representations inhabiting a given social group" (Sperber, 1996:33).
In a broader sense, cultures are seen as "systems of symbolically encoded conceptual
phenomena that are socially and historically transmitted within and between populations"
(Durham, 1991:8). Here, we would like to distinguish culture as a trait of a population and
subject fields1 as specific types of culture that generate specific text types that need a
specialized translator to master them both actively and passively (Sandrini, 2006: 112). The
role of the translator has also shifted from merely a bilingual interpreter towards a figure
"whose role is to mediate between cultures" (Bassnett, 2011:95).
1
A branch of knowledge encoded in textbooks and scientific writing, which in turn is the basis for the education
of new experts.
384
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
1. Translation and Intercultural Communication
Translation has long been established as a communicative activity involving the
transfer of information from one language another. However, problems arise due to cultural
and linguistic barriers and a total equivalence in translation has raised a lot of debate. The
initial approaches to translation were the ones that followed the original text against those
which interpreted it 2. However, in the last decade attention has shifted towards the idea of
equivalent effect and the importance of context in translation. Scholars, such as Eugene Nida,
point out that language cannot be understood "outside the total framework of the culture, of
which the language in question is an integral part" (1964a: 223). For Nida, contextual
understanding is an important tool for achieving an optimal translation. With the emergence
of translation studies as an interdisciplinary field of research encompassing linguistics,
literary and cultural studies, history, anthropology, sociology and political science, attention
moved beyond linguistic boundaries and, in this respect, the work of Catford (1965), who
takes up the issue of cultural untranslatability, is considered ground-breaking research.
Even the profile of the translator has been reconsidered in recent years due to
important scholars who argued for a more visible presence of the translator in a text and
suggested translation strategies in order to secure the position of the translators in a
translation3.
An important development in translations studies came with the came with the so-
called "cultural turn" in translation when the discussion was now focused on agencies, on the
transformative aspect of translation and on the impact of translation in a given culture at a
particular moment in time (Bassnett and Lefevere, 1998: 10). This is a flourishing time for
translation and the sociocultural importance it bares should not be disregarded.
2. The translator as cross-cultural mediator
Given the recent changes in the political, social and economic systems worldwide and
the massive movements of population, started at the of the 1980s, we underline that,
linguistically speaking, important changes occurred. The mixture of culture and languages
raised issues such as multilingual classrooms in schools or the need for translators in public
service systems and, given the context, translators began to be regarded as "cultural
interpreters", a term that implies recognizing the importance of the translation process and
also the existence of cultural difference.
As Azade Seyhan argues, in a study of bilingual and bicultural writing:
"Once we accept the loss of stable communities and the inevitability of exile, then
the interdependency of linguistic and cultural experiences both at the local and
global level become self-evident. Thus, despite coercively manufactured and
enforced national antinomies and fortified borers, history and geography are
transfigured in new maps and new types of dialogic links."
(Seyhan, 2001:9)
2
i.e. word-for-word translation vs. sense-for-sense translation.
3
Venuti 's studies on foreignization and domestication in translation. (Venuti, 1995)
385
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Moreover, intercultural transmission beyond national boundaries is now
conceptualized as "transnationalism".
Translators are surrounded by ambiguity and it is important to establish whether the
writer and the translator of a text are defined as separate identities or if the translator is
actually the substitute for another writer. The fact is, we agree to Katan's description that a
translator is effectively a mediator between cultures and that his status of cultural mediator
refers to someone who "facilitates communication, understanding and action between persons
or groups who differ with respect to language and culture" (Katan, 2004: 17). He suggests
translators are also interpreters of the intentions, perceptions and expectations of a cultural
group and they have to be to some extent bicultural, in order to 'second-guess the
unexpressed" (Bassnett, 2011: 102).
As far as the idea of translation confronting the untranslatable is concerned, we
followed Walter Benjamin's studies (in Bhabha, 1994) on the subject and the findings suggest
translation is a process that ensures the survival of a text in a new context while the translator
is the one responsible for the elements of a text that are untranslatable as well as for bringing
the text across into this new context.
Bassnett (2011: 104) also makes an interesting characterization of the translator as a
cross-cultural mediator and argues that within this new globalized world, the rising
significance of translation is undeniable. Moreover, she points out that linguistic competence
is no longer a sufficient prerequisite to determine a good translator, and acknowledges
intercultural competence as the new leading asset. Focus should be placed on teaching
intercultural awareness, on training programmes in business and managements studies; and
she has already noticed how the information found in recent guides to intercultural business is
now concerned with aspects regarding work ethic, timekeeping, the significance of the formal
and so on.
3. Strategies for translating vocative texts
Before embarking on a study regarding vocative texts, first we have to determine what
vocative texts are and then establish a framework for their translation. Hence, we followed the
"classical" text typologies, based on Karl Bhler's tripartite model of the functions of
linguistic signs, centering Katharina Reisss work on text typology and Peter Newmarks
contribution.
First of all, the vocative functions of language places emphasis on the readership or
the addressee. The term vocative is used in the sense of calling upon the readership to act,
think of feel, in fact to react in the way intended by the text (the vocative is the case used for
addressing your reader in some inflected languages) (Newmark, 1988:41).
A consensual categorization of the typical vocative texts encompasses notices,
instructions, publicity, propaganda, persuasive writing (requests, cases, theses) and, to some
extent, popular fiction, because the purpose is to sell the book/entertain the reader.
(Newmark,1988:41)
Vocative texts today address a readership rather than an individual reader and we
consider two representative factors for vocative texts: on the one hand, the relationship
between the writer and the readership and, on the other hand, an easy accessible language
used in writing the texts. The connection with the readership is established via social or
386
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
personal grammatical relations or forms of address: infinitives, imperatives, subjunctives,
indicatives, impersonal, passives, first/family names, titles, hypocoristic names, tags, etc. for
the sole purpose of obtaining the desired relationship with the readership, may it be of power
or equality, command, request or persuasion (Newmark, 1988: 41). Moreover, Reiss talks
about the appellative language function and a dialogic dimension when discussing vocative
texts. (Munday 2001: 73-75)
A translation method suitable for vocative texts aims for the target text reader to
experience the same intended message in the source language text, therefore the aim of the
translation should be the production of identical behavioural reactions (Reiss 1977/1989:
97-100). For this reason, the adaptive method is considered the best solution because of the
equivalent effect created among the target text readers. In other words, the translator must
consider the extra-linguistic effect intended by the text, even if he has to change both form
and content. (Hatim, 2004: 181)
As we have established above, advertisements represent typical examples of vocative
texts. Titela Vlceanu (2005) notes that the translation of vocative texts and, implicitly, that of
ads, can be achieved by communicative translation and the effect upon the target public is
essential.
The changes in an advertisement when translated from one culture into another have
been noted by many translation theorists. As David Katan comments, [...] translating for the
advertising industry across cultures means distorting the surface message to successfully
retain the hidden. (Katan 1999: 192).
According to Guy Cook (1992) the most suitable translation strategy in the case of
advertisements is copy adaptation. The same term is used by Christina Schffner when
explaining the identical reactions that must be triggered both by the original text and its
transposition into the target language: The translation of appellative or operative text types
(e.g. advertising) aims to provoke in the target readers identical behavioural reactions to those
of the reader of the source text, and the translation method called for is adaptation.
(Schffner 2009: 116)
Despite the selected translation strategy for vocative texts and especially in the case of
ads, the most important tools are considered creativity and effectiveness, intuitive leaps, and
the free flow of the translators imagination (Robinson, 2007).
4. A hands-on approach
The corpus analysis encompasses a number of advertisements for the cosmetic
industry, as their target population is large, mostly consisting of young and energetic people,
highly familiar with the new technologies and advances on the market, particularly in this
field. Therefore, translators should play close attention to the technicalities and practicalities
of these type of ads, in order to achieve the equivalent effect in the readers of the translated
text into Romanian.
In what follows, we shall focus on the difficulties in translating three English
advertisements into Romanian:
387
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
1. Difficult to define. Impossible to resist Allure, Chanel
Clean and sheer, warm and sexy. Difficult to define. Impossible to resist. ALLURE is a
fragrance that evokes each woman's own very special allure.Floral, fresh oriental. A faceted
fragrance that mixes notes of the Orient with abstract flowers. A simple jewel that combines
six complex facets. In ALLURE you'll find Bergamot, Mandarin, Water Lily and Magnolia,
Jasmine and May Roses, Vetiver and, finally, the velvety sensuality of Vanilla.
Suggested Translation :
Greu de definit. Imposibil s i reziti Allure, Chanel
Curat i limpede, cald i sexy. Greu de definit. Imposibil s i reziti. ALLURE este un
parfum care evoc alura special a fiecrei femei. Prospeime oriental, floral. Un parfum
faetat care combin notele orientale cu florile abstracte. O bijuterie simpl ce combin ase
faete complexe. n ALLURE vei gsi Bergamot, Mandarin, Nufr i Magnolia, Iasomie i
Trandafir, Vetiver i, la final, senzualitatea catifelat a vaniliei.
Comments:
The translation follows closely the strategy of manipulation used by the original text. Sheer
is used as an intensifier in English, translated via compensation strategy in Romanian:
limpede, yet, the effect is the same as in English since the Romanian sentences combines four
epithets one after another.
Fragrance vs. Romanian parfum drives to semantic loss.
The English synonymic series has no equivalent in Romanian.
English: perfume - scent - fragrance
Romanian: parfum - miros
2. The touch-up is now history Colorstay Ultimate Liquid Lipstick
The first and only one step lipstick that has it all.
Food-proof lipcolor with a built-in, ultra-conditioning topcoat
One-step application- No topcoat required for comfortable wear
Stays comfortable and wears beautifully for up to 12 hours
Does not feather or fade; no touch-ups required, even after meals
Available in 20 full-coverage, soft satin shades.
- Suggested translation:
Retuurile sunt acum istorie Ruj lichid Colorstay Ultimate
Primul i unicul ruj cu o singur aplicare, chintesena rujurilor.
Rezistent la transfer, cu un strat hidratant incorporat
Aplicare unic, fr s necesite un alt strat
Se fixeaz perfect i se menine pn la 12 ore
Nu pteaz i nu i pierde din culoare, nu necesit retuuri, chiar dac ai mncat.
Disponibil n 20 de nuane fine, satinate, ce ofer o acoperire complet.
388
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Comments:
That has it all is a frequently used phrase in English in the neutral style.The direct
equivalent in Romanian - care le are pe toate would not have the same impact, being rather
colloquial.
Food-proof rezistent la transfer uses the compensation strategy (modulation) as it would
have sounded ackward rezistent la mancare.
One-step application aplicare unic the version highlights the process whereas the
Romanian one favours the effect.
Even after meals chiar dac ai mncat we preferred this rendering instead of dup mas,
as the latter would remind of medicine instructions.
A special mention here concerns the density of compounds in the English version in
comparison to the Romanian simple words.
3. Full or sheer. Rewind the years - Age Rewind Cream Foundation
Mineral Power Natural Perfecting Foundation with micro-minerals is a lightweight, luxurious
liquid formula that provides a luminous, natural coverage. Discover the power of micro-
minerals:
Only our formula combines micro-minerals with a liquid in a lightweight texture for a
healthier, more natural finish;
Naturally breathable, seamlessly blendable;
Provides buildable, even coverage; Talc-Free ; Oil-free; Fragrance-Free;
Non pore-clogging; SPF 18 sunscreen; Medium Coverage;
Suggested translation:
Puritate integral. Intoarcere n timp Fond de ten Age Rewind
Fondul de ten Mineral Power Natural Perfecting cu micro-minerale are la baz o formul
lichid mbogait, care asigur o acoperire strlucitoare natural. Descoperii puterea micro-
mineralelor
Doar formula noastr combin micro-minerale cu un lichid ntr-o structur uoar
Pentru finisaje cu aspect mai sntos, mai natural
Las pielea s respire, se poate amesteca consistent
Acoperire fin, care rezist; Fr talc; Fr ulei; Fr parfum;
Nu acoper porii; Factor de protecie solar SPF 18; Acoperire medie;
Comments:
The density of technical terms is used to make a convincing device: luxurious liquid formula
that provides a luminous, natural coverage. Luxurious liquid formula translated as mbogit
is a toning down element. The intensity of sheer is recaptured in the Romanian as integral
and it is translated via compensation strategy.
The compounding method: oil-free, talc-free, fragrance-free is a highly productive means of
word formation in contemporary English unlike Romanian.
389
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Conclusions
The corpus-based approach validated our work hypothesis. Drawing on the general
features provided by the theoretical framework, we can add a set of particular traits
encountered in the samples we have chosen. From the semantic loss in translation, where
English outnumbers Romanian with respect to synonymic series (lexical gaps), to the
compounding method, which is highly productive in contemporary English, (favours simple
words), we also encountered a high number of in technical items, the an expert testimony and
the scientific terms, highly persuasive devices used in vocative text translation, particularly
advertisements. These highly effective strategies of manipulation, also encompass methods
used to avoid or to bridge cultural gaps, such as explicitation.
Bibliography
Bassnett, Susan and Lefevere, Andre (eds). (1990). Translation, History and Culture.
London: Pinter.
Bassnett, S. and Lefevere, A. (1998). Constructing Cultures. Essays on Literary Translation.
(Topics in Translation 11). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Bassnett, S. (2011). The translator as cross-cultural mediator. In Malmkjr, Kirsten/ Windle,
Kevin (eds) The Oxford Handbook of Translation Studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press,
95-107.
Beck, U. (1999). Was ist Globalisierung. Irrtmer des Globalismus - Antworten auf
Globalisierung. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp.
Bhabha, H. (1994). The Location of Culture. London: Routledge.
Bhler, K. (1934/1965). Sprachtheorie: Die Darstellungsfunktion der Sprache, Stuttgart:
Gustav Fischer.
Catford, J.C, (1965). A Linguistic Theory of Translation, London/New York/Toronto: Oxford
University Press.
Cook, G. (1992). The Discourse of Advertising, Routledge: London/New York.
Durham, W.H. (1991). COEVOLUTION. Genes, Culture, and Human Diversity.Standford:
Standford University Press.
Giddens, A. (1994). Living in a Post-traditional Society. In Beck, Ulrich/ Giddens, Anthony/
Lash, Scott (eds) Reflexive Modernization. Cambridge: Polity Press, 62-64.
Hatim, B. and Munday, J. (eds.) (2004). Translation. An advanced resource book. London
and New York: Routledge.
Katan, D. (1999/2004). Translating Cultures. An Introduction for Translators, Interpreters
and Mediators. Manchester: St. Jerome Publishing.
Munday, J. (2001). Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications, Routledge:
London/ New York.
Newmark, P. (1981). Approaches to Translation. Oxford: Pergamon.
------- (1988) A Textbook of Translation, New York and London: Prentice Hall.
Nida, E. A. (1964). Towards a Science of Translating. Leiden: E. J. Brill.
Reiss, Katharina (1977/1989). Text-types, Translation Types and Translation Assessment,
(in A. Chesterman (ed.) 1989), pp. 10515, original German (1977) Texttypen,
Ubersetzungstypen und die Beurteilung von Ubersetzungen, Lebende Sprachen 22.3: 97-100.
390
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Robinson, D. (2007). Becoming a Translator. An Introduction to the Theory and Practice of
Translation. London and New York: Routledge.
Sandrini, P. (2006). LSP Translation and Globalization. In Gotti, M., arevi , S. (eds.)
Insights into Specialized Translation. Bern: Peter Lang, (p. 107- 120).
Schffner, Christina (2009). Functionalist Approaches, in Baker, Mona; Saldanha,
Gabriela (eds.) Routledge Encyclopedia of Translation Studies. New York: Routledge. 115-
22.
Seyhan, A. (2001). Writing Outside the Nation. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Sperber, D. (1996). Explaining Culture: A Naturalistic Approach. Oxford:Blackwell.
Venuti, L., (1995). The Translator's Invisibility. London/New York: Routledge.
Vlceanu, Titela (2005). Translation. The Land of the Bilingual. Craiova: Editura
Universitaria.
The Corpus
http://www.chanel.com/en_GB/fragrance-beauty/Fragrance-Allure-95231
http://www.revlon.com/Revlon-Home/Products/Lips/Lipcolor/Revlon-ColorStay-Ultimate-
Suede.aspx
http://www.maybelline.co.uk/product-explorer
391
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE IMAGE OF ALTERITY IN ROMANIAN CONTEMPORARY ART
Lucian-Nicu RDAN, PhD Candidate, Petru Maior University of Trgu-Mure
Abstract: Alterity represents a philosophical concept framed by Emmanuel Lvinas, which mirrors the
representation of the other; that is why the concept it also known under the name of 'the otherness'. Although
alterity was established as a concept in the field of philosophy, it is also deployed in other domains and
disciplines such as: anthropology (Michael Taussing, Pauline Turner Strong), arts (John Michael Cooper),
religion and pre-eminently in literature (Mallarm) and cultural studies. In terms of antropology, alterity refers
to the representation and projections of the other. In this sense, Michael Taussing opines that alterity implies
both 'Mimesis' (the internalized image of the other) and 'Alterity' (the symbolic interspace between Self and
Other). In other words, the author defines through alterity the opposition between Self and Other (the contrast
between two ontologic entities).
Keywords: alterity, art, image, representation, Self.
The notion of alterity, which we seem to come across more and more often, represents
a certain ammount of originality, a sense, a concept.
The term can be used in a large number of contexts: it can stand for anything from the
personal identity to the national one - an identity which has been greatly debated lately. Until
now, the aspect of identity has been protected, and considered as something which cannot be
changed or influenced in any way. However, a large number of question marks have arisen
lately. Socially speaking, the attempt to create uniformity leads to political and cultural
reactions. The idea of a united Europe also creates an impact from the point of view of the
member states resulting in that the attempt to establish new rules of conduct fails.
In order to support the notion of identity and to strenghten it, a new reality, namely
alterity has arisen. This reality has been insistently debated and analized, especially in a dual
manner: identity vs alterity.
The identity crisis should be seen as a means of understanding the concept, but it must
also be regarded from the point of view from which one perceives the world. Identity is not a
gift, it is a construction whose timeline is as long as life itsels and it also is an issue which
each individual when describing himself uses, in his story, something which makes identity
dependant on the dialogue with another, on gaining recognition or receiving rejection by the
other, by using the first and third person.
Culture, in a wider sense, is a lifestyle common to a group of individuals, including
practices and knowledge, competencies and values which are relevant to the group.
Alterity is a philosophical notion put forward by Emmanuel Levinas and focused on
the image of the other. The notion has enjoyed great success in a large number of cultural
areas in the 20-th century. The concept is borrowed by researchers such as: Nicholas Dirks,
Johannes Fabian, Michael Taussig and Pauline Turner Strong in the field of anthropology and
refers to the cultural construction, creation of the other. In Mimesis and Alterity, Michael
Taussing writes about assimilating the culture of the other (mimesis) and distancing oneself
from it (alterity); in other words the author defines the oposition between Self and Other.
392
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Each individual is unique and asserts himself as different from the others but at the same
time places himself in a group where he identifies with Us. Depending on the nationality,
language, profession, sex etc, everyone can belong to a number of groups. The identity has
many facets which are polished by the feeling of belonging - something which each person
experiences.
The expansion of the artisitic manifestations in postmodern Romania has lead to a
number of different styles and concepts as well as to a hunt for originality. The artistic has
become more and more commercial, up to the point of being dissolved and if the artistic act of
creation is more and more absent, the commercial takes its place.
The literature of the last years has yielded more and more towards the rise of
commercial trends thus leading to an ever smaller number of writings based on interior
spiritual experiences. Commercial literature, where authors do not put forward their emotions
too often, is the new trend.
A look at the bigger picture of the contemporary Romanian artistic discourse brings to
light a series of thematic and structural mutations where the image of identity and alterity
plays an important role from a double perspective: firstly, we are dealing with the discovery
of the image of the other, of the foreigner who must first be understood and then conquered
and secondly, a direction set on the edge of alterity during the decades when history suffered
tragic changes and humanity is subject to an irreversible process of losing its ontological
status, by mixing in the homogenous mass of the many.
From an aesthetical point of view, we can notice a pluralization effect of the artistic
act which has its roots in postmodern ideology. The street art scene in Eastern Europe is
almost unknown in the US allthough the fall of the Iron Curtain has opened a space which
was quickly occupied by emergent creative minds. Some of the new artists have unleashed
their artisitc personas across the walls of developing cities, finding the most amazing means
of expression and populating twisted universes. The Romanian Cultural Institute from New
York has invited in 2008 three young Romanian street artists: Nuclear Fairy, IRLO and Omar
to work at the Romanian Gallery and to offer an exposition from their experience in New
York. The gallery organized on June the 18th 2008 has included a Q&A with the artists,
hosted by Sara and Marc Schiller, founders of the Wooster Collective.
Street art experiments in Romania are connected to the new media ones because of the
do-it-yourself approach. The showing was accompanied by a presentation of the best
contributions of the last years to the Video Art and New Media Festival. Street art comes
from the east as urban gentrification in New York and the cleasing policies have erased those
legendary grafittis which have inspired artists around the world. Street art has flourished in
eastern european cities. It is in the large cities of Romania where the three artists have started
to bring their means of expression to the streets. Their art combines low-brow aesthetics with
figurative grafitti and with an unusual approach from the textual point of view, from font to
content, thus giving life to various areas of expression. The three have collaborated often with
Romania as well as other European countries, creating a common means of expression. As
they were for the first time in New York and after having explored it a few days, they tried to
transpose their American experience onto the walls of the Romanian Gallery. The exposition
has allowed everyone to see how the exhibits evolved and the people went in to see them
being constructed. The manner for which they opted, namely that of exposition under
393
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
construction has managed to draw attention little by little. The pink pony installed in the
Romanian state-owned gallery in New York, the same building where the Romanian Cultural
Institute has its office, proved to be a challenge for critics, journalists and politicians. Here,
where normally typical Romanian parties took place, where 80s vIPs were invited to talk
about intelelctual matters such as Eminescu and other clasic Romanian emblems, the pink
pony has defied not through its debatable artistic value a pink pony branded with a swastica
on the hip and a bone wedged as a tail but by means of its surrondings: exaggerated
articles, antisemit accusations, police complains. The crossing from the Romanian cultural
identity was sudden and shocking: Grigorescus Car cu boi was replaced by abstract paintings
which seemed meant to revolt this stereotypical identity. Art is seen as an adaptation
regardless of the side were looking from, either art producers or consumers. Through art, the
inner self adapts to the level of the cultural entity, and the artwork becomes my story but said
with a strangers mouth. The artisitic expression of the three young artists brings to light a
known identity crisis, a sign that it is time for a new interpretation but also a warning
regarding ones outlook the phenomena of an alterity which cannot be defined in terms of
differences anymore.
The identity crisis is set into motion by the modern and is a crisis which manifests
itself on a large scale leading to a crisis of the language, something seen in contemporary
literature as well. The modern mans need for an identity and for freedom results from the
society which isnt keeping up with the human needs.
The need to rediscover oneself and to express oneself is also found in the field of
architecture as a persons, an architects means of expression as he is an artistic creator as
well. Romanian architecture has gone through a transformation as well, much like all of
society and this conscious transformation represents a modernization. Any transition is
actually the search for a new modernity. To anticipate the future on an artistic level namely
to set oneself in the avantgarde is the most modern of attitudes; avant-garde is one of the
faces of modernity and also its most radical form. One doesnt need to be an avant-gardist in
order to be modern but the tendency of the avant-garde is the acute form of modernitys
manifestation. In a grey, concrete-dominated world, identity is instantly lost and the
architects identity is lost first as he is bound between space and imagination. The
constructions of recent years have allowed the artist to express himself, through his unique
and at times extreme creations. One example is the Architects Union Headquarters in
Romania Bucharest, Architects Dan Marin and Zeno Bogdanescu, 1992 2003. The
building is an example of modern artifice. The gestures are apparently contextual: the new
building integrates the facade of a house which burned during the 1989 revolution, a witness
of long past events so as to keep history alive. The glass prisms of the new building follow the
allignment of the existing fronts and from the old building only an illusion, a facade, an empty
canvas was preserved with the role of covering that which is new. The old, the past is seen as
a protector of the present. It hangs artistically from the glass prisms a building abstract in
nature, as the authors themselves would describe it; old and need maintain their mutual
independance and reciprocity, stay detached without touching. In this case we may speak of a
spatial identity, an identity of the creators but also about alterity as means for expressing
oneself. A historical identity is set at the base of an artistic expression where the authors can
be felt in their new creation.
394
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
In the present cultural and scientific context, which is set in a conceptual crisis,
identity is going through an expression crisis and the person, trapped within the mundane
world, saves himself through duality and manages to rediscover himself in a parallel world
which ensures his survival as an individual.
Bibliography
Antohi, Sorin, Civitas imaginalis. Istorie i utopie n cultura romn, Bucureti, 1994.
Antohi, Sorin, Utopica. Studii asupra imaginarului social. Bucureti, 1991.
Blanchot, M. The Infinite Conversation. Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1993.
Boia, Lucian, Pentru o istorie a imaginarului, Bucureti, Humanitas,2000.
Buber, M. Eu i Tu. Bucureti, Humanitas, 1992.
Codoban, A. Filosofia ca gen literar. Cluj-Napoca, Dacia, 1992.
Corbea, Andrei, Ego, alter, alter ego, Iai, 1993.
Cornea, Paul, Introducere n teoria lecturii, Iai, Polirom, 1998.
Fiala, A. Tolerance and the Ethical Life. New York, Continuum, 2005.
Gugu Silvia, Clin Dan, Florin Tudor, Contemporary, Bucureti, Simetria, 2005.
Hours, Bernard, Ideologia umanitar sau Spectacolul alteritii pierdute, Iai, Institutul
Europan, 2010.
Joja Constantin, Arhitectura romnesc n context european, Bucureti,Tehnic, 1989.
Levinas, E. Apropos of Buber: Some Notes. n Outside the Subject. London, Continuum,
2008.
Levinas, E. Existence and Existents. London. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1988.
Liddicoat, A.J. An Introduction to Conversation Analysis. London: Continuum, 2007.
Marian, Rodica, Identitate i alteritate, Bucureti, Ideea European, 2005.
Marinoff, L. nghite Platon, nu Prozac. Bucureti, Trei, 2009.
Martin Buber, Eu i Tu, Bucureti, Humanitas,1992.
Nancy, J.L. Being Singular Plural. Stanford, Stanford University Press, 2000.
Pacurariu Dan, Arhitectura i celelalte arte, Constana,Pontica, 1995.
Simion, Brbulescu, Din perspectiva alteritii,Scrisul Prahovean Cerau, 1999.
Vais Dana, Fictiunile Arhitecturii, Bucuresti, Paideia, 2008.
395
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
CRITICAL DISCOURSE ON ENGLISH CANADIAN FICTION IN COMMUNIST
PERIODICALS. THE CASE OF HUGH MACLENNAN AND MORLEY
CALLAGHAN
Ana-Magdalena PETRARU, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai
Abstract: This paper is an illustration of the communist criticism in one of the most important
periodicals in our country, namely Romnia literar (Literary Romania), for two major
English Canadian novelists, Hugh MacLennan and Morley Callaghan. Drawing on Reader-
Response Criticism and Translation Studies for our analysis, we will account for the critical
approach(es) used when discussing the two authors and see whether the critical discourse
was marked by Marxist grids to serve ideological purposes.
Keywords: Canadian novel, Romanian periodicals, impressionistic criticism, horizon of
expectations, rewriting
Introduction
Taking interest in Reader-Response Criticism and Reception Studies, in general and
Canadian Literature as received in Romania, in particular, I was able to note that the reception
phenomenon during the communist period is particularly difficult to account for due to the
lack of centralised (on-line) databases or useful resources such as Lupu and tefnescus
Bibliography of Romanian Literature and Its Relations with Foreign Literatures in
Periodicals (1997) for the interwar period. Another seminal work in the field, Burlacu and
Sasus Chronological Dictionary of the Translated Novel in Romania from Origins to 1989
(2005) mentions only part of the translated works and critical studies devoted to Canadian
authors. Personal investigations revealed more translations from Canadian novels than the
ones included in the Dictionary (e.g. some of Mazo de la Roches novels from the Jalna
series translated during the Inter-War years and Hmon Louiss Marie Chapdelaine translated
in 1968) and Romanian criticism on the authors. In this respect, the canonical author Hugh
MacLennan is only mentioned with the translation of his Barometer Rising (2005: 548); no
articles are listed as critical references although Romnia literar (Literary Romania) had
published the translation of a fragment from one of his novel Two Solitudes with a short
presentation by the translator Georgeta Pdureleanu in 1981 (ibidem).
Critical Discourse on Canadian Fiction during the Communist Period
As a general remark, during the communist years Romanian periodicals dealing with
foreign literature (Romnia literar/ Literary Romania, Secolul XX/ The 20th Century)
focused on: canonical novelists that enjoyed book-length treatment in the 1970s and 1980s
(Hugh MacLennnan, Morley Callaghan), English and French Canadian poets, either
commented upon or not and special attention was given to the publication of poetry
anthologies, Canada and the arts.
Romnia literar (Literary Romania) is the periodical which published most of the
translated fragments of Canadian literature and criticism and was particularly renowned for its
396
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
non-conformism. Its content was different from the one of other periodicals such as
Sptmna (The Week) and Luceafrul (The Morning Star) which revealed the articles that
denied the directives of the Communist Party and accused their authors of betraying our
country (Troncot, 2006: 194). This could explain the presence of Irving Laytons erotic
poems in the pages of Romnia literar (Literary Romania), a Canadian author born in
Romania that other periodicals which had a more defined ideological position such as the two
mentioned above would probably not have published.
The only articles in periodicals dealing with translations from prose are to be found in
Romnia literar (Literary Romania). Cronica traducerilor (The Translation Chronicle)
made a short mention of the anthology Blind MacNair in 1970. Moreover, it devoted larger
sections to Hugh MacLennan (and a fragment of his Two Solitudes) in 1981, and Morley
Callaghan (present with a fragment from the novel They Shall Inherit the Earth that
accompanies critical considerations on the author and his work) in 1985.
The short note on Blind MacNair is signed by Petronela Negoanu, the translator of
the anthology who argues (1970: 21), in an impressionistic stance, that the twelve short stories
employed various literary techniques from satire to comic features to the modern forms of
prose defined by lyricism. This selection is said to comprise the best Canadian prose and is
meant to introduce us in a world of Canadian writers that are almost unknown to the
Romanian reader: F.W. Thomson, Stephen Leacock, Ringuet, Thomas H. Raddall, Morley
Callaghan, Leo Kennedy, Sinclair Ross, Hugh Garner, Anne Hebert, Roger Lemelin, Alice
Munro, and Mordecai Richler. By including Stephen Leacock among the Canadian authors
almost unknown to the Romanian readership, the rewriter does not seem to be familiar with
the translations from the humorists fiction that circulated during the inter-war and WWII
years. Thus, she manipulated the Romanian readers of the communist period into believing
that Leacock was virtually unknown in our country and that it was no part of the horizon of
expectations1 of readers in previous historical periods.
Hugh MacLennan
Although writings of reputed novelists came out in Canada from the late 1920s on
(Morley Callaghans short stories in 1928 and They Shall Inherit the Earth in 1935), it is with
Hugh MacLennan (and his Barometer Rising published in 1941) that a Canadian tradition
started to take shape. In her course on Canadian fiction in English, the Romanian rewriter2
Monica Bottez (2004: 59-60) argues that MacLennans name is associated with the rise of a
Canadian national consciousness as he found inspiration in dramatic Canadian events which
he used effectively as the framework for his fiction. He was the first novelist to articulate a
Canadian tradition by making his readers aware of themselves as Canadians; in his novels,
MacLennan examined the clashes and values (between the colonial mentality and the new
faith in a national destiny). Moreover, for his Barometer Rising, he chose the first event in
Canadian history which was on international news: the tremendous explosion that almost
1
We use the concept as enriched by Hans Robert Jauss in Rezeptionesthetik to refer to the expectations of
common readers and critics during a certain historical period.
2
The term is used in the sense coined by the Translation Studies scholar Andre Lefevere who refers to the agents
that manipulate a text (be they translators, critics, commentators or annotators).
397
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
destroyed Halifax on December 1917, when two foreign ammunition ships collided in the
harbour. The author himself confessed he had written his novel in an era when Canadian
letters were still under construction, to put it in rough terms:
When I first thought of writing this novel [Barometer Rising, published in
1941] Canada was virtually an uncharacterized country. It seemed to me then
that if our literature was to be anything but purely regional, it must be directed to
at least two audiences. One was the Canadian public, which took the Canadian
scene for granted but never defined its particular essence. The other was the
international public, which had never thought about Canada at all, and knew
nothing whatever about us. (2004: 60)
Furthermore, he is the only English Canadian author translated into Romanian during
the communist period that was included on the B list of the Calgary Conference in 1978, an
important moment in Canadian letters and the definition of a national canon (with his novel,
The Watch That Ends the Night) (Petru, 2005: 73).
The Romanian translation to Barometer Rising (Barometru n urcare by Livia Deac)
came out in the early 70s at Univers Publishing House. The importance of the work is also
underlined in the Romanian Note on the volume, the anonymous preface to the communist
translation. Here, the tone is marked by a Marxist grid, especially in the image of Canada (and
its involvement in the war just for the sake of British purposes) it creates for the Romanian
readers:
The publishing of the novel in 1941 is a landmark in the cultural history of
Canada, i.e. the beginning of a modern national literature, freed from the calques
of English models, a literature that aimed at acquainting the entire world with
the existence of Canadians as a nation having its own traditions, and was not just
a mere hybrid between England and the United States (). Halifax, the natural
setting of the book is a traditional colonial town which is very sensible to the
clich of Great Britain, the mother from which it was separated too long ago to
remember. In the authors vision, the life in Halifax becomes the microcosm of
the entire Canada, with its harsh conflicts between the arrogant descendants of
the former English colonists and the followers of the American natives;
MacLennan also makes reference to the absurdity of dragging Canada into a war
that was destined to serve Englands interests and did not concern Canada at
all. (1971: 5-6)3
The article on MacLennan in Romnia literar (Literary Romania) introduces a
translated fragment from Dou nsingurri (Two Solitudes), his second novel from 1945, a
work that has remained untranslated into Romanian to this day. The Romanian rewriter
Petronela Negoanu (1981: 22) makes considerations on present-day Canada which she views
as an ethnic, linguistic, social and cultural mosaic, an expression of the two Founding
Nations, the English and the French. Moreover, she lays emphasis on the multicultural
dimension of the country and its millions of immigrants of different origins that make its
specificity and on the effort to find its national unity after three centuries of history. Further
3
All translations mine, unless stated otherwise.
398
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
on, the motivated pioneers and engineers that succeeded in valorising the rich natural
resources of Canadian soil which brought the countrys acknowledgement on the world
markets, are opposed to Canadian writers that had to face a regionalist mentality, the lack of a
national tradition and bilingual constraints. However, writers such as the English Canadians
Mazo de la Roche, Hugh MacLennan, Morley Callaghan and the French Canadians Antonine
Maillet or Marie-Claire Blais writers known to the Romanian public by means of their
translations that came out during the communist years managed to achieve international
fame.
The reviewer argues that MacLennans work is essential for the knowledge of
contemporary Canadian literature. The Romanian reader is said to be familiar with his prose
due to the translation from Barometer Rising, one of the authors first novels (this is
actually MacLennans first novel as post-communist professors such as M. Bottez (2004) or
M. Petru (2005, 2006) correctly assert). Biographical data on the novelist is also provided,
Negoanu insisting on his Nova Scotian descendance. In fact, international critics argue that
he is a Scotsman, a Presbyterian and a Nova Scotian who appears to have inherited through
his Celtic ancestors, the romantic imagination, the melancholy streak, and the humour
characteristic of the race (Buitenhuis, 1974: 9). According to Negoanu, in the beginning, his
literary creation was centred on the major theme of seeking a Canadian national personality.
In this sense, he is compared to James Joyce regarding the uncreated conscience of his race.
The allusion is made to Joyces autobiographical work, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young
Man (probably familiar to the Romanian communist readers by means of the translation by
Frida Papadache that has circulated since 1969). Interestingly enough, the same consideration
is made in the anonymous Note on the volume to the Romanian version of Barometer Rising
in 1971. MacLennan is said to have been on a mission similar to that of Joyces hero, Stephen
Dedalus, for Ireland, so as to forge in the uncreated conscience of his race.
In her article, Petronela Negoanu also refers to the issue of Canadian identity which
is viewed as the reason to be of this ambitious and hardworking nation, insufficiently
defined in the context of its cultural and linguistic duality. MacLennan seems to be concerned
not only with Who am I?, but also with Where is here? in Canada, as one of his
commentators argues (and here the reviewer probably alluded to Fryes allegations on (the
lack of) Canadian identity). Furthermore, Negoanu assesses, in an impressionistic stance,
that MacLennans characters were shaped with humbleness and human understanding, on
the one hand, and analytic spirit and lucidity, on the other hand. In his prose, he
approaches themes such as the duality of the Canadian Founding Nations from Two Solitudes/
Dou solitudini (1945) to The Return of the Sphinx/ ntoarcerea sfinxului (1967), after having
tried to distinguish a specific Canadian character, different from that of the United States in
The Precipice/ Prpastia (1948) and from the Western European one in The Watch That Ends
the Night/ Veghea care pune capt nopii (1959). Similar claims are made by international
critics who argue that in each of his novels, MacLennan tackled a specific area of national
concern:
In Barometer Rising it is the First World War and the emergence of the problem of Canadian national
identity; in Two Solitudes, it is the French-Canadian problem and the conscription crisis; in The
Precipice it is Puritanism and Canadian relations with the United States; in The Watch That Ends The
Night it is the effect of the depression and the rise of fascism on Canada; in The Return of the Sphinx,
399
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
the complex nature of the French-Canadian problem allied to the generation-gap. (Buitenhuis, 1974:
19).
MacLennan is also praised for the Governor General Award he was granted for Two
Solitudes. We are not told that, in fact, he has won five Governor Generals Awards for his
books, and he has been given several prizes by the Canadian government, awarded many
honorary degrees, and made a Fellow of the Royal Society of Canada (idem, 1974: 13). The
Romanian rewriter notes that the intertextual instance in the title is a quotation from a poem
by Rainer Maria Rilke, i.e. Love consists in this,/ that two solitudes protect,/ and touch, and
greet each other. The novel is interpreted as an account of the concerns of MacLennans
Anglophone and Francophone contemporaries (symbolized in the novel by Paul and Heather,
the main characters) up to WWII. The translation of the last part of this novel (envisaged as
a parable of present Canadian realities) is incorporated in the article which ends with
considerations on the characters and the plot that do not go beyond an impressionistic stance:
the specific atmosphere of Canadian provinces is said to have brought the success of the book,
and not the slow growth of generations and internal drama of the heroes; a fine observer of
human nature, the author tried to reveal the mystery of human destinies.
The fragment from Two Solitudes chosen for translation is a representative one for
tackling issues of Canadian identity that concerned the nation and its writers. As one of the
characters argues:
Canada was imitative in everything. Yes, but perhaps only on the surface. What
about underneath? No one had dug underneath so far, that was the trouble.
Proust wrote only of France, Dickens laid nearly all his scenes in London.
Tolstoy was pure Russia - Hemingway let his heroes roam the world, but
everything he wrote smelled of the United States. Hemingway could put
American into the Italian army and get away with it because by now everyone in
the English-speaking world knew what an American was. But Canada was a
country that no one knew. It was a large red splash on the map. It produced
Mounted Policemen, quintuplets and raw materials. But because it used the
English and French languages, a Canadian book would have to take its place in
the English and French traditions. Both traditions were so mature they had
become almost decadent, while Canada herself was still raw. (quoted in
Cameron, 1981: 1972)
Morley Callaghan
Morley Callaghan is another prominent figure of Canadian letters who helped shaping
the countrys literary canons by means of his works that remind us of the density of
Hemingways concise style (Bottez, 2004: 46) As outlined by a short biographical note
accompanying the 1986 Romanian translation of his novel, They Shall Inherit the Earth (Ei
vor moteni pmntul), his first novel, Strange Fugitive (Ciudata fugar), was published in
1928 in the USA. However, it was the subsequent novels that brought him international fame.
The rewriter lists the most important ones: They Shall Inherit the Earth (Ei vor moteni
pmntul) 1935, The Loved and the Lost (Cei iubii i cei pierdui 1951) that granted him
the Governor General Award, A Passion in Rome (Patimi n cetatea etern) 1961, A Fine
and Private Place (Un loc frumos i singuratic) 1975, and A Time for Judas (Vremea lui
Iuda) 1983. It is also mentioned that he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada in
400
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
1982. In a quotation from Edmund Wilson at the end of the short presentation, he is compared
to Chekhov and Turgenev, a claim also made by Pdureleanu in her critical piece on
Callaghan in Romnia Literar (Literary Romania).
The article devoted to Morley Callaghan by Mircea and Georgeta Pdureleanu in 1985 is the
result of the authors Torontonian encounter with the Canadian novelist. The Romanian
rewriters express their enthusiasm at the acquaintance with the prestigious senior dean of
English Canadian writers (1985: 21), confessing that they were looking forward to this
meeting for two reasons: first, because Callaghan began his career as a writer along with
Ernest Hemingway, that virtuous figure of American prose (to whom Bottez compares him,
as we have already mentioned above) after WWI at the Toronto Daily Star a biographical
detail that drew the attention of the Pdureleanu couple , and second, owing to Edmund
Wilson who compared Callaghans work to Chekhovs and Turgenevs. As previously
mentioned, this assertion was also included on the back cover of the Romanian edition of
They Shall Inherit the Earth. By employing Wilsons quotation, the critics prove that the
influence of Russian authors is not a way to cope with the Marxist grids of communist
ideology and manipulate the target readership, since the reference is taken over from
international criticism. Although the Romanian rewriters do not mention it, Callaghan is also
compared to other Russian classics such as Tolstoy due to his image of humanity which
considers love () a fundamental trait in human nature (Conron, 1975: 4).
Mircea and Georgeta Pdureleanu make general considerations on Callaghan as a writer who,
in his seventeen novels, not to mention the short fiction, approached various universal themes,
thus breaking with the overwhelming provincialism reflected by Canadian literature before
him. Further on, they argue, in an impressionistic stance, that despite the modernist accents
favoured by the disappearance of traditional taboos and inhibitions, which marked Canadian
novels, the Torontonian novelist does not give up psychological analysis on a social
background. Thus, he initiated a writing of his own, drawing on a neorealist vision. From this
viewpoint, the Romanian rewriters share in common with international critics who generally
assert that Callaghans novels focus on situations of primarily psychological interest, not
dealing with his native Canada in any editorial or informative way, nor are they aimed at any
popular taste, Canadian, American or British (Conron, 1975: 108). Furthermore, Callaghans
distinctive plainness of language, a laconic, detached narrative manner, an unassuming
structure is believed to originate in three concurrent events: the general inclination toward
literary realism which had been gaining momentum since the last quarter of the nineteenth
century in North America, (...) the cultural malaise which afflicted Western civilization after
WWI and (...) that youthful experience as a newspaper reporter with the Toronto Daily Star
(Hoar, 1965: 3). Moreover, Callaghan is regarded as one of the first major prose writers of
The New Colonialism. His work marks the shift of one kind of writer away from a growing
sense of Canadian identity and even away from a British influence towards the influence of
the power and culture of the U.S.A. (Mathews, 1978)
After a brief account of the Romanian-Canadian exchange of impressions (the Romanian
rewriters, bewildered by Callaghans personality, the Canadian author expressing his regret
that he did not have the chance to visit our country despite the fact that he had populated his
novels with immigrants from Eastern Europe), the Pdureleanu couple moves to the analysis
of They Shall Inherit the Earth. The book renders a drama of conscience and destiny giving
401
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
its author the opportunity to portray the guilt complex of the main character in a larger
social context of the sense of human existence. Even a quotation by the Canadian critic F.M.
Watt is employed as an authority to validate the rewriters interpretation of Callaghans
fiction.
The Romanian critics also refer to the Romanian book market and the Romanians passion for
reading so as to provoke the author to reveal (literary) secrets of his youth. In this way, the
Romanian readership becomes acquainted with Callaghans That Summer in Paris (Acea var
parizian), a collection of essays that renders the authors life in the 1930s when he enjoyed
the friendship of the authors in The Lost Generation (Hemingway, Fitzgerald) and became
close to Joyce, Pound, Picasso, Cocteau, to name only a few. Further on, the critics express
their bewilderment, in front of the author, on the shift of the thematic paradigm in his work: if
novels like A Fine and Private Place (Un loc frumos i nsingurat) tackle the relation between
life and art, the individual and the society, the much debated on The Loved and the Lost (Cei
iubii i cei pierdui) and A Passion in Rome (Patimi n cetatea etern) approach less typical
issues for the Canadian community such as racial segregation or Roman Catholicism. In
reply, Callaghan explains that, in The Loved and the Lost, he tried to escape a schematic
manichaeism or the protestatarian-humanitarian aspects that dominated the relations
between white and black people, whereas A Passion in Rome is the result of his youth
recollections when the neothomist French philosopher Jacques Maritain lectured in Canada.
According to Hoar (1965: 13) They Shall Inherit the Earth belongs to that period in
Callaghans career when his association with the French philosopher, Jacques Maritain,
encouraged him to explore Christian humanism, a vision of the strength and worth of the
human being. The article ends with the translation of a fragment from chapter 25 of the
novel.
Conclusion
To conclude, it can be argued that the criticism on English Canadian authors
practiced by the periodical Romnia Literar (Literary Romania) during the communist
period was a neutral, impressionistic one. The two critical pieces on Hugh MacLennan and
Morley Callaghan, respectively give an accurate account of the Canadian authors and their
works; the novelists are acknowledged for their place in the Canadian literary tradition, and
even similarities with the works of other authors are found (e.g. MacLennan is compared to
Joyce, and Callaghan to Russian classics). Mainly rephrasing considerations of international
critics, the Romanian rewriters practice an impressionistic criticism unmarked by Marxist
grids, unlike paratextual criticism (e.g. the anonymous preface to the translation of
MacLennans Barometer Rising).
Bibliography
Bottez, Monica (2004) Infinite Horizons: Canadian Fiction in English, preface by Rodica
Mihil, Bucureti: Editura Universitii Bucureti.
Buitenhuis, Peter (1974) Canadian Writers and Their Works. Hugh MacLennan, Toronto:
Coles Publishing Company Limited.
402
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Burlacu, Doru, Aurel Sasu and Ion Istrate (2005) Dicionarul cronologic al romanului tradus
n Romnia de la origini pn n 1989, Bucureti: Editura Academiei Romne.
Callaghan Morley (1986) Ei vor moteni pmntul, translated bz Georgeta Pdureleanu,
Bucureti: Univers.
Cameron, Elspeth (1981) Hugh MacLennan: A Writers Life, Toronto: University of Toronto
Press.
Conron, Brandon (ed.) (1975) Morley Callaghan, Toronto/ New York: McGraw-Hill Ryerson
Limited.
Hoar, Victor (1969) Morley Callaghan, Toronto: The Copp Clark Publishing Company.
MacLennan, Hugh (1971) Barometru n urcare, translated by Livia Deac, Bucureti: Univers.
Mathews, Robin (1978) Morley Callaghan and The New Colonialism: the Supreme
Individual in Traditionless Society. In Studies in Canadian Literature/ Etudes en littrature
canadienne, vol. 3.1, http://dev.hil.unb.ca/Texts/SCL/bin/get.cgi?directory=
vol3_1/&filename=Mathews.htm.
Negoanu, Petronela (1970) MacNair cel Orb. In Romnia literar, no. 10, p. 21.
Pdureleanu, Georgeta and Mircea Pdureleanu (1985) Morley Callaghan. Acas la scriitor.
In Romnia literar, no. 16, p. 20-21.
Pdureleanu, Georgeta (1981) Hugh MacLennan: Dou nsingurri. O metafor a vieii
canadiene. In Romnia literar, no. 15, p. 20-21.
Petru, Margareta (2006) Dicionar de scriitori canadieni, Cluj-Napoca: Argonaut.
Petru, Margareta (2005) Romanul canadian postbelic ntre tradiie i postmodernism,
foreword by Virgil Stanciu, Cluj-Napoca: Argonaut.
Troncot, Tiberiu (2006) Romnia comunist. Propagand i cenzur, Bucureti: Tritonic.
403
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE ALJAMIADO-MORISCO QURANIC TRANSLATIONS AND THE PROBLEM
OF IDENTIFYING THE ARABIAN ORIGINAL
Daniela-Corina CHIRU, PhD Candidate, University of Bucharest
Abstract: The Aljamiado-Morisco literature consists mainly of religious writings produced
mostly in the 15th and the 16th centuries by a cryptic Iberian Muslim community. With twenty
seven codices known up to this date, the Koranic translations are of great linguistic interest.
Recent studies paid special attention to the textual criticism of the manuscripts and attempts
to classify them in families of texts were made for twenty six of them. However, given that the
studies in question didnt rely on the correct original Arabic text, some of the scribal errors
might not be actual errors. If that is the case, the finding will call for a review of the above-
mentioned classification. In the present paper I aim to identify the original Arabic text for
eleven of the codices. The novelty of this study resides in the analysis of the J 101 manuscript,
as well.
Keywords: Aljamiado, qirat, manuscripts, War can Nfic, calque language
0. Introducere
Literatura de expresie aljamiado-morisc include lucrri realizate cu precdere n
secolele al XV-lea i al XVI-lea,1 n cadrul comunitii morisce criptomusulmane 2 de pe
teritoriul iberic.3 O caracteristic important este c lucrrile au fost redactate ntr-o variant
liturgic a idiomului vernacular, o spaniol islamic (Hegyi, 1985: 647; Galms de Fuentes,
2009: 117; Casassas Canals, 2010: 9-10, Vespertino, 2004: 1753).
Tematica abordat cu predilecie n cadrul acestei literaturi este cea religioas
(Bernab Pons, 2010: 27), traducerile coranice ocupnd astfel un loc nsemnat (n prezent se
cunosc douzeci i apte de codice). Studiile recente au acordat o atenie deosebit criticii
textuale i s-a ncercat o mprire n familii de manuscrise pentru douzeci i ase dintre
texte. Cum studiile respective nu au pornit ns de la originalul arab corect, este posibil ca
erorile de lectur i de audiie s nu fie n realitate erori, fapt ce ar atrage dup sine revizuirea
clasificrii menionate mai sus. Scopul studiului de fa este tocmai identificarea originalului
arab pentru unsprezece dintre manuscrise. Prezenta lucrare aduce ca noutate i analiza
traducerii coranice din manuscrisul J 101, manuscris care nu a mai fost studiat pn acum.
1
Primele lucrri dateaz nc din cea de-a doua jumtate a secolului al XIV-lea, iar etapa final coincide cu
perioada exilului, la nceputul secolului al XVII-lea (Hegyi, 1995: 737; Alatorre, 2002: 252-253).
2
Pentru mai multe detalii despre aceast comunitate, a se vedea Alatorre, A. (2002): Los 1001 aos de la lengua
espaola, Mexic: Fondo de Cultura Econmica i Boase, R. (2002: p. 21-7) The muslim expulsion from Spain, n
History Today, vol. 52, nr. 4.
3
Mai exact, n zonele recucerite cel mai devreme (Galms de Fuentes, 2009: 111) majoritatea manuscriselor
sunt de origine aragonez, dei exist i un numr redus de codice care provin din zonele castiliene (Hegyi,
1995: 737; Galms de Fuentes, 2009: 111).
404
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
1. Status questionis
n cercetarea traducerilor coranice morisce, se remarc lingvista Consuelo Lpez-
Morillas cu numeroase studii publicate pe aceast tem de-a lungul carierei sale. Printre
acestea se numr The Qur'n in Sixteenth-Century Spain: Six Morisco Versions of Sra 79
(1982), lucrare unde editeaz traducerea unui capitol coranic pentru ase manuscrise
aljamiado-morisce; The Genealogy of the Spanish Quran (2006), un articol foarte util, n care
reuete s grupeze traducerile coranice aljamiado-morisce n familii de manuscrise i El
Coran de Toledo. Edicin y estudio del manuscrito 235 de la Biblioteca de Castilla-La
Mancha (2011), lucrare care conine editarea manuscrisului toledan 235 (singura traducere
coranic morisc integral) i, de asemenea, un studiu lingvistic.
Dup cum observ Lpez-Morillas (2011: 84), traducerile coranice morisce sunt foarte
literale (literalitatea fiind, de altfel, caracteristic limbilor calc):
Dac n cazul traducerilor moderne, un asemenea grad de literalitate este
privit ca un defect, n acest caz situaia este opus. Traductorul este dator s
nu se ndeprteze prea tare de original, pentru ca versiunea lui s pstreze
caracterul sacru al acestuia. [trad. aut.]
Dac o traducere literal arat o bun nelegere a textului, pasajele unde aceasta se
distaneaz de textul-surs sunt de mare importan din punct de vedere filologic (Lpez-
Morillas, 2011: 87-8). Se tie c erorile joac un rol nsemnat n critica textual: identificarea
filiaiei diferitelor manuscrise se bazeaz tocmai pe erorile comune ntre acestea (Blecua,
1983: 47-50).
Lpez-Morillas (2011: 83) este contient de necesitatea comparrii traducerii cu
originalul arab i de importana pe care o au erorile de traducere pentru studiul lingvistic i
critica textual a manuscriselor:
Traducerile trebuie studiate n strns relaie cu textul original. Dac acest
principiu este general valabil pentru toate traducerile, este cu att mai
important n cazul unei scrieri sacre; cel care transpune o astfel de oper ntr-
o alt limb se angajeaz, chiar dac ntr-o form tacit, s respecte nu doar
coninutul, ci, n msura n care este posibil, i forma acesteia nu doar
spiritul, ci i litera. [trad. aut.]
Astfel, subliniind importana analizei pasajelor care nu sunt traduse cu o fidelitate
literal lingvista compar 700 de astfel de secvene. Prin juxtapunerea diferitelor traduceri
arabista analizeaz similaritile i diferenele dintre douzeci i ase de traduceri coranice
morisce. Pe baza acestora, identific filiaia manuscriselor respective (Lpez-Morillas, 2006:
30-31; 2011: 50-53).
Dei subliniaz importana pe care a avut-o compararea traducerii cuvnt cu cuvnt
cu textul original, textul arab folosit de lingvist este versiunea publicat n Cairo n anul
1923 (Lpez-Morillas, 2011: 84).
O privire mai atent arat ns c aceasta nu a folosit textul arab corect. Astfel, Lpez-
Morillas (2011: 96-7) observ n studiul introductiv c n traducere apare n mod consecvent o
anumit eroare i menioneaz, foarte pe scurt, c este posibil ca traducerea s fi fost
405
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
realizat pornind de la alt lectur dect lectura cairot canonic modern (utilizat,
bineneles, de aceasta).
Din perspectiva literaturii islamice, afirmaia surprinde destul de tare, avnd n vedere
c exist zece4 lecturi (cu cte dou transmiteri fiecare) la fel de canonice i de autorizate att
n prezent, ct i n trecut (Ibn r, vol. I: 56-60). Informaia este cunoscut n lumea
islamic. De altfel, aria de rspndire a diferitelor lecturi este n prezent urmtoarea: lectura
Nfi, transmis pe linia Qln se gsete n Libia i n anumite zone din Egipt i Tunisia;
transmis pe linia War, aceeai lectur este rspndit n toat Algeria, ntr-o parte nsemnat
din Maroc i n alte zone din Egipt i Tunisia; lectura im transmis pe linia af este n
prezent cea mai rspndit, putnd fi citit n tot Orientul Mijlociu, din Irak pn n Levant i
n cea mai mare parte din Egipt i de asemenea n India, Pakistan, Turcia i Afghanistan.
Merit amintit c n prezent mai este citit i lectura Ab Amr n zonele din Sudan aflate la
grania cu Egiptul (Ibn r, vol. I: 63).
Textul publicat la Cairo a fost ns numit de orientaliti Vulgata fuadin, acesta fiind
vzut ca rezultatul editrii critice a textului coranic pe parcursul a treisprezece secole
(Grigore, 1997: 21). Totui, o perspectiv din interiorul lumii islamice pune chestiunea n alt
lumin, versiunea cairot nefiind altceva dect tiprirea textului coranic n lectura im
transmis pe linia af. Astfel de demersuri din partea savanilor occidentali sunt privite din
interior ca ncercri de ncadrare a islamului n tipare care i sunt strine, ncercri de
orientalizare a acestuia (Said, 2001: 60; 67; Al-Azami, 2011: 335-337). Drept mrturire a
rspndirii celor zece lecturi canonice stau numeroase manuscrise care le atest, manuscrise
care dateaz nc din primul secol al calendarului islamic. 5
E adevrat c diferenele ntre cele zece lecturi sunt minore, fr s afecteze unitatea
textului coranic, dup cum observ lingvistul Brockett, n studiul su referitor la lecturile
coranice:
Fidelitatea tradiiei orale n Orientul Apropiat este, n general, binecunoscut
i mai cu seam cea a arabilor. Analfabetismul ntrete memoria. Totui,
privit dintr-un unghi negativ, tradiia oral se caracterizeaz prin variante
cauzate de cuvintele auzite greit, din confundarea cuvintelor cu altele
pronunate asemntor, din uitarea, poziionarea greit sau reinterpretarea
unor ntregi episoade. Lsnd deoparte arta caligrafic, tradiia scris se
caracterizeaz prin variante cauzate de erorile copitilor, de citirea greit a
termenilor, [...] de omiterile cauzate de o privire neatent i de pierderea
aleatorie a unor pasaje i adugirea altora din alte surse. Astfel, dac Coranul
ar fi fost transmis doar pe cale oral n primul secol, ar fi trebuit s existe
diferene nsemnate ntre texte, aa cum se ntmpl cu tradiiile profetice sau
4
Pentru mai multe detalii privind numrul lecturilor coranice, a se vedea Al-Azami, M.M. (2011): The History
of the Qur'anic Text. From Revelation to Compilation. A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments.
Riyad: Azami Publishing House; capitolul 12 Causes of variant readings, pp. 189-202.
5
Printre acestea se numr: manuscrisul Arabe 328 (Biblioteca Naional din Paris; secolul al VIII-lea) n
lectura Ibn mr i manuscrisul Arabe 385 (Biblioteca Naional din Paris; secolul al XIV-lea) n lectura War
an Nfi, lista putnd fi continuat cu multe alte manuscrise. Pentru mai multe detalii, a se vedea: Dutton, Y.
(1999: 115-140): Red Dots, Green Dots, Yellow Dots & Blue: Some Reflections On The Vocalisation Of Early
Qur'anic Manuscripts - Part I", n Journal Of Qur'anic Studies, vol. 1 (nr. 1) i Dutton, Y. (2000: 1-24): Red
Dots, Green Dots, Yellow Dots & Blue: Some Reflections On The Vocalisation Of Early Qur'anic Manuscripts -
Part II, n Journal Of Qur'anic Studies, vol. 2 (nr. 1)
406
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
poezia preislamic, iar dac ar fi fost transmis doar pe cale scris, am fi gsit
variaii nsemnate ca cele din transmiterea documentului original al
Constituiei Medinei. ns niciuna dintre cele dou situaii nu se aplic n
cazul Coranului. Trebuie s fi existat o transmitere scris care a mers n
paralel cu cea oral, limitnd prin forma grafic variaia transmiterii orale,
care a prevenit coruperea transmiterii scrise. Transmiterea oral a Coranului
a fost n esen static, iar nu organic. Nu a existat dect un singur text i
nimic, nici mcar material abrogat, nu a putut fi adugat. [] Litera nu este
un schelet mort, care trebuie mbrcat din nou, ci este o manifestare a
spiritului, viu nc de la bun nceput. Transmiterea Coranului a fost
ntotdeauna deopotriv de factur oral i scris. (Brockett, 1984: 42-43)
Totui, pentru un studiu lingvistic aceste diferene sunt importante i au impact asupra
erorilor semnalate de Lpez-Morillas, fiind foarte posibil ca traducerea s fi fost mult mai
fidel dect pare la prima vedere. Acest lucru ar putea afecta i clasificarea n funcie de
familiile de manuscrise.
Astfel, nc din primele file, se poate observa relativ uor c traducerea nu s-a bazat pe
lectura utilizat de lingvista Lpez-Morillas (af an im).
De altfel, interesant este n acest sens i manuscrisul aljamiado-morisc J 12,6 din
Biblioteca Toms Navarro Toms, care este tocmai un tratat despre diferenele dintre cele
dou linii de transmitere ale lecturii coranice Nfi. Prezena acestui codice arat c lectura
respectiv era rspndit n cadrul acestei comuniti, fapt ce poate constitui un punct de
plecare n identificarea originalului arab n cazul traducerilor coranice morisce.
Importana identificrii corecte a originalului rezid tocmai n faptul c erorile
semnalate de Lpez-Morillas este posibil s nu fie n realitate erori. Multe dintre aceste erori
identificate de lingvist (2011: 84-87) pot fi n realitate pasaje n care originalul arab difer
fa de lectura coranic utilizat de Lpez-Morillas.7 Printre acestea se numr diferene de
diatez verbal, conjugarea verbului la alt persoan, diferene n numrul substantivelor,
omiterea sau folosirea altor particule i chiar diferene la nivel de lexic. 8 Faptul c anumite
erori considerate comune mai multor manuscrise nu sunt n realitate erori atrage dup sine i
revizuirea identificrii filiaiei acestora.
Identificarea lecturii corecte este important nu doar pentru critica textual, ci i
pentru studiile lingvistice realizate pe baza acestor codice. Doar contrastnd traducerile cu
textul original corect se poate determina dac i n ce proporie apar structuri specific semitice
n traducere chiar i atunci cnd textul arab nu recurge la ele. Este, de pild, cazul parataxei i
al paronomazei (Lpez-Morillas, 1982: 38-9) sau folosirea conjunciei i (y) nu doar ca
traducere a particulei arabe wa (cu rol coordonator), ci i a particulei fa (cu funcii disjunctive,
adversative sau subordonatoare, pentru introducerea apodozei ntr-o propoziie condiional)
(Lpez-Morillas, 1982: 41; 1994: 55).
6
Manuscrisul este digitalizat i poate fi consultat la urmtoarea adres: J 12 [Contradicin y deferencia que ay
entre Wari y Qln], sec. al XVI-lea, Madrid: Biblioteca Toms Navarro Toms del CSIC, manuscris digitalizat
< http://aleph.csic.es/imagenes/mad01/0006_PMSC/P_001227502_650872_V00.pdf >
7
Spre exemplu, Lpez-Morillas (2011: 93) consider conjugarea verbului la persoana a III-a singular, n locul
persoanei I plural (cum apare n varianta cairot) drept o greeal de traducere. n realitate ns traducerea
urmeaz cu fidelitate originalul n acest caz, diferena datorndu-se utilizrii altei lecturi coranice.
8
n seciunea 3. Analiz sunt expuse i analizate exemple de traduceri care difer fa de versiunea cairot (de la
care pornete Lpez-Morillas) ca urmare a utilizrii altei lecturi coranice.
407
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
2. Metodologie
n ceea ce privete corpusul, am realizat acest studiu pe baza urmtoarelor manuscrise
aljamiado-morisce (toate dateaz din secolul al XVI-lea, cu excepia manuscrisului T 235,
care provine de la nceputul secolului al XVII-lea):
Madrid, Biblioteca Naional a Spaniei: BNM 4938
Madrid, Biblioteca Toms Navarro Toms: J 3, J 18, J 25, J 39, J 47, J 51, J 58 i J 101
(D2)
Paris, Biblioteca Naional a Franei: BNP 447
Toledo, Biblioteca de Castilla-La Mancha: T 235
Dintre acestea, menionez c manuscrisul J 1019 nu a mai fost studiat.
Pentru a realiza acest studiu, am identificat nainte de toate pasajele din manuscrise
care mi pot fi utile (aproximativ o sut cincizeci). O prim problem este c doar un singur
codice conine traducerea integral. Celelalte zece manuscrise analizate conin doar anumite
pasaje (Lpez-Morillas, 2006: 7-8). Aadar, pentru a putea compara diferitele traduceri, a
trebuit s identific acele fragmente care se regsesc n mai multe codice. 10
De asemenea, un pasaj coranic se suprapune peste mai multe lecturi dintre cele zece.
Am ncercat, pe ct posibil, s folosesc acele pasaje care disting ct mai mult diferite lecturi
fa de celelalte. Dup ce am juxtapus traducerile dintr-un manuscris, am vzut care dintre
lecturi este prezent n toate cazurile, aceasta fiind lectura pe care se bazeaz traducerea. 11
Unele dintre manuscrise sunt versiuni bilingve: traducerea apare alturi de textul
coranic arab fie interliniar, fie n secvene tip bloc (Lpez-Morillas, 2006: 11). n aceste
cazuri (mai ales atunci cnd este i vocalizat), textul arab poate fi util n identificarea lecturii,
dei utilitatea se traduce n acest caz mai degrab printr-o orientare, ntruct traducerea nu
urmeaz ntotdeauna aceeai lectur ca textul arab.
De pild, n cazul manuscrisului J 18, textul arab folosete forma de pasiv yurau n
versetul 55:22 (fila 169 r). Traducerea folosete ns forma activ a verbului, fiind posibil ca
traductorul s fi urmat alt lectur:
(1) (J 18, fila 169 r) 55:22 I ako e la una ella la pelra i lo korale
Alte repere oferite de textul arab pot fi i divizarea versetelor sau numrul total de
versete dintr-un capitol coranic (cazul manuscrisului T 235).
3. Analiz
Un aspect n care lecturile difer este prezena sau absena particulei wa, ca n cazul
versetului 3:133 (Al-Marw, 2009: 67). Traducerile morisce urmeaz n acest caz una
dintre lecturile care omit particula: Nfi (Qln i War), Ibn mr (Him i Ibn akwn),
Abu afar (Ibn Wardn i Ibn ammz).
9
La o prim vedere, este posibil s aparin aceleiai familii de manuscrise ca J 39 i J 58.
10
Articolul lui Lpez-Morillas The Genealogy of the Spanish Quran (2006) include i o anex (Appendix B),
unde arabista inventariaz pasajele coninute de fiecare manuscris n parte. Totui, lista respectiv pierde din
utilitate n cazurile unde exist scpri de exemplu, nu se menioneaz c manuscrisul J 39 conine i
traducerile capitolelor 88 i 91.
11
Pentru ilustrarea procedurii, a se vedea Tabelul 1 de la sfritul seciunii 3. Analiz.
408
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
(2) (T 235, fila 34 v) 3:133 Apresuraos a la perdonana de vuestro Seor y ad
alchanna que su anchura es los ielos y la tierra, que esta aparejada para los
temerosos.
(3) (J 51, fila 84 r) 3:133 Ap(e)reurao a la peronana de b(u)wetro ennor i a
lalchanna ke u anchera e komo lo ielo i la tierra [...].
n alte cazuri, unele lecturi difer n folosirea unei particule: n timp ce n unele apare
particula wa, n alte particula utilizat este fa (Al-Marw, 2009: 596). Sunt ilustrative n
acest sens traducerile versetului 91:15.
(4) (T 235, fila 342 v) 91:15 Pues no temieron su escarmiento.
(5) (BNM 4938, fila 52 v) 91:15 Ke no hub(i)yeron m(i)yeo a u ekarm(i)yento {i
tormento}.
(6) (BNP 447, fila 76 v) 91:15 Y no temieron sus fines.
(7) (J 25, fila 67 r) 91:15 Porke no ub(i)yeron m(i)yeo a u ekarm(i)yento.
(8) (J 47, fila 117 v) 91:15 I no tem(i)yeron u ekarm(i)yento.
n cazul versetului 5:6, diferena vocalizrii cuvntului arulakum /arulikum i
modific antecedentul. n funcie de lectura urmat, textul ar putea fi redat ca labad [...]
vuestros piedes sau mahad [...] vuestros piedes (Al-Marw, 2009: 108). Se poate ns
observa c manuscrisele recurg la cea de-a doua variant, ceea ce arat c urmeaz una dintre
lecturile: im (ubat), Ibn Kar (Al-Bazz i Qunbul), Ab Amr (Ad-Dr i As-Ss),
amza (alaf i alld), Abu afar (Ibn Wardn i Ibn ammz), alaf (Isq i Idrs).
(9) (T 235, fila 57 r) 5:6 Ye aquellos que sois creyentes! Quando os devantareis al
aala, pues labad vuestras caras y vuestras manos hasta los coudos, y mahad
por vuestras cabeas y vuestros piedes hasta los torteruelos. Y si estareis suios,
pues taharaos. Y si estareis enfermos o sobre camino o vendra alguno de
vosotros de fentar o abra conbenido muger y no hallareis agua, pues hazed
atayamum con tierra linpia, y mahad por vuestras caras y vuestras manos.
Dello no quiere Al.llah meter sobre vosotros estrechura, mas empero quiere
alimpiaros de pecados para cumplir su graia sobre vosotros, porque lo
agradezcais.
(10) (J 51, fila 134 r) 5:6 Ye akello de oi k(e)reyente! Ku(w)ando o
ebantarei al alala, p(u)wes laba b(u)wetra kara i b(u)wetra mano hata
lo koio, y maha por b(u)wetra kabea i b(u)wetro p(i)yee hata lo
torter(u)welo. [...]
n cazul versetului 6:96, diferena const n schimbarea prii de vorbire. Unele lecturi
folosesc verbul aala l-layla, n timp ce altele folosesc n schimb participiul activ derivat de
la aceeai rdcin ilu l-layli (Al-Marw, 2009: 140). Manuscrisul T 235 utilizeaz cea
de-a doua variant, conform lecturilor: Nfi (Qln i War), Ibn Kar (Al-Bazz i Qunbul),
Ab Amr (Ad-Dr i As-Ss), Ibn mr (Him i Ibn akwn), Abu afar (Ibn
Wardn i Ibn ammz), Yaqb (Ruways i Raw).
(11) (T 235, fila 75 r) 6:96 Carpidor de la maana, metedor de la noche sosiego, y
el sol y la luna lo puso en gradas.
409
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Asemntor este i cazul versetului 10:2, unde diferena const n utilizarea unui
substantiv sir sau a participiului activ derivat de la aceeai rdcin sir (Al-Marw,
2009: 262). Manuscrisul toledan 235 transpune i de aceast dat cea de-a doua variant, n
conformitate cu lecturile: im (ubat i af), Ibn Kar (Al-Bazz i Qunbul), amza
(alaf i alld), Al-Kis (Abu l-ri i af ad-Dr), alaf (Isq i Idrs).
(12) (T 235, fila 114 r) 10:2 Dixeron los descreyentes: Este es aihrero claro.
Una dintre diferenele fa de lectura im care se observ nc din primele file n
cazul majoritii manuscriselor, este utilizarea variantei maliki (rege), n locul participiului
mliki (stpn) (Al-Marw, 2009: 1), conform lecturilor: Nfi (Qln i War), Ibn Kar
(Al-Bazz i Qunbul), Ab Amr (Ad-Dr i As-Ss), Ibn mr (Him i Ibn akwn),
amza (alaf i alld) sau Abu afar (Ibn Wardn i Ibn ammz).
(13) (T 235, fila 1 r) 1:4 rrey del da del judiio
(14) (J 51, fila 5 r) 1:4 rrey el i(y)a del juii(y)o
(15) (J 3, fila 1 r) 1:4 rrey el di(y)a el juii(y)o
(16) (J 25, fila 1 r) 1:4 rrey el di(y)a el juii(y)o
(17) (J 39, fila 87 v) 1:4 rrey el di(y)a {ke g(u)walaronar a la chente por u
obra}
(18) (J 58, fila 3 v) 1:4 rrey el di(y)a {ke g(u)walaronar a la chente por u
obra}
(19) (J 101 - D2, f. 1 r - 1 v) 1: 4 rrey el di(y)a {ke g(u)walaronar a la chente
por u obra}
(20) (BNP 447, fila 1 v) rrey del da del judizio
n unele cazuri, o diferen la nivelul punctelor diacritice antreneaz o diferen la
nivel lexical, dup cum se ntmpl n cazul versetului 2:219 (Al-Marw, 2009: 34). Dintre
cele dou variante, kabrun (mare) i karun (mult, numeros), traducerile aljamiado-
morisce o utilizeaz pe cea dinti, conform lecturilor: im (ubat i af), Nfi (Qln i
War), Ibn Kar (Al-Bazz i Qunbul), Ab Amr (Ad-Dr i As-Ss), Ibn mr (Him
i Ibn akwn), Abu afar (Ibn Wardn i Ibn ammz), Yaqb (Ruways i Raw), alaf
(Isq i Idrs).
(21) (T 235, fila 17 v) 2:219 Demandarte an {ye Muammed} por el vino y el
juego. Diles: En eso ay pecados grandes {ya se aprobecharon deso las jentes
antes que se bedase} y su pecado es mayor que su probecho. Y demandarte an lo
que an de despender en aadaca. Diles: Lo que sobrara a ellos {y a sus
conpaas} de la despensa. Asi es que declara Allah a vosotros las aleas
porque penseis
(22) (J 51, fila 47 r) 2:219 emandarte an por el bino i el j(u)wego. ile: En
eo o ay pekao g(a)rande i el ap(o)robecham(i)yento [...] I sepa ke e ma
g(a)rane ke u p(o)robecho. [...] // I emanarte an {ye Muh.ammad} por lo ke
an e epener en la aadaqa. [...]
Exist i cazuri n care difer modul verbal. n cazul versetului 2:259, unele lecturi
folosesc indicativul, forma de nendeplinit, persoana I singular alamu (eu tiu), fa de
410
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
forma de imperativ alam (s tii) (Al-Marw, 2009: 43). Manuscrisele recurg la cea de-a
doua variant, conform lecturilor: amza (alaf i alld), Al-Kis (Abu l-ri i af
ad-Dr), alaf (Isq i Idrs).
(23) (T 235, fila 21 r) 2:259 Y asi mesmo fue aquel que passo por aquella iudad y
ella estaba vazia de moradores, derribados sus terrados y paredes. Dixo:
Como palabra esta iudad de Al.lah despues de su yermamiento? Y matolo
Al.lah y estubo muerto ien aos. Despues rrebibcolo y dixeronle: Quanto as
fincado? Dixo: E fincado vn dia o partida de vn dia. Dixo: Antes as fincado
ien aos. Pues para mientres a tu vianda y a tu bebraje, como no se a
permutado. Y para mientres a tu asno, que lo habemos puesto a tu milagro a las
gentes. Y para mientres a los huesos, como los habemos criado despues los
habemos vestido de carne. Pues quando se declaro a el, dixo: Sepas que Al.lah
es sobre toda cosa poderoso.
(24) (J 51, filele 58 v - 59 r) 2:259 O komo akel ke pao obre una iba i ella
estaba bazi(y)a [] // [] I mira a tu ano i meterte emo milagro para la
jente i mira a lo g(u)weo komo lo k(i)riemo ep(u)we lo enbitimo e
karne. [] P(u)we k(u)wano ak(a)lara akel ie: epa ke Al.lah e obre
toda cosa poderoso.
n cazuri precum cel al versetului 2:285, verbul se conjug la alt persoan, n funcie
de lectur (Al-Marw, 2009: 49). Manuscrisele folosesc n locul persoanei a III-a singular,
persoana I plural, conform lecturilor: im (ubat i af), Nfi (Qln i War), Ibn Kar
(Al-Bazz i Qunbul), Ab Amr (Ad-Dr i As-Ss), Ibn mr (Him i Ibn akwn),
amza (alaf i alld), Al-Kis (Abu l-ri i af ad-Dr), Abu afar (Ibn Wardn
i Ibn ammz), alaf (Isq i Idrs).
(25) (T 235, fila 25 r) 2:285 No despartimos entre ninguno de sus mensajeros. [...]
(26) (J 51, fila 65 v) 2:285 Departimo ent(e)re ninguno e u menanjero. [...]
(27) (J 25, fila 5 r) 2:285 [...] No epartimo ent(e)re ninguno e u menajero. [...]
(28) (J 39, fila 92 v) 2:285 [...] No epartimo ent(e)re ninguno e u menajero. [...]
(29) (J 58, fila 8 v) 2:285 [...] No epartimo ent(e)re ninguno e u menajero. [...]
(30) (J 101 D 2, fila 7 v) 2:285 [...] No epartimo ent(e)re ninguno e u
menajero. [...]
Pot exista variaii i n utilizarea diatezei verbale (Al-Marw, 2009: 143). n cazul
versetului 6:119, manuscrisul toledan T 235 recurge la forma activ a verbelor, n
conformitate cu lecturile: im (af), Nfi (Qln i War), Abu afar (Ibn Wardn i
Ibn ammz), Yaqb (Ruways i Raw).
(31) (T 235, pp. 224) 6: 119 que ya declar a vosotros lo que debed sobre
vosotros
O alt variaie const n numrul substantivului (Al-Marw, 2009: 49). n cazul
versetului 2:285, traducerile morisce folosesc forma de plural (kutubihi), pe linia lecturilor:
im (ubat i af), Nfi (Qln i War), Ibn Kar (Al-Bazz i Qunbul), Ab Amr
(Ad-Dr i As-Ss), Ibn mr (Him i Ibn akwn), Abu afar (Ibn Wardn i Ibn
ammz), Yaqb (Ruways i Raw).
411
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
(32) (T 235, fila 25 r) 2:285 Fiel es el mensajero de Allah con lo que fue deballado a
el de su Seor, y los creyentes todos crean con Allah y con sus almalaques y sus
escrituras y sus mensajeros.
(33) (J 51, fila 65 v) 2:285 K(e)rey el menajero kon lo ke f(u)we eballao a l e
u ennor i lo k(e)reyente too k(e)reyeron kon Al.lah i u almalake i u
ek(i)ritura y u menajero.
(34) (J 3, fila 4 r) 2:285 Fi(y)el e el menajero kon lo ke le f(u)we eballao a l e
u ennor. I lo ke on k(e)reyente too k(e)reen kon Al.lah i (y)aberaeen a
u almalake i (y)a u ek(i)ritura i (y)a u menajero. [...]
(35) (J 25, filele 4 v - 5 r) 2:285 I k(e)ree el menajero {Muammad} // kon lo ke
eendio a l e u ennor. I lo k(e)reyente too k(e)reen kon Al.lah i kon u
almalake i u ek(i)ritura i u menajero. [...]
(36) (J 39, fila 92 v) 2:285 K(e)ree el menjero {Muammad} // kon lo ke f(u)we
eballao a l e u eor. I lo k(e)reyente too k(e)reen kon Al.lah i u
almalake i kon u alkitbe i u menajero. [...]
(37) (J 58, fila 8 v) 2:285 K(e)ree el menajero {Muammad} kon lo ke f(u)we
eballao a l e u ennor. I lo k(e)reyente too k(e)reen kon Al.lah i u
almalake i kon u alkitbe i u menajero. [...]
(38) (J 101 D 2, fila 7 v) 2:285 K(e)ree el menajero {Muammad} kon lo ke
f(u)we eballao a l e u ennor. I lo k(e)reyente too k(e)reen kon Al.lah i
u almalake i kon u alkitbe i u menajero. [...]
(39) (BNP 447, filele 7 v - 8 r) 2:285 Crey el mensagero lo que fue embiado a l de
su seor y los creyentes todos creen en Al.lah y en sus almalaques y a sus libros y a
sus mensageros. [...]
Dup cum aminteam mai sus, textul arab fi util n identificarea lecturii i chiar a
transmiterii acesteia. Astfel, se observ c n toate manuscrisele morisce, textul arab urmeaz
vocalizarea lecturii Nfi, transmis pe linia War (Al-Marw, 2009: 1; 42; 49; 596). Sunt
ilustrative exemplele urmtoare: 1:1 maliki J 3(fila 1 r), J 25 (fila 1 r), BNP 447 (pp. 23-25);
1:6-7 alayhim J 3 (filele 1 r - 1 v), J 25 (fila 1 v), BNP 447 (filele 2 r - 2 v); 2:255 wa m
f lr J 3 (fila 2 v), J 25 (fila 2 v), BNP 447 (fila 4 v); aydhim J 3 (fila 2 v), J 25 (fila 3
r), BNP 447 (fila 5 r); wa huwa vs wa hwa: J 3 (fila 2 v), J 25 (fila 3 v), BNP 447 (fila 5 v);
2:285 mana J 3 (fila 4 r), J 25 (fila 4 v), BNP 447 (fila 7 v); wa-l mminna J 3 (fila 4 r),
J 25 (fila 5 r), BNP 447 (fila 8 r); kutubihi J 3 (fila 4 r), J 25 (fila 5 r), J 39 (fila 92 v), J 58
(fila 8 v), J 101 D 2 (fila 7 v), BNP 447 (fila 8 r); l nufarriqu J 3 (fila 4 r), J 25 (fila 5 r),
J 39 (fila 92 v), J 58 (fila 8 v), J 101 D 2 (fila 7 v), BNP 447 (fila 8 r); 91:15 fa-l BNM
4938 (fila 52 v), BNP 447 (fila 76 v), J 25 (fila 67 r).
Textul arab este util n identificarea originalului i prin modul divizrii versetelor. i
n acest caz, toate manuscrisele urmeaz lectura Nfi, transmis pe linia War (Al-Marw,
2009: 1; 42). Spre exemplu, versetul 1:1 se ncheie dup rabbi l-lamna: J 25 (fila 1 r), J 58
(fila 3 r), J 101 D 2 (f 1 r - 1 v); versetul 1:6, dup anamta alayhim: J 51 (fila 5 r), J 25
(fila 1 v), J 58 (fila 3 r), J 101 D 2 (filele 1 r - 1 v); n cazul versetului 2:255, dup al-
qayymu: J 3 (fila 2 v), J 51 (pp. 122), J 25 (fila 2 v), J 39 (fila 89 v), J 58 (fila 5 v), J 101 D
2 (fila 7 v).
n cazul manuscrisului toledan T 235, se poate lua n considerare i numerotarea
versetelor. Astfel, versetul 55:22 e numerotat ca 55:20, iar 56:9 e numerotat ca 56:10, n
412
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
conformiate cu lectura Nfi, transmis pe linia War. Situaia este analog i n cazul
numrului total al versetelor (spre exemplu, capitolul 56 are nouzeci i nou de versete n
manuscrisul T 235, fiind n conformitate cu aceeai lectur).
Dac textul arab din manuscrisele aljamiado-morisce urmeaz fr excepie lectura
coranic Nfi, transmis pe linia War, analiza traducerilor aljamiado-morisce arat c
acestea au fost realizate cel mai probabil pe baza aceleiai lecturi - Nfi.
Totui, acestea sunt rezultatele preliminare. Situaia este ns mai complex dect pare
la prima vedere. Ilustrativ este cazul manuscrisului T 235: 60% dintre pasaje urmeaz lectura
Nfi (War), ns 20% dintre acestea urmeaz lectura amzah 20% (Tabelul 1 prezint
cteva exemple). Restul de 20% se potrivesc cu ambele lecturi, fiind posibil ca 80% dintre
pasaje s poat fi atribuite lecturii War.
Avnd n vedere c era de ateptat ca lectura urmat de acest manuscris s fie lectura
War, prezena pasajelor care urmeaz lectura amza este surprinztoare. Iar faptul c acestea
sunt n proporie de 20% din totalul pasajelor analizate, arat c nu este ceva ntmpltor.
n ceea ce privete celelalte manuscrise, doar codicele J 51 conine cteva pasaje care
s coincid cu cele din T 235 care urmeaz lectura amza. i n cazul acesta rezultatele sunt
aceleai.
Aadar, datele arat c este nevoie de o analiz mai amnunit, pentru a vedea dac
nu cumva situaia este rezultatul influenei unei alte lecturi canonice (sau chiar necanonice)
prin intermediul pasajelor exegetice interpolate n traducerea propriu-zis. 12
5. Concluzii
Manuscrisele coranice aljamiado-morisce sunt de mare importan din punct de vedere
filologic. Lingvista Lpez-Morillas a ncercat s determine filiaia textelor, ns nu a pornit de
la originalul arab corect. Identificarea acestuia este foarte important att pentru critica
textual, ct i pentru studiile lingvistice. Studiile preliminare arat c este foarte probabil ca
traducerile coranice aljamiado-morisce s fi pornit de la lectura Nfi (transmis pe linia
War). Este totui nevoie de o analiz riguroas, care s in cont i de influena comentariilor
exegetice (tafsr) asupra traducerii (acestea putnd s conin fragmente din alte lecturi
coranice deopotriv canonice i necanonice).
Se tie c lecturile necanonice au lsat urme n anumite opere de exegez coranic (tafsr) (a se vedea Corpus
12
Coranicum, 2013; Al-Azhar, 2005-2013; Al-Qar, 2009)
413
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
im Nfi Ibn Kar Ab Amr Ibn mr amza Al-Kis Abu afar Yaqb alaf
af ad-Dr
Ibn ammz
Abu l-ri
Ibn akwn
Ibn Wardn
Nr.
Al-Bazz
Ad-Dr
Ruways
As-Ss
Qunbul
alld
Qln
Him
ubat
Isq
alaf
War
Raw
Idrs
af
verset
2:191
2:219
2:259
3:146
5:6
6:115
9:107
10:2
1:4
2:285
3:83
3:157
3:180
4:140
9:66
12:109
Tabelul 1. Pasaje din manuscrisul T 235 care corespund lecturii amza i pasaje care pot fi n conformitate att cu lectura Nfi , ct i cu lectura
amza.
414
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Bibliografie
*** (secolul al XVI-lea): J 3 [Cdice de miscelnea], Madrid: Biblioteca Toms Navarro
Toms del CSIC, manuscris digitalizat <
http://aleph.csic.es/imagenes/mad01/0006_PMSC/P_001227439_650768_V00.pdf > (legtur
consultat pe 3 septembrie 2012)
*** (secolul al XVI-lea): J 12 [Contradicin y deferencia que ay entre Wari y Qln],
Madrid: Biblioteca Toms Navarro Toms del CSIC, manuscris digitalizat <
http://aleph.csic.es/imagenes/mad01
/0006_PMSC/P_001227502_650872_V00.pdf > (legtur consultat pe 3 septembrie 2012)
*** (secolul al XVI-lea): J 18 [Azoras alcornicas], Madrid: Biblioteca Toms Navarro Toms
del CSIC, manuscris digitalizat <
http://aleph.csic.es/imagenes/mad01/0006_PMSC/P_001227524_650922_V00.pdf > (legtur
consultat pe 3 septembrie 2012)
*** (secolul al XVI-lea): J 25 [Azoras alcornicas bilinges y predicaciones en aljamiado],
Madrid: Biblioteca Toms Navarro Toms del CSIC, manuscris digitalizat <
http://aleph.csic.es/imagenes/mad01/
0006_PMSC/P_001227540_650947_V00.pdf > (legtur consultat pe 3 septembrie 2012)
*** (secolul al XVI-lea): J 39 [Legajo de miscelnea], Madrid: Biblioteca Toms Navarro
Toms del CSIC, manuscris digitalizat <
http://aleph.csic.es/imagenes/mad01/0006_PMSC/P_001227661_651209_V00.pdf > (legtur
consultat pe 3 septembrie 2012)
*** (secolul al XVI-lea): J 47 [Comentario del Alcorn en aljamiado], Madrid: Biblioteca
Toms Navarro Toms del CSIC, manuscris digitalizat <
http://aleph.csic.es/imagenes/mad01/0006_PMSC/P_001227681_651234
_V00.pdf > (legtur consultat pe 3 septembrie 2012)
*** (secolul al XVI-lea): J 51 [Sin ttulo. Comentario del Alcorn], Madrid: Biblioteca Toms
Navarro Toms del CSIC, manuscris digitalizat <
http://aleph.csic.es/F/HQRPLVEKAKQ5NPUP3KGBVCP4P3RR7VJF3B8C63
LU38S7I6I2G2-47596?func=find-
b&adjacent=N&request=%22junta+51%22&find_code=WRD&x=-1032
&y=-140&local_base=Mad01> (legtur consultat pe 26 martie 2013)
*** (secolul al XVI-lea): J 58 [Miscelnea], Madrid: Biblioteca Toms Navarro Toms del
CSIC, manuscris digitalizat <
http://aleph.csic.es/imagenes/mad01/0006_PMSC/P_001227722_651322_V00.pdf > (legtur
consultat pe 3 septembrie 2012)
*** (secolul al XVI-lea): J 101 [Legajo de papeles sueltos], Madrid: Biblioteca Toms
Navarro Toms del CSIC, manuscris digitalizat <
http://www.webislam.com/manuscritos/101LegajoDeManuscritosSueltos > (legtur
consultat pe 3 septembrie 2012)
*** (secolul al XVI-lea): Ms. 4938 [Alcorn], Madrid: BNE, manuscris digitalizat <
http://bibliotecadigitalhispanica.bne.es/view/action/singleViewer.do?dvs=1347571489371~56
415
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
2&locale=en_US&VIEWER_URL=/view/action/singleViewer.do?&DELIVERY_RULE_ID=
10&frameId=1&usePid1=true&usePid2=true > (legtur consultat pe 3 septembrie 2012)
*** (1568): Ms. 447 [Extraits du Coran avec une paraphrase espagnole interlinaire], Paris:
Bibliothque nationale de France, manuscris digitalizat <
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8562473v/
f245.image.r=Arabe%20447.langEN > (legtur consultat pe 31 octombrie 2013)
*** (secolul al XVII-lea): Ms. 235 [Alcorn], Toledo: Biblioteca de Castilla-La Mancha,
manuscris digitalizat < http://bvpb.mcu.es/es/consulta/registro.cmd?id=397610 > (legtur
consultat pe 25 septembrie 2011) (legtur consultat pe 3 septembrie 2012)
*** (2009): Al Qurnu l-Karm. Muafut-tawd wa bi-hmiihi l-qirtu l-caru
(comentarii despre cele zece lecturi canonice de Amad cIsa Al-Macrw). Damasc: Dru l-
macrfa(t)
AL-AZHAR, cA. (2005-2013): At-tafsru wa l-baynu l-macn bi-l-qirti -ati , n Nn
li l-Qurni wa culmihi, if: micatu if < http://www.nquran.com/index.php > (adres
consultat pe 11.05.2013)
AL-AZAMI, M.M. (2011): The History of the Qur'anic Text. From Revelation to Compilation.
A Comparative Study with the Old and New Testaments. Riyad: Azami Publishing House
ALATORRE, A. (2002): Los 1001 aos de la lengua espaola, Mexic: Fondo de Cultura
Econmica
BERNAB PONS, L.F. (2010, p. 27-44) Los manuscritos aljamiados como textos islmicos, n
Memoria de los moriscos. Escritos y relatos de una dispora cultural, Madrid: Sociedad
Estatal de Conmemoraciones Culturales
BLECUA, A. (1983): Manual de crtica textual. Madrid: Editorial Castalia
BOASE, R. (2002: p. 21-7) The muslim expulsion from Spain, n History Today, vol. 52, nr. 4
BROCKETT, A.A. (1984): Studies in Two Transmissions of the Qurn, Saint Andrews:
University of Saint Andrews
CASASSAS CANALS, X. (2010, p. 368-396): La literatura aljamiado-morisca en el marco de la
literatura islmica espaola: siglos XIII-XVII (Una variedad del castellano vinculada al hiero-
Sprachbund islmico), n Benlabbah, F. i Chalka, A. (ed.) Los moriscos y su legado desde
esta y otras laderas, Rabat
DUTTON, Y. (1999: 115-140): Red Dots, Green Dots, Yellow Dots & Blue: Some Reflections
On The Vocalisation Of Early Qur'anic Manuscripts - Part I", n Journal Of Qur'anic Studies,
vol. 1 (nr. 1)
(2000: 1-24): Red Dots, Green Dots, Yellow Dots & Blue: Some Reflections On The
Vocalisation Of Early Qur'anic Manuscripts - Part II, n Journal Of Qur'anic Studies, vol. 2
(nr. 1)
GLMES DE FUENTES, . (2009, 111-118): La lengua de los moriscos, en Alvar, M., Manual
de dialectolga hispnica. El espaol de Espaa, Barcelona: Ariel
GRIGORE, G. (1997): Problematica traducerii Coranului n limba romn, Bucureti: Editura
Ararat
HEGYI, O. (1985, 647-656): Una variante islmica del espaol: la literatura aljamiada, n
Homenaje a lvaro Galms de Fuentes, Oviedo-Madrid: Universitatea din Oviedo-Gredos
(1995, 736-754): Die Sprache der Aljamiado-literatur und der Moriscos. La lengua de
416
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
la literatura aljamiado-morisca, n Metzeltin, M.; Schmitt, C. [eds.] Die einzelnen
romanischen Sprachen und Sprachgebiete vom Mittelalter bis zur Renaissance (vol. II),
Berlin, Boston: X_Max Niemeyer Verlag
IBN CR, M. (volumul I): At-tarr wa t-tanwr, Tunis: Dru s-Sann
LPEZ-MORILLAS, C. (1982): The Qur'n in Sixteenth-Century Spain: Six Morisco Versions of
Sra 79, Londra: Tamesis Books Limited
(1994b): Textos aljamiados sobre la vida de Mahoma: el profeta de los moriscos,
Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientficas Agencia Espaola de Cooperacin
Internacional
(2006, 255-294): The Genealogy of the Spanish Qur'an, n Journal of Islamic Studies
(17)
(2011): El Corn de Toledo. Edicin y estudio del manuscrito 235 de la Biblioteca de
Castilla-La Mancha, Gijn: Trea
AL-QAR, CA. (2009): Al-qirtu -atu wa-aaruh f t-tafsr <
http://ar.islamway.net/book/6615 > (legtur consultat pe 20 noiembrie 2013)
SAID, E. (1978): Orientalism. Western Conceptions of the Orient, New Delhi: Penguin Books
India
VESPERTINO RODRGUEZ, A. (2004, 1731-1754): El aragons de la literatura aljamiado-
morisca, n Castaner, R. M. y Jose Maria, E. (ed.), In memoriam Manuel Alvar. Archivo de
Filologa Aragonesa, 59-60 (2002-2004) [2 vol.], Zaragoza: Institutul Fernando el Catlico
417
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
GLOBALIZATION AND THE PROCESS OF DEVELOPING LINGUISTIC
COMPETENCIES
Sebastian CHIRIMBU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Spiru Haret University of Bucharest
Abstract: Globalization is a subject worldwide debated by economists, economists,
sociologists, political scientists, politicians and linguists. Globalization has enriched the
scientific and cultural world, and many people brought benefits and economic but some
analysts foresee most advantages in terms of economic integration. In the economic context of
the 21st century when the trade has surpassed the boundaries of states and more contacts
between people increases the likelihood of greater global solidarity, English has become one
of the most used ways of communication between business and then also between other
individuals. The possibility that English become the only language spoken in all the countries
of the planet is more intense under discussion, but most linguists and researchers in the field
are against this possibility. At the lexical level there is an unprecedented development in
terminologies, causes being particularly extra linguistic nature: the emergence of new areas
of existing development, the change and evolution in general of all compartments of social
life.
Keywords: globalization, communication, cultural diversity, foreign languages, linguistic
competencies
We are part of a society in which the means of communication have achieved a level
of unexpected development. Globalization is the term used by some to describe the growing
global interdependence between people, and between states. The process was accelerated
considerably in the last decade, largely by the huge advances in technology. Nowadays, we
are able to make international phone calls to speak to our friends who are studying abroad, we
can read articles online or make friends from other continents through social networks (and
some of us may even find our soul mate), or even share the results of our research studies. We
are clearly influenced by globalization more than we are aware of. But how many of us have
tried to analyze and to really understand the phenomenon in order to have a better control
over its consequences?
1. Globalization and the modern era
Globalization is believed to be a recent phenomenon, typical of the contemporary era
(at least at the level of awareness). It is not a single concept that can be defined and
encompassed within a set time frame, nor is it a process that can be defined clearly with a
beginning and an end (Al-Rodhan, Stoudmann 2006:3). The term appears as late as the
1960s, its promoters being Marshall McLuhan, Professor at the University of Toronto, and
Zbigniew Brzezinski from the University of Columbia.
Its acquired meanings and definitions in the specialty literature are numerous and
cover a wide area. Sociologist Anthony Giddens (1990: 64) has described globalization as
the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way
418
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
that local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa. This
involves a change in the way we understand geography and experience localness. As well as
offering opportunity it brings with considerable risks linked, for example, to technological
change. Robert Gilpin, a researcher in the field of political economy, speaks of the
integration of the world-economy, while Jan Aart Sholte, Professor of politics and
international studies and director of the Centre for the Study of Globalisation and
Regionalisation (CSGR) at the University of Warwick, refers to the de-territorialization or
the growth of supraterritorial relations between people/ globalization is 'a transformation of
social geography marked by the growth of supraterritorial spaces' - although he
simultaneously recognizes that 'territoriality and supraterritoriality coexist in complex
interrelations.' (Shaw, online source1)
Globalization, thus, has powerful economic, political, cultural and social dimensions.
Here we want to focus on four themes that appear with some regularity in the literature:
de-localization and supraterritoriality;
the speed and power of technological innovation and the associated growth of
risk;
the rise of multinational corporations; and
the extent to which the moves towards the creation of (global) free markets to
leads to instability and division (Smith, M. K. and Doyle M. 2002 2)
John Tomlinson notices a double determination between culture and globalization,
considering that "globalization is the center of modern culture, and the cultural practices are at
the center of globalization (2002:9). It pertains therefore to a relationship of reciprocity. The
real meaning of globalization can be highlighted only in the cultural context of the
contemporary era, but, in its turn, the manner in which the individual and the community
perceive culture is influenced by globalization through the new methods and instruments it
promotes. Values are redefined and principles are reassessed according to the new parameters
imposed by the technological evolution and by the simplification of communication methods.
First and foremost, effective speed and profit are required. Only after securing the above
could we talk about evaluation at the moral and aesthetic levels, an analysis that brings us the
closest to the conservative cultural approach.
The book Global Transformations. Politics, Economics and Culture, starts from the
assumption that one of the most direct forms of perceived and experienced is cultural
globalization (Held, McGrew, Golblat, Perraton 2004:372). The natural reaction is to
challenge this idea, giving as a counterargument the primacy of the economic dimension of
globalization. But if we refer to culture in its broadest sense as the customary beliefs, social
forms, and material traits of a racial, religious, or social group; also: the characteristic features
of everyday existence (as diversions or the way of life)(online source 3, then the initial
statement proves to be founded. Because before the occurrence of a specific type of economy
there was the thinking that generated it, before a spectacular scientific development there was
the researcher and the specialized education that the former had received, and all of them
clearly belong to the cultural segment of a society.
1
http://www.sussex.ac.uk/Users/hafa3/scholte.htm
2
http://infed.org/mobi/globalization-theory-and-experience/
3
Online source: merriam-webster.com ( accessed 25.11.2013)
419
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
2. Cultural globalization and linguistic globalization
Cultural globalization becomes more and more evident in the linguistic plane. We are
in a continuous process of learning foreign languages; whether we do it out of passion or out
of desire for professional achievements. Nowadays, kindergarten preschoolers start taking
English lessons at the age of 4, than they will study French, German or Spanish in the first
grade. As it was only then that they were receiving the first directions for elucidating the
alphabet and they did not know how to write, the teacher prompts to draw the words they are
learning. It is important to get used to the new language as soon as possible.
The origins of globalization at the linguistic level are to be found in various fields.
Man is a social being, who can find oneself only within a community and who feels the need
to communicate with peers. Moreover, the development of an economy of global dimensions
has raised the issue of cooperation among economic agents from various regions, which
implies the need for a means of communication accessible to all the participants. Conducting
the analysis in the historical past, it is also worth mentioning the politico-administrative
factor. That is the colonial regime, which imposed the use of the metropolis language by the
colonies - if not as one clear objective, at least as a consequence of the presence of the
administrative apparatus, which comprised clerks trained in the metropolis.
The roots and manifestations of linguistic globalization are older than one may think.
In the beginning, one could notice the primacy of Latin, long considered to be lingua franca,
and quickly associated with the communication tool in sciences and consequently turned into
the basis of specific terminologies. In the fields of Zoology and Botany, the system of
scientific names of Latin origin is imposed in order to facilitate communication between
researchers coming from different linguistic areas. The same thing happens in the legal field:
terms such as de facto, de jure, casus belli, etc. have remained in use in the specialty literature
and in the current legal practice.
There follows the era of the French language domination. In the African space, this is
nothing else but a direct result of the colonial regime. But in the European area, the
Francophone spirit has emerged as a result of the fascination of various societies with the
French culture in the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. By learning the
French language, the elite of the states aspiring to cultural accomplishment had access to the
cultural works and innovations of French origin. But, beyond the desire for going beyond
limitations and evolving socially, politically and artistically, it has to be admitted that the
adoption of French as a language of communication in societies such as the Russian or even
the Romanian ones also involves a component of mere imitation.
The emergence of a new power over the ocean meant the renunciation to the
supremacy that Baudelaires language had before. Especially after World War II, the
imposition of the English language became an increasingly prominent process. The case of
Romania is highly suggestive; even though it is a francophone country by tradition, statistics
indicate that the number of pupils studying English in the pre-university system of education
has not only increased, but it has surpassed the number of the students learning the French
language.
420
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
3. Linguistic and cultural diversity
Linguistic diversity is as much under threat just as its ecological counterpart. It has
decreased globally by 20% in the years from 1970-2005 (Harmon and Loh, 2010). Many
scholars (Crystal 2000, Krauss 1992) predict imminent death of half of the languages spoken
in todays world. Crystals work on Language Death (2000) along with works by Nettle and
Romaine (2002) and Skutnabb-Kangas (2000) show that standardisation policies adopted by
the state or the corporate sector are instrumental in motivating speakers to shift voluntarily to
more powerful and prestigious language(s) and this is playing a major role in destruction of
linguistic diversity.
Linguistic and cultural diversity belongs to the world history. It needs no further
illustration than the Babel Tower in the Judeo-Christian culture. In 2001, the UNESCO
Member States adopted the Universal Declaration on cultural diversity, from which we quote
article 6 (online source4)
Towards access for all to cultural diversity.
While ensuring the free circulation of ideas and works, care should be exercised
so that all cultures can express themselves and make themselves known.
Freedom of expression, media pluralism, multilingualism, equal access to art
and to scientific and technological knowledge, including in digital form, and the
possibility for all cultures to have access to the means of expression and
dissemination are the guarantees of cultural diversity.
Therefore, we are talking about a new association on the world stage between culture
and democracy conducive to the promotion of intercultural expression in multiculturalism.
Multiculturalism is actually cultural diversity approached politically and economically and its
protection is an obsession in the context of globalization. This convenient and handy
scapegoat seems to be turning culture into a commodity. The information is turned into a
resource that is an object of economic exchange reflected first and foremost in the virtual
space in which English is the lingua franca. The influence of the Anglophone world in form
and content seems to be a cultural domination/ homogenization whose catalyst is the Internet.
The inter-penetrating of the cultures by means of this network is both a risk and a benefit:
reduction to a single transnational community but also the destruction of the psychological,
intellectual, and cultural enclaves. The English which is simplified, operational, imposed
(provisionally) as an international language and technique is a defiance of the Esperanto
project, demonstrating that economic motivation is clearly superior to the cultural one when it
comes to languages.
Currently, different linguistic communities access the Internet and integrate languages
less spoken than English into their activities, which allows them to go beyond geographic and
cultural boundaries, to eliminate almost totally communication costs and to provide
unprecedented information dispersion. Are we to talk about homogenization, uniformity
through globalization and delocalization of societies? Our opinion is that such a framework of
4
http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13179&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html
(accesed 25.11.2013)
421
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
unhampered communication is actually a tool that could help to preserve multiculturalism
which is beneficial for the global cultural development. It is true that 69% of the web pages
are in English but this only reflects a larger share of web access in Anglophone areas. It
represents just an imbalance stemming from the North American origin of the Internet; we are
yet in the infancy stages of the Internet, and the pages containing non-North American content
are still growing (we are in the process of acquiring the know-how).
The Internet is definitely a symbol of globalization, although globalization is still a
fluid concept (hence its use as a booger), acquiring either positive or negative implications
depending on its users. In a narrow conception, globalization effaces specific differences,
bringing us all together into a common are lacking any personality. We consume in the same
way and we produce in the same way. Do we really? We forget that what defines our identity
is not much related to economics and that the language is not just a lot of words but it is
associated with a way of thinking, with an anthropological/ethnological heritage, with a way
of feeling.
Six thousand languages equate six thousand ways of feeling. How easily can the
consumption of Coca-Cola, Pepsi-Cola or Jacobs change our way of feeling? How easy is it to
love in a different language than that of the first maternal caresses? Pathetic as they may
seem, such questions contain an emotional argument for multilingualism. The term
sustainability associated with a strong economic motivation is offensive from an emotional
point of view because it starts from the premise that economy controls the identity of
individuals. Why hesitate to admit that poor, underprivileged, economically underdeveloped
areas are the ones in which the linguistic wealth is preserved and even thrives.
Why do we condescendingly consider that these are the areas in which one needs to
act to save languages? Uniformization occurs much faster in rich areas in which language
retention activities are very weak, even it is here that globalization actually attacks diversity.
Talking about certain languages using descriptors such as endangered, helpless or on
the verge of extinction only amplifies the problem diminishing its self-esteem and making it
obsolescent, uncomfortable an embarrassment for its speakers. It makes them feel in
inferiority/minority, projecting them in a poor state of mind, amplifying a negligible or
otherwise easy problem to solve. The disappearance of languages is not a contemporary
phenomenon but part of a natural cycle of life that should not be rushed/ emphasized by
depreciative statements.
Under the circumstances (globalization, endangered languages, Anglophonization),
which are the steps to be taken to maintain a diversified linguistic system which involves the
preservation of a similar cultural setting? The last fifty years have witnessed laws,
movements, treaties aiming towards the sustainability with too little practical results as
languages still continue to die out.
We all agree that we should be allowed to use our mother tongue in all circumstances.
But what do we do when native speakers refuse to do this because it is yet another sign of
their belonging to a neglected or maybe even despised minority. How can we convince the
Romani speakers to keep and to cultivate their language when we virtually spit when hearing
them speak it.
How can you keep the Maghreb dialects among the inhabitants of the French suburbs
when employing them triggers unflattering epithets for their users. Preservation of linguistic
422
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
identity can involve not only intellectual but also physical racks. These examples are not
singular, discrimination hurting more than any virus created in the laboratory.
Economic considerations are not negligible either since preserving a language in a
forced or privileged way may incur huge costs (manuals, books, documents, press releases)
which are regarded as superfluous expenses in a world that is avid for money/wealth. What do
we do first: nourish a Ugandan child or give him a primer in his native language? I
obsessively recall the image in photograph winning hundreds of awards, representing a
hunger-deformed Somali child under the greedy eyes of an eagle; the awards came at the cost
of the life of the child grabbed by the predator bird while the photographer was protecting
equipment of thousands of dollars. We are talking about endangered languages while
hundreds of thousands of people die under our eyes of proud owners of gadgets and devices?
There is no doubt that the disappearance of some languages impoverishes us in a way that is
hard to quantify. But given the current economic context, it seems to me that this is a risible
issue whose resolution pertains much more to the individual and his choices (and here pro-
multilingualism education is needed) rather than to laws and treaties.
Education is the key word in the issue of preserving a diverse linguistic landscape and
especially tolerating other languages or even embracing them. Looking into the space that
surrounds me I consider that teaching basic concepts of German/Hungarian in the areas where
there is a minority speaking these languages would be far more beneficial in schools than
teaching musical notions. It would smoothen interethnic relations in multicultural areas.
Reaching to minorities would reduce the depreciative trends and the us and them type of
approach. This may be a solution for all areas with interethnic conflicts as knowing the other
prevents us from seeing them as an enemy; moreover, dialogue is actually an area where the
participants have equal importance, be they minority or majority.
Therefore, racism, discrimination and intolerance are factors that contribute more than
globalization to the death of some languages and territories unsuitable for dialogue and
identity preservation. The atrophy of some languages is directly proportional with their lack
of economic, cultural or social prestige caused by inappropriate attitudes.
4. English language and linguistic globalization
Developing linguistic competencies has become increasingly important by virtue
of the process of globalization, with its increased migration flows and its
emphasis on cross-cultural communication across and within geographical
boundaries. Learning languages is important for individual success, and
linguistic competence levels are important for societies competitiveness and
cohesion (online source5)
Not only has the English language imposed itself as a communication tool in all
international media, but it is also present through the phenomenon of Anglicization (a typical
example of linguistic creolization). English permeates linguistic environments with which it
5
Online source:
http://www.oecd.org/edu/ceri/12thoecdjapanseminarglobalisationandlinguisticcompetenciesrespondingtodiversit
yinlanguageenvironments.htm (accessed 25.11.2013)
423
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
previously had no connection, without having to replace the native languages, but becoming
part of them. The result is an amalgam between the two languages in which there are no
proper rules, but only the speakers preferences and the aesthetic value that the new
formulations can acquire. The Indian society is a good example in point, the Hindu language
being subjected to the process of Anglicization.
There were reactions of rejection towards these trends of generalization of the English
language. Not surprisingly, the most vehement language protectionism measures have come
from francophone states. In France, there was even a proposal to ban the expansion of the use
of English words, but which was not adopted in the end.
Nevertheless, specialists notice the making of aglobal English, which ensures
communication in all fields of activity and which can be used regardless of geographical
areas. Another form of manifestation of linguistic globalization is generated by social media
and all the means of communication that this concept covers. The way of communicating in
social networks is a simplified one, often ignoring the grammar rules and resembling more
and more a coded language. We consider that the best example in point is the very term
like, well-known in the social networking called Facebook or Twitter.
Linguistic globalization appears to be making the first victims, represented by the
languages with increasingly fewer native speakers and whose extinction is now speeded up.
With reference to this aspect, the surprise comes from Google, which launched the
Endangered Languages Project (online source6) , which aims to establish databases of over
3000 languages and dialects on the verge of extinction.
The phenomenon of linguistic globalization is still in its early stages. Specialists
remain skeptical with respect to a total linguistic uniformization, a phenomenon which is not
otherwise desirable. With every culture that dies, a unique flower disappears forever. There
are treasures of wisdom and poetry in the smallest idioms, as well as in the perspective on the
world of the smallest tribe doomed to disappear. (Neagu Djuvara 2008/ online source7)
5. Developments in Romanian society
In the last decade and a half, the Romanian society has been in a permanent
development and, the language in which this society is expressed has evolved inevitably.. It
has been reported as some positive and negative phenomena which characterize current
Romanian language. On the one hand, in the case of competence, the Romanian language
shows a dynamism and creativity unprecedented in its history, both in terms of area coverage
and the speed of progress.
6
Online source : http://www.wall-street.ro/articol/New-Media/133498/google-incearca-sa-conserve-mai-mult-
de-3-000-de-limbi.html (accessed 25.11.2013)
7
Cu fiecare cultur care moare, o floare unic se vestejete pentru a nu mai renate, o mireasm incomparabil
se risipete pentru totdeauna. Exist comori de nelepciune i poezie n cele mai mici idiomuri, ca i n concepia
despre lume a celui mai mic trib destinat dispariiei. Toate sunt pierdute - pierdute pentru totdeauna i pentru toi.
n viaa popoarelor, ca i n toat Creaiunea, ceea ce izbete cel mai mult i scandalizeaz ntr-adevr spiritul
este risipa Naturii. Cei care astzi sunt privilegiai i aparin culturilor majore pot nc s se legene n iluzia
perenitii lor. Dar pn cnd? Ce rmne din Egiptul antic, din Mesopotamia, din Creta, din Mexic i Peru? i
cum am putea avea asigurarea c rasa noastr trufa, care de veacuri i ntinde dominaia asupra neamurilor i
lucrurilor toate, nu va cdea i ea, odat, n toropeal i apatie? (Neagu DJUVARA)
http://www.humanitas.ro/humanitas/civiliza%C5%A3ii-%C5%9Fi-tipare-istorice-2 ( accessed 25.11.2013)
424
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
In almost two decades and a half, Romanian language has got a new face. There have
been deep changes at all levels of language. Thus, in the area of training capacity normally
equate words Romanian language to generate, for new words, borrowed from other languages
(in particular in English), but also for abbreviations of complex lexical families with older
processes existing in the language (for example, the noun lobby borrowed from English into
Romanian generated forms: lobbyist, lobby-ism, lobby-istic). Over the last 23 years, the media
have had an overwhelming role in enriching the Romanian language. Journalistic text is
astounding ability to create new words and we cannot notice some ephemeral, others
becoming stable such: lideriad, mitingit, tzunamizare.
The English language appeared in countless words and phrases newly formed by
calquing (or loan translation) a da und verde from to give green light, oportunitate from
opportunity/ opportunit, gulere albe from white collars, a aplica from to apply, etc.
At the lexical level, a unprecedented evolution is due to the following causes: the
emergence of new areas of existence, developments in language testing to adjust to changes in
technology and the evolution of science and in general of all aspects of social life. Creation of
new terms by calquing translation is joined by the massive import of vocabulary.
Terminology, vocabulary attached to the most diverse fields, contain a significant percentage
of borrowings; from the entertainment industry to the political life, all fields are strongly
marked by the European integration, all faces of social life currently use a speech affected in
a significant proportion by the neology process.
It is important to recall the appearance of the Romanian language registers and styles:
new functional styles (recreating the ground of journalistic style, using a new political
discourse, the formation of new types of discourse, with the development of new domains
such as of public relations or communication.
From the Revolution onwards, the Romanian language has obviously been marked by
the effects of what is called linguistic globalization and Anglicization. Terms such as fun,
trendy, ok, fashion, freaky, job, fresh have become common in the language of youth and not
just theirs.
Conclusion
It can be noticed a dramatic shift of emphasis from book culture, which has become an
elitist one of the few, to the audio-visual culture - of the many. The result is a continuous
atrophy of stimuli to read, written knowledge transmitted by culture.
Even though Europe has a veritable treasure of languages (there are more than 200
European languages, not counting the languages spoken by people from other continents), this
important resource should be recognized, used and maintained. Languages and cultures are
alive and developing continually. People influence each other by the way they speak and
write. Only English is not often enough.
Bilinguals have the great advantage of being able to communicate with a larger
number of people. They can live in two cultures, communicate better with other cultures and
are able to overcome cultural barriers and build cultural bridges (online source 8)
8
Online source: http://edl.ecml.at/Home/Thecelebrationoflinguisticdiversity/tabid/2972/language/ro-
RO/Default.aspx (accessed 25.11.2013)
425
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
New media such as the Internet provides new opportunities for language development.
Languages are in contact with each other and thus exert mutual influences in various ways,
notably through loans. Due to globalization and international structures of large enterprises,
foreign language skills are increasingly and should be essential for citizens to work effectively
in their own country.
We think that globalization is a phenomenon that can be explored, debated and even
understood by anyone who is interested in doing so (Leech, 2013 online source 9), remaining
challenging and sometimes difficult to analyzed10.
Bibliography
Al-Rodhan, N., Stoudmann, G., (2006) Definitions of Globalization: A Comprehensive
Overview and a Proposed Definition, online source:
http://www.academia.edu/2969717/Definitions_of_Globalization_-
_A_Comprehensive_Overview_ and_a_Proposed_Definition (accesed 10.12.2013)
Crystal, D. (2000) Language Death, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Djuvara, N. (2008) Civilizaii i tipare istorice: un studiu comparat al civilizaiilor
(Civilizations and historical patterns: a comparative study of civilizations), Bucharest,
Humanitas Publishing House.
Giddens, A. (1990) The Consequences of Modernity. Stanford, Stanford University Press.
Harmon, D., Loh, J. (2010): The Index of Linguistic Diversity: A New Quantitative Measure
of Trends in the Status of World Languages in Language Documentation and Conservation,
Vol 4. 94-151
Held, D., McGrew, A., Goldblat, D., Perraton, J., (2004) Transformri globale. Politic,
economie si cultur (Global Transformations, Politics, Economics, and Culture) Iai,
Polirom Publishing House.
Krauss, M. (1992): The Worlds Languages in Crisis in Language. 68:4-10.
Leech, P. (2013) What is Globalization? Online source:
http://www.thinkir.co.uk/globalisation-cafe/ (accessed on 25.11.2013)
Nettle, D., Romaine, S. (2000) Vanishing Voices: the Extinction of the Worlds Languages,
New York, Oxford University Press
Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2002) Why should linguistic diversity be maintained and supported in
Europe? Some arguments. Guide for the development of language education policies in Europe:
from linguistic diversity to plurilingual education. Reference study. Strasbourg: Council of
Europe, Language Policy Division, DG IV. 22 pp. . online source: www.coe.int/
T/E/Cultural_Co-operation/education/Languages/Language_Policy/Policy_development_
activities/Studies/Skutnabb-KangasEN.pdf (accessed 20.11.2013)
9
Online source: http://www.thinkir.co.uk/globalisation-cafe/ (accessed 25.11.2013)
10
Perhaps the most obvious challenge the occurs right at the beginning of any discussion of globalization is
that the concept is apparently so broad and our interaction with it is so ubiquitous. Thus it is particularly
difficult for any of us to define what it is! ibidem
426
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Shaw, M. (2003) Jan Aart Scholte, Globalization: A Critical Introduction in Millennium:
Journal of International Studies, online source:
http://www.sussex.ac.uk/Users/hafa3/scholte.htm (accessed 12.12.2013)
Smith, M. K. and Doyle M. (2002) Globalization the Encyclopedia of Informal Education,
online source: www.infed.org/biblio/globalization.htm (accessed on 25.11.2013)
Tomlinson,J. (2002) Globalizare si cultur (Globalisation and culture), Timioara,
Amarcord Publishing House
Webography
http://infed.org/mobi/globalization-theory-and-experience/
merriam-webster.com
http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-
URL_ID=13179&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html
http://edl.ecml.at/Home/Thecelebrationoflinguisticdiversity/tabid/2972/language/ro-
RO/Default.aspx
http://www.wall-street.ro/articol/New-Media/133498/google-incearca-sa-conserve-mai-mult-
de-3-000-de-limbi.html
http://www.humanitas.ro/humanitas/civiliza%C5%A3ii-%C5%9Fi-tipare-istorice-2
427
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
DISTORSIONS OF THE INDIVIDUAL LEVEL OF THE LANGUAGE. MODERN
POETRY AS FAILED LINGVISTIC ACT
Radu DRGULESCU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu
Abstract: The artistic language updates the highest number of language virtualities, in order
to create, on the highest level, a secondary semantics, a semic superfunction, in
syntagmatic and transfrastic text connection. The fact of style cannot be assessed by
analysing a single isolated element, a simple paradigmatic selection. Writer's personal
intervention is observed by noting combinations, making him, as Paul Valery said, a creator
of language. Literature depends on how the writers are performing the selections and
combining the linguistic material contained in language. Literature is, nevertheless, a variety
of language. The approach we propose is a systematic one, studying the distortions of
language and, hence, those of communication in modern poetry.
Keywords: psycholinguistics, language distorsions, literature variety of language, poetry as
linguistic act
1.1. Emiterea i receptarea literaturii.
Comunicarea literar este redarea unui proces care, n punctele de pornire, este de
sintez: nti este de autocomunicare (sistemul EU-EU, emitorul este propriul su
destinatar), apoi devine comunicare de transmis (sistemul EU-EL, receptor exterior).
Competena de expresie este rezultatul unei elaborri intermediare, de trecere de la sfera
faptului personal la aceea a execuiei artistice propriu-zise prin prelucrare, discernere,
combinare, construcie, tergere, corectare, verificare a materialului lingvistic, constat T.S.
Eliot. Artistul triete ntotdeauna drama alternativelor.
Destinatarul trebuie s porneasc de la un proces de analiz (destructurare parial sau
total) pentru a se apropia, n limitele posibilului, de construcia sintetic a mesajului
transmis. Textul poate fi interpretat ca deschis, i atunci destinatarul este productor de sens,
sau nchis, dar nu definitiv, destinatarul fiind colaborator la viaa polisemic a textului.
Accepiunea textului ca opera aperta, deschis interpretrilor multiple apare la Umberto Eco1,
dar i la Kristeva2 i Roland Barthes3. Cei din urm accentueaz negarea tranzitivitii
cititorului. Citirea este conceput ca re-scriere. Cititorul nu este doar consumator, ci i
productor al textului. Receptarea este condiionat i de factorul social al memoriei colective,
ceea ce Greimas4 numete nivel imanent, n care au loc operaiile conceptuale i transformarea
1
A se vedea Umberto Eco, Lector in fabula, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1991. Semioticianul consider textul ca
artificiu sintactic-semantic-pragmatic a crui interpretare face parte din propriul proiect generativ. Mesajul
estetic conine dubla calitate a ambiguitii i a autoreflexivitii. Ca produs al fatalitii tipologice, el nu este
nici nchis, nici deschis cooperrii. Umberto Eco vede textul ca pe o capcan ce nu i se reveleaz niciodat total
cititorului.
2
Julia Kristeva, La rvolution du langage potique, Paris, ditions du Seuil, 1974.
3
Roland Barthes, Le degr zro de lecriture, suivi de Nouveaux Essais Critiques, Paris, Editions du Seuil, 1996
i Romanul scriiturii, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1987.
4
A.J. Greimas, Semantique structurale, Paris, Larousse, 1966.
428
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
lor n cheie antropomorfic i figurativ antecedent naterii structurilor lingvistice ale
textului. Factorii cei mai importani sunt cei psihologici i socioculturali.
Structurarea la nivelul expresiei i al coninuturilor este un joc cu patru
rsfrngeri, aa cum am ncercat s reprezentm n fig.1.
Eveniment Opera ca form-
psihologic macrosemnificat
Coninutul
Evenimentul formei-
sociologic macrosemnifi-
cant
fig.1. Schema formrii structurii lingvistice, dup Escarpit.5
1.2. Spaiul lingvistic al literaturii.
Limbajul artistic actualizeaz cel mai mare numr de virtualiti ale limbii, nct n
legtura sintagmatic, transfrastic a textului se produce o semantic secundar, de grad
superior, deci o superfuncie semic6. T.A. van Dijk consider c toate definiiile literaturii
care ncearc s o reduc la o utilizare specific a unui limbaj standard sau la o funcie
specific a limbii (aa cum face Jakobson) trec cu vederea faptul important c ea este un
sistem lingvistic specific n interiorul unei limbi, dar diferit de limba normat, descriptibil
printr-o gramatic autonom, dar nu independent.
Analiza textului literar aparine unui domeniu interdisciplinar, ale crui probleme nu
pot fi rezolvate fr contribuia Psiholingvisticii. Textul literar n sine este, n fond, un act de
comunicare ca atare, la care se poate aplica modelul de analiz contextual-dinamic:
Domeniul la care ne referim este denumit uneori Critic sau Teorie literar, dar adesea
Poetic (nume care, trimind la poezie este, pe de o parte, restrictiv, pe de alt parte are
implicaii suplimentare), alteori Stilistic (nume care implic, de asemenea, limitri de
data aceasta relative la formele propriu-zise de expresie, separate de coninut). Acest domeniu
al crui nume adecvat ar fi, de fapt Analiza textului literar ar putea s devin ct mai
obiectiv, s formuleze criterii exacte sau chiar reguli pentru o analiz neimpresionis a
textului literar 7.
ntruct actul lingvistic nu este complet i, adesea, este considerat ca inexistent atta
vreme ct receptarea i decodarea sa eueaz, iar, la rndul su, actul receptrii nu este
complet dect atunci cnd se realizeaz i interpretarea, literaritatea unui text este pus la
ndoial de cei pentru care acesta rmne un corpus ermetic. Semnificaiile cuvintelor sunt
interpretate n funcie de sensul contextual al frazei. Actul comunicrii const ntr-o referire la
5
R. Escarpit, Sociologie de la littrature, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1968.
6
Umberto Eco, Tratat de semiotic general, Bucureti, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1982, p.328.
7
Tatiana Slama-Cazacu, Psiholingvistica, Bucureti, Editura All, 1999, p. 433.
429
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
diversele niveluri contextuale: explicite (context lingvistic i extraligvistic sau nonverbal) i
implicite (context situaional, cunoaterea interlocutorilor, contextual social-istoric etc.).
Legarea unitilor constituente ale mesajului de latura implicit este esenial i obligatorie n
actul receptrii.
n receptarea faptului literar intervine acelai proces de interpretare contextual, care
const din referiri la toate nivelurile, nu numai la cel lingvistic.
Mesajul unui text, al unui discurs, nu poate fi izolat artificial, analizat separat de sursa
lui, de emitor. Ansamblul afectiv, motivaia care determin o conduit sau alta, tipul
temperamental, gndirea, dispoziiile de moment .a., constituie contextul intern care joac un
rol fundamental n selectarea mijloacelor de expresie i prin care ntotdeauna sunt filtrate toate
influenele externe.
Un proces asemntor are loc i n cazul receptorului care, n funcie de starea sa
emotiv i ali factori de ordin psihic, decodeaz mesajul ntr-un fel sau altul. Perspectiva
psiholingvistic permite studiul spectrelor de bipolaritate a limbajului, al realizrilor funciei
lui de comuniare n ncercrile de organizare a expresiei i de interpretare a acesteia de ctre
receptor.
nc din 1935, Ch. Bally considera stilul organizarea limbajului din punctul de vedere
al coninutului afectiv, o manifestare a ntregii personaliti a emitorului. Orice act de codare
presupune selecia, implic o alegere dintre mijloacele de exprimare i o variablilitate a
trsturilor codului. Stilul nu este un fapt de limb, ci reprezint un aspect al vorbirii (oral
sau scris) n care selecia i combinarea sunt originale. Probabil c rolul cel mai mare al
seleciei se manifest de obicei n axa paradigmatic, pe cnd axa sintagmatic este aceea
unde se concretizeaz neaprat operaia de combinare relativ nou (sau de actualizare a
potenelor), care poate s aib influene i asupra selectrii echivalenei paradigmatice (de
pild prin combinarea substantivului miros cu epitetul albastru s-a determinat o alegere
original pentru adjectivele care pot nsoi substantivul respectiv)8.
Faptul de stil nu poate fi apreciat prin analiza izolat a unui singur element, a unei
simple selecii paradigmatice. Intervenia personal a scriitorului se observ prin notarea
combinaiilor, el devenind astfel, aa cum enuna Paul Valery, creator de limbaj. Literatura
depinde de modul sui generis n care scriitorii fac selecia i realizeaz combinarea
materialului lingvistic coninut n limb. Literatura este aadar o varietate de limbaj. Orice
creaie literar are un scop comunicativ, adresnd un mesaj ctre un receptor. Analiza literar,
critica unui text este, la rndul su, act comunicaional adresat de cineva cuiva, cu scopul de a
transmite ceva. Lectura unei critici sau cronici literare este un act de receptare a unei
receptri.
O analiz literar pertinent trebuie s aib n vedere toate componentele constituente
ale actului comunicaional. Opera literar nu exist numai ca fenomen subiectiv, prin
trirea pe care o are fiecare receptor n legtur cu ea. Structura intim a operei, modul cum
a conceput fiecare mesaj scriitorul au o existen obiectiv i ca atare au o valoare are nu
poate fi neglijat n Stilistic (mai ales c emitorul a avut n vedere i trirea receptorului, a
8
Tatiana Slama-Cazacu, Psiholingvistica, Bucureti, Editura All, 1999, p. 436-437.
430
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
fcut o anumit judecat predictiv n legtur cu felul cum va fi decodat interpretat,
neleas i n fond apreciat opera)9.
1.3. Specificul limbajului poetic
ntrebrile preexistente legate de limbajul poetic sunt cele referitoare la trsturile
sale specifice, discriminatorii i de diferena calitativ fa de limb, dei ambele folosesc
acelai cod, acelai material lexical. Pentru teoreticienii indieni, aa cum arat Pierre Sylvain
Filliozat10, cuvntul poetic retriete un semn depozitat de psihic, cuvintele reveleaz urme
anterioare, amintiri din trecut. Acest concept este similar cu accepiunea freudian de urme
mnesice11, derivate din activitatea psihic a memoriei. Cuvntul poetic devine sunet care d
cunoatere, el are o densitate semnificativ, o polisemie nnscut care nu l caracterizeaz
dect n cadrul contextului poetic. Aceast densitate este legat de procese pretextuale (aa
cum sunt ele prezentate de ctre psiholingviti).
1.4. Poezia modern alienare i resurecie a limbajului
Alienarea i resurecia limbajului poeziei este rezultatul unui proces de analogizare
ntre structurile reperate ca deviante i anumite structuri regulate sau bine formate (n sensul
tehnic, marcate ca atare de gramatica uzului obinuit). Efectul de noutate al poeziei nu se
produce prin deviere sau abatere n sensul unei nclcri i al unei restricii n raport cu
regulile limbajului obisnuit, ci rezult dintr-un proces de transgresiune i de realizare mai
profund a acestor reguli. S.R. Levin 12 vorbete despre suspendarea unor restricii asupra unor
reguli existente. La nivelul structurii de adncime (deep structure) normele se conserv, dar
au loc o serie de modificri n structura poetic.
Pentru a analiza distorsionrile de limbaj caracteristice limbajului poetic modern (ne
referim la modernitate n sensul cel mai larg al termenului, modern opunndu-se lui clasic) ne
vom referi la aciunea de rezisten i de violare pe care limbajul poetic o exercit asupra
limbii ca vehicul al comunicrii i cod. Poezia modern este marcat de o cvadrupl contiin
instaurat de maetrii suspiciunii: Marx ce divulg resorturile materiale ale faptului istoric
i pune n lumin caracterul de clas al unei culturi, Nietzsche ce propovduia religia
supraomului i rsturnarea de valori a Cretinismului; Bergson, acuznd intelectul
spaializat c nghea i falsific elanul vital, c fragmenteaz continuitatea genuin a
duratei pure; Freud, fornd structura uman i construind subteran edificiul psihologiei
abisale. Contiina modern este victima unei crize a valorilor, a faptei, a contiinei
culturale i creaturale, o criz a omului n lume. Criza eului transgreseaz spre o criz a
limbajului. Btlia are loc mai ales pe domeniul Limbajului. Scriitorul este un agent al
abaterilor. Pentru a aciona prin limbaj, el trebuie s acioneze asupra lui. Formalitii rui
(klovski) consider c limbajul artistic este creat contient pentru a a elibera percepia ca
automatism. Poezia nu mai ine de o fabricaie la nivel lingvistic, ci de o aventur posibil.
Cheia de bolt a manifestrii rupturii i distorsionrii limbajului ca unic manier de
expresivitate i sugestie a afectului este arta poetic a lui Stephane Mallarm. El formuleaz o
9
Ibidem, p. 440.
10
Pierre Sylvain Filliozat, Une thorie indienne du langage potique, n Potique, no.11, p.315-320.
11
Sigmund Freud, Introducere n psihanaliz. Prelegeri de psihanaliz. Psihopatologia vieii cotidiene,
Bucureti, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 1980.
12
apud Mircea Borcil, Richard McLain, Poetica american. Orientri actuale, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Dacia,
1981, p.42-45.
431
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
nou poetic bazat pe cedarea iniiativei cuvintelor, pe dispariia ilocutorie a poetului,
refuzul de a oglindi prin limbaj o anumit gndire care s fie tradus n versuri, comunicarea
realizndu-se prin oc sonor: Luvre pure implique la disparition locutoire du pote qui
cde linitiative aux mots.13 Edificator n acest direcie este sonetul Ses purs ongles cu rime
n ix i ore. Poetul utilizaz un cuvnt inexistent (ptyx) din plcerea de a-l crea prin magia
rimei: Sur ses crdences, au salon vide: nul ptyx, / Aboli bibelot dinanit sonore, / (Car le
Matre est all puiser des pleurs au Styx / Avec ce seul objet dont le Nant shonore. (Ses
purs ongles...). Puinele scrieri teoretice ale lui Mallarm (conferina La musique et les lettres,
fragmentele care compun Crise de vers, Le mystre dans les lettres i Quant au Livre) ne
dezvluie limba, victim a unui cataclism al exprimrii, ce vorbete mai mult prin falii i
rupturi. Limba cea mai expresiv este cea derivat din primele strfulgerri ale gndirii.
Comportamentul verbal trebuie surprins n particulara sa spontaneitate, descifrat ca virtute a
unei structuri sonore. Cuvintele sunt smulse din seria logic a frazei, devin independente de
legile de coeren a discursului. Libertatea siturii n interiorul limbajului se dezvolt ntr-o
revolt mpotriva acestuia. Poetul propovduiete negarea funciei de comunicare, limbajul
fiindu-i suficient prin propria prezen: Remplaant la respiration perceptible en lancien
souffle lyrique ou la direction personnelle enthousiaste de la phrase.14 Limbajul comun i se
pare saturat poetului. Comunicarea obinuit este o funcie numerar facil care face din
cuvnt o moned de schimb, fr valoare proprie, ci doar cu rolul de a desemna lucrurile
din jur. Limbajul poetic nu este vorbire actualizat, ncheiat, ci o virtualitate a rostirii. Acesta
este fundamentul teoretic al secesiunii limbajului i al abaterilor mallarmene, al
autonomizrii cuvntului n materialitatea sa sonor, cci cuvintele, n utilizarea lor obinuit,
au mai degrab rolul de a desemna dect fora de a semnifica. Poezia este realitatea mitic a
limbajului: Verbul construiete Universul.
Urmtorul pas spre liberalizare este fcut de ctre Paul Valry. Plecnd de la
prezumia c poezia este une machine du langage (main a limbajului), adoptnd
consideraiile lui Mallarm, care spunea c poezia se face cu cuvinte, nu cu idei (Un poem
trebuie s fie o srbtoare a Intelectului. El nu poate fi altceva. 15), poetul practic scrisul ca
pe un exerciiu al limbii, ca pe o provocare. Limbajul are pentru Valry dou limite: muzica
pe de o parte i algebra pe de alta. ntre aceste cenzuri, poetul trebuie s nving dificultile
reale ale limbii comune, degajnd n spaiul acesteia un limbaj n limbaj. Limba poetic este
cea care se abate de la normele limbii comune, dar constituie un registru aparte n cadrul
acesteia. Poeziei i revine sarcina de a schimba funcia limbajului, de a-l transforma din pur
semnificant n scop n sine. Versul trebuie s realizeze uniunea realitii fizice a sunetului i a
excitaiilor virtuale ale sensului, s instaureze un fel de egalitate ntre cele dou puteri ale
vorbirii (ceea ce numim iconicitate). Creaia este modificarea reciproc posibil ntre fond i
form, sunet i sens, compoziie i material, expresie i impresie. Valry consider c nu orice
idee conduce la structuri, dar orice structur conine o idee. Acesta este esena poeticii sale:
Toate cercetrile asupra Artei i a Poeziei tind s dea drept necesar ce are arbitrarul drept
13
Opera pur implic dispariia ipostazei ilocutorii a poetului care cedeaz iniiativa cuvintelor. traducerea
ne aparine.
14
nlocuind respiraia perceptibil a vechiului suflu liric sau entuziasmul personal al frazei. - Stephane
Mallarm, Quant au livre, n uvres compltes, Paris, Edition de la Pliade, p.366.
15
Paul Valry, Tel quel, Lucruri ucise, n uvres compltes, Paris, Edition de la Pliade, p.289.
432
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
esen.16 Abaterea i obscuritatea devin norm; poezia trebuie s se opun claritii, facilitii
logicii comune, pragurilor voluntare ale limbajului.
Urmtorii pai vor fi parcuri de ctre Rene Char, Jean Cocteau, Alfred Jarry, Saint-
Pol Roux, Henry Michaux (acesta din urm distruge cuvintele n favoarea literelor, poemele
sale sunt adresate auzului poeme sonore, dnd natere unor montri verbali: Sarcop sur
Saricot, / Bourbourane talico, Ou te bourdourra le bodogo, / Bodogi, / Croupe, croupe Clinot
/ Et bourrecul la misre.), Eluard, Desmos, Aragon, Gregory Corsa (a publicat un poem
mpotriva bombei atomice sub forma unei ntreite ciuperci), luarea n derdere a limbajului de
ctre Jacques Prvert, plurilingvismul lui T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, poemele lui Maiakovski,
bolboroselile inteligibile ale lui Isidore Insou, necuvintele lui N. Stnescu.
Bilingvismul lui Eliot i al lui Pound care neleg s pstreze expresiile strine ca
atare, ca o enclav a realitii asimilat pe deplin, ncercri ale poeilor italieni din grupul I
novissimi (Edoardo Sanguinetti - De Laborintos; Alfredo Giuliani - Prosa).
Experimentul poetic al unor stri limit este ncercat de Antonim Artaud, Henry
Michaux i de generaia beat american: Corso, Ginzberg, Ferlinghetti, Andrews. Poezia lor
este un fel de fi de observaie clinic a celor care consum stupefiante.
Avangardele descind prin gradul de alienare din limbaj. Ele utilizeaz n mod
anormal vechile coduri mai degrab dect s creeze unele noi. Nu este vorba de trdarea
limbajului, lirica modern pstrnd fidelitatea ntre macrostructurile formate la nivel profund
ale textului i microstructurile de suprafa. Este vorba despre o macrostructur coerent
care se manifest prin microstructuri locale discontinui. n ciuda distorsionrilor manifestate
la toate nivelurile, n special cel lingvistic, revelaia semnificaiei nu se las ateptat.
Figurile de stil formale, lexico-timbrice i ritmice sunt autonome fa de
seminificaii textuali. Semnificantul poetic nu este ancorat de funcia strict lingvistic, el
revitalizeaz cuvntul prin simbol, i confer un surplus de sens care ine mai puin de intelect,
de operaiile logico-comunicative i n mai mare msur de incontient, preverbal, de
coninuturile verbale incomunicabile. Orice cuvnt poate elibera asociaii i energii latente,
poate subscrie coninuturi mentale. Ceea ce pare aberant din punct de vedere gramatical, poate
avea mare expresivitate afectiv. Este vorba despre limbajul ancestral al lui Mallarm,
despre o limb de care nu se mai tie (Pascoli). De multe ori, articulrile logice ale
comunicrii sunt de natur suprasegmental, rezultatul unei evaziviti semantice la nivel
discursiv, macrotextual. Teoretizarea i aplicaia acestei perspective o ntlnim i la
Wordsworth: There is a dark / Inscrutable workmanship that reconciles / Discordant
elements, makes them cling together / In one society 17.
Ceea ce numim distorsionare a limbajului din perspectiva restrictiv a normrii
gramaticale este, de fapt, un raport complementar: legtura dintre elementele realului
percepute ntr-un mod diferit, ntruct sunt combinate diferit sau raportul dintre dou stri
existeniale ale subiectului, manifestate n contact cu realul, incontientul i contientul. Acest
entre en jeu care determin proiecia coninuturilor raionale spre iraionalitatea fireasc a
formelor. Valry vorbete despre dorina de a traduce ceea ce se simte, chiar dac cu preul
unei eschivri fa de norme i legi lingvistice. Poetul percepe imaginile ntr-un mod
16
Ibidem, p.268.
17
W.Wordsworth, The prelude, "Este acolo o tainic / O neptruns dibcie care-mpac / Elementele
discordante, le face s sune mpreun / ntr-o armonie unic"(eng.)
433
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
particular, deoarece el combin cuvinte i lucruri. Ren Char i proiecteaz actul creaiei
artistice ca pe o coroborare a forelor magice i subversive ale dorinei, ieire de sub imperiul
gramaticii viziunii, a constrngerii prin norme, cedarea iniiativei cuvntului, aa cum
proclama Mallarm. O serie fonico-timbric va fi n cautarea semnificaiei. Procesul are loc la
nivelul avantextului i va fi reluat de ctre lector. Aceast faz este caracterizat n cel mai
rafinat mod cu putin de Mandeltam: Versurile triescdin acel calc sonor al formei care
precede poezia scris. Nu exist nc nici un cuvnt, i versurile sun deja18.
Distorsionarea, devierea limbajului prin actul poetic este, de fapt, o semantizare a
sunetelor, a sintaxei, a semnificailor lexicali ai limbii, o eventual semantizare a grafiei. De
multe ori funcia poetic ambiguizeaz funcia referenial, dar este numai un joc productiv al
discursului poetic.
Ceea ce a vrut s evidenieze Chomsky prin fraza Incolore idei verzi dorm furioase
este faptul c un text corect constituit din punct de vedere sintactic poate fi incoerent datorit
lipsei de afinitate semantic ntre cuvinte. Ideea este reluat de Cervoni: Pour quune pharse
soit rpute bien forme, il faut non seulement quelle combine conformment aux rgles de
la syntaxe des mots appartenant la langue, mais quen plus ces mots prsentent entre eux un
certain degr daffinit smantique 19. ntreaga poetic avangardist se bazeaz pe acest
fenomen devenit principiu. Suprarealitii doreau s exprime le fonctionnement rel de la
pense (funcionarea real a gndirii), s recurg la toute puissance du rve (ntreaga
putere a visului), s ruineze dfinitivement tous les autres mcanismes psychiques (definitiv
toate mecanismele psihice), s se debaraseze de tout souci esthtique (orice preocupare
estetic). Ei au tendina de a valorifica arta primitiv i arta celor alienai: Lart des fous, la
cl des champs!. Fie c se ascund n umbra dicteului automat (transcriere rapid pe hrtia a
unor fraze ce scap controlului raiunii, transcrierea funcionrii reale a gndirii), aa cum fac
suprarealitii, fie culpa este a hazardului i a arbitrarului dadaist, fie a "simultaneitii lirice" a
futurismului (poetul pune cuvintele n libertate, se lipsete de punctuaie i legturi sintactice,
stilul este telegrafic, limbajul se dezarticuleaz, totul pentru atingerea supremului el: o limb
nou, transmental), la poemele abstract fonetice lettriste (caracterizate prin distrugerea
limbajului i destrmarea esturii logice a discursului) trebuie s inem seama de faptul c
distorsionarea metodei nu implic i abaterea la nivelul "produsului". Creativitatea fr
constrngeri este una dintre condiiile sine qua non ale artistului avangardist. Tocmai acesta
este sursa creativitii. Ne putem aminti de fraza lui Breton ("Roua cu cap de pisic se
legna.") sau de poezia lettrist, abstract-fonetic a lui Hugo Ball:
"gadji beri bimba glandridi laula lonni cadori
gadjama gramma berida bimbala glandri galassassa laulitalomini
gadji beri bin blassa glassula lauda loni cadorsu sassala bim
Gadjama tuffmi zimzalla binban gligia wowolimai bin beri ban
o katalominal rhinocerossola hopsamen laulitalomini hoooo gadjama rhinocerossola
hopsamen
bluku terullala blaulala looooo"
(O Gadji Beri Bimba)
18
Apud Maria Corti, Pincipiile comunicrii literare, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1981, p.107.
19
J. Cervoni, Lnonciation, Paris, P.U.F., 1992, p.15.
434
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Hugo Ball susinea idee c limbajul poate fi distrus fr ca procesul creator s aib de suferit,
deoarece limbajul nu poate comunica experienele cele mai profunde, iar distrugerea
organului vorbirii devine o disciplin individual. Paradoxul lettritilor este comunicarea
incomunicabilului prin incapacitate de comunicare.
Arno Holz proclam valoarea cuvntului ca liter de lege; cuvintele sunt pretexte
(Vorwnde) pentru obiecte sau obiectele sunt pretexte pentru cuvinte n poemul Phantasus:
"Die alten / eisenholzlaffetigen / buckelbildrigen, buckeleringigen, buckelschildrigen /
Bronzekanonen, / Bronzehaubitzen, Bronzemrser, Bronzekaufnitzen"
n concepia lui Marinetti, limbajul, cu articulaiile sale sintactice frnte, devine instrument
de comunicare prin care poetul transpune un coninut (intelectual, afectiv, senzorial)
preexitent. El propovduiete utilizarea unei "parole in liberta", poezia fiind menit s
exprime "coraggiosamente il brutto". Marinetti d un exemplu de "lirism simultan"prin
descrierea unei scene de rzboi:
"TRITURATO ROSSO ROSSO STRIATO SUSSULTANTE ETERNO
urrrrrrraaaaah urrrrrraaah
vincere vincere gioia gioia vendetta masacrare continuare
tatatatatatatatatatatatatata
FINE DISPERAZIONE PERDUTO NIENTE-DA-FARE INUTILE
immergersi freschezza dilatarsi aprirsi ammolirsi dilatarsi
plum plamplam pluff pluff frrrrrr
sterco-di-cavalo orina bidet ammoniaca odore-tipografico"
Logica discursiv lipsete, fraza funcioneaz doar pe principiul unui lapsus lingvistic, un
enun produs de incontient, cuvintele fiind private de afinitate semantic, deci de sens global
la nivel microstructural.
Poetul italian Guido Ballo practic o poezie de radicale lingvistice; jocul etimoanelor, n
diverse limbi ale aceluiai cuvnt tematizat. Exemplul celebru este poezia Md: "M maer
mam mmi / magma micu: materia care r / mne dintr-o substan stoars, / madre
mater tu ai fost mereu / stoars md mdar acum te odihneti / ntr-o cript ntre oameni pe
care nu-i / cunoti mayra modar mother tu / care-i vei fiii cu tine mater matri."
Avangarda literar romnesc recurge la aceleai procedee de tensionare i torsiune a
limbajului. Manifestul scris de Saa Pan i publicat n revista unu (nr.1, aprilie 1928) este
edificator: Cetitor deparaziteaz- i creierul
strigat de timpan
avion
t.f.f.-radio
televiziune
75 h.p
marinetti
breton
vinea
tzara
ribemont-dessaignes
arghezi
435
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
brncusi
theo van doesburg
uraaaa uraaaaaa uraaaaaaaa
arde maculatura bibliotecilor
a.et p. Chr. n.
123456789000.000.000.000.000. kg.
sau ngrasa sobolanii
scribi
aptibilduri
sterilitate
amanita muscaria
eftimihalachisme
brontozauri
Huooooooooooooooo
Combina verb
abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz
= arta ritm viteza neprevazut granit
guttenberg renvii
Combaterea inexpresivitii, distrugerea lipsei de afect devin idei programatice
pentru avangarditi: Dar noi care simim frigul ptrunzndu-ne ascuit, nevoie de reacionare.
Si atunci: micare, mult micare. Naterea constructivismului, suprarealismului i a celorlalte
isme dinamice, necesare vieii noastre ameninate de nghe. Cei crora falsul soare le e
suficient, privesc aceast vertiginozitate de linii, cuvinte, sunete, culori nedumerii i exclam:
Nebunii. S le fie de bine.20
Urmuz se sprijin pe tradiia folcloric i ncerc s dea sugestivitate expresiei
perimate. Ilustativ este fabula intitulat Cronicari: Cic nite cronicari / Duceau lips de
alvari. / i-au rugat pe Rapaport / S le dea un paaport. / Rapaport cel dragla / Juca un
carambola, / Netiind c-Aristotel / Nu vzuse ostropel. / Galileu! O, Galileu! / Strig el
atunci mereu / Nu mai trage de urechi / Ale tale ghete vechi. / Galileu scoate-o sintez /
Din redingota francez, / i exclam: Sarafoff, / Servete-te de cartof ! / MORAL /
Pelicanul sau babia.21
Ion Vinea face din poezie un discurs investit cu valoare muzical-semantic. Poemul
Eleonora este o combinaie muzical a dou cuvinte cu semnificaie. Sensul global se
genereaz la nivelul macrostructurii:
Tu o
Tu
Ah tu Ah tu
TUUUUUUU
Ah tu Ah
20
Geo Bogza, Aniversri, n Urmuz, Cmpina, anul I, nr.1, ianuarie 1928.
21
Urmuz, Cronicari, n Avangarda literar romnesc Antologie de Marin Mincu, Bucureti, Editura Minerva,
1983, p.61.
436
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
TUUUUUUUU
Ah-tu ah-tu ah-tu ah-tu ah
Tu Ah Tu Ah T U U U U
ah-tu-ah, ah-tu-ah, ah-tu-ah
ah-ha-ah-ha-ah-ha-ah-ha-ah
ah-Ha ah-Ha ah-Ha ah-Ha AH
A a Ah Ha
aaaaaaH
TUUUUuuuu
E E L E oo noora."22
Saa Pan reitereaz frumusetea tcerii: Citete spaiile albe dintre versuri / Dintre degete[
] Spaii albe n care vameii nu vor ti silabisi / Frumuseea clandestin a tcerii. (Episod)
n aceeai manier se manifest limbajul i n creaiile lui Gherasim Luca. Secretul golului
i al plinului este cel al limbajului articulat prin dezarticulare:
vovovovovovocea oceaa ta
sau vavavavavasul n care tu iiiiiiiii
cu orororor izozoorizonnntalmente
unpicunpicunpicun nclinclinclinclinat
pentru a te putea oglindi
n ale tale propropro
proproproproprii cearcne
ca ntr-un laclac dessssssnge
culculpapapa culpabile sau
nunununu nu nu
mmmminimmmminile tale
sunt muritoare
vreau s zic mmmminimini
mini minile
ssssss sss ssssss ssss
sssssssssss sssss ssssssssssss
ss ssssss sssssssssss ssss s
sss sassa s aaass sa ssa sss sass sss
ssasassa a aaass assass
saassas aa aasss sasss
ssssassas aa aaass sasss
asssassas sas assas assa sssa
aas aaas as assassa
saaassassa saassassa sa
sa saassassssss sssassassa a
sssssa sassassassassade ade sasassado
desadesadesade ssdesadss ds dssd sd
dessads ssds ssdessa desade
dsssssade adesadss ssssd ss
sssss ssssssss dessa aadessssadessa sa
22
Ion Vinea, Eleonora, n Simbolism, modernism, avangardism de Ion Mihu, Bucureti, Editura Didactic i
Pedagogic, 1976, p. 176.
437
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
dessade de desade de ssssssss ssa de
desassassa ssade dee sade desade
desassassade sade desassassade sdss
desadesss dedesassa sa desassa a
assassa des asaassa aade dss sda
ddessa eeessa essade de sade sade
Dan Botta las iniiativa cuvintelor: "Eulalia: sunet crin / Idol eleat sub geruri
/Claros cu inel marin / Singur n mirate ceruri // Soare nins de acte reci / Dorice, prudente
forme, / Pe orbite simple treci / Un liturgic somn de norme, Proemiu."
Ilarie Voronca face abstracie de regulile de coeren i de atracie semantic ntre
cuvinte: "Vntul e ptrat invers 50 LEI util gazometru / interstiial cheam homar pentru
esofag / ein zwwei pentru sept huit dieci / temperament scafandrier n portefeuille / sistem
nervos apoteoz cu bumbac / omlet confecioneaz clorofil castrat / acul de siguran ua s-
a nchis n / inima cu acetilen mi e foame mi / e ntuneric mi e dicionar telefonul / cu barb
cochilia desface sonerii / almanah starda."23 (Hidrofil)
Ne putem referi i la principiile nenumite, adic cuvinte inventate, cu trimiteri
alchimistice ale lui Ion Gheorghe: Trei ipostaze ale mrii: "alrmul, palilmenul, efebiul, /
etericul, stirbol asemeni unui / luceafr nou-nscut, roroniul rumen, / pulchridul, ce strluce-n
clipa morii /n irisul infantelor, geralul, []"
Poezia, dincolo de metafor i simbol, reprezint o elaborare lingvistic deliberat, o
alegere contient a unui anumit cod sau a unui model prozodic. Prin intermediul unui joc de
permutaie a fonemelor, printr-o operaie combinatorie deliberat, lege a principiilor
matematice, Ion Gheorghe descoper limbajul poetic:
"Numirea lui prin ceea ce era la nceput i e i azi INUMA-NUMA-ZIX
ntr-acel loc n care Numitul NeNumit era.
Identic Numrului Nume ce nimic nu cuprindea.
Dar care-s Numele i Numrul Necunoscutului.
Numind i numrnd cu YIX-A-IX-A-I
E zicerea de ziua Ics, de locul cel necunoscut,
Care se cheam A, Necunoscutul de-nceput, i Fr Nume."
Iulia Kristeva susine c "a lucra n limb implic n mod necesar ntoarcerea la germenul n
care se deschid sensul i subiectul su", artnd c cei ce vorbesc sunt vorbii. Practica
semnificant o descoperim i la Ion Gheorghe:
"Urmeaz-m-n prima Expresie, de la stnga la dreapta.
ntotdeauna s pui nainte rul
AZOIFIOSARMESZERNOIPLAIMOZIOZOBUA-ZIS.
Cerem ngduin Zeului Logosului s facem urmtoarele despriri
A ZOI FIO SARMES ARMES MESZER-ERNOI PLAI MOZIOS ZO BUA
ZIS."24
23
Ilarie Voronca, Hidrofil, n Avangarda literar romnesc Antologie de Marin Mincu, Bucureti, Editura
Minerva, 1983, p.133.
24
Ion Gheorghe, Dacia Fniks, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romnesc, 1978, p.15-16.
438
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Practica este ceea a retroversiunii: se traduce din i n limba poetic. El reactiveaz
forma semnificant a cuvntului, dinami
ntrebarea pe care i-o poate adresa un cititor este dac nelege ceea ce a vrut
autorul s comunice. Dar dac exit i situaii n care poetul nu prea comunicdeoarece
folosete mult prea puine cuvinte? Cea mai scurt znd i fragmentnd discursul.
Gramatica poetic nu are legtur cu gramatica limbii. poezie cu care eram obisnuii era
poezia haiku, ns moda poetic evolueaz. Poetica actual desfoar n faa ochilor i a
minilor cititorului contemporan ceea ce numete "minimalist poetry", poezie ntr-un cuvnt
sau dou, o "poezie a ochilor", asa cum o numea cndva Mircea Crtarescu, a vizualului i a
imaginativului. Aceste poezii pot fi considerate distorsionri ale limbajului, ns nu i ale
comunicrii. Arsenalul liric este minim: materia mundi inexistent, vocea liric
imperceptibil, lipsa tropilor i a altor figuri de stil, uneori lipsa cuvintelor, dar nu i
absena ideilor sau a implicrii afectului, principii de baz ale genului liric.
Poemul-titlu al lui Aram Saroyan25 este alctuit din ceea ce el numete proto-cuvntul
nsui: cuvntul lumina-cea-dinti.
Poemul lui Geof Huth este construit pe principiul "E Plurabus Unum", al reflectrii, al
similaritii. La o vizualizare atent, lectorul va regsi mai multe frnturi de cuvinte: "ECHO"
(ecou),"CHOIC(e)" (fr."choir", "choreography"), nu lipsite de sens i coeren. Revelaia
poeziei este aceea a tensiunii dintre antinomii: ntre copiere i rezultatul ei, ecoul lucrurilor i
alegere proprie, ntre alb i negru (jocul cu percepia vizual), sus - jos, stnga dreapta. ntr-
o exprimare mai puin imaginativ, universul este constituit din ecoul dintre contrarii, iat
ideea poeziei. Critica literar o consider sugestia celebrrii dihotomiei reprezentat de
universul nsui.
O nou tendint poetic, cea a poeziei infra-verbale, pluriestetice uzeaz de cu totul
alte mijloace de creaie. Specificul acestui tip de poezie este dat de conversia i distorsionarea
lingvistic: redundan, contaminare, lipsa seleciei i a combinrii cuvintelor, absena
coerenei, a coeziunii la nivelul discursului, rezultate chiar din absena elementelor definitorii
ale oricrui enun. Exemplu: lipsa conectorilor i a verbelor: sky / every / day (Aram
Saroyan) sau disfuncionala topic: wind oil to / blows out sea (Aram Saroyan);
contradicii logice: a window to walk away in (Aram Saroyan), utilizarea unor tehnici grafice
de sugestie, hibridizarea cuvintelor, deformarea lor: eyeye, lightght, morning, blod (Aram
Saroyan), cant' (distorsiune de la forma verbal cant), ccoommiittee - lungirea sunetului
(Crag Hill), gruparea unor litere fr vreo ordine, logic sau coeren, supunndu-se doar
regulii muzicalitii i armoniei sonore cerut de lirism n general. Michael Basinski
reitereaz limbajul musical ce se ntoarce la matca limbii naturale: Ook / OKG / Oon / eOa /
dOK.
25
www.Minimalist poetry.com.
439
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Ed Conti pornete de la cuvinte ale tezaurului limbii pe care le ajusteaz cu
terminaii ce redau ultimele litere ale alfabetului, litere ce nu sunt terminaii propriu-zise.
Jocul d natere unor cuvinte hibride: "galaxyz" Nici poemele lui Kempton nu sunt mai
coerente: poate puin rimate, uor muzicale, dar nu respect nici una dintre regulile discursului
(lipsa coerenei i a coeziunii, formulri eliptice, omisiunea verbului, nucleul propozitiei):
caged / age / surrounded / bii / cd / propositionz.
Birth, Copulation and Death scris de Jonathan Brannen este expunerea unor non-
cuvinte create prin repetiie, interferen, apariii i dispariii de sunete: proteza lui b
bentrance, intercalarea lui e intereruption, eliziunea lui k - nowledge: bentrance / * /
intereruption / * / knowledge.
Inserarea de simboluri matematice utilizate drept conectori i ustensile verbale
ntlnim la LeRoy Gorman n poemul Mathmaku#2: March = / (meadows.)(:/.), / slowly.
Robert Lax folosete repetarea redundant a unor cuvinte. Remarcabil este maniera
de scriere i distribuie a materialului lexical:
wa-
ter
stone
stone
wa-
ter
stone
n poezia fisurii, spaiile sunt folosite pentru a "deconcilia" cuvintele ntre ele, ca n
poemul lui LeRoy Gorman, "t rain s top spar row" sau al lui Kostelanetz "the rapist." La
prima vedere pot fi interpretate ca un lapsus digiti, lapsus de scriere sau tipografiere.
Realitatea este c aceste prea scurte poeme sunt desctuarea ideilor i a afectului.
Poezia fuzional "fusional poems" combin cuvintele pentru a da natere unor
metafore implicite, aa ca n poemul lui Jonathan Brannen, splace: splash/ splice of a space's
becoming a place. George Swede: graveyarduskilldeer : trei cuvinte sunt co-pronunate nu
doar pentru a produce puternica rezonan a unui dublu haiku" graveyard/ dusk/ killdeer//
graveyard/ us/ killdeer,dar mai ales pentru a trimte la idea de ferecare, de constrngere a
oamenilor, precum literele n acest macro-cuvnt.
Uneori procedeele se combin, aa ca n poemul lui Karl Kempton: ANTIQUE
QUESTION / anti quest ion / a we / awe .
Percepia lectorului trebuie focalizat att asupra literelor, ct i a cuvintelor, poezia
trebuie privit i citit. Sincretismul percepiei vizuale i psihice deschide calea de acces spre
interogaia nelinititoare asupra lucrurilor nefiresc de fireti. Nelinitea este una colectiv
sugerat de acest a we (noi), dar progreseaz spre awe!. Poetul ne spune: ascult sunetul lui a
we, al nostru, devenit sunetul awe, sunetul divin. Aceasta este ntrebarea antic, preexisten,
devenit anti-ntrebare.
440
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Francis Ponge proclam divorul dintre cuvinte i real. El are dorina de a adapta
cuvntul referentului, la realitatea pe care o denumete. n demersul su creativ, el lucreaz
asupra dublei dimensiuni a semnului lingvistic: modelarea semnificantului i a semnificatului.
Plecnd de la observaia c anumite sunete sunt adaptate realitii pe care o desemneaz: Le
Gui la glu: sorte de mimosa nordique 26 (caracterul vscos al plantei, asemntor cu le gui,
cuvnt ce i este apropiat din punct de vedere fonetic, sinonim cu mocirl). n Mthodes,
consacrat este textul Verre deau. Poetul consider c fonemele utilizate n cuvntul verre
sunt foarte bine alese: vocala e sugereaz transparena recipientului i caracterul insipid al
substanei; sonoritatea lui r, vibraiile celor dou corpuri, dar i forma paharului; erre,
perfect simetrice, parc ar fi plasate n interiorul i exteriorul paharului i s-ar reflecta
reciproc. Poetul inventeaz sau transform cuvintele n aa fel nct fonemele s coincid cu
obiectul evocat: les ombelles ne font pas de lombre, mais de lombe27 (prin suprimarea
consoanei r ia natere un cuvnt ce sugereaz parfumul emanat de floare). Ponge se
intereseaz mai puin de logic (raison) i mai mult de rson cuvnt creat de el nsui
pornind de la verbul rsonner cu nelesul de a produce un sens nsoit de rezonane, ecouri.
Poetul este cel ce transform raiunea n rson, pentru c lira, muzicalitatea i cuvntul sunt
tendues lextrme. Dimenisiunea grafic este deosebit de important. Fiecrei litere,
Ponge i asociaz anumite caracteristici: Y este deschiderea i profunzimea gurii, U din
gruche, deschide cuvntul, T are forma unei mese, table, grafemul A e folosit pentru a descrie
un pod: Allong sur la ponte de lA, lhomme poursuit volontiers un songe la gloire du
charpentier . 28 Din aceleai considerente, el dorete s nlocuiasc s din oiseau cu v, cci
numai litera v descrie deschiderea aripilor unei psri.
Idealul lui Francis Ponge este de a scrie un text n care cuvintele s poat fi nelese
n toate sensurile pe care le posed. Poetul francez este iniiatorul unui nou gen literar numit
objeu, n care practicile scriiturii se joac cu mecanismele limbajului pentru ca textul s
devin echivalentul poetic al lucrului. Textul nu mai este pur descriere a obiectului, ci devine
parte constitutiv din acesta: petalele florilor ce seamn cu vulvele sunt numite ptulves (La
parole touffe sous les roses), hirondelle volant lhorizont horizondelle (Les hirondelles),
lodeur des danrades andorade (Plats de poissons frits).
O ultim categorie de poezii la care vom face referire este aceea care folosete drept
tehnic de scriitur efectul optic. Plecnd pe linia tradiiei lui Apollinaire, a caligramelor i
tipogramelor, E. E.Cummings elaborez o poetic a micrii, a elanului, a verbului a face,
fiind prin excelen un Furitor, pentru care 2 + 2 nu fac niciodat 4 ( Foreword29). Una dintre
cele mai interesante poezii ale sale este [ l (a ]
l (a
le
af
fa
ll
s)
26
Francis Ponge, Pices, Paris, ditions Gallimard, 1998, p.59.
27
Ibidem, p.162.
28
Ibidem, p.46
29
E. E.Cummings, is 5, New York, Liveright Paperbound Edition, 1970, p.7.
441
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
one
l
iness30
Inteligibilitatea acestei poezii ine de capacitatea lectorului de a face asocieri: l
tipografic este singularul 1 care multiplicat ne duce cu gndul la individualitatea care nu poate
fi niciodat copiat. Sufixul iness abstractizeaz, articolul proclitic a ne d impresia unei
precizri exacte. Pentru c poetul se vrea traductorul gndurilor sale, el folosete parantezele,
cci i gndurile noastre las loc unor paranteze. Ideea poemului este cea indicat de citirea
coerent a versurilor: o frunz cade, singurtate. Tema este clar: singurtatea i unicitatea
tuturor elementelor materiei mundi. Acestea sunt doar cteva dintre numeroasele exemple
de distorsionare a limbajului cu efect de originalitate i creativitate n operele autorilor.
Totui, trebuie s precizm faptul c, n contextul comunicrii literare, exist i alte tipuri de
distorsionri ce au ca baz de pornire limbajul, dar manifestarea propriu-zis vizeaz cursul,
axa diegezei (putem face referire la descriere, ca bucl n istoria povestit, aa cum o
interpreteaz Ph. Hamon31, sau la mai multe axe ale discursului care se intersecteaz pan la
confuzie, diferite tehnici folosite de autorul ce se camufleaz, se impersonalizeaz sau se
dedubleaz). Toate aceste fenomene pot fi numite generic distorsiuni, abateri, devieri, dac ne
raportm la caracteristicile deviaiei, caracteristici stabilite de ctre Heinrich F. Plett: orice
deviaie are un caracter referenial, nefiind autonom, putnd fi neleas doar pe fundalul
unor fenomene lingvistice non-deviante i un caracter sistematic, nefiind neleas arbitrar, ca
orice abatere din text, ci ca o structur intestin.
n cazul abaterilor, devianelor i distorsionrilor cu efect de creativitate artistic,
cercettorii pleac de la o baz, aceea a limbajului i uzului comun al acestuia pentru a putea
stabili un ntreg inventar stilistic al creatorului, dar i al receptorului, cci lectorul este un
creator la fel de important de literatur, art i cultur. n dimensiunea multidimensionat a
actului de comunicare literar ne gsim n interiorul unui spaiu al jocului i al creaiei de lumi
n care fiecare poate fi creator, n limitele sistemului contextual dinamic.
Bibliografie
Apollinaire, G., Caligrammes, Paris, ditions Gallimard, 1997.
Avangarda literar romneasc, antologie de Marin Mincu, Bucureti, Editura Minerva,
1983.
Barthes, Roland, Le degr zro de lecriture, suivi de Nouveaux Essais Critiques, Paris, 1996.
Barthes, Roland, Plcerea textului, Cluj, Editura Echinox, 1994.
Barthes, Roland, Romanul scriiturii, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1987.
Bogza, Geo, Aniversri, n Urmuz, Cmpina, anul I, nr.1, ianuarie 1928.
Borcil, Mircea, McLain, Richard, Poetica american. Cluj-Napoca, Editura Dacia, 1981.
Breton, Andr, La cl des champs, Paris, J.J. Pauvert, 1985.
Brton, Andr, Manifeste du surralisme, Paris, ditions Gallimard, 1996.
30
E. E.Cummings, Complete poems, New York, Harcourt Brace Javanovich Inc., 1972, p.124.
31
Ph.Hamon, Quest-ce qu'une description, La Revue potique, no.12, 1972.
442
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Clinescu, Matei, A citi, a reciti Ctre o poetic a (re)lecturii, Bucureti, Editura Polirom,
2003.
Clinescu, Matei, Conceptul modern de poezie, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu, 1972.
Cervoni, J., Lnonciation, Paris, P.U.F., 1992.
Corti, Maria, Principiile comunicrii literare, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1981.
Costache Olreanu, Dragoste cu vorbe i copaci, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romneasc,
1987.
Cummings, E. E., Complete poems, New York, Harcourt Brace Javanovich Inc., 1972.
Cummings, E. E., is 5, New York, Liveright Paperbound, Edition, 1970.
Delvaille, Bernard, La nouvelle posie franaise, Anthologie, Paris, ditions Sechers, 1974.
Deridda, Lcriture et la diffrance, Paris, ditions du Seuil, 1967.
Doina, tefan, Augustin, Eseuri, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu, 1996.
Doncey, Bruno, Francis Ponge 5 cls pour aborder luvre, 5 pomes expliqus, Paris,
ditions Hatier, 1992.
Dragomirescu, G. N., Dicionarul figurilor de stil, Bucureti, Editura tiinific,1995.
Eco, Umberto, Tratat de semiotic general, Bucureti, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic,
1982.
Empson, William, apte tipuri de ambiguitate, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1981.
Escarpit, R., Sociologie de la litterature, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1968.
Filliozat, Pierre Sylvain, Une thorie indienne du langage potique, n Potique, no.11,
p.315-320.
Friedrich, Hugo, Structura liricii moderne, Bucureti, Editura ELU, 1969.
Gabriela Negreanu, Paul Valry i modelul Leonardo, Bucureti, Editura Albatros, 1978.
Gheorghe, Ion, Dacia Fniks, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romnesc, 1978.
Greimas, A.J., Semantique structurale, Paris, ditions Larousse, 1966.
Hamon, Ph., Quest-ce qu'une description, La Revue potique, no.12, 1972
Ionesco, Eugne, La cantatrice chauve. La lecon, Paris, ditions Hatier, 1992.
Kristeva, Julia, La rvolution du langage potique, Paris, ditions du Seuil, 1974.
Kristeva, Julia, Recherches pour une semanalyse, Paris, ditions du Seuil, 1978.
Mihu, Ioan, Simbolism, modernism, avangardism, Bucureti, Editura Didactic i
Pedagogic, 1976.
Nedelciu, Mircea, Tratament fabulatoriu, Bucureti, Editura Cartea Romnesc, 1986.
Oulipo, Atlas de littrature potentielle, Paris, ditions Gallimard, 1998.
Ph.Hamon, Quest-ce qu'une description, La Revue potique, no.12, 1972.
Plett, F.Heinrich, tiina textului i analiza de text, Bucureti, Editura Univers, 1983.
Pompidou, Georges, Anthologie de la posie franaise, Paris, ditions Hachette, 1995.
Ponge, Francis, La rage de lexpression, Paris, ditions Gallimard, 1998.
Ponge, Francis, Le parti pris des choses suivi de Promes, Paris, ditions Gallimard, 1997.
Ponge, Francis, Pices, Paris, ditions Gallimard, 1998.
Slama Cazacu, Tatiana, Psiholingvistica, Bucureti, Editura ALL, 1999.
Vinea, Ion, Eleonora, n Simbolism, modernism, avangardism de Ion Mihu, Bucureti,
Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 1976.
443
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ETHOS AND EUDAIMONIA. ETHICS AS HAPPINESS
Anca Raluca PURCARU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Apollonia University of Iai
Abstract:The present study aims at underlining the connection between ethos and
eudaimonia, namely between ethics and happiness, appealing to Aristotles philosophy and to
Christian religion. The belief according to which the key to happiness is having an ethical
behavior is a powerful motivation for being ethical, but it is not a simple persuasive strategy
used to convince people of the necessity of the ethical dimension, it also resumes an
anthropological deictic conception that places ethics at the centre of the human beings
divine essence and spiritual growth. We have chosen Aristotle and Christianism because of
the defining role played by love: in Aristotles perspective, love of virtue is the main source of
virtue and the connection between ethics and happiness. In Christianism, love is not only a
virtue, but the most important of all and the source of all virtues. It is also the key of mans
spiritual fulfilment. After discussing the two perspectives, we will analyse the possibility of
love in an atheist vision of man.
Keywords: ethos, eudaimonia, Aristotle, nous, contemplation, virtue, Christ, communion of
will, love
1. Introduction
The present paper presents the relation between ethos and eudaimonia (the Ancient
Greek concepts of ethics and happiness) in the anthropological conceptions of Aristotle and
Christian religion. The two perspectives do not present ethics as a form of human behaviour,
but as the ultimate form of human behaviour. Ethics and happiness come together: ethic is
viewed as the main component of happiness and happiness is not conceivable in the absence
of the ethical. But the influence of ethics on happiness is not just a motivational strategy to
determine an ethical behaviour. The human structure is as such that ethics is a part of human
happiness. Moreover, ethics is an essential human component as it is the component that
individualises man and relates him to god. The similarities between god and man come via the
way of virtue. The most valued virtue is that of love (the love of virtue and of the virtuous for
the Aristotelian perspective and the love of God and of the kin for Christians and, in both of
them, the love of self) because it is the cause of all other virtues and it makes communion
within community possible. Practically, without love there is no virtue and without virtue no
happiness is possible, neither that of self, neither that of the community.
We will start with a presentation of Aristotles perspective, that precedes
chronologically that of Christianism, and continue with a presentation of the Christian ethics,
that accepted many of Aristotles writings. The purpose is not to identify the Aristotelian
ideas embraced by Christianity, but to underlie the connection between happiness and ethics
that both of them share, which we will sum up in the last part of the paper, when we ask the
question about the validity of such perspectives in an atheist view.
444
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
2. Aristotels Nicomachean Ethics
Aristotle uses the concept of eudaimonia for describing the good life and the happy
life. The etymological meaning of eudaimonia (living in a way that is well-favored by a
god (Kraut, 2012)) is to be found in Aristotels Nicomachean Ethics as the idea that the life
of virtue (the good life) is similar to that of the gods.
Aristotle begins his book by distinguishing the activities that have an inner purpose
from those who have an exterior finality and includes happiness and virtue in the first
category. This distinction is important because it offers a first connection between virtue and
happiness.
Aristotle connects good to the function or the finality of things. Good is the finality
of an activity. The activities that are self-sufficient are pursuit for themselves, not for the sake
of something else, that have no other finality outside themselves, and that are their own
purpose, include happiness. Happiness is the finality of all things and is wanted for itself.
Virtue is also wanted for itself, but it is also wanted for the sake of happiness (Aristotle, I. 7).
Aristotle defines pleasure as a state of soul connected to the characteristics of being a lover
of. Virtue is in itself a pleasant activity because the virtuous man (who loves virtue) takes
pleasure within making virtuous act. Therefore, virtue is made and wanted for the sake of
virtue itself. (Aristotle, I. 8).
The Aristotelian distinction is also known in motivational theories as the distinction
between actions with an intrinsic motivation and actions with extrinsic motivation. For
instance, one could have an intrinsic motivation for doing a good deed or an extrinsic one.
Moreover, the definition of a good deed is connected to the notion of intrinsic motivation.
Good can be named that activity done following no other finality that the deed itself. If
something else is intended by doing a good deed (such as gratitude from the beneficiary of the
good deed, social prestige or sin forgiveness), the actions moral value decreases.
Furthermore, if the purpose is not achieved (for instance, the person does not gain gratitude
for its deed), pleasure is not felt. On the other hand, if a good deed is the consequence of the
love of good that one has, the reward (the pleasure) is in the good action itself. So, a good
lover would take pleasure on its good deed. Therefore, pleasure is intrinsic in virtue (it
belongs to its very nature).
But virtue is not just one of the many pleasant activities that man does, it is a specific
human activity. Differentiating man from other life forms, Aristotle notices that in the case of
man, his specific function is the activity of soul which follows or implies a rational principle,
and that is the activity of soul in accordance with virtue (Aristotle, I. 8.). By the fact that the
activity specific to man is that of the soul, Aristotle refers to the activity of the human faculty
nous, which means intuitive understanding (Kraut, 2012). In order to understand Aristotles
anthropological conception, we must first understand the concept of nous. Nous (mind,
intellect, reason) is a human faculty described as exceptional among capacities of the soul. It
is the part through which intuitive understanding and contemplation take place and it is also
the faculty that differentiates man from other forms of life: This capacity of soul thus has a
special significance for Aristotle: in investigating mind, he is investigating what makes
humans human (Shields, 2011). Nous relates god to humans, because nous is the divine part
of man. This faculty, says Aristotle, is the divinest part of us, the faculty the exercise of
which, in its proper excellence, will be perfect happiness. (Aristotle, X.7, p.338). Happiness
445
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
is a gift of the gods to men (Aristotle, I.9). This makes it, at the same time, a sacred duty.
God is happy and blessed. The activity specific to gods is that specific to nous, to reason, it is
that of contemplation. Contemplation is self-sufficient and involves happiness. According to
Aristotle, happiness is contemplation, because self-sufficiency is to be found most of all in
contemplation.
In Aristotles perspective, happiness is not a state of mind consisting of amusement,
but happiness also involves pleasure. Happiness is not a feeling, it is a self-sufficient activity,
it is wanted for itself, and not in virtue of something exterior to it. It is not a means to a
purpose, it is its own purpose. Happiness is, therefore, that activity that is its own purpose
(Aristotle, X.6). Each faculty involves a pleasure of its own and each activity involves a
pleasure of its own. Pleasure completes the exercise of faculties, it is felt when perfection is
achieved (as it is the case of music for the hearing). The pleasure specific to man is therefore
the happiness that comes from the activity specific to man (Aristotle, X. 5): the activity of
reason. Reason is what relates man with god, separating man from other life forms,
individualising him (Aristotle, X. 7). The activity most akin to that of god and that brings the
most amount of happiness possible to man is, therefore, that of reason: If then reason be
divine as compared with man, - the life which consists in the exercise of reason will also be
divine in comparison with human life. (Aristotle, p.340) Man is not, like god, self-sufficient,
but he can engage in the self-sufficient speculative activities of reason and achieve the highest
degree of happiness possible. This kind of life would not only be a lifestyle similar to that of
god, it would be the life proper to man, because it would perfect its specific faculties.
A clarification is required at this point with respect of the relation between happiness
and virtue: Aristotle thinks not that happiness is virtue, but that it is virtuous activity. The
happy life consists of lifelong activities that actualize the virtues of the rational part of the
soul (Kraut, 2012). Mans welfare is a life in accordance with reason, optimised by mans
spiritual virtues. This is what eudaimonia, the happiness, the good life is all about
(Murean). The happy life is the life of virtue, because virtue is the merit of reason. Virtue is a
means between two extremes, and it is up to the reason to find and clarify the mean. Leaving
reasonably is a life-long project, because it is up to the practical wisdom to analyse and take
the best decisions in the circumstances one meets.
The human welfare also implies the welfare of the city (of the society). With respect to
the aspects that can influence the quality of the human life, such as the social and financial
aspects, The Stagirite considers that these, too, are to be optimised through virtue. This is why
Aristotle adds to the contemplative way of life that of the politics. The contemplative way of
life is the first mode of eudaimonia and the political is the second one. Both of them are
virtuous activities and compose happiness (Murean). The political philosophy of Aristotle
completes his ethics. Moreover, some interpreters argue that The Nicomachean Ethics is
just a pretext for Aristotles political philosophy. We believe that his Politics was intended to
offer the clarifications necessary for obtaining the necessary conditions for virtuous life to
take place in. In other words, the life of reason in accordance with virtue also implies
decision-making in the political sphere. At this level, the other factors that man depends on
for optimising happiness lie.
Love plays a fundamental role in Aristotles ethics. The love of virtue makes rejoicing
in virtuous acts possible. It is the love of self that makes virtue possible (only a virtuous man
446
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
displays love of the self, as a vicious man is a self-destructive man). Love of virtue finds joy
from the company of virtuous peers. It is the love of virtue that makes friendship, family and
community possible. Thus, in the absence of love, happiness is not imaginable. In Christian
religion, too, love plays a fundamental role.
3. Christian Religion
In Christian Religion, man is the image of God by creation and call. Man is called
upon communion with god: The dignity of man rests above all on the fact that he is called to
communion with God. This invitation to converse with God is addressed to man as soon as he
comes into being. For if man exists it is because God has created him through love, and
through love continues to hold him in existence. He cannot live fully according to truth unless
he freely acknowledges that love and entrusts himself to his creator (Vatican Council). Love
is the heart of Christianity.
The example of the type of communion man is called upon is given by Christ, as Saint
Maximus argues. The Holy Trinity is composed of only one divine nature and three persons:
The Father, The Sun and the Holy Spirit. The three persons reveal their properties not in their
nature, but in their relation to each other. The two natures of Christ (a divine and a human
one), united by one person, is the example of the union of humanity and divinity through love.
The mode of existence proper to the Sun through the hypostatic union is the mode of
existence proper to his humanity, as well. The union of two modes of action is possible in a
hypostatic union on the level of the person (and not of the nature). The Sun acts in identity
with his Fathers will, but in the way and manner specific to being a Sun. In the person of
Christ, the divine and human acting and willing are in mutual correlation, because the human
acts of Christ are imprinted with the mark of His Eternal Sonship. Thus, the human nature
reaches its perfection: the perfection of love. Christ reveals through his acting the community
of The Triune God. The Incarnation becomes, thus, the Revelation of the Trinity and love
becomes the leading to the human nature to its ultimate perfection: In Christ, all human
acting and willing have been restored to their originally intended communion with Gods
acting and willing (Schnborn,1994).
The loving union of natures in Christ and of persons in The Trinity are the example of
the type of union man is called upon. Imitatio Christi is an invitation to be what we were
meant to be the children of God and an invitation to love and communion. The capacity of
loving is commune to God and man and it is the basis for their communion. The coming of
Christ is an act of love and an example of love. Love is, thus, the means through which man
can exercise his similarity of God. Love is the main virtue of Christianity. It is the virtue
through which all other virtues are possible (Catholic Catechism). Saint John Golden Mouth
described love as the source of all virtues. The love of God and that of the Neighbour are
fundamental commandments in Christianity. Christ explained the love of God as connected to
that of the Neighbour, so the first commandment of loving God is completed with the
commandment of loving the Neighbour as oneself (Catholic Catechism). This type of
communion between the self and the other can only be understood through an anthropological
conception that places love at the basis of mans creation. That who does not love the other, is
incapable of loving oneself and incapable of being happy.
447
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Love ensures the intrinsic motivation for ethic. Love itself makes the one who loves
happy, according to Saint John Golden Mouth. Love is also the only valid motivation. The
motivation of doing good and being virtuous in order to ensure access to Eternal Life (to
Paradise) is not a valid one. Happiness is obtainable only by achieve that perfection of the
human nature indicated by Christ, meaning that only love is the key to eternal happiness.
Happiness is love, meaning it is a way of relating to the others. The Italian expression for
loving, ti voglio bene, offers the example of putting the others welfare as a priority for ones
will. Through love, a mystical transphere of happiness occurs, as when the loved one is
happy, so is the one who loves, despite anything else. Self-sacrifice is, thus, empowered by
love. The characteristics of love have been best described by Saint Paul in the First Letter to
The Corinthians: love is patient, love is kind and is not jealous; love does not brag and is not
arrogant, does not act unbecomingly; it does not seek its own, is not provoked, does not take
into account a wrong suffered, does not rejoice in unrighteousness, but rejoices with the truth;
bears all things, believes all things, hopes all things, endures all things; love never fails.
Love pertains to the paradox, but so do most Christian values, especially those
contained by the blessings named by Christ. In Christianity, happiness is what the man was
made for (Dumnea, 2003). The blessings refer the modes of happiness accessible to man
during the lifetime. The term blessing was translated in some languages (Romanian, too) by
the term happiness. The first blessing (Blessed are the poor in spirit; for theirs is the
kingdom of heaven) refers to a certain state of mind of peace and also to finding happiness by
possessing inner riches. The second blessing (Blessed are they that mourn; for they shall be
comforted) reveals the possibility of happiness within accepting sufferance as an occasion of
perfecting oneself. The third one (Blessed are the meek; for they shall inherit the earth) refers
not to the power deprivation, but to the endurance and non-violence, to the peaceful behaviour
and to the possibility of loving even the one who is an enemy. The forth blessing (Blessed are
they which do hunger and thirst after justice; for they shall be filled) refers to the spiritual
hunger of God. This blessing does not imply not leading a normal life, on the contrary, it
implies receiving Gods gifts and His holiness. The fifth one, (Blessed are the merciful; for
they shall obtain mercy) refers to the love of God and to that of our neighbour. One can not
love God in the absence of the love of neighbour and the other way around. The sixth blessing
(Blessed are the pure in heart ; for they shall see God ) refers to the inner dimension, that of
personal choice. The choice of ridding the way to salvation is the choice of the pure of heart.
The way to God is not that of reason, it is that of the heart. The pure of heart need not wait
the afterlife for contemplating God and being, therefore, happy. The seventh blessing (Blessed
are the peacemakers; for they shall be called the children of God) accentuates the importance
of love and communion and offers the hope for such a communion between people. Love is
the only thing setting apart good and evil. The eight blessing (Blessed are they which are
persecuted for the sake of justice; for theirs is the kingdom of heaven) refers to the
persecution endured in the name of justice and to the gift received by all those that continue
having a just behaviour, despite their persecution. This is the case of the martyrs that
described a state of happiness in the most unbelievable circumstances, even in those of
physical pain (Dumnea, 2003).
None of the blessings are possible in the absence of love. The blessings indicate both
individual happiness and social happiness. Not only man can perfect his similarity with God
448
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
through virtue, but the entire society could be, as Saint Maximus indicated, shaped through
love with the relational model of the Trinity (Schnborn, 1994). Saint John Golden Mouth
invites us to imagine a world full of love, with no wrong, no war. It would be a Paradise way
of life. Paradise is actually possible here, on Earth, since happiness is a matter of choice and
behaviour.
4. Discussion
Both Aristotle and Christian Religion place at the centre of mans nature the ethical
dimension. Happiness is an ideal, not in the sense that reality opposes it, but in the sense that
it can be achieved and it should be achieved. Happiness is a project that man can undertake in
order to fulfil its own potential and this project is of an ethical nature.
In the two perspectives we viewed, human essence was in fact a divine essence. The
common bridge between man and god was that of love. The loving behaviour (towards self,
towards the kin and towards god, all of which are synonyms) that man should display in order
to achieve happiness is moulded by gods loving behaviour itself.
According to Aristotle, mans godhood consists of his possibility of being virtuous,
because it is the divine part in a man (nous) that makes virtue possible. Happiness comes from
exercising virtue. A reasonable and virtuous man would know how to live his life at its best.
Of course, many obstacles are independent of a mans will. But a man may prove practical
wisdom in relating to those problems. On the one hand, this means the use of mans divine
faculty and, on the other hand, this means to experience happiness. Happiness is both a social
and a private affair. A mans happiness is influenced on how many of his kin proof virtuous
behaviour, starting with the political leaders. The more virtuous are the members of a
community, the happier they may be, but this is not a sine qua non condition for happiness. It
is not necessary that all people are virtuous for one to be happy, ones love of virtue is
enough. Contemplation (the highest form of moral activity through which man can grasp the
virtue and perfection of god) is a self-sufficient activity and, therefore, the bringer of
happiness on its own. But it is true that virtuous behaviour increases the quality of life in a
community. Thus, virtue is firstly a duty towards oneself to act as programmed and be
happy. The virtuous behaviour within a community is a consequence of ones virtue and the
life within the community is a priceless occasion to exercise virtuous behaviour and achieve
happiness. On the one hand, ethics is the way to achieve happiness and, on the other hand,
happiness means having an ethical behaviour.
In Christian religion, mans resemblance to God is through the virtue of love. Only
through love is happiness achievable during this life time. Man is created in Gods Image and
Resemblance and the divine part of man is love. Love is mans aptitude to commune with
God and the others according to The Holy Trinity model. Mans behaviour as Imitatio Christi
(Gods living Icon) is the virtuous acts one should engage in, in order to achieve happiness.
Happiness is possible despite all obstacles, since the reward of ones actions is an inner one.
Happiness is possible here, on Earth. There is, of course, a heavenly reward awaiting the
righteous (the virtuous) on the afterlife, but ones actions are of no ethical value if made in the
hope of a gain, in this life or in the other. Love (of God, of the good and of virtue) is the key
to happiness. It is the feeling experienced in contemplating God and also the feeling
experienced in every virtuous act. The virtuous behaviour contributes to the prosperity of the
449
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
community, which ultimately means that love is the key to experience the communion within
the community. The ethical behaviour of someone is in fact the love of self (of the divine
self). It is, ultimately, a love of God, a love which He shares.
This is the main difference between Aristotle and Christianism that interests the
purpose of our paper. For Aristotle, exercising nous meant discovering the divine part within,
being as close to godhood (and perfection) as possible. Although God is virtue, the love of
virtue is the more important part of the equation, as it means behaving like the god within.
All love is mediated by virtue and is a love of virtue. God himself loves man only in relation
to the extent man achieves virtue, meaning to the extent man makes good use of his divine
gifts.
In Christianism, the love of God is the more important part of the equation. The
Christian God is a God that responds ones love. He responds not only to those who love Him
to the virtuous but also to the non-virtuous. God loves not the lack of virtue, the lack of
love or the loss of the resemblance, but He loves despite all those things, despite reciprocity,
God loves the being in an absolute manner. In fact, God loves man since he created him. The
creation was an act of love and that love is endless. It is in fact man the one who may or may
not love God. This unconditioned love of God is the authentic love, the archetype of love.
God expects nothing in return for His love. It is this love of God (more than the love of virtue)
that gives the power of enduring all obstacles. Ethically speaking, one could even fall in the
temptation of trading with love. If love is the condition of virtuous behaviour (and this is the
case for Aristotle and the Christians) it is so because love means treasuring the other, putting
his own welfare first. The satisfaction comes not from the reciprocity of love, but form the
welfare of the loved one. Similarly, the love of virtue allows one to achieve happiness from
the fulfilling of virtue more than form the consequences of the virtuous acts. Loving the
Christian God is easier because reciprocity exits. A Christian should be sensible enough not to
love God because he is loved by God, but despite Gods love. It is only then when man could
find his inner resemblance to God: the capacity to love unconditionally, independently of
virtue itself.
In both perspectives, individual happiness is a matter of godhood and fulfilment of
potential, meaning becoming aware of the divine essence. Ethics is not a set of
recommendations one could learn in order to achieve happiness, it is the behaviour of a
person that experiences happiness in virtuous acts. Happiness may only come from engaging
in those actions that are self rewarding and self sufficient. The key to happiness is love. In the
Aristotelian perspective, it is the love of virtue that makes happiness possible. In
Christianism, too, love is the source of all virtues. Virtue (and the love of virtue) is the divine
part of man for Aristotle. Very similarly, for the Christians love offers a model of virtuous
behaviour; love is the divine part of man.
Eudaimonia and ethics are synonymous in the above discussed perspectives, via a
supposedly divine part of man. But what if there was no God? One could talk about an atheist
ethics staring Aristotle. Ones potential could still be achieved by developing ones superior
faculties. With or without God, for man those faculties are still connected to the virtuous
behaviour. One could still exercise phronesis. There is an old Rumanian saying a fi
cumptat. This means to prove a sense of measure, to make sensible choices and to avoid
excess in order to have a balanced life. If one does so, one is considered to be wise. This may
450
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
very well sum up Aristotles teachings in regard to the benefits of moderation. In his
perspective, happiness is what man can experience here, on Earth. If god did not exist, one
could still be interested in his own welfare and in that of all living things and call it putting
reason and wisdom to good use. In this case, being virtuous would have more to do with
discovering and fulfilling ones potential, may those faculty be of divine nature or not.
But what would be the case of Christians? It undoubtedly seems contradictory to
discuss about a Christian ethics in the absence of God. Maybe it would not seem this way
anymore, if we were to analyse the Christian meaning of love. Gods intention is not for man
to be virtuous in order to offer him happiness as a reward. God desires that man be happy. It
is true that man cannot be happy if he sins. The sinner punishes himself with unhappiness,
because the punishment is within the crime: with every sin man loses his resemblance to God.
Man can only be happy through love (of God, of self, of his kin themselves divine
creations). Suppose now that God does not exist. Would man have no chance to happiness?
Could man not love anymore? Is mans love conditioned by their divine origins? The answer
is that man should still be able to love. We described true love as being unconditioned. What
would change if God did not exist? God would no longer be present to love man back. Since
true love comes with no bound to reciprocity, with no quest of reward, it is faire to suppose
that man could still love and could still be virtuous and happy. This could be another
interpretation of Voltaires famous saying If God did not exist, it would be necessary to
invent him.
In conclusion, according to both Aristotle and the Christians, the condition for
achieving happiness is authentic love. It is on this noble feeling that ethics as a loving course
of action relies on, and this happens independently of a divine nature of man. If any relation to
divinity is to be found here, it is the ideal of divine love. Only such a love would be strong
enough to bring happiness to the one who experiences it. In the same time, cultivating selfless
love would mean cultivating ones self and becoming a better self. This view is not atheist,
but deictic. Doubting the existence of God has had in this paper the methodological value of
testing ones capacity to love, in the absence of which there can be no ethics and no
eudaimonia. Eudaimonia means, etymologically, good spirit. According to our perspective,
eudaimonia means having the spirit of love.
Bibliography
Aristotle. (1886). "The Nicomachean Ethic of Aristotle". Third Edition, London.
Dumnea, Claudiu. (2003). "Fericirile". Sapienia.
Kraut, Richard. (2012). "Aristotle's Ethics", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
(Winter 2012 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),
URL<http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2012/entries/aristotle-ethics/>.
Murean, Valentin. (2011). "Esena fericirii la Aristotel. "
URL:<http://www.academia.edu/331123/Esenta_fericirii_la_Aristotel>
Schnborn, Christoph.(1994). "Gods Human Face. " Ignatius Press.
Saint. Paul. "First Letter of Saint Paul to The Corinthians, " Chapter 13,
URL: < http://biblescripture.net/1Corinthians.html >
Saint John Golden Mouth. "Problemele vieii. " Egumenia. Cartea Ortodox.
451
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Shields, Christopher. (2012). "Aristotle's Psychology", The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy (Spring 2011 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
URL:<http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2011/entries/aristotle-psychology/>.
Vatican Council II, GS 19 # 1. URL:<http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P9.HTM#-
K>
Catholic Catechism. URL: <http://www.credinta-catolica.ro/compendiu-cbc/sa-l-iubesti-pe-
domnul-dumnezeul-tau/>
452
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
LINGUISTIC NORM AND LANGUAGE CONTACT:
THE CASE OF THE HUNGARIAN LANGUAGE IN ROMANIA
FAZAKAS Nomi, Assistant Professor, PhD and BOTH Csaba Attila, Sapientia
University of Trgu-Mure
Abstract: Based on its linguistic norms and the traditions of language use, as well as the
history of the standard language, Hungarian has been considered a monocentric language, as
it does not accept more than one language variants to be normative. For a long period of time
this monocentric nature has been militantly defended by the adepts of language cultivation,
although repeatedly argued with by the sociolinguistic scholarly literature. Our paper aims to
present the complexities of Hungarian language in Transylvania, where language contact has
had a considerable impact upon its use, and what is more, even upon some structural levels.
We also present the different attitudes toward the decentralization of the Hungarian
language as well as the endeavours to make it borderless, together with some respects of
Romanian linguistic norm.
Keywords: linguistic norm, monocentric languages, pluricentric languages, Hungarian
language use in Transylvania, borderless Hungarian
1. Introduction
According to linguistic scholarly literature, a language is considered to be structured
along a set of rules, or norms, that prevail over all aspects of the language: phonology,
morphology, syntax and semantics. (Bowerman 2006: 701). A functional definition of the
linguistic norms states that these serve to make the language distinctive, intelligible within a
wide speech community, and learnable (Bowerman 2006: 701). It is also important to
distinguish between descriptive norms, that refer to the description of a language or language
variant, and prescriptive norms or the so-called pedagogical norms, which in a fact are a
constant referral to an abstract ideal of how a language should be used, rather than the actual
practice of native speakers of that language (Bowerman 2006; Gross 2006).
There is a significant difference between spoken and written language in this respect:
while in spoken language the linguistic norms are more inconsistently applied by native
speakers, in written language the norms are more rigid and much more easily identified.
Norms and the deviation from them imply the question of correctness of language use:
prescriptive linguistic norms usually operate with the correct-incorrect dimension, while
descriptive linguistic norms (or sociolinguistic norms) tend to focus on the appropriateness or
inappropriateness of a certain linguistic form.
It is also important to state that as most languages have numerous individual, regional
and social varieties, the normative variant generally becomes attached to the general set of
prevailing linguistic norms associated with an influential or high-status group, which is then
often imposed on the entire speech community (Bowerman 2006: 702).
From the point of view of our research it is also important to mention that in the case
of languages with several regional varieties (e.g. English) the scholarly literature identifies
localized or endocentric norms, which have a well-established cultural and linguistic
453
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
identity (also called the norm-developing varieties, such as Singapore English or Indian
English), as well as the norm-dependent or exocentric varieties, where the norms are external
(e.g. the norms of American or British English apply to the usage of English in Korea, Iran, or
Saudi Arabia) (Bolton 2004: 376). General language change and regional varieties can be
considered both as errors or decay from the point of view of a strong prescriptive norm or as
innovation from the point of view of the non-normative, descriptive tradition.
In discussing linguistic norm and standardization, as well as the codification of
standard varieties we also need to emphasize the implications of monocentrism and
pluricentrism in determining the common standard: the monocentric attitude is most
committed to the preservation of the unity of a language which has only one language norm,
excluding regional, dialectal variations, while the pluricentric attitude not only promotes the
presence of these regional varieties, but in some cases demands the recognition of these
variants as equally normative and standard (see e.g. MartinezMontoya 2011 regarding
monocentrism vs. pluricentrism in Catalan). The central notions of monocentrism can thus
be summed up under the following terms: centralist, elitist, monolingual, mono-normative
and derogatory towards non-core-norm speakers (Muhr 2004). These attitudes often trigger
significant inferiority-complexes on the side of the speakers of non-dominant or non-standard
language varieties, while the speakers of standard language varieties have the tendency to
consider their norms as the only correct one and any other as dialect (Muhr 2004).
The term pluricentric was employed by Kloss to describe languages with several
interacting centres having two or more standard varieties, as languages evolve around
cultural or political centres (towns or states) whose varieties have higher prestige (Ammon
quoted by Kenesei 2006: 1). The scholarly literature describes plurinational languages
(Spanish in Spain, Mexico, Argentina, etc.) or pluriregional languages (Northern and
Southern Germany), but also pluristatal languages (when a single nation has been politically
divided into separate administrative units with different norms, such as Korean in North vs.
South Korea). Scholars also mention the concept of divided languages such as Serbian and
Croatian or Romanian vs. Romanian spoken in Moldavia/Moldavian (Kenesei 2006: 1).
2. The linguistic norm in the Hungarian language
2.1. A short history of the standardization process in the case of Hungarian
In discussing the process of establishing the linguistic norms in any language one
needs to take into consideration the theory of language planning elaborated by Einar Haugen,
whose definition of language planning highlights its most important features: By language
planning I understand the activity of preparing a normative orthography, grammar, and
dictionary for the guidance of writers and speakers of a non-homogeneous speech
community (Haugen quoted by Hornberger 2006: 26). Haugen described this complex
process as standardization, as through it a dialect becomes standard language. In the history of
European languages it is fairly common that the different language communities reached a
stage in which they laid down the system of linguistic norms, which had already determined
their daily practice. The first step in establishing these norms is codification, the inclusion of
the normative language variant in grammars, dictionaries, orthographies (Laczk 2006: 404).
Similar to many European languages the standardization of the Hungarian language
was completed by the 19th-20th century. Several stages of language planning preceded the
454
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
establishment of the normative language variant, such as the selection and implementation of
the Latin writing system in the 11th-12th century, as well as the establishment of
orthographical schools and the reforms of orthography, the publication of the first Hungarian
grammars, dictionaries and glossaries in the 16th century. By the last third of the 18th century
the movement that aimed to change the status of the Hungarian language became more and
more powerful, but the most important work was carried out by the so-called language
reform (in Hungarian nyelvjts), which focused mainly on the modernization of the
Hungarian vocabulary and literary styles (Sndor 2006: 961).
By the end of the 19th century the grammar of the standard variant of the Hungarian
language was mostly outlined, and in 1832 the first edition of the orthographic rules was
crafted by the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. The 10 th edition of these academic
regulations (the set of orthographic rules laid down by the Hungarian Language Committee of
the Research Institute for Linguistics of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences) published in
1954 established the unity of Hungarian orthography, which then became the prestige variant
with a strong prescriptive nature, being considered compulsory for everyone. Nevertheless the
rules of orthography are not legally binding, they are recommendations made by the HAS,
and accepted as normative (Ndasdy 2006: 923). From the point of view of our research it is
important to mention that in the Hungarian language there are no codified rules regarding
standard pronunciation (Sndor 2006: 962).
2.2. Linguistic norm and the tradition of monocentrism in Hungarian
The Hungarian scholarly literature includes several, conflicting conceptions of the
linguistic norm. One approach considers it as a set of rules or a standard that needs to be
followed. This normative variant includes the literary language (the written, codified
language) and the common language (the spoken variant), which both infer tradition, unity,
high standards, thus implying the knowledge of rules and the patterns of usage (Balzs 2000).
Several scholars argue with the above definition of linguistic norm. According to
Tolcsvai Nagy Gbor, the linguistic norm is a sociocultural set of rules, which regulates
language use in its concrete, unique realization (Tolcsvai Nagy quoted by Balzs 1993: 413).
He refers to Bartschs theory on norm, who distinguishes grammatical rules and sociocultural
norms: grammatical rules determine how a well-formed sentence or phrase needs to be
crafted, while the linguistic norm refers to social rules that determine the utterance, and as
such can be identified in the interaction between the speaker and the listener (Tolcsvai Nagy
1998: 202).
There has been a heated argument between the adepts of the monocentric, normative
and prescriptive approach to language and language variation and change (the so-called
language cultivators or nyelvmvelk in Hungarian), and the linguists promoting a
pluricentric, non-normative, sociolinguistic approach of a descriptive nature. The language
cultivators consider that linguistic norm must be protected by any means, and see language
change as decay, deterioration and the corruption of a previous perfect state. The
sociolinguistic scholarly literature on the other hand has been constantly trying to battle the
so-called myths and superstitions about language and its use promoted by untrained, would-be
language cultivators and in some cases even with their academician colleagues who support
the first approach.
455
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The monocentric interpretation of Hungarian linguistic norm triggers the dimensions
of prestige and stigmatized language variants, the normative being the most prestigious and
most highly valued one, the other (regional, social) variants being considered to be inferior
and in some cases even stigmatized. Such a regional variant is the Hungarian language in
Transylvania.
3. The linguistic norm in the Romanian language
3.1. The process of the formation of Romanian linguistic norm
t. Munteanu and V.D. ra distinguish two fundamental stages regarding this
process: the old and the modern Romanian literary language, linked by a transition period
(17801840). In the case of the old Romanian literary language there was no unified and
standardized literary language proper, and it includes two major periods: the first started in the
15th century and lasted until 1640, being characterized by few original writings, translations
and printings. They identify two literary variants: a northern one (Maramure) and a southern
(Wallachian and south-Transylvanian). The second period lasts from 1640 until the end of the
18th century (1780), during which Slavonic was permanently removed as official language;
Romanian literary language was still close to the vernacular. The evolution of modern
Romanian literary language contains three periods: the first (17801840) premodern
period, or that of transition, the second period (18401880), the stage marked by searching
for solutions to standardize the language, while the last period (18801900) being
characterized by the unification of literary variants. In 1940 through the official decision of
the Romanian Academy, the rules of the phonetic writing of the Romanian language were set
up (Munteanura 1983).
In his work entitled Istoria limbii romne literare Ion Gheie considers that the
standardization of the Romanian language can be divided into two large periods: 1. The Old
Era (15321780) and 2. The Modern Era (17801960). 1532 is the year of the earliest
mention of a literary Romanian text and implicitly of usage of the Romanian language to
achieve a cultural act. 1780 is an important date, as it is the year the first printed Romanian
grammar, Elementa linguae daco-romanae sive valachicae, was published. That was one of
the first linguistic publications of the coala Ardelean [Transylvanian School]. In this work
the principles of Romanian literary language cultivation are set, at the basis of present usage.
The establishment of the Romanian literary language ended in the twentieth century, exactly
in the years 19531960 with the publication of ndreptar ortografic, ortoepic i de punctuaie
and of Gramatica Academiei (Gheie 1978).
3.2. The standard character of the literary language and the role of the Romanian
Academy
The concept of literary norm is insufficiently approached in Romanian special
literature, it has a general acceptance of a linguistic convention which formulates rules of
cultivated expression (uteu 1976). Coteanu makes an additional distinction between
intrinsic norm, regarding the structure of the language, with an abstract character, and
academic norm that sets the correct norm one of the optional combinations of the speech
(Coteanu 1973). E. Coeriu operates with the distinction between particular norms (which
456
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
may be phonetic, morphological, syntactic, lexical and stylistic) and general norm (which
includes a system of particular norms) (Coeriu 1967, quoted by Gheie 1982).
A common feature of the linguistic and literary norm is their historical character i.e.
their variability in time (Gheie 1982). An essential feature of the literary norm is its
coherence that results from its unitary character. As shown, norm prescribes a single form,
although there are situations in which literary language admits several variants. The unitary
character of the norm has shown fluctuations over time; before the unification of the literary
language, when there were regional literary variants. One could not speak about one central
norm, but about several regional norms. The degree of coherence of each norm varies
depending on period and region. Thus, opposed to an ideal norm imposed by tradition, this
seems to be a common norm, which is only the relationship between the ideal norm and the
norm of the spoken language (Gheie 1982).
According to the law on the organization and functioning of the Romanian Academy
no.752/2001, in Romania, the forum which cares for the cultivation of Romanian language
and lays down spelling rules is the Romanian Academy. Presently the Romanian Academy
has two essential publications regarding Romanian linguistic norm: the first one is
Dicionarul ortografic, ortoepic i morfologic al limbii romne [Orthographic, orthoepic and
morphological dictionary of the Romanian language] and the other is Gramatica Academiei
Romne [Romanian Academic Grammar]. These two works fix the normative prescriptions
regarding Romanian language norm.
In Romania the decisions of the Romanian Academy on orthography are introduced in
the law of the country. One of the last such decisions was made in 1993, when the law
regarding the usage of and the sunt form of the verb to be was introduced. This law was
published in the Monitorul Oficial al Romniei [The Official Journal of Romania] no.
51/1993.
4. The Hungarian language in Transylvania
4.1. Language contact and a regional standard
In the present paper we use the broader meaning of Transylvania, that is which
includes the provinces of Banat, Criana and Maramure. The coexistence of the Romanian
and Hungarian language communities in this area has a significantly long history, and as such,
the two languages have had a significant impact on one another. The sociolinguistic scholarly
literature uses the term language contact in describing such phenomena.
Based on the results of the 2011 census there are cca. 1.25 million Hungarian speakers
in Transylvania on an area comprising 38,548 square miles. There is a high number of
regional varieties as on the one hand four out of the ten dialects of the Hungarian language are
spoken on this territory: the dialects of Northeast Hungary, that of the Transylvanian Plain,
the Szkely/Szekler dialect and the Moldavian/Csng dialect 1. On the other hand there is a
high range of social varieties and professional languages which all have been influenced by
the Romanian language.
The scholarly literature has also identified the existence of a Transylvanian regional
standard Hungarian, which is a transition between the spoken standard and the dialects,
1
http://geolingua.elte.hu/index_hu.html
457
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
including elements from both. Another factor that influences the structure of this regional
standard is the Romanian language, which has an impact on vocabulary, on pronunciation and
even on some structural elements. The speakers generally realize that this is a standard
variant, but one with dialectal elements. According to some scholars the existence of regional
standards in minority contexts is a sign of linguistic divergence (e.g. Kiss 2006: 543).
In the following we present examples of the results of language contact the Romanian
and the Hungarian languages had on each other on the different levels of language.
Examples for phonological phenomena: R. clac > H. kalka; R. stn > H. esztena;
R. ftru > H. fatar; H. paprika > R. ppric; H. gazda > R. gazd; H. kapl > R. cplui
etc. Morphological phenomena: H. fakaln > R. fclan fcle; H. tolvaj > R. dialect.
tuluoi tlhar. Some lexical contact elements include: H. t > R. dial. tu; H. cssze > R.
dial. ces; H. papr > R. dial. popir. Examples for contact elements on the syntactic structure
R. lucreaz la fabric > H. a gyrnl dolgozik H. standard. a gyrban dolgozik (lucreaz
n fabric); R. merge pn acas/pn la pot > H. elmegy hazig/postig H.stand.
elmegy haza/postra (examples from Ben 2008a).
4.2. Sociolinguistic aspects of language contact and prestige
The Hungarians living in Transylvania are mostly bilingual, and as such in
communication between Hungarians and Romanians the common code is mainly Romanian,
thus Hungarian-Romanian bilingualism is usually asymmetrical (BenSzilgyi N. 2005:
145). This asymmetry is further deepened by the fact that very often Hungarian speakers
know and use their local variety of Hungarian but not standard Hungarian (or the normative
variant), while they speak and use the standard variety of Romanian (used in the educational
system), this being considered by many minority speakers as a code of social success and
prestige (BenSzilgyi N. 2005: 145).
If we take into account the important distinction between social and cultural prestige
of languages (Lanstyk quoted by BenSzilgyi N. 2005: 145), we can state that in general
the social prestige of Romanian is quite high among the Hungarian speakers in Romania. The
results of an important sociolinguistic survey (the Sociolinguistics of Hungarian Outside
Hungary) show that in the perception of these speakers monolingual Romanians are more
likely to be successful in Transylvania than monolingual Hungarians (see the detailed results
in BenSzilgyi N. 2005: 145146). Nevertheless the cultural prestige of Hungarian seems
to be high among Hungarian speakers.
An interesting aspect of the question is that the cultural prestige of the Transylvanian
variety of Hungarian is very high not only among the Hungarians in Romania, but mostly
everywhere, where Hungarian is spoken, as it is the most commonly identified variant
(31.3%) in answering the question where is the most beautiful Hungarian spoken?, even
more frequently than the variant spoken in Budapest (26.4%). Nevertheless, the Hungarian
language spoken in Transylvania or even the Transylvanian regional standard does not have
the same prestige as the central standard or normative variety of the language. Very often the
speakers of this regional standard face a strong stigma and even mockery when using a non-
standard linguistic form (contact pronunciation, lexeme or syntactic structure).
458
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
4.3. Attitudes towards pluricentrism and a new interpretation borderless Hungarian
Based on the above it is a fact that the variety of Hungarian spoken in Romania differs
from the Hungarian spoken in Hungary. This is mainly the result of Romanian-Hungarian
language contact but also a consequence of the stronger dialectal characteristics of the
regional variety. Ben and Szilgyi N.s findings show, that a strong dialectal background
influences a subjects judgements about the standard character of certain grammatical
structures and lexical items such that they tend to consider dialectal forms as standard
(BenSzilgyi N. 2005: 160).
There has been a heated debate about the overall status of the minority language
variants and how these are connected to the Hungarian standard. One of the attitudes towards
the regional standards and the codification of regional (mainly contact induced) differences
considers that this would result in the divergence of the language and on the long run, and
even in the loss of the unity of the Hungarian language overall. Many non-scholars express
their opinion about such regional/minority varieties as being the results of language decay due
to the impact of the majority language.
Nevertheless according to the sociolinguistic scholarly literature the contact between
languages in bilingual contexts is a natural phenomenon, and it should not be considered
decay. Still the minority regional varieties are usually excluded from central standardization
and codification. This is one of the reasons why in 2001 the Hungarian Academy of Sciences
promoted and supported the foundation of linguistic institutes with the aim to research the
minority and regional varieties of the Hungarian language outside Hungary and to perform the
much needed tasks of Hungarian language planning. Such an institute is the Szab T. Attila
Linguistic Institute in Cluj, which since its establishment has focused on the research of
Hungarian language use in Transylvania and among others on publishing much needed
Romanian-Hungarian bilingual dictionaries in the fields of education, administration and
other fields of official language use (Ben 2008b). It is actively part of in one of the biggest
linguistic projects called hatrtalants (making the language borderless), the major aim of
which being the inclusion of the elements of the Hungarian language variants outside the
borders of Hungary in the Hungarian lexicographical publications (dictionaries,
orthographical dictionaries, spell-check software, grammars, handbooks on orthography,
language use and stylistics) in order for these to become representative of the whole of the
Hungarian language, and not only of that used in Hungary.
This project could be seen as a reinterpretation of pluricentrism: even if not explicitly,
it considers the pluricentric nature of the Hungarian language to be fact as it works with
specific elements present in minority/regional variants. Nevertheless it aims to include these
elements in what is called a much more widely interpreted, much more flexible and open
general Hungarian standard. In no way does it serve a divergent evolution of the language,
but rather a convergent movement, a demand to expand linguistic codification: the elements
from the minority language variants or regional standards are offered as possible synonyms
through an additive approach.
This has also resulted in a heated debate between the adepts of the prescriptive
tradition (in many cases the language cultivators), who refuse the codification of any
foreign elements mainly because as already stated above many of them consider these
459
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
as the signs of decay and the deterioration of what is seen as an ideal standard or norm (e.g.
Balzs 2005). One of their strongest arguments (which is present in almost every speaker of
Hungarian as a general attitude and ideology towards the normative variants of the language)
is the fear of language loss and the determination to protect the language from any outside
influences that endanger it. Others dismiss these fears and consider the insistent validation of
the central linguistic norm in every possible context no more and no less than linguistic
discrimination or linguicism sustained by almost every Hungarian speaker (see e.g. Kontra
2005, Pntek 2007).
5. Romanian linguistic norm and standard
In discussing the varieties of the Romanian language a similar question arises. There
has been serious, mostly political debate on the name of the language variant spoken in the
Republic of Moldova, as the Constitution of Moldova states that the Moldovan language is
the official language of the country. According to the linguistic standpoint the identity of the
two languages is undebatable, and that the promotion of a Moldovan language different from
the Romanian language is from a strictly linguistic point of view either a nave mistake or a
scientific fraud (Eugen Coeriu). From this point of view the differentiation of the Romanian
language from the Moldovan language is purely political, which we do not wish to discuss in
the present paper. However the monocentric nature of the Romanian linguistic norm is
evident: although there are two academies (the Academy of Sciences of Moldova and the
Romanian Academy) establishing the rules of standard language use, there are only a few
minor differences in the orthography of the two variants. At the same time the linguistic
scholarly literature promotes the unity of the two variants, and there is no need to consider
pluricentrism in the case of the Romanian language.
Conclusions
Our study aimed to present the most important theories regarding monocentrism and
pluricentrism in the determination of normative variants, applied to the case of the Romanian
and the Hungarian language. One of our most important observations is that in the case of the
Hungarian language one needs to consider the fact that several regional standards have
evolved in the countries where Hungarian is spoken as a minority language, and that these
variants need to be taken into account. However there are strong negative, stigmatizing
attitudes towards non-normative variants throughout the whole society (even in the case of the
speakers of such non-normative variants) considering these to be less valuable and less pure
as opposed to the central norm. The project of borderless Hungarian has facilitated the
surfacing of such negative attitudes towards the expansion of general Hungarian standard.
The experience of the past decade has shown that the romantic ideal of a perfect language that
needs to be protected against any foreign element is still very strongly alive among the
speakers of Hungarian who tend to dismiss any other language variants besides the normative
one.
Both of the discussed languages are considered monocentric from the point of view of
linguistic norm, nevertheless it would be interesting to explore the attitudes of the speakers of
the Romanian language towards non-standard or dialectal forms, which would help outline
general social attitudes towards linguistic norm and standard/non-standard language variants.
460
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Bibliography
Balzs G. 1993. A nyelvi norma s a hagyomny. In Magyar Nyelvr, 117/4, 413415.
Balzs G. 2000. A mdia nyelvi normja. In Magyar Nyelvr, 124/1, 524.
Balzs G. 2005. A magyar nyelv el mozdtsrl Vitairat a nyelvmvelsrt. Budapest:
Akadmiai Kiad.
Ben A. 2008a. Kontaktolgia A nyelvi kapcsolatok alapfogalmai. Kolozsvr: Egyetemi
Mhely Kiad.
Ben A. 2008b. jabb Magyar sztrak s a kls rgik magyar nyelvvltozatai. Helikon,
XIX/18. Retrieved from http://www.helikon.ro/index.php?m_r=1406 (last accessed on
November 25, 2013).
Ben A. Szilgyi N. S. 2005. Hungarian in Romania. In Fenyvesi A. (ed.): Hungarian
Language Contact Outside Hungary. Studies on Hungarian as a minority language.
Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 133161.
Bolton, K. 2004. World Englishes. In Davies, A. C. Elder (eds.): The Handbook of Applied
Linguistics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 367396.
Bowerman, S. 2006. Norms and Correctness. In Brown, K. (ed.): Encyclopedia of Language
and Linguistics, Second Edition. Vol. 8. Oxford: Elsevier, 701703.
Coteanu, I. 1973. Stilistica funcional a limbii romne. Stil, stilistic, limbaj. Bucureti: EA.
Gheie, I. 1978. Istoria limbii romne literare. Privire sintetic Bucureti: EE.
Gheie, I. 1982. Introducere n studiul limbii romne literare. Bucureti: EE.
Gross, S. 2006. Normativity. In Brown, K. (ed.): Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics,
Second Edition. Vol. 8. Oxford: Elsevier, 698701.
Hornberger, N. 2006. Frameworks and models in language policy and planning. In Ricento,
T. (ed.): An Introduction to Language Policy. Theory and Method. Oxford: Blackwell
Publishing.
Kenesei, I. 2006. Hungarian as a pluricentric language. In EFNIL Annual Conference.
Retrieved from http://www.efnil.org/conferences/archives/madrid-2006/papers/07-EFNIL-
Madrid-Kenesei.pdf (last accessed on November 25, 2013).
Kiss J. 2006. Nyelvjrsok, regionlis nylevvltozatok. In Kiefer F. Magyar nyelv. Budapest:
Akadmiai Kiad, 517548.
Kontra M. 2005. Mi a lingvicismus s mit lehet ellene tenni? In Gbrity-Molnr I.Mirnics
Zs. (eds.) Kzrzeti barangol. Szabadka, 175202.
Laczk K. 2006. Az jmagyar s az jabb Magyar kor. In Kiefer F. Magyar nyelv. Budapest:
Akadmiai Kiad, 401436.
Martines, P.J. Abat Bauli Montoya 2011. Monocentrism vs. Pluricentrism in Catalan. In
Lnguas Pluricntricas. Variao Lingustica e Dimenses Sociocognitivas. Braga :
Universidade Catlica Portuguesa, 185195. Retrieved from
http://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/20795/3/Monocentrism%20vs.%20pluricentrism%20i
n%20Catalan.pdf (last accessed on November 24, 2013).
Muhr, R. 2004. Language attitudes and language conceptions in non-dominating varieties of
pluricentric languages. In TRANS. Internet-Zeitschrift fr Kulturwissenschaften. No 15/2004.
461
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Retrieved from http://www.inst.at/trans/15Nr/06_1/muhr15.htm (last accessed on November
24, 2013).
Munteanu, t., V.D. ra 1983. Istoria limbii romne literare. Bucreti :EDP.
Ndasdy . 2006. Nyelv s rs. In Kiefer F. Magyar nyelv. Budapest: Akadmiai Kiad,907
931.
Pntek J. 2007. Transzszilvanizmusok, romanizmusok s a hatrtalants programja. In
Maticsk S. (ed.): Nyelv, nemzet, identits. A VI. Nemzetkzi Hungarolgiai Kongresszus
(Debrecen, 2006. augusztus 2226.) nyelvszeti eladsai. Vol. I. DebrecenBudapest, 115
124.
Sndor K. 2006. Nyelvtervezs, nyelvpolitika, nyelvmvels. In Kiefer F. Magyar nyelv.
Budapest: Akadmiai Kiad, 958995.
uteu, F. 1976. Influena ortografiei asupra pronunrii literare romneti. Bucureti: EA
RSR.
Tolcsvai Nagy G. 1998. A nyelvi norma. In Magyar Nyelvr, 122/2, 201213.
462
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE POLEMIC DISCOURSE OF ALEXANDRU I. PHILIPPIDE
Simona-Andreea OVA, PhD Candidate, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai
Abstract: Alexandru I. Philippide, the creator of the School of Linguistics in Iasi, manifests
in his texts an irreproachable correctness in capturing the linguistic truth, which denotes that
his scientific speeches, polemic in most of the cases, are not built to point out an academic
superiority, a linguistic infatuation, but spring from the undertaken responsibility to shed
light among the erroneous theories perpetuated in the era, since they were going to traverse
time and be erroneously assimilated by his successors. Thereby, the scholar from Iasi has a
diachronic perspective on his texts, assigning them a guiding function, both for the young
people of his time, as well as for his successors, practicing constructive polemics. Thus,
Philippides polemic is a thought out, conscious action, because its target is, on one hand, to
correct the scientific errors issued by his contemporary linguistic personalities, duty that he
has towards himself, as a scholar preoccupied with marking the scientific truth, and, on the
other hand, to build for his successors correct and relevant linguistic theories, based on
research and truth, a duty he has towards the others (he dedicates the volume ,,Principii de
istoria limbii (Principles of Language History) to the young generation and his
successors: to the young generation [] I dedicate this work. Theyll see, as impartial
judges, that I demonstrate everything I say and that I have no remainder of power left, which
I did not use to produce something profitable to them.).
Significant are the diatribes against the linguists and philosophers Sextil Pucariu, Bogdan
Petriceicu Hasdeu, Heimann Tiktin and Gustav Weigand, the polemic nature of the linguist
being emphasized by: the critical excess, the polemical vocabulary, exclamations, the
alternation of specialized language with popular terms, digressions, rhetorical interrogations
etc. All these linguistic and stylistic elements are harmonized in order to emphasize a
polemical style, an acute critical spirit, proving the scientific honesty of the scholar from Iasi.
Keywords: linguistics, polemic, style, speech, vocabulary.
n istoria limbii romne, lingvistul ieean Alexandru I. Philippide, spirit complex,
stpnit de contradicii multiple, impresioneaz prin marea sa erudiie, prin pasiunea pentru
tiin i pentru profesia pe care o practica. Aceste aspecte caracterologice se explic i printr-
un dat nativ pur, originile savantului ieean, pe care nu i le-a tgduit niciodat, fiind
greceti. i-a pstrat ortografia greceasc a numelui su de familie(1), susinnd cu fervoare n
faa interlocutorilor si originea lui(2). Bunicul su, n clugrie, Daniil, era nepotul de frate
al lui Dimitrie Philippide, a crui familie era originar din Milis, localitate aezat la poalele
1
Iorgu Iordan, n monografia dedicat lingvistului ieean, intitulat Alexandru I. Philippide, declar c este un
cunosctor al savantului, care i fusese profesor, de aceea cartea cuprinde multe dialoguri i declaraii ale lui
Alexandru I. Philippide, partizan al ortografiei fonetice. Philippide motiveaz c numele proprii de persoane nu
se supun niciunor reguli ortografice, ci se conformeaz tradiiei de familie: ,,Scriindu-mi numele aa cum tii,
art lumii c m cheam ca pe Alexandru cel Mare, care era i el Alexandru Philippide, adic Alexandru, fiul
lui Philippos. (Iorgu Iordan, Alexandru I. Philippide, Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1969, p. 10.)
2
n dialogul stabilit cu Nicolae Bnescu, Alexandru I. Philippide este ntrebat dac familia sa este de origine
aromn, ns lingvistul ieean rspunde sigur i demn c este grec: ,,Nu, nu, sntem greci curai! (Iorgu Iordan,
op. cit., Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1969, p. 9.)
463
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
muntelui Pelion (Tesalia). Dimitrie Philippide, a crui prezen n Moldova a fost atestat n
1801, este autorul crilor Istoria Romniei, respectiv, Geografia Romniei, publicate la
Leipzig, n 1816. Odat cu talentul scriitoricesc, Alexandru I. Philippide motenete i
seriozitatea, mizantropia i nemulumirile manifestate fa de ceea ce vedea c se petrece n
jurul su, ce se vor impune n relaiile cu ceilali i n textele sale tiinifice. Atitudinea lui
frust, polemic i impetuoas e nsoit de explicaia c scepticismul este o trstur a
btrnilor, a nelepilor, iar odat cu trecerea timpului, Philippide devenea, astfel, mai
nelept.
Fost student al Facultii de Litere a Universitii ,,Al. I. Cuza din Iai, lingvistul a
lucrat, iniial, n calitate de custode, apoi ca subbibliotecar al Bibliotecii Centrale Universitare
din Iai, ns n anul 1884 a obinut, prin concurs, catedra de limb romn a Liceului
Naional, rmas vacant n urma morii profesorului Alexandru Lambrior, pe care l-a admirat
ca om de cultur. Mrturisirile elevilor lui dezvluie un profesor dedicat, foarte exigent, drept
n aprecierea elevilor i superior celorlali profesori. n 1888, a audiat cursuri de filologie
clasic i modern, de istorie a filozofiei greceti etc., la Universitatea Halle an der Saale, din
Germania, prilej cu care i-a ntlnit pe marii profesori Eduard Sievers, Heinrich Keil i
Hermann Suchier. Cel din urm i devine bun prieten, l ajut pe Alexandru I. Philippide s
cunoasc multe dintre concepiile lingvistice europene de atunci, n timp ce savantul ieean l-a
introdus n circuitul cunoaterii tiinifice a limbii romne; mrturie st corespondena celor
doi(3).
Personalitate puternic i original, Alexandru I. Philippide dispreuia formele fr
fond i se afla ntr-o neobosit cutare a adevrului tiinific, de aceea, n anumite texte ale
savantului ieean, se remarc prezena elementelor de polemic, a contradiciilor structurale i
a atitudinii critice (monumentala Originea romnilor, lucrrile Un specialist romn la Lipsca,
Specialistul romn, Alexandru I. Philippide n dialog cu contemporanii i seria de articole
publicate n revistele ,,Viaa romneasc, respectiv, ,,Convorbiri literare: Idealuri, D.
Hasdeu i ,,Istoria limbii romne, Pseudotiin contemporan etc.). Philippide i-a explicat,
parial, fostului su elev Iorgu Iordan, spiritul de polemist ce l caracteriza i tendina spre
excesiv, punndu-le pe seama necesitii native de rostire a adevrului: ,,De ce s nu vorbesc
deschis, indiferent despre cine, dac am dreptate? Doar nu-s trac degeaba!(4)
Contextul cultural romnesc al demersului lingvistic al lui Alexandru I. Philippide
(contextul istoric, literar i lingvistic), preocuprile lingvistice anterioare lui Alexandru I.
Philippide (coala Ardelean i problemele limbii literare, paoptitii, ,,Dacia literar, Alecu
Russo, folclorul, junimitii i Titu Maiorescu), precum i resorturile istorico-sociale au
modificat cteva dintre trsturile caracterologice ale lingvistului. Pentru Iorgu Iordan,
contradiciile lui Philippide au izvort i din epoca, ea nsi contradictorie, n care a trit i a
3
n corespondena lui Alexandru I. Philippide cu Hermann Suchier, publicat n volumul Alexandru I. Philippide
n dialog cu contemporanii, se utilizeaz formule de adresare familiare, din care transpare gradul de apropiere,
de afectivitate dintre cei doi: ,,Prea iubite prietine, ,,Prea iubite domnule profesor, ,,Al dumitale ca un frate,
,,Al dumitale mai mic frate i servitor etc. Totodat, n scrisori, n afara chestiunilor de natur lingvistic i
schimbrilor ce surveneau pe plan profesional, cum ar fi numirea ca profesor de filologie romn la
Universitatea din Iai, n 1893, savantul ieean i exprim nemulumirile cu privire la vremurile n care tria, la
strile de lucruri din societatea timpului su i la atitudinea unor contemporani cu care intra mereu n polemic,
de pild, Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu. (***,Alexandru I. Philippide n dialog cu contemporanii, Editura Minerva,
Bucureti, 1986.)
4
Iorgu Iordan, op. cit., p. 11.
464
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
activat lingvistul ieean. Philippide s-a format ntr-o perioad plin de mari frmntri i
adnci schimbri n viaa public a rii: domnia agitat a lui Al. I. Cuza i abdicarea lui
forat, instalarea pe tron a lui Carol I de Hohenzollern, nemulumirile multor politicieni
moldoveni cu privire la stabilirea capitalei Romniei la Bucureti etc. Pentru lingvistul ieean,
1866, anul detronrii lui Cuza, nsemna ncheierea unei perioade progresiste, aflate n plin
evoluie, i nceputul alteia, ce reprezenta un crepuscul cultural. Philippide considera c
modestia, simplitatea i seriozitatea erau trsturile definitorii ale reprezentanilor culturii i
ale realizrilor lor de pn la 1866, iar modelele de savani, din perspectiva lui, erau Timotei
Cipariu i Mihail Koglniceanu. Epoca de dup 1866, creia i i aparinea, cuprindea doar
,,specialiti romni, farsori, impostori, doritori de succese i ignorani ce etalau
pseudotiin. Modelul ,,specialistului romn conturat de ctre Philippide este Bogdan
Petriceicu Hasdeu, exemplu cu care, peste ani, Iorgu Iordan nu a fost de acord, iar singurul
model pozitiv al epocii era reprezentat de Alexandru Lambrior, ale crui cursuri de filologie
romn le-a audiat pe parcursul studeniei. Admiraia lui Philippide pentru profesorul
Lambrior este determinat de cultura sa vast, de modestia fr margini i de faptul c i
mrturisea cu sinceritate toate lipsurile. n felul acesta, Philippide i fcuse un ideal de via,
iar pentru el, ,,adevrul, dreptatea, cinstea i alte noiuni similare din punct de vedere etic erau
un fel de entiti cu existen real, oarecum concret, ntocmai ca attea noiuni materiale,
palpabile, care pot fi sesizate i cunoscute cu toat exactitatea i precizia, graie materialitii
lor. [] El nsui se ostenea s se conformeze, pn la ultimele limite posibile, acestor
elemente alctuitoare ale omului adevrat i era convins c se conformeaz. Totodat,
pretindea ns i semenilor si, considerai fie ca indivizi, fie n grup, s fac acelai
lucru.(5)
n vremea lui, se manifestau atitudini extreme, tendine spre excesiv i se exagera
cu intenie forma, promovndu-se superficialitatea i lipsa culturii. Doar c Alexandru
Philippide era un idealist, iar idealismul su absolut a fost pus la grea ncercare de frmntrile
vieii politice din vremea sa. Exista o diferen mare ntre opinia sa asupra modului n care
trebuie s funcioneze o societate i realitatea timpului su, urmarea fiind dispreul i vizibila
izolare de lume. O prob irecuzabil a orientrii sale spre viaa cultural o reprezint
neimplicarea n politica militant. Al. I. Philippide nu a aderat la doctrina social-politic
progresist a ,,Contemporanului, ci la curentul junimist i a fost atras de societatea
,,Junimea prin chiar criticismul junimist. Din acest punct de vedere, al adevrului descoperit
prin trud, rostit rspicat i asumat, Al. I. Philippide a rmas junimist pe tot parcursul vieii
sale. Polemist prin temperament, spiritul critic s-a dezvoltat cu trecerea timpului i s-a
ndreptat adesea chiar mpotriva fotilor si colaboratori, cum ar fi Maiorescu nsui.
Problema ,,formei fr fond, dezbtut de ctre junimiti i expus n chip fericit n studiul
maiorescian n contra direciei de astzi n cultura romn, Alexandru I. Philippide a
urmrit-o pe tot parcursul vieii sale, prelungind-o inclusiv la aspectele vieii publice.
n articolul Idealuri, polemizeaz cu Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea, pentru c
acesta din urm le impunea scriitorilor idealuri social-politice progresiste, criticnd societatea
cultural-literar ,,Junimea. Al. I. Philippide apr concepia despre art a ,,Junimii i
preamrete meritele acesteia pentru dezvoltarea culturii romneti: ,,Junimea, cu nceputurile
5
Iorgu Iordan, op. cit., p. 26.
465
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
de activitate literar, ieite din snul ei, a fost o lumin modest i ademenitoare: pcat c pe
calea hotrt de dnsa, pe calea adec a muncei serioase, n-am putut noi ceilali mai tineri s
ducem toi lucrul mai departe [] Iat cauza pentru care din cercul Junimii n-a ieit nc atta
lumin ct s poat orbi pe un om ca D-l Gherea. Junimea a fost ns att de cuminte c nu s-
a umflat ca broasca din fabul, ea a neles c n mprejurrile n care trim de la 1848
ncoace, ncunjurai i copleii de productele inteligenii apusului, nu putem ndjdui la o
literatur naional dect atunci cnd ne vom fi dat mai nti socoteal de valoarea acelor
producte.(6) Fiind, oarecum, forat s renune la elaborarea ,,Dicionarului limbii romne,
cu care fusese ncredinat de Academia Romn, Al. I. Philippide decide s se despart de
junimiti, devenind un oponent aprig i puternic al acestora. Lingvistul ieean a aderat i la
micarea poporanist iniiat, la nceputul anului 1906, de ,,Viaa romneasc, sub
conducerea lui Constantin Stere i Garabet Ibrileanu. Se observ, astfel, contradicii n
deciziile luate, cauza lor fiind temperamentul intempestiv, vulcanic, exaltrile excesive
adesea, izbucnirile impetuoase, energia exploziv, expresia vehement, plin de furia
adevrului afirmat cu patim, toate acestea fiind o prelungire a epocii contradictorii.
Privite din perspectiva lui Tudor Vianu, potrivit creia limbajul are o dubl
intenie, tranzitiv, respectiv, reflexiv, textele lingvistice ale lui Alexandru I. Philippide, mai
cu seam lucrarea Originea romnilor, nu surprind doar probleme eseniale legate de
teritoriul de formare a poporului romn, de ramurile romnilor i ale limbii romne, ci i
nenumrate pagini dedicate polemicilor cu lingviti romni i strini ce au ncercat s rezolve
dificila problem a originii romnilor i nu numai. El i-a propus s-i formeze o prere
ntrit pe propria cercetare a izvoarelor, printr-o argumentare insurmontabil, de aceea
lingvistul ieean este, pe alocuri, reflexiv-polemic, dovedind spirit critic privind rezultatele
cercettorilor istoricilor romni i strini (W. Tomaschek, I. Marnavich, V. Prvan, Niederle,
C. Jireek, Kretschmer, Tacit, Diculescu, Hasdeu, Sextil Pucariu, Hugo Schuchard, Meyer-
Lbke, Bartoli i alii): Este un haos de argumente pro i contra, ca la un proces cu advocai
[...] crciogari, mai ales c de multe ori autorii au amestecat patima politic n discuie.
Faptele nsei, multe, puine, pe baza crora s-a fcut argumentarea au fost scoase la iveal
mai numai de strini [...]. Scriitorii romni [...] s-au mrginit numai la argumentare.(7)
n felul acesta, Alexandru I. Philippide se dovedete a fi obiectiv, riguros n
interpretarea faptelor, orice afirmaie a sa este dovedit cu ajutorul textelor, iar orice greeal
ntlnit pe parcursul cercetrilor sale este corectat fr nicio reinere. Acribia este una dintre
trsturile definitorii stilului su polemic. De pild, Originea romnilor este o lucrare
monumental ce cuprinde dezbateri caracterizate prin procesul elaborat i complex de aflare a
adevrului tiinific i printr-un spirit critic deosebit de acut n beneficiul tiinei i al
cunoaterii umane. Discursul tiinific nu se structureaz n jurul propriei preri i nu rezerv
un spaiu enorm explicrii concepiilor sale, ci dialogheaz permanent cu lingvitii de
dinaintea sa i contemporanii care au emis opinii. Modul n care se construiete polemica n
textele lui Alexandru I. Philippide are n vedere, n primul rnd, prezentarea opiniei
lingvistului pe care savantul ieean l invoc, dup care, Philippide i construiete propria
argumentare, alctuit din elemente de teorie, urmate de argumente propriu-zise ce au rolul de
6
Alexandru I. Philippide, Idealuri, n ,,Convorbiri literare, Anul XXV, Bucureti, 1892, nr. 11, p. 156-158.
7
Alexandru I. Philippide, Originea romnilor, volumul I, Tipografia ,,Viaa romneasc S. A., Iai, 1923, p.
661.
466
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
a emfatiza adevrul spuselor sale. Dialogul stabilit astfel ntre lingviti va cuprinde elemente
de ironie, de umor i de satir din partea lingvistului ieean.
Din primele pagini ale lucrrii Originea romnilor, Philippide are o atitudine
critic n ceea ce privete opinia lui Tomaschek despre romanizarea Peninsulei Balcanice i
scrie sigur i asumat: ,,Tomaschek nu spune lucrul exact! n realitate faptul povestit de Ioan
Lydus este urmtorul [].(8) Frazele acestea sunt urmate de o ampl not de subsol n care
explic subiectul de discuie, utiliznd ca argumente citate din textele pe care le-a studiat i
consultat. Philippide este rezervat n a emite judeci de valoare pornind de la presupuneri sau
intuiii, iar discursurile sale sunt construite pe baza unei bibliografii parcurse i nsuite, citate
necontenit pentru susinerea adevrului rostit de el. Polemicile izvorsc din faptul c
lingvistul ieean era foarte riguros. Orice afirmaie a sa, orict de insignifiant, trebuia
dovedit cu ajutorul textelor. Operele sale nu se constituie din preri sau convingeri
personale, ci din ncercri de descoperire a adevrului(9).
Totodat, sunt criticate datele false pe care le indic Iohannes Marnavich, urmate de
o trimitere la textul originar ce susine adevrul emis de lingvistul ieean: ,,Cum c familiea
mpratului Iustinian ar fi fost slav de origine, i c pe tatl lui Iustinian l-ar fi chemat Iztok,
iar pe Iustinian Upravda, snt invenii ale lui Iohannes Marnavich. Vezi Krumbacher,
Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur pag. 46.(10) Atitudinea critic persist i n
privina lui Tacit(11), sau Kretschmer, Einleitung in die Geschichte der greichischen Sprache,
cel din urm fiind ironizat din cauza superficialitii sale i chiar pentru netiina de carte: ,,
Kretschmer ar vrea s susin c n-au fost Thraci Carii, pentru c ar fi avut un sufix care se
gsete i n limba Lycienilor, iar limba acestor din urm n-ar fi indogerman. Dar s susii
nrudirea a dou limbi pe baza unui sufix, care s-ar fi gsind ntr-amndou, este imposibil!
[] Nici nu se poate altfel, cnd ai ca material de discuie vreo zece vorbe!(12) La Gustav
Weigand evideniaz greelile de ordin tiinific i ,,practic, n special utilizarea
etimologiilor greite, pe care le consider impardonabile. I-a criticat i pe reprezentanii
celebri ai romanisticii europene, W. Meyer-Lbke (a identificat greeli n redactarea faptelor
de limb romneasc) i Adolph Tobler (a refuzat s ndrume o tez despre limba romn a
unui candidat romn).
Philippide a fost toat viaa un neogramatic(13), de aceea justifica schimbrile
lingvistice prin cauze psihologice, ntruct n limbaj se reflect ntreaga sfer a reprezentrilor
8
Idem, p. 2.
9
De pild, n Originea romnilor, volumul I, apar fraze precum: ,,Dar, acolo unde Grber se mrginete numai
s afirme, eu a putea aduce argumente. (op. cit., p. 358.); ,,La Gibbon se spun urmtoarele, [], dar el n-
aduce vreo prob. (op. cit., p. 9.); ,,Toate acestea le spune Jireek bazndu-se pe argumente trase din inscripii,
pietre miliare i monezile oraelor. [] Foarte bine, dar cum? Cum, tie numai Jireek, lectorului nu spune
nimic. (op. cit., p. 72.).
10
Alexandru I. Philippide, Originea romnilor, volumul I, p. 4.
11
,,La Tacit, lucrul nu-i sigur! Mai ntiu Tacit vorbete de rul Cusus, iar localitatea Cusum nu-i ru i nici vreun
ru pe lng dnsa nu exist. Dar se poate ntmpla ca vorbele autorului s fie greit puse. (Alexandru I.
Philippide, Originea romnilor, volumul I, p. 286.).
12
Alexandru I. Philippide, Originea romnilor, volumul I, p. 178-179.
13
Dup finalizarea studiilor, Alexandru I. Philippide i asimileaz concepia colii neogramaticilor, ntruct, n
acea epoc, lingvistica era dominat de concepiile lui Hermann Osthoff i ale lui Karl Brugmann, expuse n
lucrarea Morphologische Untersuchungen I. Teil, publicat n Germania anului 1878 i considerat manifestul
acestei coli. Dezvoltndu-se n spiritul neogramaticilor, Philippide i public Principiile de istoria limbii n
467
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
omului, coordonatele vieii psihice. El postuleaz existena unei baze psihologice proprii
fiecrei limbi care, alturi de baza de articulaie, ar determina sensul i coninutul evoluiilor
interne ale unei limbi. n Originea romnilor, una dintre cauzele polemicii dintre lingvistul
ieean i Meyer- Lbke are la baz faptul c acesta din urm nu a mai vrut s recunoasc baza
de articulare ca o cauz de schimbare a limbilor, asemenea lui Philippide, folosind ca
argumente de difereniere dintre limbile romanice elementele de natur geografic, respectiv,
politic. n felul acesta, savantul ieean devine ironic la adresa istoricului: ,,Atunci a nceput
s apar Romnia ca un vast cmp de scurgere a unor fenomene dialectale, care plecate din
anumite puncte privilegiate sau infiltrate dela un capt la altul al latinitii, fr alte obstacule
dect cele geografice i politice, iar concepiea limbii comune latine s-a ntunecat
complect.(14)
Discursurile polemice i atitudinea critic fa de nclcarea adevrului tiinific nu
i vizeaz doar pe lingvitii strini, ci i pe cei romni, cum ar fi Tiktin, care propunea s se
reproduc n scris i sunetele abia perceptibile, ca ,,i- din ,,eu, ,,este etc. Totodat, i
analizeaz i dicionarul lui Tiktin, Rumnisch deutsches Wrterbuch, cruia i reliefeaz
toate lipsurile posibile. O atitudine critic are i la adresa lui Sextil Pucariu, preciznd c
lucrarea sa, T i k n romn, italian i sard, este o monstruozitate tiinific. Discursuri
polemice se construiesc i n jurul lui Vasile Prvan (,,Se neal Prvan, Histria IV, 170, cnd
numete pe Vitalianus general got i-l face strnepot al lui Aspar. Dac Marcellinus Comes
numete pe Vitalianus Scyth, prin aceasta nu voete s zic c ar fi fost Got (pe Goi
Marcellinus Comes i numete Gothi), ci c era din Scythia Minor, pentru c pe vremea lui
Scythia Minor (Dobrogia) se numea Scythia, i locuitorii dintr-nsa erau numii Scythi. []
Afirmaia lui Prvan n-aduce nicio prob, trimete numai la Gibbon.)(15), al lui Constantin
Diculescu (,,Dup Diculescu, Die Gepiden, I, pag. 114-116, 122-124, ar fi ocupat ostrogoii
Dacia aurelian la anul 505 i ar fi stpnit-o pn la anul 535, dar din citaiile de izvoare
aduse de autor cu privire la aceasta, precum i din cele aduse de el la pag. 125-132 cu privire
la ocuparea unei pri din Dacia aurelian de ctre Gepizi n anul 539, nu se constat de fel
acest lucru.)(16), sau al lui Bogdan Petriceicu Hasdeu, n legtur cu care prefer un ton
ironic specific lui I. L. Caragiale (,,Iar Hasdeu n Istoriea critic a Romnilor, Bucureti,
1875, pag. 297 zice: Scormonind pretutindeni n paragrafii precedeni i zgndrind toate
coardele i cordiele limbii romne, noi nu gsim nicio umbr de necontestabil gotism, mcar
n dou optimi ale unei singure vorbe. este de prisos s mai adaog la aceast preioas
afirmare c n acei paragrafi precedeni Hasdeu nu scormonise i nu zgndrise nimic din
limba romneasc! i s-a nscut apoi clieul dup cum se tie.)(17). Nemulumirile lui
Alexandru I. Philippide sunt determinate i de lucrarea Cuvente din btrni, n care Bogdan
Petriceicu Hasdeu a considerat potrivite ca pronunare i ca scriere lexeme ca ,,nooii (noi),
,,moortea (moartea), ,,sufleatea (suflete) etc. Surprinderea n faa afirmaiilor nensoite de
argumente solide este redat prin propoziii exclamative, respectiv, interogaii retorice, cum se
1894, prelucrare, cu numeroase contribuii personale, a crii lui Hermann Paul, Prinzipien der
Sprachgeschichte, din 1882.
14
Alexandru I. Philippide, Originea romnilor, volumul I, p. 367.
15
Idem, p. 9.
16
Idem, p. 318.
17
Idem, p. 349-350.
468
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ntmpl la Diculescu(18): ,,Dup Diculescu, Gepizii au stat n mare numr i n strns
prietenie cu Romnii timp de ase secule n Dacia, i cu toate acestea n nomenclatura topic
actual din Dacia nu exist gepid mai nimic; iar Slavii au stat numai trei generaii i n
dumnie cu Gepizii i cu Romnii, i cu toate acestea au botezat cu nume slave nenumrate
locuri i au transmis acele nume dumanilor Romni, care le-au pstrat pn astzi! Este cu
putin una ca aceasta?(19)
Natura polemic a textelor lingvistului ieean este reliefat prin excesul critic,
vocabularul polemic, alternana limbajului de specialitate cu termenii populari, preferina
pentru imperfectul verbelor, ritmul frazei, exclamaii, digresiuni, anecdote hazlii i interogaii
retorice. Toate aceste elemente de natur lingvistico-stilistic se armonizeaz n vederea
cutrii nelinitite a unui stil scruttor, polemic, dovedind un savant ieean impetuos,
nvalnic, uneori impulsiv, curajos, chiar imprudent, izbucnirile sale fiind caracterizate foarte
plastic de ctre Iorgu Iordan: ,,Cnd nu mai suporta, izbucnea cu rapiditatea i intensitatea
unui explozibil de calitate.(20) Tonul ironic, acid, nesat de umor, ce amintete de stilul lui
Ion Creang prin trimiterea la anecdote populare, se remarc i n discursul polemic ce l
vizeaz pe Hugo Schuchardt: ,,Asupra chipului cum s-a nscut limba latin comun deasupra
dialectelor s-a discutat mult i degeaba. Diferitele preri pn la 1866 le nir Hugo
Schuchardt, dar nu clar, n Vokalismus des Vulgrlateins I, 44. [] Schuchardt, dup ce le
nir pe toate cu mare nerbdare, [] crede c a rezolvat chestiunea prin curioase
presupuneri. El n realitate a unit numai prerile contrarii ale celorlali [] i zice: Nu din
dialect, ci din jumtate dintr-nsul numai s-a produs limba comun.(21)Este un tip de
polemic n care Philippide stabilete i comunic un adevr tiinific(22), de aceea textul este
guvernat de funcia referenial. Pe fondul necunoaterii, apar ,,monstruoziti lingvistice
emise de diveri lingviti sau istorici, iar Philippide simte c are datoria de a reaciona i de a
clarifica erorile. Fraza din incipitul paragrafului, prin utilizarea unui timp comentativ,
perfectul compus, prin excelen deictic, situeaz aciunea verbului n prezentul comunicrii
verbale, iar prin complementele circumstaniale ,,mult, ,,degeaba i ,,nu clar surprinde
atitudinea depreciativ a emitorului. Pentru a reda n mod coerent i explicit informaia
tiinific, savantul ieean alege cuvinte din perspectiv lingvistic, ce au sens denotativ
(,,dialect, ,,limb comun, ,,vorbire, ,,raport, ,,coexisten, ,,uz etc.), ns, pe alocuri,
le utilizeaz i pe cele din perspectiv stilistic, determinate de atitudinea fa de opinia
supus analizei minuioase. n felul acesta, Philippide insereaz elemente de umor, ce
18
Criticile la adresa lui C. Diculescu sunt nenumrate, fiecare dintre ele reliefnd lipsa de pregtire a lingvistului:
,,Este drept c acei care au cutat s afle elemente gote ori vechi germane n romnete au procedat aa de uurel,
nct au compromis chestiunea. [] Cred c merit atenie cele spuse de Diculescu asupra chestiunii n articulul
su Altgermanische Bestandtheile im Rumnischen, precum i n cartea sa Die Gepiden, I, cci se poate
ntmpla ca unele din cuvintele date de autor s fie ntr-adevr de origine veche german. Dup Diculescu ele ar
fi numai dect gepide. Ele ns ar putea fi tot att de bine gote. (Alexandru I. Philippide, Originea romnilor,
volumul I, p. 350.)
19
Alexandru I. Philippide, Originea romnilor, volumul I, p. 328.
20
Iorgu Iordan, op. cit., p. 24.
21
Alexandru I. Philippide, Originea romnilor, volumul I, p. 354.
22
,,Limba comun latin o vorbeau funcionarii, colonii, negustorii, militarii, fiecare cum putea, mai mult sau
mai puin amestecat cu caractere locale, cu caractere dialectale, proprii locului de unde-i trgea originea fiecare
individ, dar limba oficial, limba comun, nu dialectul. (Alexandru I. Philippide, Originea romnilor, volumul
I, p. 353.)
469
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
amintesc de maniera scriitoriceasc a lui Creang, realiznd o coresponden ntre problema
lingvistic dezbtut i dilema proverbial despre cine a fost primul: oul sau gina(23).
n paragraful supus analizei, transpare o atitudine ironic exprimat prin
ntrebuinarea pluralului persoanei I n locul persoanei a III-a singular: ,,[] din uzul vechiu
i uzul nou, am zice, ca s ne servim de termeni mai obinuii astzi, s-au difereniat
stilurile.(24) Concluzia formulat de ctre Schuchardt este introdus prin verbe la prezent
(,,Schuchardt crede, ,, Schuchardt zice), timp narativ cu valene descriptive, ce introduce
un grad ridicat de certitudine. Cuvntul final, ironic i zeflemitor la adresa opiniei lingvistului
strin i aparine lui Alexandru I. Philippide: ,,Dac cearta cu oul i gina caracterizeaz pe
predecesorii lui Schuchardt, prerea acestui brbat nsu s-ar putea compara cu aceia a
nvatului care ar susinea c n-a eit gina din tot oul, ci numai din glbnu, ori c n-a eit
oul din toat gina, ci numai dintr-o parte dintr-nsa.(25) Expresivitatea este o manifestare a
componentei afective, ironice, determinate de superficialitatea ,,specialitilor contemporani
lui Philippide.
Astfel, la Philippide se disting dou moduri de a face polemic: pe de o parte,
diatriba generat doar de consemnarea adevrului tiinific i de dorina de a combate, cu
argumente solide, opiniile tiinifice eronate emise de ctre lingviti strini i romni (de
exemplu, polemica Philippide Meyer-Lbke), i pe de alt parte, polemica determinat de
nemulumiri personale cu privire la oameni de tiin romni, ale cror adevruri lingvistice
erau rodul intuiiilor i al supoziiilor, nicidecum al cercetrii tiinifice minuioase (de pild,
polemica Philippide Hasdeu). Determinate de cauze oarecum diferite, cele dou tipuri de
polemic determin, dac nu chiar condiioneaz, la nivel morfologic, alegerea cuvintelor fie
din perspectiv lingvistic, fie din perspectiv stilistic.
n termenii lui Riffaterre, ,,limba exprim, iar stilul subliniaz, ceea ce susine
nsi natura lui Alexandru I. Philippide: este foarte riguros i sever cu sine, exprimnd prin
limb onestitate tiinific i nalte capaciti de obiectivare, ns, totodat, stilul polemic
subliniaz nemulumirile interioare ca urmare a realitii ce l nconjura. Aceste nemulumiri l-
au determinat s realizeze portretul ,,specialistului timpului su, din diverse ramuri de
activitate, printre trsturile definitorii numrndu-se superficialitatea, ignorana, infatuarea
tiinific i arlatania. De aceea Al. I. Philippide intr ntr-o confruntare cu lingvitii
,,specialiti, n vederea cunoaterii adevrului tiinific i a cilor de lmurire n continuare.
Exist contradicii n ntreaga lui fiin, n multe dintre aprecierile lui, deoarece Alexandru I.
Philippide avea firea unui polemist, aflat mereu n lupt cu cei din jurul su, dar i cu sine,
dovedind o puternic implicare n toate aciunile i demersurile sale.
Bibliografie
Dumistrcel, Stelian, Alexandru Philippide Gustav Weigand: ipostaze, n ,,Philologica
Jassyensia, Anul V, nr. 1 (9), Iai, 2009.
23
,,Este cearta dac a fost oul ntiu ori gina, supt alt form. (Alexandru I. Philippide, Originea romnilor,
volumul I, p. 354.)
24
Alexandru I. Philippide, Originea romnilor, volumul I, p. 354.
25
Ibidem.
470
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Gafton, Alexandru, Originea romnilor piatr de temelie a colii lingvistice de la Iai, n
,,Philologica Jassyensia, Anul V, nr. 1 (9), Iai, 2009.
Iordan, Iorgu, Alexandru I. Philippide, Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1969.
Irimia, Dumitru, Introducere n stilistic, Editura Polirom, Iai, 1999.
Ivnescu, Gheorghe, Alexandru Philippide teoretician al limbajului, n vol. Opere alese.
Teoria limbii, ediie ngrijit de G. Ivnescu i Carmen-Gabriela Pamfil, Editura Academiei
Romne, Bucureti, 1984.
Oprian, I., Alexandru I. Philippide n dialog cu contemporanii, volumul I, ediie ngrijit,
prefa, traduceri, note i indice de I. Oprian, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1986.
Pamfil, Carmen-Gabriela, Alexandru Philippide, Editura Litera Internaional SRL, Bucureti,
2008.
Philippide, Alexandru I., Idealuri, n ,,Convorbiri literare, Anul XXV, nr. 11, Bucureti,
1892.
Philippide, Alexandru I., Originea romnilor, volumul I, Tipografia ,,Viaa romneasc S.
A., Iai, 1923.
Philippide, Alexandru I., Originea romnilor, volumul II, Tipografia ,,Viaa romneasc S.
A., Iai, 1927.
471
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
OCTAVIAN PALER: THE IMAGE OF THE THINKER AND TRAVELER
SZVRFI Judith, PhD Candidate, Petru Maior University of Trgu-Mure
Abstract: We hereby propose a debate on the volume Solitary Adventures by Octavian Paler
through a presentation of the three sequences: Diary at Sea, Counter-Diary at Sea and
American Diary, all based on the concept of the traveler theoretized by Todorov Tzvetan. We
propose an analysis of the intimate experiences, which are reflected in the status of being a
traveler accutized on different poetic levels: the road, the journey, alterity, becoming, duality,
the search and meditation are the components of a constant search for ones self.
Keywords: Octavial Paler, Todorov Tzvetan, Marc Guillaume, Jean Baudrillard, alterity,
traveler, search for ones self, duality and becoming.
Prezenta cercetare propune o lectur instrumental a volumului Aventuri solitare creat
sub semntura lui Octavian Paler. Este o carte ce a rmas n umbr ntre volumele
postdecembriste, dei receptarea critic (puin de altfel) i ofer ans potenialul ei de
interes nu apare deloc diminuat. Dimpotriv 1. Aventuri solitare cuprinde trei
criautonome: Jurnal la mare, Contrajurnal la mare, Jurnal american. n toate cele trei
scrieri, coordonatele centrale sunt cltoria, aventura solitar, alteritatea, strinul, nstrinatul.
Fondul tririlor intime se reflect n statutul de cltor acutizat n diferite nivele poetice:
drumul, cltoria, alteritatea, devenirea, dualitatea, cutarea i meditaia, toate fiind, de fapt, o
continu cutare de sine.
Problematica propus impune un excurs teoretic de prezentare a conceptelor n jurul
crora vom dezvolta analiza. Teoreticienii culturii, antropologii i filozofii propun numeroase
definiri ale conceptului, ncercnd s surprind esena unei manifestri complexe i vaste
raportul identitate-alteritate. De exemplu, Tzvetan Todorov n lucrarea Cucerirea Americii.
Problema celuilalt, afirm la adresa alteritii c cunoaterea de sine trece prin cunoaterea
celuilalt.2
Dup Todorov Tzvetan exist trei axe diferite ale problematicii alteritii: planul
axiologic, planul praxiologic i planul epistemic. Planul axiologic (o judecat de valoare)
vizeaz legtura dintre eu i cellalt iar n acelai timp nu numai legtura ci i cum m
raportez la cellalt i cum este, bun sau ru, l iubesc sau nu-l iubesc, mi este egal sau mi
este inferior. Planul praxiologic (aciunea de apropiere sau deprtare fa de cellalt) e vorba
de faptul dac mbriez valorile celuilalt, m identific cu el, sau l asimilez pe cellalt mie, i
impun propria-mi imagine. Planul epistemic, unde nu exist nici un absolut, ci o gradare
infinit ntre stri de cunoatere mai mult sau mai puin complexe.
Exist bineneles i afiniti ntre cele trei planuri, dar nici o implicaie riguroas, aa
nct nu putem deci s-l reducem unul la cellalt, nici s-l prevedem pe unul pornind de la
1
Paul Cernat, Trei moduri de a fi strin, prefa in Aventuri solitare de Octavian Paler, Editura Polirom, 2008, p. 5.
2
Cf. Tzvetan Todorov, Cucerirea Americii. Problema celuilalt, trad. de Magda Jeanrenaud, Editura Institutul
Europena, Iai, 1994, p. 176.
472
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
cellalt.3 De asemenea, ntr-un studiu teoretic amplu, Marc Guillaume i Baudrillard sunt de
prere c altul (l'autre), fiind de orice natur, strin, imigrant sau marginal, poate fi de aceeai
natur. El numete dou tipuri de alteritate radical, una care poate fi asimilat i cealalt
inasimilabil n fiecare altul (autre) exist Cellalt (autrui) ceea ce nu este eu, ceea ce este
diferit de mine, dar pe care-l pot nelege, chiar asimila i exist de asemenea o alteritate
radical, inasimilabil, incomprehensibil i chiar inimaginabil.4 Se vorbete despre trei
tipuri de alteritate: alteritate uman (dintre diferii oameni), alteritate dinuntrul nostru (de la
Sigmund Freud ncoace a primit numele de incontient) i alteritatea altor spaii, care pot fi
cosmice sau chiar a mainii. 5
Marc Guillaume dezbate elipsa altului, despre a-l lua pe altul drept Cellalt, a-l reduce
pe altul la Cellalt, fcnd referiri la studiul lui Simmel din 1905 ntitulat Digresiuni despre
stin, unde acesta abordeaz conceptul de strin, care dup o anumit ax poate fi foarte
departe iar, dup o alt ax, foarte aproape6, adic strinul poate fi altul sau Cellalt, poate
exista o distan ntre eu-altul, eu-cellalt, dar, n acelai timp, aceast distan poate s se
diminueze n totalitate pentru c ajunge la un raport cu totul aparte pentru, c cel mai
ndeprtat este i cel mai aproape. Strinul este n acelai timp cel care e eproape i departe,
ns acest lucru nu nseamn neaprat c exist o distan geografic sau cultural, ci, mai
degrab, c e vorba de o trecere a frontierei. Statutul de strin este acela al cuiva care nu e
judector i parte, care nu e parial n dezbateri i conflicte, care nu va rmne permanent
angajat n vecintatea noastr social, el poate, prin urmare, s fie un judector imparial, s ia
o distan, permindu-i s observe mai bine conflictele sau situaiile care nu-l privesc n mod
durabil. Aceast distan i permite o proximitate 7, i permite s fie chemat ntr-o poziie de
arbitru i chiar mai adesea, ntr-o poziie de confesor.
Dac distana nu se diminueaz n totalitate atunci poate aprea poziia de confesor,
pentru c ajungem s ne confesm mai uor unui strin dect apropiatului. Prin aceast
precizare ajungem la autorul operei Aventuri solitare pentru care confesiunea este, poate, cea
mai important rezolvare i problematizare a tuturor tririlor. Strinul, n cazul nostru
jurnalul, este cel mai aproriat de autor, fiindu-i foarte uor s-i comunice gndurile,
sentimentele prin intermediul scriiturii narcisice. n cazul acesta, vorbim despre o strintate
artificial8, autoimpus i autocreat pentru coerena identitar a individului.
n urma abordrii descriptiv-analitice realizate observm c Octavian Paler n volumul
Aventuri solitare ncorporeaz trei tipuri de a fi strin corespunznd celor trei cri. Aceste
trei tipuri de a se simi strin se suprapun i se distaneaz n diferite moduri prin relaia
identitate - alteritate. Se suprapun atunci cnd se simte strin fa de lumea nconjurtoare,
fa de oameni i se distaneaz atunci cnd se simte instinat de aceast lume, unde nu e
neles de nimeni, dar poate nici nu vrea s fie, deoarece nelegerea ar fi acceptare, iar
aceasta, la rndul ei este o problem a identitii.
3
Ibidem, p. 173.
4
Jean Baudrillard, Marc Guillaume, Figuri ale alteritii, trad. de Ciprian Mihali, Colectia Studii, Editura
Paralela 45, Piteti Bucureti, 2002, p. 6.
5
Ibidem, p. 11.
6
Ibidem, pp. 13-15.
7
Jean Baudrillard, Marc Guillaume, Figuri ale alteritii, trad. de Ciprian Mihali, Colectia Studii, Editura
Paralela 45, Piteti Bucureti, 2002, p. 14.
8
Ibidem, p. 15.
473
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Identitatea este o cutare de sine prin jurnalul intim prezent n aceast scriere.
Alteritatea este prezent prin raportarea eului la cellalt, prin raportarea sinelui la diferite
situaii, locuri i culturi. Cele trei pri sunt distincte, dar, n acelai timp, complementare:
Jurnal la mare unde este, prezentat experiena autorului cu marea n timpul verii,
Contrajurnal la mare unde este ilustrat, ntlnirea lui Octavian Paler cu o croazier pe
mare n timpul iernii i Jurnal American unde autorul se simte stin n lumea cea Nou, n
acest caz vorbim de Statele Unite ale Americii.
n cartea Jurnal la mare autorul realizeaz un jurnal-eseu n care se ntreptrund
elemente din mitologie cu informaii din viaa lui Octavian Paler. Debutul acestei cri este o
confesiune nainte de a pleca la mare, m-am speriat din pricina unei hemoragii.9 Aceast
confesiune, predomin pe tot parcursul acestei pri a operei, dar se mpletete cu refleciile
autorului despre antichitatea greac. Dac suprapunem teoriile lui Baudrillard, mai sus
amintite, atunci ajungem la observarea unei distane ntre eu i Cellalt, iar atunci cnd
aceast distan nu se diminueaz atunci se creeaz statutul de eu-strin, iar, unui strin te
confesezi mai uor10. Se penduleaz astfel ntre confesiune i comunicare spectral, eul
diaristic va configura un destin aflat ntre narcisic 11 i enciclopedic, ntre nostalgia originii i
cea a descoperirii de sine.
Octavian Paler n Aventuri solitare este un protagonist nsingurat, acest fapt fiind
precizat de nsui autorul, nc din primele pagini ale operei: [...] am fost, mai degrab
trit de ntmplri. Dovad i faptul c, acum, n-am nici un prieten apropiat, la care s
ndrznesc s sun n miez de noapte dac a simi nevoia s m sftuiesc cu cineva. 12 Sfatul
devine necesar. Strigtul nsingurat al autorului are reflexe expresioniste i conduit modern.
Ajuns la mare totul se simplific pentru Paler, n-a zice c devin Altul la mare. Dar cu
siguran devin altfel13 pentru c comportamentul autorului este asociat, de el nsui cu
comportamentul arabilor la intrarea in moschee, ei i depun nclrile iar autorul se
desprinde de problemele curente. Interpretarea poate fi adncit, deoarece marea poate fi
necunoscutul, esena ascuns dintr-un destin aflat n imposibilitatea de a se regsi n zbucium,
verv, mulime i colectivitate. Pentru el marea rmne nfptuirea sinelui dup noile
coordonate imperios cerute de destin. Totodat, marea este o terapie pentru sufletul autorului,
La ceasul n care se ngn ziua cu noaptea, marea are ceva ciudat. Pe apele ei sufl parc
duhul Genezei14; n acelai timp marea poate fi elementul esenial al existenei, dac ne
referim la apa-matern, Marea este pentru toi oamenii dintre cele mai mari i mai constante
9
Octavian Paler, op. cit., p. 9.
10
Jean Baudrillard, Marc Guillaume, op. cit., p. 14 .
11
Narcis nu e un romantic atunci cnd aeaz un mormnt n adncul cunoaterii de sine? p. 31; Eu,
domnilor, am simit de la nceput o simpatie aproape fratern pentru Narcis, fr s-mi explic prea bine ce anume
o determina. ntr-o vreme, chiar am ncercat s-l apr de calomniile celor care-l privesc cu ironie, mirndu-se de
drama sa ca de ceva bizar. Cum de prefer singurtatea un tnr frumos? ntreab ei. i,dac s-a ndrgostit de
sine, cum a ajuns s doreasc distrugerea unicului lucru iubit? De ce i-a pus capt zilelor? ntruct nimeni nu
accept egolatria la alii, orice egolatru gsind normal doar propria sa egolatrie, s-a trecut lesne la blamarea lui
Narcis. De unde se vede c pn i o sinucidere poate fi luat peste picior dac ea ne d ocazia s ne facem o
bun impresie despre noi. Octavian Paler, Aventuri solitare, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1996, pp. 97-98.
12
Ibidem, p. 19.
13
Ibidem, p. 11.
14
Idem, p. 12.
474
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
simboluri ale maternitii.15 Aventura identitar convoac amintirea, originea, autocreaia i,
nu n ultimul rnd, propensiunea spre cellalt-viitor. Marea poate fi simbolul creaiei care se
ia sau care este luat drept creator16 pentru Octavian Paler, marea este un nfptuitor al
oglindirii asemenea scriiturii diaristice. Marea are valene demiurgice deoarece, scldndu-se
n apele mrii, Paler are impresia c renate de fiecare dat. n acelai timp este i spaiul
vieii fiindc se ntmpl ceva inexplicabil de fiecare dat cnd intr n contact direct cu apa
mrii; pentru el marea e o taumatologie 17 inepuizabil. Magia aceasta ine de latura romantic
a personalitii autorului care se poate demonstra pe parcursul primei prti, unde ncearc s
demonstreze c romanticii au recreat clasicitatea antic. 18
Totui la mare reueste s se regseasc. Acea cutare de sine la mare parc nu e att
de adncit, precum e n alte scrieri, marea e o magie, o mitologie, care i ofer un peisaj
simplu i, n acelai timp de un desfru luminos 19. Apolinicul i dionisiacul se ntreptrund
n valul deprtrii i al apropierii. Jocul distanelor i al atitudinilor sunt manifestri ale
relaiei eu - strin i, implicit, ale comunicrii spectrale.
Octavian Paler consider, c, dac noi suntem opera lui Dumnezeu atunci marea este
capodopera lui deoarece din patru elemente ap, soare, nisip, aer se creeaz o mitologie. La
mare trupul devine singurul adevr 20
Prin referirile mitologice autorul i propune s retriasc unele mistere autentice
deoarece el simindu-se strin n lumea lui, tot mereu, caut un univers unde, el ca individ , ar
putea s triasc autentic, pentru c aici pe aceast lume el se simte un stin: oricum, m tem
c viaa mea a devenit, de mai mult vreme, un fel de imitaie de via. i-a pierdut
autenticitatea, pe care o regsesc aici, la mare, cu o infinit recunotin.21 Misterul, cuvntul
i miticul se ntreptrund pentru a dobndi autenticitatea tririi. n aces sens Poate c nu
exist un mijloc mai bun pentru a ascunde un mister dect acela de a discute despre el.22 Tot
ce a putea accepta e c ambiguitatea i las deplina libertate s alegi, ca la Delfi, i c firul
Ariadnei i-a fost de folos lui Tezeu tocmai fiindc s-a rsucit dup meandrele labirintului. 23
De la firul Ariadnei, la Tezeu, La Adonis, la Ajax, la Agamemnon, la Helena, la Artemis, la
Ulise, Orfeu, Penelopa enumerarea lor va produce o cuprindere a infinitului, ce completeaz
infinitul atras de mare. i exegeza autorului surprinde aceast desfurare de for mitologic:
,,[...] rememornd episoade, fapte, evenimente din bogatele-i lecturi despre antichitate. Se
perind astfel, prin faa noastr, Pitagora, Heraclit, Eschyl, Sofocle, Euripide (celebru prin
grota-i de la Salamani unde i-a gndit cea mai mare parte a pieselor sale de teatru i a morii
sale cumplite: refugiat la btrnee n Macedonia, la Pella, la curtea lui Archelaos, este sfiat
de cinii asmuii asupra-i de nobilii macedoniein semibarbari, crora dramaturgul le criticase
moravurile fruste), mediteaz la cultul msurii, al cderii n hybris, la soarta crilor, n
15
Gaston Bachelard, Apa i visele, editura Univers, Bucureti, 1995, p. 131.
16
Chevalier Jean, Alain Gheerbrant, Dicionarul de simboluri, vol 2. Editura Artemis, Bucureti, 1993, p. 270.
17
Octavian Paler, op. cit., p. 13.
18
Ibidem, p.15.
19
Ibidem, p. 44.
20
Ibidem, p. 43.
21
Ibidem, p. 20.
22
Ibidem, p. 63.
23
Ibidem, pp. 70-71.
475
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
genere, a Bibliotecii din Pergam druit Cleopatrei, regina poliglot, de ctre Antoniu, ntru-
un exces de tandree, la oracolul din Delphi etc.24
n acele pri ale scrierii, unde amintete despre mitologie este preocupat de a
diferenia romanticul de clasic, realiznd o paralel ntre cele dou temperamente. n timp ce
romanticul st pe loc, clasicul poate mica mrile, n timp ce romanticul e rtcit i mai
niciodat nu tie ce caut, clasicul e maniacul preciziei, detest ce este aproximativ.
Romanticul are impresia c soarele are i o fa neagr, clasicul e ferm convins c orice
dezndejde are un versant luminos.
n avntul cutrii i al dezbaterii, ecouri din G. Clinescu se fac resimite. La rndul
su, n urm cu ceva ani, criticul interbelic propune urmtoare disociere:
ROMANTICUL CLASICUL
n viziunea eroul e cocoat, orb, chiop eroul e mai mare, fr expresie
lui niciodat normal frumos, ci clar, de o asprime lapidar
G.Clinesc de o frumusee stranie, de o
u delicatee maladiv
e un semizeu sau un rege cu
este pitic ori uria ascenden divin (clasicismul a
cultivat ndeosebi arta statuar)
este sntos de tip gladiator
este maladiv, infirm, tuberculos,
nebun, orb, lepros (cu o mare
complexitate senzorial
i sufleteasc)
are o unic vrst incert, de
tnr perfect dezvoltat (vrsta lui
foarte tnr (de 13-14 Achile)
ani/femeie) ori foarte batrn
e social, sociabil (iubete dialogul),
e singuratic, solilogic sau rebel extrovertit
n fruntea micrilor populare,
introvertit
triete ntr-un prezent etern
st n perspectiva unui trecut
indefinit
n viziunea rtcete stnd pe loc, nu se poate vntura mrile, ca Ulise,
lui nsenineaz niciodat cu totul, fr s se simt vreodat
Octavian pe cerul lui rmne amintirea nelinitit,
Paler norului sau ateptarea altui nor,
tnjete dup o prad visat dar
pe parcurs uit parial visul, i detest ce e aproximativ
distruge dragostea ca s poat
plnge, etern diletant n
24
Savitescu, Ionel, Octavian Paler, Aventuri solitare, n Ateneu, 34, nr. 1, 1997, p. 5.
476
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
materie de fericire,
iubete ca n-are e om fr vrst
verbul romanticului: a dori verbul clasicului: a trebui
ambiia romanticului: s nu ambiia clasicului: s caute
admit o via, n care el s nemurirea n ceea ce moare
existe, iar lucrul iubit s nu
existe
ora ritual a clasicului: amiaza
ora ritual a romanticului:
miezul nopii
boala clasicului: scleroza
boala romanticului: leucemia
clasicul e convins c orice
romanticul tie c soarele are i dezndejde are un versant
o fa neagr luminos
Dincolo de aceast dihotomie, Octavian Paler afirm c [...] nu-mi pas cine are
dreptate, de vreme ce am mai mult nevoie de un punct de sprijin dect de adevr. 25 El
dezbate i anuleaz, mediteaz i ulterior elimin gndul prin pragmatism. Evolueaz ntre
adncire i suprafa, rtcire i adevr. Imprecizia i incertitudinea sunt dou axe
preponderente ale confesiunii sale.
n aceast prim parte, Octavian Paler joac rolul de catalizator al meditaiei pe teme
mitologice26 poziionndu-se pe scaunul de intelectual nclinat spre reflecie care cteodat se
confeseaz, altdat se contempl n diferite situaii dar intotdeauna se plimb ntr-un labirint
exterior i interior prin intermediul cutrii de sine i prin intermediul nstinatului, al
strinului. A doua parte a volumului, Contrajurnal la mare, nu este reprezentativ pentru
Octavian Paler deoarece toat prezentarea croazierei oficiale se face ntr-un stil sec i distant.
Se relanseaz tema singurtii i a distanei. Dar nsi distana apropie identitatea i
25
Octavian Paler, Op.cit, p. 104.
26
A se vedea legtura dintre simbolul mrii i mitologie n urmtoarele secvene:1. Marea nseamn enorm
pentru mine. Dac n-a fi venit, a fi cptat o psihologie de infirm. Ar fi trebuit s m consolez cu ideea c
marea ine de trecut. Pentru totdeauna! i nu m vd n stare, deocamdat, de aa ceva. 2. La mare, eu [...]M
desprind de problemele curente. 3. [...], la mare, totul se simplific [...]. N-a zice c devin altulla mare. Dar
cu siguran, devin altfel[...]Am o stare de beie superficial care-mi relateaz inhibiiile i m cur, parc,
de zgur.[...]. i nu cunosc o terapie mai radical pentru oboseala mea nervoas. 4. [...] m uit [...], spre marea
tain a mrii. La ceasul n care se ngn ziua cu noaptea, marea are ceva ciudat. Pe apele ei sufl parc duhul
Genezei. Valurile spal rmul cu o nepsare grea, inerial i am senzaia stranie c m aflu nainte de apariia
vieii pe Pmnt. 5. Oricum, dac noi suntem opera lui Dumnezeu, marea este capodopera Lui. Din patru
elemente (ap, soare, nisip, aer), nimic mai mult, se creeaz, prin nu tiu ce mister, o magie i o mitologie. Nu
cunosc un peisaj care s fie att de simplu i, n acelai timp, de un desfru luminos.[...]Aici trupul devine
singurul adevr. Dar cu att mai uor comsimi c Afrodita putea iei numai dintr-o mare. 6. Spre deosebire de
zei, noi amestecm dragostea cu disperarea. O dat mai mult, neleg de ce iubesc marea cum iubeti o femeie.
Dar o iubesc i ca pe un loc de exil. Cci marea n-are vrst. Ea nu e din nici un secol. i n-are amintiri. Uneori,
m simt chiar puin caraghios aici cu specialitatea mea de rentieral memoriei. [...] Nu m pot stura de mare
ntr-o sptmn. [...] e ceva sfietor de frumos n spectacolul unei mri incendiate de soare, n stare s
intimideze luciditile cele mai rele. 7. Mine, voi fi primul pe plaj. ntotdeauna am procedat aa n ultima zi.
M-am dus s not nainte de micul dejun, n apa nc netrezit din pclele nopii. Ai, atunci, o senzaie ciudat,
despicnd apa cu braele. Parc o detepi din somn.
477
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
diferena n ludicul desvririi antagonice. Prima opoziie se refer la marea prezentat iarna
(n Jurnal la mare, marea e prezentat vara). Aceste dou anotimpuri sunt aezate n antitez
tocmai cu scopul de a putea i mai bine evidenia nsemntile pentru el a acestei experiene a
mrii n diferite anotimpuri. El e contient de riscul c poate s ruineze mitologia mrii, dar
consider c merit verificat dac experiena aceasta e tot att de plin de mister sau nu, Dar
nu asta am vrut? S vd i partea ostil a mrii. Iat, am ocazia. 27 ntlnirea cu Grecia este
una plin de descoperiri, dar, cea mai mare dezamgire este Efesul, unde din Templul zeiei
Artemis au rmas doar o coloan i cteva buci de piatr spart.28 Tot locul i se pare
autorului lipsit de enigme dar i Constantinopol las urme adnci n contiina autorului cnd
afirm c n vechiul Constantinopol, s-a prbuit nu un ora, ci o civilizaie. [...] dat cu
prbuirea Constantinopolului, s-a surpat ceva i din destinul nostru29. Dorina de cuprindere
a spaiului, n care odinioar s-a regsit, l determin s porneasc n expediie alturi de ali
colegi dominai de aceeai plcere a livrescului i a mitologicului. Drumul parcurs e pe un vas
n care nivelurile mitologice se unesc cu cele ale realitii, dac voiajul l va conduce spre
Delfi, spre originar, spre matricea creatoare, el se instaleaz la primul nivel al vasului, n zona
n care apa mrii i vasul se unesc permanent ntr/un ritm acaparant, catabasic i mitologic:
Nereus (nivel lui Octavian Paler), urmat de Poseidon, Apolo, Venus i Hera. Tovarul e cel
apropiat alturi de care i se mediaz gndul. Vorba i confesiunea, sunt urmrite de
prejudecata nenelegerii de odinioar cu Marin Preda, ns nepotul acestuia Sorin Preda l
dezvluie ca altruist nspre cellalt. Dac umanul mediaz, totul se proiecteaz i la nivelul
apei, semnificativ e momentul n care apa mediaz trecere dinspre o lumea cunoscut, sprea
cealalt. Distanele se anuleaz prin cltorie i cuvnt! La sfritul acestei cltorii pe larg
autorul hotrete s rmn pe rm (sigurana pmntului vs. instabilitatea mrii).
Ultima parte a volumului, cea mai consistent30, Jurnal american, debuteaz cu o
prezentare comparativ a lumii europene in antitez cu Lumea Nou, adic, America, sub
un subtitlul semnificativ, Cuvnt justificativ. Dac pn acum, am avut un Paler care se simea
strin n diferitele lui ipostaze, acum avem imaginea unui Paler, care este n totalitate
instrinat de aceste meleaguri, un cltor care pe tot parcursul analizei sale rmne subiectiv,
plin de prejudeci. De la bun nceput Octavian Paler i avertizeaz cititorii despre faptul c
el e mult prea demodat si conservator iar aceste elemente se vor oglindi n ceea ce privete
analiza acestei lumi. E distan ntre atitudinea clasicului european i modernitatea
exacerbat a amercianului. Eu i strinul nu sunt compatibili, dar ne asumm diferenele i
asemnrile, ne respectm i ne analizm cu scopul de a gsi un punct de mediere i de
convieuire.
Pe tot parcursul acestei pri autorul analizeaz aceast lume din perspectiva unui
european, care nu poate percere lumea din punct de vedere material, aa cum e vzut de
americani, unde banii sunt mult mai uor de ctigai dect la Lisa.31 Dac europeanul are n
faa lui o oglind i prin aceast tot analizeaz lumea nconjurtoare, se tot autoanalizeaz,
27
Octavian Paler, op. cit., p. 119.
28
Ibidem, p. 156.
29
Ibidem, p. 124-125.
30
Cf. Nicolae Oprea, Opera i autorul, colecia Dechideri, Seria Eseuri, Editura Paralela 45, Bucureti, 2001, p.
119.
31
Octavian Paler, op. cit., p.196.
478
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
despic firul n patru, atunci americanii au nlocuit aceast oglind cu monitorul
calculatorului, au n fa doar informaii, iar tehnologia este pentru ei cel mai important obiect
al supravieuirii.
Octavian Paler crede c aceast lume se consum din interior, nu din cauza ntrebrilor
existeniale ci, tocmai, din cauza lipsei lor.
Liviu Andreescu, in articolul, America n cliee,32 subliniaz, c ntlnirea autorului cu
America l aeaz pe cititor, n faa unor ntrebri care depesc exerciiul literar. Octavian
Paler aeaz n faa celui de al treilea segment al volumului, un, Cuvnt justificativ,unde
introduce cititorul intr-un mod indirect n tot irul de cliee americanofobe: visul american,
ecranul calculatorului l ndeprteaz pe american de sine, vitrinele pline de coperi de cri
goale, zmbetul omniprezent i fals de la emisiunile televizate, obsedanii de happy-end-uri,
americanul, un barbar supercivilizat33. Prima parte al articolului este destinat exorcizrii
propriilor prejudeci, dar n a doua parte al Cuvntului justificativ, diaristul apare sub o
postura paradoxal recunoscnd inadaptabilitile sale fa de stilul de via american,
Contactul cu cteva mari orae americane mi-a artat destul de limpede c unul ca mine are
slabe anse s se simt n largul lui peste Ocean 34, schind portetul unei Americi
subcultivate i obsedate de bani [...] ( n dou sute i nu mai tiu cte episoade din serialul
Dallas nu se vede nici o carte). Esenial e ci dolari ai.35
Liviu Andreescu scoate n eviden, ca Octavian Paler prin permanenta problematizare
incearc s dea rspunsuri la ntrebrile puse de el nsui, dar din moment ce aici se dezbat
chestiuni subiective, totul plutete sub aripile subiectivitii. Dar acesta e tocmai menirea unui
jurnal, de a mprtii impresii subiective. Pe lng subiectivitate exist n jurnalul autorului
i date obiective despre America, ca exemplu Liviu Andreescu amintete de Universitile din
America, banii alocai nvmntului, bibliotecile publice, numrul volumelor publicate etc.
Prin acestea autorul articolului afirm c Aventuri solitare e un fragment despre America. 36
Un compliment, dac putem numi n acest fel, ar fi, c americanii nu sunt att de
arogani precum sunt europenii, afirm scriitorul, pentru ei nu e o problem, dac nu vorbeti
bine engleza, ei ncearc s te ineleag, pentru ei nu are nicio importan c eti strin. n
aceast lume Octavian Paler se simte cltorul, strinul care recepteaz aceast lume din
unghiul de vedere al europeanului pentru care evenimentele se nfiltreaz n memoria,
contiina lui doar prin intermediul culturii.
Raportarea eului creator, n aceast scriere la aceast lume strin rmne pe tot
parcursul scrierii subiectiv, dar la un moment dat , Paler ajunge la concluzia c poate aceti
barbari sunt mai nelepi dect noi europenii. Dincolo de acelai fragmentarism, l
recunoatem pe Octavian Paler n consecventa postur de contemplativ nostalgic, de
observator moralist, cel care se orienteaz intotdeauna n direcia autocunoaterii, de Narcis ce
se oglindete n text nu spre a se admira, ci spre a admira prin sine pe alii, [...], toat creaia
lui Octavian Paler este un jurnal perpetuu, n oglinda cruia se oglindete personalitatea
scriitorului, nu spre a se admira narcisiac, ci spre a se cunoate pe sine n profunzime. [...]
32
Cf. Andreescu, Liviu, America n cliee, n Contrapunct, 7, nr.8, 1999, p. 12.
33
Octavian Paler, op. cit., p. 194.
34
Ibidem, p. 188.
35
Ibidem, p. 192.
36
Cf. Liviu Andreescu, art. cit., p. 12.
479
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Consecvent n direcia autocunoaterii i a radicalitii gndirii, autorul se oglindete n oper
nu spre a se admira, ci spre a admira prin sine pa alii.37
n America intuiia i cunoaterea l conduc spre descoperirea i cucerirea celuilalt.
ns parc citete jurnalele lui Colon, insistnd asupra vieuirii n America n funcie de
mobilul principal: averea, banul. Asemenea unui fiu risipitor, el i croiete drum, dar
asemenea unui Ulise modern se raporteaz mereu la al su spaiu originar Ithaca/ Lisa (satul
lui Paler), Se ntoarece necontenit n visele lui n Lisa natal, contient c n-ar mai putea tri
acolo, cutreier locuri sacre, fie din munii Fgraului unde a copilrit, fie dintr-o Grecie
antic Locuit de zei i de mituri [...].38
Drumul lui Octavian Paler este al nglobrii n scriitura zilnic a unei disonane
afective i colective ntre el i americani. Diferenele sunt accentuate, iar valorile acestei
cltorii sunt subsumate mrii.
n concluzie putem afirma c cele trei cltorii prezentate n cele trei secvene ale
operei, Aventuri solitare, ne indic un aventurier, care prin aceste pelerinaje, fizice i
sentimentale, ajunge se se autoanalizeze, s se raporteze mereu la originile lumii, la Tot,
deoarece fragmentarismul, ne indic intotdeauna, la Paler, c segmentul nu este unitatea,
unitatea este singurul element al perfeciunii, care se poate atinge doar prin regsirea
elementelor primordiale. Autorul le gsete prin intermediul mitologiei, prin cltoria lui spre
Delfi, Athena, muntele Olimp, [...] mitologia este locul geometric al spiritului, unde
particularul devine general nsui, ea rspunde cel mai bine artei care i propune s redea
absolutul n forma sensibil. 39 Parcurgnd lumea de la ara natal spre lumea antic, la
Athena, la Delfi sau n America, toate aceste experiene sunt analizate din prisma acelui eu-
solitar, care se simte nstrinat de aceste meleaguri, dar, care are nevoie de aceste cltorii
pentru regsirea sinelui, pentru gsirea identitii. Astfel putem numi aceste drumuri
frecventate continuu nite cltorii n timp, prin care apa devine elementul, prin care se
filtreaz elementul viu n contiina autorului.
Bibliografie
Bibliografia operei
Paler, Octavian, Aventuri solitare, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2008.
Paler, Octavian, Aventuri solitare, Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1996.
Paler, Octavian, Convorbiri cu Daniel Cristea-Enache, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2012.
Bibliografia critic
Andreescu, Liviu, America n cliee, n Contrapunct, 7, nr.8, 1999.
Alexandrescu, Sorin, Identitate n ruptur, Colecia Studii Romneti, Editura Univers,
Bucureti, 2000.
37
Nicolae Oprea, op. cit, p. 119.
38
Manolescu, Nicolae, Istoria critic a literaturii romne, Editura Paralela45, Piteti, 2008, p. 1177.
39
Liiceanu, Gabriel, Om i simbol, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2005, p. 45.
480
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Baudrillard J, Guillaume, Figuri ale alteritii, traducere de Ciprian Mihali, Editura Paralela
45, Colecia Studii, Seria Topos Studii socio-umane, Piteti, 2002.
Bocan, Nicolae, Mitu, Sorin, Nicoar, Toader, Identitate i alteritate. Studii de istorie politc
i cultural, Editura Presa Universitar Clujean, Cluj-Napoca, 2000.
Boia, Lucian, Istorie i mit n contiina romneasc, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1997.
Boia, Lucian, Pentru o istorie a imaginarului, traducere de Tatiana Mochi, Editura
Humanitas, Bucureti, 2000.
Boia, Lucian, Romnia, ar de forntier a Europei, ediia aIV-a, Editura Humanitas,
Bucureti, 2012.
Burgos, Jean, Pentru o istorie a imaginarului, traducere de Gabriela Duda i Micaela Gulea,
prefa de Gabriel Duda, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1988.
Cornea, Paul, Introducere n teoria lecturii, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1988.
Crciun, Alexandra, Narcisismul i problemele reflecrii, Editura Paideia, Bucureti, 2002.
Jurcan, Dan, Identitate i societate. Modele aspiraionale n tranziie, Editura Eikon, Cluj -
Napoca, 2005.
Levinas, Emmanuel, ntre noi: ncercare de a-l gndi pe cellalt, traducere de Ioan Petru
Deac, Editura All, Bucureti, 2000.
Liiceanu Gabriel, Om i simbol. Interpretri ale simbolului n teoria artei i filozofia
culturii Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2005.
Manolescu, Nicolae, Istoria critic a literaturii romne, Editura Paralela45, Piteti, 2008.
Mazilu, Dan Horea, Noi despre ceilali. Flas tratat de imagologie, Editura Polirom, Iai, 1999
Oprea, Nicolae, Opera i autorul, Colecia Dechideri, Seria Eseuri, Editura Paralela 45,
Bucureti, 2001.
Savitescu, Ionel, Octavian Paler, Aventuri solitare, n Ateneu, 34, nr.1, 1997.
Todorov, Tzvetan, Cucerirea Americii. Problema celuilalt, traducere Magda Jeanrenaud,
Editura Institutul European, Iai, 1994.
Todorov, Tzvetan, Noi i ceilali, traducere de Vlad Alexandru, Editura Institutul European,
Iai, 1996.
481
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
LES TRADUCTEURS DE LITTRATURE - CONSTRUCTEURS DE DIALOGUE
MULTICULTUREL
Raluca-Nicoleta BALACHI, Assistant Professor, PhD, tefan cel Mare University of
Suceava
Daniela HISAN, Assistant Professor, PhD, tefan cel Mare University of Suceava
Abstract: A quite enriching approach of literature as a multicultural dialogue can be
discovered by barely catching a glimpse at the role of literary translators from one culture to
another. The present article deals with translators of foreign literature into Romanian who,
more often than not personalities of the target-culture themselves, facilitate this passionate
cultural dialogue which is translation. Genuine "artisans" of a given culture and of a given
language (cf. Jean Delisle), the writers-translators create a style and a discourse often
obliterated by their own literary original work as well as by their very condition of
translators which traditionally implies "invisibility". When Caragiale translates Perrault's
tales, Arghezi approaches Molire or Rimbaud, Eminescu chooses Poe, the translated text
becomes all of a sudden the perfect place for an utterly innovative, creative dialogue between
cultures.
Keywords: cultural dialogue, (in)visibility, literary translation, style, writer
1. De linvisibilit la visibilit en traduction
La critique et lhistoire des traductions, telles quelles se sont dveloppes les dernires
dcennies dans lespace de la traductologie amricaine / europenne occidentale et saffirment
lheure actuelle dans le milieu de recherche roumain, militent pour le rtablissement, dans la
culture dune communaut, du statut et de la position du traducteur, que la tradition laissait
dans lombre. Antoine Berman, vritable fondateur de la critique des traductions, justifie,
dans son approche des textes littraires traduits, la ncessit dune analyse et dune valuation
des traductions par une recherche sur le traducteur lui-mme (1995: 73, cest nous qui
soulignons) : lune des tches dune hermneutique du traduire est la prise en vue du sujet
traduisant. Ainsi la question qui est le traducteur ? doit-elle tre fermement pose face une
traduction [] il devient de plus en plus impensable que le traducteur reste ce parfait
inconnu quil est encore la plupart du temps .
Edmond Cary, Michel Ballard, Jean Delisle et Lawrence Venuti ont essay, par
diffrentes formules, de souligner la place des traducteurs dans lhistoire de la /des
traduction(s).
Edmond Cary, en 1963, et Jean Delisle en 1999 optent pour les genres biographiques,
sintressant de trs prs la vie des traducteurs. Le nom de Jean Delisle est surtout connu en
traductologie pour avoir redirig lattention du texte traduit vers le sujet traduisant dans ses
clbres portraits de traducteurs /traductrices , proposant le long du temps, dans ses
diverses tudes dhistoire des traductions, une srie de mtaphores clairantes et valorisantes,
censes rendre compte du statut/rle complexe par rapport la langue, lhistoire, la culture
en gnral : alchimistes de la langue ; artisans de lhistoire , conqurants . Nombre
482
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
dpoques dans lhistoire universelle de la traduction justifient de telles approches du
traducteur, qui sont au ple oppos de leur image traditionnelle de serviteurs , de
translateurs , de simples relais entre lauteur et la nouvelle culture de rception, celle de
la langue cible.
Apprciant sa juste valeur lentreprise de Jean Delisle par laquelle il russit rendre
vivantes quelques figures de traductrices et de traducteurs, sortir de lombre, de linvisibilit
ou de leffacement le traducteur comme noyau de lacte de traduction et lui rendre la bonne
place quil mrite dans lhistoire de la traduction , tout comme leffort du spcialiste de
reconnatre et daccorder au traducteur son rle central dans la traduction et dans la
traductologie de btisseur de ponts culturels , la traductologue roumaine Mugura
Constantinescu considre toute recherche sur le traducteur comme un geste essentiel et
ncessaire , en raison de la haute mission culturelle, du rle dcisif du traducteur dans
llaboration dune langue littraire, dune culture et surtout du dialogue constant entre
cultures quil accomplit de manire implicite ou explicite (2013 : 189). Et cest dans cette
mme optique quelle inaugure, en 2008, la rubrique Portraits de traducteurs dans la revue
roumaine de traductologie Atelier de traduction.
Les approches historiques de la traduction que proposent Michel Ballard, Lawrence
Venuti et Jean Delisle paraissent toutes dans la dernire dcennie du XXe sicle (1992, 1995,
1995) et malgr leur organisation et conceptualisation diffrente partagent un intrt
explicitement dclar pour la place du traducteur dans cette histoire.
Le sous-titre de lhistoire des traductions de 1992 que Michel Ballard dresse depuis
lpoque de Cicron et jusqu celle de Walter Benjamin, notamment Traducteurs,
traductions, rflexions, annonce un changement complet de perspective dans lapproche
historique de la production traductive le long du temps : ce nest pas la traduction comme
produit fini qui intresse en tout premier lieu mais son artisan, son acteur principal, le
traducteur.
En reconstituant le parcours fort intressant dans lhistoire universelle du traducteur
diffrents paliers, la plupart essentiels, de la culture dun peuple, partir de la cration
dalphabets, de la construction dune langue et dune littrature nationale et jusqu
limportation dides, Jean Delisle et ses collaborateurs dessinent dans Les traducteurs dans
lhistoire (1995) le tableau complexe de la tche quont assume dans diffrents contextes
culturels et poques historiques les traducteurs. Ecrire lhistoire de la traduction partir de la
perspective de celui qui cre la traduction assure une comprhension profonde du rle de
lacteur humain, le traducteur, dans la mise en contact des cultures.
Pour ce qui est de louvrage de Lawrence Venuti, devenu, lui aussi, un vritable point
de repre en traductologie, il simpose par loriginalit de lapproche : la cl de lhistoire de la
traduction rsiderait, tel que le montre autant le titre que lorganisation interne du livre, dans
linvisibilit du traducteur. Le spcialiste amricain montre, par une tude systmatique des
traductions et de leur rception dans le contexte britannique et amricain que ce statut du
traducteur sexplique dune part par la valorisation excessive dun style traductif qui
dissimule tout prix le caractre traduit du texte et dautre part par les habitudes de
lecture/critique des textes traduits et leurs chos dans les mdias. En appelant laction
dans le tout dernier chapitre, le traductologue affirme sa foi dans le pouvoir de la traduction
de produire une diffrence par lmergence de formes culturelles nouvelles, dans la
483
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
culture cible, donc chez soi et de relations culturelles nouvelles, entre les cultures
envisages, donc ltranger (1995 : 277). Car une fois reconnue/admise linvisibilit du
traducteur, on peut esprer un revirement dans la perspective sur la pratique de la traduction,
tout comme sur son approche critique, mdiatique et pdagogique. Lappel laction est lanc
non pas seulement ceux qui lisent/commentent/interprtent ou enseignent la traduction mais
galement aux traducteurs eux-mmes.
Et contrairement aux attentes de Lawrence Venuti qui pensait que sa foi dans la force de
la traduction tait, en fait, utopique, la prise de conscience de linvisibilit du traducteur a
produit, peu peu, ses fruits. Le chemin entre linvisibilit et le besoin de visibilit a t plus
ou moins vite parcouru ces dernires dcennies, de sorte que la visibilit du traducteur dans sa
culture cible est une thmatique qui occupe, depuis, et en parfait accord avec la problmatique
plus large du dialogue inter/multiculturel, les devants de la scne traductologique, des
questions comme la voix du traducteur/le statut du traducteur/la reconnaissance du traducteur
se situant de manire rgulire au cur des dbats en colloques ou des numros thmatiques
des publications de spcialit. A la lumire des quelques tudes sur lappareil paratextuel des
traducteurs contemporains, il semblerait que, de ce ct aussi, lenjeu de la visibilit
commence tre bien compris.
2. De lcriture la traduction : quand les grands noms de la littrature roumaine
signent aussi des traductions
Dans bien des cultures, parmi les figures de traducteurs, on retrouve assez souvent le cas
des crivains qui traduisent un crivain ; entre traduire et crire sinstaure alors un rapport
particulirement complexe, les frontires entre le moi et lautre qui occupent tour de rle la
position de lauteur tant dpasses dans un processus cratif qui rsulte trs souvent dans une
refonte du texte en langue cible profondment marque par le style de lcrivain-traducteur.
La traduction est plutt une rcriture, car lcrivain concurrence consciemment ou
non le traducteur. Cest, nous pensons, lun des exemples les plus intressants de traduction
qui continue le texte, pour reprendre les considrations sur le traduire du poticien de la
traduction Henri Meschonnic. Cest galement une formule de construction de dialogue
interculturel par lintersection dans lespace du texte traduit de deux esprits hritiers de
toute une tradition et de deux crateurs dun style, formule enrichissante autant pour la
comprhension du discours littraire en tant que tel dans une culture cible donne que pour le
renouvellement du rapport entre traduire et crire.
Quelle place lactivit de traduction occupe-t-elle dans luvre dun crivain ? Le
traduire entre-t-il dans la pratique littraire des grands auteurs dune littrature dans le sens o
il permettrait dexprimenter lcrire? Comment expliquer les options pour certains crivains
reconnus dans une littrature de traduire certains auteurs et certains genres ? Luvre dun
auteur sert-elle de point de repre pour lanalyse des traductions quils signent ? Par quelles
entres thoriques/mthodologiques tudier le faire dun crivain-traducteur ?
Autant de questions qui, pour ce qui de la culture roumaine o nombre de personnalits
littraires se sont places dans la position de traducteurs, pourraient constituer des sujets de
rflexion fconds pour lvaluation autant du rle de la traduction dans lvolution de la
littrature nationale que de la position apparemment secondaire du traduire lcrire.
484
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
A consulter avec patience la liste des traductions qui entrent dans la production des
potes, prosateurs et dramaturges de la culture roumaine ct de leur uvre personnelle, on
comprend trs vite que le traduire a constitu, selon lpoque et la personnalit en question, un
complment, un supplment, un refuge, ou une ncessit pour ces constructeurs de littrature
mais galement de dialogue culturel. A lire, sous la plume de ceux qui sont connus comme
auteurs, un texte dont ils ne sont que traducteurs, on glisse en fait dans un jeu de
correspondances, dans un dialogue captivant, construit plusieurs niveaux : entre lauteur et
le traducteur, entre luvre originale et le traducteur, entre le traducteur et son lecteur.
Les affinits entre les crateurs de littrature et les auteurs quils choisissent en
traduction sont souvent la base de ce dialogue. Leurs options impressionnent dautres fois
par limpact culturel de leur activit lpoque de la traduction. Leur nom sur la couverture
des traductions constitue toujours un point dattrait pour le lecteur dsireux de dcouvrir, sous
le crateur de texte, un crateur de langue.
Ion Heliade Rdulescu est bien connu dans lhistoire de la culture roumaine pour son
intrt port lactivit de traduction et pour son projet de constitution dune Bibliothque
Universelle, selon un programme systmatique de traductions, sa contribution comme
traducteur visant en particulier la littrature romantique et notamment Lamartine.
Le gnie potique de George Cobuc ne se manifeste pas seulement au niveau de son
uvre de cration personnelle mais galement au niveau des traductions : il transpose en
roumain des chefs-duvre essentiels de la littrature universelle comme lEnide et les
Gorgiques de Virgile ou la Divine Comdie de Dante Alighieri ; ses russites en matire de
traduction le placeraient, selon certains critiques, bien en dessus de son uvre de pote.
Tudor Arghezi ne sarrte, lui non plus, lactivit de production potique mais la
prolonge dans et par la traduction, optant pour une diversit de genres, auteurs et courants : il
traduit Les Fables de La Fontaine, les Ballades de Franois Villon, des pomes de Paul
Verlaine, de Charles de Baudelaire et dAntoine Rimbaud. Il est galement intress par les
pices en vers de Molire.
Garabet Ibrileanu traduit Bel-Ami de Maupassant. Sa version est rdite y compris
lheure actuelle, coexistant et concurrenant donc des retraductions modernes . La mme
observation peut tre faite propos des textes traduits par un Cezar Petrescu qui prfre, en
traduction, luvre de Balzac.
Ion Luca Caragiale traduit, en adaptant, un conte de Perrault, Riquet la houppe, mais
galement Machiavelli, Maeterlinck, Molire, et les Amricains Mark Twain et Edgar Allan
Poe, il est vrai, suivant des versions franaises. Ce sont les versions baudelairiennes qui lui
ont servi dintermdiaire lorsquil a traduit Poe, par exemple. La traduction de loeuvre de
Poe en roumain constitue, elle seule, un vritable espace de dialogue culturel, car il sagit, de
toute une srie dcrivains qui ont facilit laccs du public roumain la nouvelle vague
littraire de la deuxime partie du dix-neuvime sicle : Poe (vu par) Baudelaire (vu par)
Caragiale. Ce dernier tait au courant, videmment, avec les trois volumes poesques (y
compris les prfaces, un inestimable repre critique) signs par Baudelaire (Histoires
extraordinaires, 1856 ; Nouvelles histoires extraordinaires, 1857 ; Histoires grotesques et
srieuses, 1865), dont il a choisi les narrations qui lui convenaient : principalement, comme
485
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
soulign par Ieronim Ttaru1, les sujets macabres ou grotesques, encadrables dans un ralisme
fantastique avant-la-lettre (A Tale of Jerusalem, The System of Dr. Tarr and Professor Fether
et The Cask of Amontillado, The Devil in the Belfry et The Masque of the Red Death).
Les choix de Caragiale ne sont pas du tout alatoires ; comme le montre la rpartition
chronologique des traductions au cours du temps (Dracul n clopotni [Le diable dans le
beffroi], 1876; O ntmplare la Ierusalim [Un vnement Jrusalem] et Sistema Doctorului
Catran i a Profesorului Pan [Le systme du docteur Goudron et du docteur Plume], 1878;
O balerc de Amontillado [La barrique dAmontillado] et Masca [Le masque], 1898), elles
tmoignent dun intrt constant, quoique sporadique, aux oeuvres poesques. Sans partager
une affinit intelectuelle ou bien une apparent spirituelle avec Poe, comme ctait le cas de
Baudelaire, Caragiale aurait d tre attir plutt par les espces piques courtes que Poe
cultivait, par le grotesque ou le burlesque, par la satire ou la parodie, par une sorte de
fantastique qui na rien en commun avec le miraculeux.
Les exgtes caragialiens ont maintes fois mis en vidence linfluence poesque (assez
peu substantielle) sur luvre de Caragiale, tout en tiquettant en mme temps ses traductions
comme simples adaptations , ce qui nest pas tout fait exact : une analyse comparative
peut aisment dmontrer la complexit de lcrivain-traducteur. Il manifeste, il est vrai, une
tendance de raccourcir le texte, ses traductions tant presque toujours plus courtes que
loriginal ; de plus, il aime acclrer le rythme, pousser le rcit vers le dialogue (ce qui a t
diagnostiqu effet secondaire de sa logique de dramaturge2). Mais, si Caragiale opre souvent
des rductions (disons peu dontologiques) du texte traduire, on constate, pour sa dfense,
que les fragments omis ne sont jamais incrmentaux, sinon assez imbus de dtails quils
risqueraient fatiguer excessivement le lecteur. Toujours la recherche du mot juste parmi
les correspondants lexicaux de sa langue maternelle, il met en valeur avec nonchalance sa
visibilit en tant quinstance traductive. Dans cette hypostase inoue de traducteur,
apparemment incompatible avec sa personnalit indomptable, Caragiale a contribu sans
doute entretenir un vif intrt du public roumain aux uvres poesques.
Cest aussi le cas de son grand confrre Eminescu. Tout comme Caragiale et le pote
symboliste Alexandru Macedonski, le pote national Mihai Eminescu cde aux exhortations
de Titu Maiorescu, lesprit directeur de Junimea, de lire Poe, et complte la triplette dor
qui a garanti la propagation de Poe en Roumanie. Il ne traduit quune seule nouvelle,
Morella3, et cela en collaboration avec la potesse Veronica Micle, sa bien-aime la plus
clbre et peut-tre la plus controverse aussi. La qualit linguistique et littraire de la version
Eminescu-Micle repose sur la fidlit en quelque sorte surprenante au texte baudelairien qui
leur a servi de texte intermdiaire. Leur Morella reste pour toujours dans lhistoire de la
traduction comme un important point de repre, y compris grce la personnalit illustre de
1
Traduceri caragialiene din opera lui Edgar Allan Poe , nsemnri caragialiene, Fundaia Cultural Libra,
Bucureti, 2006, p. 285.
2
Florin Manolescu, Caragiale i Caragiale. Jocuri cu mai multe strategii, Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1983,
p. 241-246.
3
Poe publie Morella in The Southern Literary Messenger (avril 1835) ; Eminescu traduit la version franaise
signe par Charles Baudelaire, et publie pour la premire fois en 1853, en Paris, puis en volume en 1856 :
Histoires extraordinaires (Paris, Michel Lvy). La version dEminescu parat en Curierul de Iassi, IX, 1876, n
111, 8 octobre, p. 1-2.
486
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
lcrivain-traducteur et, il doit le reconnatre, la notorit de sa relation romantique avec
Veronica Micle.
Au dbut du vingtime sicle dj, les crivains roumains simpliquent de plus en plus
entretenir un rapport privilgi entre langues et cultures travers la traduction. Prenons
galement le cas de Sadoveanu qui, suivant la tradition des grands classiques du dix-neuvime
sicle, a souvent interrompu sa srie des uvres originales pour se consacrer traduire. Sa
premire contribution en ce sens date de 1907, un volume de Povestiri alese [Contes choisis]
quatorze contes de Maupassant quil choisit, littralement, de sept volumes diffrents. Tout
comme Caragiale, Sadoveanu sassume la libert et se permet le luxe de selecter seulement les
rcits son got : savoir, surtout les histoires de chasse et de pch, et celles qui traitaient de
la vie simple, des paysans.
Lorsquil traduit Maupassant, Sadoveanu cherche (tout comme en traduisant plus tard
H. Becque, H. Taine ou Tourgueniev) laurea mediocritas, dans le meilleur sens de
lexpression : lquilibre mi-chemin entre la source et la cible, la fidlit loriginal et
lexpression artististique dans sa langue maternelle la fois. Il semble ne pas avoir dautre
choix que dtre un bon traducteur car, comme bien le note Ion Brescu 4, il rpond aux deux
conditions principales : matriser parfaitement la langue-source et tre un artiste de la langue-
cible. Sans tre un adepte du littralisme, Sadoveanu respecte, quand mme, la lettre des titres
quil rend exactement en roumain et donne toujours des quivalents expressifs trs proches et
trs russis des expressions potiques de Maupassant (ex. fort basse pdure pitic [fort
gnome])5.
Extrmement prudent avec le lexique, Sadoveanu vite les rgionalismes (qui
envahissent autrement son uvre originale), pour garder l trangit maupassantienne,
mais en gale mesure, se garde-t-il employer excessivement des nologismes, surtout ceux
de provenance franaise. Sil se fait coupable de quelque chose en tant que traducteur,
cest peut-tre la tendance dformante (selon Berman) de clarifier, de remplacer un terme
qui lui semble trop abstrait ou vague avec un autre, plus concret ou plus prcis. part cela,
Ion Brescu trouve que Sadoveanu reste, sans aucun doute, un traducteur dexception, un vrai
modle pour les futurs (crivains-)traducteurs.6 Et, tout en analysant des versions ultrieures
de Maupassant, signes, cette fois-ci, par dautres crivains tels Emil Grleanu, Geo Bogza,
Otilia Cazimir, Lucia Demetrius ou, plus rcemment, Gabriela Adameteanu, on dirait que
Sadoveanu a vraiment reprsent un standard assez difficile dpasser. Pour nen parler plus
dun de ses contemporains, un crivain mineur dont le nom de plume est Ioan Adam : il a
publi une anne plus tard que Sadoveanu, en 1908, sa propre collection de huit Nuvele alese
[Nouvelles choisies] de Maupassant, qui na pas eu le mme impact que le volume de
Sadoveanu, pas mme pour les gnrations futures intresses aux re-traductions. On explique
cela par lautorit littraire et culturelle qutait Sadoveanu, mais aussi par la qualit de ses
traductions quil donnait titre dexemple.
La discussion des rapports entre traduction et criture devrait inclure aussi la situation
des traducteurs-crivains, cest--dire de ceux qui sont tout dabord perus comme traducteurs
et seulement en deuxime lieu comme crivains.
4
Mihail Sadoveanu, traductor al lui Maupassant , in Limba romn, IX, n 6 / 1960, p. 12.
5
Idem (Brescu), p. 14.
6
Idem (Brescu), p. 19.
487
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Pericle Martinescu sera probablement en tout premier lieu le traducteur des Confessions
de Rousseau, ou de loeuvre de Balzac et seulement ensuite lauteur dune littrature
autobiographique qui inclut, elle aussi, des confessions (Confesiuni patetice).
Ion Vinea (de son vrai nom, Ioan Eugen Iovanaki) est un autre crivain-traducteur, de la
premire moiti du vingtime sicle qui est rest, paradoxalement, plus connu dans la
mmoire collective comme traducteur que dans son hypostase de pote avant-gardiste. Tout
comme Poe (dont il traduit la prose avec ferveur et avec qui il sidentifie, du moins
partiellement), Vinea, de formation avocat, arrive la littrature par la porte arrire du
journalisme. Un styliste raffin, qui connaissait les langues classiques (le grec, le latin),
mais aussi au moins trois langues modernes (le franais, langlais, lallemand), Vinea a traduit
assidment des uvres de Shakespeare, Balzac, Villiers de lIsle Adam, Poe, Washington
Irving i Laxness. Mircea Vaida dvoile, dans un trs mouvant portrait du traducteur
quil lui esquisse dans la revue Secolul XX, que Vinea tenait des gros carnets gris o il
notait ses obsessions de traducteur, des listes infinies de synonymes, des analyses
smantiques, structurales des mots etc.7 Douzaines de pages pour trouver le mot juste,
lunique satisfaisant, tmoignent du travail de Sisyphe, des grandes nergies potiques
investies dans la traduction qui tait, pour Vinea, une relle torture cratrice 8. Trop
souvent accus dtre tout simplement un ethnocentriste , Vinea savre, en fait, traducteur
des moindres subtilits. Il ne trahit jamais la syntaxe du texte original, ni le rythme intrieur
de lexposition, mais ce qui le proccupe par-dessus tout cest la fidlit smantique, cest
pourquoi il est toujours la recherche du noyau dur 9 des mots.
Vinea traduit cinq pices shakespeariennes : Henry V, Hamlet, Othello, Macbeth, The
Winters Tale (aux ditions Univers de Bucarest, 1971), parmi lesquelles Hamlet reste une
sorte de sommet dans son uvre de traducteur. Dailleurs, il avait lhabitude dalterner (tout
comme Irina Mavrodin) le travail de cration et ce de traduction, jusquau point de lunion
parfaite, symbiotique.
On ne peut pas sempcher de faire une trs signifiante comparaison entre luvre de
traducteur de Vinea et celle de Lucian Blaga : les deux personnalits de la culture roumaine,
bien quextrmement sensibles aux raffinements des langues-sources (principalement le
franais), diffrent radicalement lorsquil sagit du rsultat final de leur effort traductif.
Disons que Blaga est parfois beaucoup plus personnel dans ses traductions, quil met son
cachet de manire trop vidente, tandis que Vinea, lui, nose pas se dtacher du respect
profond pour la source et pour les sonorits de la langue-cible.
3. En guise de conclusion
Quand un crivain traduit un crivain le texte dpasse sans doute les frontires de ce que
le lecteur attendrait dune traduction habituelle et ouvre des horizons diffrents pour le
critique de la traduction. Le statut de traducteur est galement peru de manire diffrente,
lorsque le traduire a comme source un crivain, lcrivain-traducteur ou le traducteur-crivain
crant un potentiel de visibilit plus important. La traduction semble prolonger lacte de
7
Ion Vinea, traductor , in Secolul XX, vol. 1 / 1973, p. 153.
8
Idem (Vaida), p. 153.
9
Idem (Vaida), p. 153.
488
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
lcriture, et peut devenir mme un espace de rflexion/cration rciproque, aussi des termes
comme transcration (cf. Haroldo de Campos dans le numro 25 de la revue TTR) ne
peuvent-ils quenrichir la perspective et nourrir la rflexion future sur la problmatique.
Comme aucune traduction nest indpendante de son auteur, le traducteur doit rester
au centre de la rflexion traductologique , tel que Jean Delisle na cess de le montrer et de
lappliquer notamment pour lespace nord-amricain et ouest-europen.
La culture roumaine, qui doit beaucoup lactivit de traduction, et qui a entretenu le
long du temps avec la traduction des rapports complexes et parfois contradictoires (la
traduction enrichit la littrature nationale ou au contraire en empche lvolution), offre de
nombreux exemples de noms dcrivains-traducteurs/de traducteurs-crivains qui mriteraient
une attention et une analyse minutieuse et systmatique en traductologie, car lactivit de
traduction des grands noms de la littrature roumaine reste gnralement mconnue ou nest
pas apprcie sa juste valeur.
Si, comme le souligne trs hardiment, mais pertinemment, Henri Meschonnic, lenjeu
du traduire rside finalement dans une vritable rvolution culturelle, pour mieux comprendre
le rapport entre les cultures, il faut regarder aussi du ct des traducteurs : cest ici que se
trouvent, selon nous, nombre de rponses bien riches dimplications lorsque se pose le
problme tellement actuel du multiculturalisme.
Bibliographie
Atelier de traduction, no. 13, Le traducteur un ambassadeur culturel (facteur de mdiation
entre cultures), Editura Universitii din Suceava.
Ballard, Michel, 1992, De Cicron Benjamin. Traducteurs, traductions, rflexions, Presses
Universitaires de Lille.
Berman, Antoine, 1995, Pour une critique des traductions : John Donne, Paris, Gallimard.
Berman, Antoine, 1985, La traduction comme preuve de ltranger , Texte, 4, p. 67-81.
Brescu, Ion, 1960, Mihail Sadoveanu, traductor al lui Maupassant , in Limba romn, IX,
n 6 / p. 12-19.
Constantinescu, Mugura, 2013, Pour une lecture critique des traductions. Rflexions et
pratiques, Paris, LHarmattan.
Constantinescu, Mugura, 2012, Deux crivains roumains lpreuve de la traduction du
conte franais , in TTR, vol.25, no.2, p. 193-213.
Delisle, Jean, 2010, Les traducteurs, artisans de l`histoire et des identits culturelles , in
Atelier de traduction, no. 13, p. 23-37.
Delisle, Jean, 1999, Portraits de traducteurs, Les Presses de lUniversit dOttawa.
Delisle, Jean ; Woodsworth, Judith, 1995, Les traducteurs dans lhistoire, Les Presses de
LUniversit dOttawa.
Linguraru (Hisan), Daniela, 2010, Caragiale traducteur de Poe, via Baudelaire , in
Atelier de Traduction n 13 /, Editura Universitii Suceava, p. 85-98.
Manolescu, Florin, 1983, Caragiale i Caragiale. Jocuri cu mai multe strategii, Bucureti,
Cartea Romneasc.
Meschonnic, Henri, 1999, Potique du traduire, Paris, Verdier.
489
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Ttaru, Ieronim, 2006, nsemnri caragialiene, Bucureti, Fundaia Cultural Libra.
TTR: traduction, terminologie, rdaction, volume 25/no.2, 2012 La traduction lpreuve
de lcriture: potiques et exprimentations .
Vaida, Mircea, 1973, Ion Vinea, traductor , in Secolul XX, vol. 1, p. 151-157.
Venuti, Lawrence, 2008 (1995), The Translators Invisibility, New York, Routledge.
Note
Contribution ralise dans le cadre du programme CNCS PNII-ID-PCE-2011-3-0812 (Projet
de recherche exploratoire) Traduction culturelle et littrature / littratures francophones :
histoire, rception et critique des traductions, Contrat 133/2011.
490
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
LITERATURE AND FILM ADAPTATION THEORY
Maria TIRBEIU, PhD Candidate, Ovidius University of Constana
Abstract: The following paper deals with film adaptation theory in general and strategies of
expanding short stories into films in particular. The purpose of this paper has been to
deconstruct the preconceptions according to which literature is superior to film and to bring
forth the fact that the two should be interpreted as such, not in relation to one another.
Elements of film noir and neo noir have also found place in this research paper given that the
primary sources belong to the genre. When it comes to the expansion strategies, this analysis
includes its taxonomy and examples of how a short story can be transposed onto screen.
Regarding the primary sources, Jonathan Nolans Memento Mori and Christopher Nolans
Memento have proved useful and interesting alike. Other secondary sources include Linda
Hutcheons theory on film adaptation, Desmond and Hawkess input on the matter, Stam and
Raengo and others.
Keywords: film, literature, adaptation, fidelity, intertextuality
Adaptation of any kind is often described as deeply problematic; it is a real and
common phenomenon that nevertheless constitutes a problem. In the transference of a story
from one form to another, there is the basic question of adherence to the source, of what can
be lost. The early writings about the relationship between literature and film are valuable in
identifying some of the core issues at the heart of the adaptation process. There appear to be
fundamental differences between the two media, and critics such as George Bluestone discuss
issues of difference in audience perception of cinematic and literary forms, stemming from
the differences in their raw materials. In his Novels into Film, he describes the cameras
effect on our way of seeing, the centrality of editing and its effect on the narrative form: The
film, then, making its appeal to the perceiving senses, is free to work with endless variations
of physical reality... Where the moving picture cones to us directly through perception,
language must be filtered through the screen of conceptual apprehension. (20). He also
discusses the two medias differing ability to handle time and space. He defines language as a
medium consisting of three characteristics of time transience, sequence and irreversibility
(49), but in film the camera is always the narrator, we need concern ourselves only with the
chronological duration of the viewing and the time-span of narrative events (49). It is
precisely due to the difference between the two, the gap between the forms that adaptation is
rendered into a far more creative and constructive process than simple translation.
Linda Hutcheon considers that if one only considers novels and films when referring
to adaptation, then one is unable to completely understand the process (XI). When referring
to the process of adaptation, there are many aspect to be taken into consideration; perhaps the
most important ones, the ones without which adaptation could not take place are the story and
the discourse. The story includes the content behind the narrative, comprising the chain of
events, the characters and the setting, whereas the discourse is the means by which the
content is communicated. As Desmond and Hawkes put it In simple terms, the story is the
what in the narrative that is depicted, discourse is the how (39). According to the same
491
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
critics, it is imperative for an adapter to identify the story behind a narrative in order to
transpose it onto screen. It seems that being aware of the conventions of the literary story and
the cinema is highly important.
Adaptation refers either to the act of adapting, to the state of being adapted, or the
result produced by the adaptation of something. In film, adaptation is seen as the process of
adapting a book or a play onto screen. A common form of film adaptation is the use of a
novel as the basis of a feature film, but film adaptation includes the use of non-fiction,
autobiography, comic book, scripture, plays, and even other films. From the earliest days of
cinema, adaptation has been nearly as common as the development of original screenplays.
Adaptation may certainly be seen as an interpretation, involving at least one persons
reading of a text, choices about what elements to transfer, and decisions about how to
actualize these elements in a medium of image and sound (Desmond, Hawkes 2).
Another issue that is highly employed when analyzing adaptation is fidelity to the
original, the source text. Fidelity has been for many years the primary measure of analysis o f
these interpretations. For adaptation studies, the tradition of fidelity is not without
precedence, as John Desmond and Peter Hawkes note:
the field has been preoccupied with the fidelity issue. The main question
asked about adaptations by reviews and critics alike has been to what
degree the film is faithful to the text. The practitioners of this approach
tend to judge a films merit based on whether the adaptation realizes
successfully the essential narrative elements and core meanings of the
printed text. [...] How is it possible to identify the core meanings of a text
when we know literary texts are capable of supporting an indefinite
number of interpretations? (2)
Comparisons between the film and the source material and the judgments over which
is better that follow are inevitable but ultimately futile. However, as Desmond and Hawkes
note, with an indefinite number of interpretations available, fidelity no longer seems a
compulsory criterion (2). Given that there is no agreed-upon method to compare text and film
and no standard measure, the matter of fidelity is indeed overrated. Other critics, such as
Linda Hutcheon, also refer to fidelity as an aspect which has been highly considered in
adaptation studies, but which has to be left aside while other criteria are foregrounded (49).
Fidelity may serve to inform the elements of cinema and the screenplay, but interpretations
can be made in order to serve the creation of a filmed narrative (4). Furthermore, Desmond
and Hawkes note that:
for the transition to be successful, it is important that the adapter
understands the story as well as the means of expression of both
discourses. Another way of saying this is that the adapter needs to be
aware of the conventions of the literary story as well as of cinema itself...
If the adapter doesnt take into account the conventions of each form, the
conventions of the antecedent form will stubbornly cling to the
adaptation and make it seem uncinematic. (40).
492
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
In the language of fidelity, literature and films are never equals; texts are never judged
in comparison to other art forms, films in particular, and only the adaptation is capable of
being unfaithful to the text. Moreover, this language of fidelity implies a certain hierarchy
where the literary text is the source and the film becomes a mere copy. One aspect which
Desmond and Hawkes mention in their book is the fact that An adaptation is not a better
film because it is a close interpretation as opposed to an intermediate or loose one. In fact,
some people argue that fidelity to a text is a surefire way to make a bad film (42). Therefore,
if close interpretations are not necessarily valued, why then stress on the matter of fidelity? If
the relation between the source and the copy is not the one to ensure a films quality,
why then analyze a film primarily in its relation to the text?
In A Theory of Adaptation, Hutcheon tries to answer some very pragmatic issues related
to adaptation, beginning with the reasons for using this process when creating a movie (6). She
argues that although adaptations have been seen as inferior and secondary creations they are
omnipresent in our culture. In trying to find reasons for the assumption that literature is superior
to film I have come across Stam and Raengos Literature and Film: a guide to the theory and
practice of film adaptation that offers some interesting motifs. An interesting reason, I would
add, comes from the deeply rooted and often unconscious assumptions about the relations
between the two arts: The intuitive sense of adaptations inferiority derives [...] from a
constellation of substratal prejudices. First, it derives from the a priori valorization of historical
anteriority and seniority: the assumption that older arts are necessarily better arts (4).
Inherently, the art of literature is seen as superior to the art of cinema. Apart from the above
mentioned there is another element that contributes to the hostility faced by adaptation; it refers
to the dichotomous thinking that presumes a bitter rivalry between literature and film (4).
Such a presumption however, puts films in a bad light where they are perceived as the enemy
of literature. Unfortunately, there are records of this theory ever since film industry has
expanded, and even in present day, certain individuals still consider the same (5).
Given that, according to a 1992 statistics, the majority of films that won prizes either
the Oscar or the Emmy Awards were actual adaptations, Hutcheon offers reasons for the
increasing interest in screening. Among other factors, she notes that medias expansion in
many directions has contributed to the increase and that it has fuelled the demand for variety.
One interesting aspect, which makes adaptations appealing to the public is repetition; the fact
that people recognize and remember parts of the text offers individuals both the comfort of a
ritual and a sense of surprise (4).
Desmond and Hawkes also mention the information according to which in the early
period of cinema, adaptation was produced in order to borrow literatures prestige for the new
art form (15). Another aspect that Linda Hutcheon mentions is the financial appeal to
adaptation. Screenings are often, if not always made after culturally accredited and
appreciated novels, which are thus unlikely to become failures. Apart from the risk
avoidance, the author notes that a best seller that has reached a million readers is very likely
to reach up to eight million Broadway viewers, while a television adaptation will find an
audience of many million more (5). Apparently, there is also an educational reason for
adapting litearture into film; in this respect, film is a pedagogical medium that teaches the
masses about their literary heritage (Desmond, Hawkes 15)
493
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Hutcheon moves on and analyzes adaptations as entities haunted at all times by their
adapted texts. According to her, if one knows the primary text, one always feels its presence
shadowing the one experienced directly. When a work is labeled as an adaptation, the author
argues, its overt relationship with another work is openly announced (6). It is for this reason
that adaptation studies are mainly comparative; clearly, adaptations are also autonomous
works that can be interpreted and valued as such. Therefore, the proximity and fidelity to the
adapted text should not be the criterion of judgment or the focus of analysis.
Starting from the authors idea that the adaptations are haunted by the adapted text, I
would go further into detail and refer to Harold Blooms theory of anxiety of influence.
Bloom refers to a certain fear the author feels that he is not his own creator and that the works
of his predecessors assume essential priority over his own writing. Bloom's well-known
theory of the anxiety of influence argues that writers suffer from an Oedipal fear and jealousy
for their perceived literary "fore-fathers". As such, the unpublished writer puts himself under
a great deal of pressure to break free from his most immediate, direct influences, to form his
own voice, even to "kill" the threatening and over-bearing "father" of his particular literary
experience and inspirations. 1 What I intend to imply by mentioning Blooms theory is that the
fear of being compared to the predecessors exists, but that when referring to adapters, the
situation is even more complicated. It is indeed hard both to be analyzed in relation to the
original and to try to bring in something new: a new perspective, a new interpretation of the
same subject. Therefore, it is clear that adapters assume their position, are aware of the way
in which they will be perceived, and yet, some, just as Christopher Nolan, come to surprise
their audience in a good way. However, one must keep in mind that, if we were to follow
Blooms theory, the adapter would embody the Oedipal son figure who slayed his father
figure.
Intertextuality is another concept that can be integrated in the process of analyzing
adaptations. Structuralists and Poststructuralists such as Roland Barthes, Kristeva and even
Hutcheon have dealt with the matter of interdependence of any one literary texts with all
those that have gone before it. According to Kristeva literary texts are not isolated
phenomena, but insead they are made up of a mosaic of preceding elements. Some theorists
even believe that intertextuality is the very condition of literature, that all texts are woven
from the tissues of other texts, whether their authors know it or not.2 Therefore the latest
theoretical trends have proven to come in handy for adaptation. Another critic, which I
consider worth mentioning in the study of adaptation, and which is also mentioned by Stam
and Raengo, is Jacques Derrida and his Deconstruction studies, especially the interest in
deconstructing metaphysical opposition. Derridas opinion was that each existing opposition
implies that one term is stronger or rules over the other; whether the supremacy is
chronological or socially constructed it must be deconstructed3. Deconstruction thus
dismantles the hierarchy between the original and the copy (8). In a Derridean perspective,
the prestige of the original is not considered the opposite of the copy; on the contrary, the
importance of the original is actually created by the copies, without which the idea of
1
Bloom, Harold. The anxiety of influence. A theory of poetry. Second edition. New York: Oxford University
Press, 1997
2
Intertextulality and Rewriting Class, Ph.D Lucia Opreanu
3
http://prelectur.stanford.edu/lecturers/derrida/deconstruction.html
494
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
originality would not even exist. I would extrapolate and argue that a film as copy is not
inferior to the novel as original.
Stam and Raengo also look at adaptation through the eyes of poststructuralist and
postmodernist perspectives; in doing so they mention critics such as Mikhail Bakhtin and
Michel Foucault: Bakhtins conception of the author as orchestrator of a pre-existing
discourse, along with Foucaults downgrading of the author in favor of a pervasive
anonymity of discourse, opened the way to a non-originary approach to all arts. (9). The
authors of Literature and Film: a guide to the theory and practice of film adaptation explain
that the critics attitudes toward the literary author suggested a devalorization of artistic
originality. Adaptation can be seen as an orchestration of discourses, a hybrid media mingling
different collaborations (9).
Further on, the focus of this paper will drop on the strategies of expanding short
stories into films; when it comes to the aforementioned, three different ones can be used in
order to accomplish Nolans expansion to feature size. One of the strategies is the
concentration one; in using it, the filmmakers keep most of the elements of the narrative from
the short story. They particularly concentrate elements from the short story at the beginning,
middle or end of the film, also adding invented elements to the rest of the unfolding movie
(Desmond, Hawkes 128). Another strategy is the interweaving procedure in which the
adapters keep most of the elements from the source text dispersing them throughout the
film, although not necessarily in their original order. The point-of-departure strategy implies
filmmakers dropping most of the elements of narrative from the short story, keeping either
the plot premise, a characters name, or just the title. An example of such a strategy was used
in Christopher Nolans Memento, adapted from his brother, Jonathan Nolans Memento Mori.
The director only keeps the plot premise, part of the title and uses these rudiments as a point
of departure to invent a new story. Apart from the three above-mentioned strategies, there is
also the possibility of combining them. There are situation when the concentration and
interweaving strategies appear together in a film; in such an instance, the elements that were
kept from the short story appear both at the beginning of the movie, as well as dispersed
throughout it, without being displayed in their initial order. Some filmmakers even chose to
incorporate elements from two short stories, perhaps written by the same author in their
movies (Desmond, Hawkes 151). The film makes so many substitutions of plot, characters,
settings and even theme that it sometimes seems that the director has added a whole new
story. The two critics mentioned above inform their readers as to keep in mind that
filmmakers can use several different strategies to address the mismatch between the short
storys brevity and the feature films length (153).
Subsequent to the information on film adaptation theory, I will engage in a study of
film noir with its main characteristic, context and representations. Torben Schmidt places the
genre in the early 1940s, when it first emerged in America. This type of movie mainly
reflected the anxieties of a country entering a new era, and was seen by many as an antithesis
of the Hollywood glamour productions of the 30s (3). According to Conard and Porfirio in
The philosophy of Film Noir, defining film noir can be indeed challenging (10). While some
look at it as a genre, others only consider that film noir represent a category of people who
produced the same kind of films without being aware of the things they were producing. The
most predominant traits of a film noir are the alienated and doomed antihero, the feeling of
495
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
disorientation, pessimism, and even some rejection of traditional ideas about morality, crime
as social criticism, gangsters, private eyes and adventurers, middle-class murder, portraits and
doubles, sexual pathology and psychopaths (Conard, Porfirio 7, 11).
After having analyzed film noir, Mark Conard also engages in studying a tangential
matter in The Philosophy of Neo-Noir. The critic argues that the term neo-noir describes any
film coming after the classic period that incorporates the noir themes and sensibility. This
covers an extended ground of movies given that the taste for noir and the desire of
filmmakers to make noir films have shown no sign of fading in the decades after the classic
era. These later films are sometimes not even filmed in black and white; they do however,
contain the same alienation, pessimism, disorientation and moral ambiguity (5). Among other
matters, the scholar argues that, whereas in classic neo-noir the protagonist searches the
modern cityscape for an external villain, in neo-noir, the characters task is to recognize a
disjoint time continuum, in which what is effectively hidden is the detectives own identity as
the villain (6). In other words, Conard stresses the fact that the protagonists inner struggle is
highly emphasized in neo-noir film. An interesting aspect which I discovered upon studying
Conards book, lies in the fact that, in the authors opinion, neo-noir has an advantage to the
noir film. Apparently, at the time film noir was produced, censorship represented an issue,
and there were certain aspects which were forbidden from being put onto screen.
As aforementioned, this paper will also include a brief analysis of the primary
sources. Jonathan Nolans short story is written in a very interesting manner; it consists of
eleven parts, which initially seem to have no connection with one another. However, as the
short story unravels itself, the eleven parts become interconnected, and constitute a whole.
When it comes to the diegesis, the parts are divided; half of them are written in third person
narration, whereas the other half contain a first person narrator who addresses a you. The first
person narrator is gradually revealed to be Earl, and the third-person narrator reports on Earl's
actions from outside the story-world. The story becomes even more interesting given that it
seems that there is no action occurring. Most of the heterodiegetic parts are descriptions of
the characters daily routine, whereas the homodiegetic sequences are very insightful and
personal. The scenes of Earl coping with daily life are interspersed with notes in which Ear l
philosophically explains to himself what his condition means. Memento Mori is structured so
that it unfolds as a dialogue between Earl and his subconscious, his need for revenge or
closure fighting its way through the vacuum that his memory has become. The author
addresses the issues of memory and mortality in a powerful yet minimalist manner. It is
precisely the brevity of Nolan's story that makes it memorable. It boasts few descriptive
details and a plot that is developed so minimally that it is just enough to keep the story
coherent.
The adapted screened version of the short-story is even more tangled; given that
Christopher Nolan does not follow a linear unfolding of the plot, the narrative structure of the
film is one of the elements that has brought the film its prestige. Riveting on the plot, it
centers on a single character- Leonard Shelby. The protagonist tried to step in on his wifes
murder but could not help her. He did however shoot one of the aggressors, but the other one
knocked him down and escaped. As a result to the entire situation, Shelby suffered a head
injury, which resulted in severe anterograde memory dysfunction; this means that his short
term memory no longer exists and he is only capable of paying attention for roughly fifteen
496
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
minutes, without being thus able to create new long term memories. One important aspect in
the movie is the fact that his memory prior to the accident is intact and he can perfectly recall
everything. As a consequence to his condition, the character cannot remember people he
meets, things he does, or places he goes to; therefore he cannot trust anybody, not even
himself. The only certainty lies in the fact that he wants to catch and kill his wifes murderer.
In addition to Leonard Shelbys revenge story, there is also a parallel plot in
Memento. The story of Sammy Jankis and his wife proves to be a very interesting, touching
story in Lennys life prior to the accident. As an insurance investigator, Leonard had a
curious case of a man suffering from anterograde amnesia, in which the protagonist had to
determine whether the problem was mental or physical. After evaluating the case, Shelby
denies the insurance money for the Jankis family, which triggers the wife to act irresponsibly;
being a diabetic dependent on insulin, and knowing that her husband loves her and would
never hurt her, the woman asks Sammy Jankis to give her three consecutive shots. The man
does not realize that he is overdosing his wife, and the latter sinks into a coma. As a result to
the entire situation, Sammy ends up institutionalized. This parallel plot becomes highly
important because of the fact that the story may in fact be the story of Leonard Shelby.
Moreover, the ambiguous implications of Sammys embedded story foreground one of the
main concerns of the film- the precarious nature of truth.
The director manages to turn viewers into detectives themselves through this structure
and to describe the protagonists condition by means of the connection created between the
character and the audience. It takes a while before viewers manage to create a coherent
narrative out of all the information provided in the movie. Apart from the fact that the film is
non-linear, with each new scene concluding where the previous one had begun, it is also
divided into color and black and white scenes; there are twenty-two colored scenes
intertwined with another twenty-two black and white ones.
After analyzing both the short story and the film in particular and the two in contrast
to one another, I find it even harder to establish whether Memento is indeed an adaptation of
Memento Mori or a different interpretation of Jonathan Nolans original idea. I have already
mentioned some information on intertextuality and how different works are interrelated and I
have come across an interesting idea upon reading Stams Film Theory: An Introduction. At a
certain point, the author mentions the concepts of transtextuality and hypertextuality, wherein
a hypertext transforms, modifies, elaborates or extends a hypotext (66). In this respect, I
would go even further into saying that Memento Mori might be the hypotext and Memento
the hypertext.
In order to conclude, I would add that in the case of Memento Mori and Memento
there has been a relation created between the two. In my opinion, having read the short story
and viewed the film only determined me to appreciate the two texts respectively. It is very
interesting to observe the way in which two different people manage to transmit the same
idea. Moreover, the fact that the media are different is yet another example of how a story can
be told in various ways, and how each medium makes use of its subtleties and means of
expression in order to attract the audience.
497
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Bibliography
Primary Sources
Nolan, Christopher. Memento. 2002.
Nolan, Jonathan. Memento Mori. 2002
Secondary Sources
Hutcheon, Linda. A Theory of Adaptation. New York: Routledge. 2006.
Bluestone, George. Novels into Film: The Metamorphosis of Fiction into Cinema. California:
University of California Press. 1957.
Desmond, John M, and Peter Hawkes. Adaptation: Studying Film and Literature.New York:
McGraw Hill. 2006.
Stam, Robert, and Alessandra Raengo. Literature and Film: A Guide to the Theory and
Practice of Film Adaptation. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell. 2005.
Bloom, Harold. The Anxiety of Influence: A Theory of Poetry. New York: Oxford University
Press. 1997
Schmidt, Torben. Christopher Nolans Memento- Analysis of the narrative structure of a
noirish revenge film. Johann Wolfgang Goethe-University. Seminar paper. 2003.
Conard, Mark, and Robert Porfirio. The Philosophy of Film Noir. Kentucky: University Press
of Kentucky. 2007.
Conard, Mark. The Philosophy of Neo-Noir. Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. 2007.
Stam, Robert. Film Theory: An Introduction. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell. 2000.
498
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ARGUMENTS BASED ON AUTHORITY IN THE RELIGIOS DISCOURSE
Sorin GUIA, Assistant Professor, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai
Abstract: The present paper presents the arguments of authority used in the contemporary
Romanian religious discourse by examining a series of sermons delivered on various
occasions and a number of recordings published on various Orthodox sites. Regardless of the
persuasive force of the sermons, their structure is ultimately based on arguments regarding
the Divine authority, the prestige and the truth revealed by the Holy Scriptures, the symbols
of faith and the liturgical writings.
Keywords: rhetorics, sermon, discourse analysis, religious discourse, discourse strategies
Dei discursul religios este un discurs argumentativ, persuadarea, strns legat de noiunea
de cmp al argumentrii, se face innd cont de o etic a argumentrii1. Se dorete adeziunea ca o
consecin a tririlor, a convingerilor i a credinelor religioase pe care oratorul i credincioii si
le au n comun. Cel care vine la biseric este deja convins de nvturile de credin, rolul
predicatorului rezumndu-se la sistematizarea i reactualizarea informaiei liturgice, biblice sau
patristice. Oratorul trebuie s se raporteze permanent la auditoriu (s in cont de experienele
anterioare i de nevoile de moment ale acestuia, s se adapteze contextului sau situaiei de
comunicare2), dar trebuie s in cont i de constrngerile generice specifice acestui gen de discurs
(raportarea la nvturile biblice i dogmatice etc.), care, n schimb, i ofer specificitatea i
solemnitatea, care i confer legitimitatea.
Vom prezenta, pornind de la un corpus restrns de predici romneti ortodoxe actuale3,
cteva din strategiile utilizate de intervenientul argumentativ n demersul su de obinere a
adeziunii interlocutorilor la o propoziie / tez, referindu-ne n special la argumentele bazate pe
autoritate.
n categoria argumentelor bazate pe autoritate, vorbim de autoritatea persoanei, de
autoritatea valorilor specifice i de autoritatea popular.
1
Philippe Breton consider argumentarea ca act esenial al activitii umane, stabilind trei elemente care ajut la
delimitarea acestui cmp: a argumenta nseamn n primul rnd a comunica: noi ne aflm ntr-o situaie de
comunicare, care implic, ca orice situaie de acest tip, parteneri i un mesaj, o dinamic proprie; a argumenta nu
nseamn a convinge cu orice pre (...); a argumenta nseamn a raiona, a propune o opinie a altora i a le oferi
raionamente viabile pentru a o adopta; cf. Philippe Breton, L'argumentation dans la comunication, ditions La
Dcouverte, Paris, 1996, p. 16.
2
Situaia de comunicare este un concept cheie n abordarea pragmatic a discursului, concept cunoscut i sub
termenul de context. Daniela Rovena-Frumuani, n Semiotic, societate, cultur, Institutul European, Iai,
1999 vorbete de contextul psihologic al inteniilor i credinelor interlocutorilor.
3
Corpusul cuprinde o parte din predicile anexate volumului Sorin Guia, Discursul religios. Structuri i tipuri,
aflat sub tipar la Editura Universitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza din Iai. Pentru cele disponibile on-line am indicat
paginile web religioase care posteaz cuvntri n versiuni text sau nregistrare audio. Pentru predicile care nu pot
fi accesate pe internet, culese de subsemnatul n cadrul unui proiect de cercetare, am indicat numrul anexei din
volumul sus menionat. Exemplificrile noastre au avut n vedere i o predic rostit de mitropolitul Antonie
Plmdeal, publicat n volumul Cuvinte la zile mari, Sibiu, 1989, p. 352-357.
499
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
a) Autoritatea persoanei (fie a divinitii4 sau a Bisericii5, fie a textului sacru sau a
unor autoriti n domeniu, cum ar fi sfinii, martirii, apostolii, evanghelitii, autoritatea din
ultima parte aflndu-se sub egida celei dinti, a divinitii); o tendin general a predicii
religioase, explorat i n discursurile analizate este preferina pentru argumentarea prin
citate biblice i patristice6, care confer autoritate i asigur adeziunile la ideile religioase
enunate7. Vorbim astfel de argumentul autoritii textului sacru. Pe lng trimiterile
scripturistice (unele citate, altele parafrazate prin intermediul Apostolului, Psalmilor i
Evangheliei) sau invocarea tradiiei i a pasajelor din Sfinii Prini (uneori se face trimitere
sau se citeaz chiar din duhovnici renumii), ntlnim citarea din Simbolul de credin, dar i
din scrierile i cntrile liturgice sau din acatiste.
Citatele scripturistice snt folosite att n debutul discursului8, ca text ce introduce
auditoriul n atmosfera specific, dar i n interiorul discursului, n multe situaii constituindu-
se ca prob a tezelor susinute de ctre orator. Pastorala redactat de mitropolitul Moldovei i
Bucovinei cu ocazia srbtorii Naterii lui Hristos, dup dedicaia specific acestor
discursuri9, debuteaz cu un citat din Galateni 2, 20: Nu mai triesc eu, ci Hristos triete n
mine (Galateni 2, 20) (Teofan 1). i alte discursuri au n fruntea lor un text din Sfnta
Scriptur: Spune Mntuitorul nostru Iisus Hristos: iar Eu zic iubii pe vrjmaii votri,
binecuvntai pe cei ce v blestem, facei bine celor ce v ursc i rugai-v pentru cei ce v
vatm i va prigonesc (A 5); N-am venit s stric Legea, ci s mplinesc, zice Domnul
Hristos (Matei 5,17) (Steinhardt); i a zis Iisus sutaului: Du-te! Fie ie dup cum ai
crezut (Matei 8, 13) (Cleopa).
Citatele scripturistice, utilizate ca argumente de autoritate n interiorul discursurilor
analizate, snt mult mai numeroase i vom aminti doar o parte din ele. Uneori trimiterea se
4
Vedem c Mntuitorul nostru Iisus Hristos, n Sfnta Scriptur, nencetat, i ndeamn pe oameni s se roage i
s nu rsplteasc cu ru celor care greesc(A 5).
5
Autoritatea Bisericii i a valorilor bisericeti este utilizat n secvene precum: De aceea se fac parastase i
pomeniri rnduite de Biserica Ortodox(An 3); Biserica a rnduit unele rstimpuri n care sntem ndemnai s
nchinm pregtirii noastre pentru viaa cea fr de sfrit(Stniloae); Biserica a nchinat duminica de azi,
duminica din ajunul postului cel mare, amintirii izgonirii lui Adam din rai (...). Biserica vrea s ne arate azi c,
aa cum prin lcomie omul a czut din iubire, tot aa prin post, (...) putem s ne ridicm iar n raiul iubirii de
oameni i de Dumnezeu din care a czut Adam(Stniloae); de care noi, Biserica, ne-am ferit s
vorbim(Bartolomeu); Biserica ne st la dispoziie pentru toate nevoile sufleteti. Nu se poate fr Biseric. n
afar de Biseric nu este mntuire, cum spune un Printe bisericesc(Antonie).
6
n discursul religios, convingerea este guvernat de autoritatea textelor canonice, predicatorii urmrind s transforme
textul sacru ntr-un model performativ, s realizeze un transfer al sacrului ctre realitile cotidiene.
7
Sursa este o component important n strategia argumentativ, ntruct exercit un rol puternic n procesul de
persuadare. Cnd este citat o surs, n esen, este furnizat un argument bazat pe autoritatea expertului, pe
autoritatea religioas (cum susine biserica, sfntul, biblia), pe autoritatea masei (este bine tiut faptul c,
cum tie fiecare); vezi Vincenzo Lo Cascio, Gramatica argumentrii. Strategii i structuri, traducere de Doina
Condrea-Derer i Alina-Gabriela Sauciuc, Meteora Press, Bucureti, 2002, p. 121-122.
8
Nu ntotdeauna discursul debuteaz cu un text scripuristic; a se vedea, de exemplu, anexa 2 din Corpus , care
ncepe prin a face referire la evanghelia zilei (Astzi, pericopa evanghelic rnduit de Sfinii Prini a se citi, ne
aduce n faa ochilor o ntmplare minunat svrit de Mntuitorul Iisus Hristos: vindecarea acelei femei) sau
anexa 3, care debuteaz cu o condiional, fcnd trecerea de la dimensiunea material la cea spiritual (Dac
am putea privi cu mintea omeneasc printr-un microscop spiritual, am vedea mii i mii de cicatrice de pe urma
durerilor i a suferinelor prin care ea a trecut).
9
A se vedea prefeele i pastoralele lui Veniamin Costachi, publicate de Ilie Gheorghi, n lucrarea Un veac de la
moartea mitropolitului Veniamin Costachi, Tipografia sfintei Mnstiri Neamu, 1946.
500
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
face n stil tiinific10 (Mare este taina dreptei credine, exclamm n aceste zile mpreun
cu Sfntul Apostol Pavel, Dumnezeu S-a artat n trup, S-a ndreptat n Duhul, a fost vzut
de ngeri, S-a propovduit ntre neamuri, a fost crezut n lume, S-a nlat ntru slav
Teofan, 1; Cci Dumnezeu aa a iubit lumea, nct pe Fiul Su Cel Unul-Nscut L-a dat ca
oricine crede n El s nu piar, ci s aib viaa venic11, a spus nsui Hristos- Teofan 1;
mpria cerurilor este druit nc din aceast lume pentru cel care devine templu al
Duhului Sfnt i mrturisete mpreun cu Dumnezeiescul Pavel: Nu mai triesc eu, ci
Hristos triete n mine12 Teofan 1; dumnezeiescul Pavel ne mai atrage i el atentia, cnd
zice: Ci propovduim ntelepciunea de taina a lui Dumnezeu, ascuns, pe care Dumnezeu a
rnduit-o mai nainte de veci, spre slava noastr, pe care nici unul dintre stpnitorii acestui
veac n-a cunoscut-o, cci, dac ar fi cunoscut-o, n-ar fi rstignit pe Domnul slavei (1
Corinteni 2, 7-8) Galeriu; bine tiind, cum spune Sfntul Apostol Pavel, c cei ce fac
unele ca acestea, nu vor moteni mpria lui Dumnezeu (Galateni 5, 19-21) Sofian);
alterori se citeaz fr a se meniona sursa (i n inima printelui rsunau cuvintele rostite de
Dumnezeu nc din V.T.: Eu snt viu, voi sntei vii Teofan 2; Pentru c printele tia
un lucru: c trebuie s fie urmtor Sfntului Pavel, precum Sfntul Pavel este urmtor Lui
Hristos, care a spus Venii la Mine toi cei ostenii i mpovrai i Eu v voi odihni pe voi
Teofan 2; el se bucur, cci s-a mplinit cuvntul pe care l-a rostit cu certitudine n inima sa
de attea ori: ct dorete cerbul izvoarele apelor, aa Te dorete sufletul meu pe Tine,
Doamne Teofan 2; Fgduina s-a mplinit n Duminica Cincizecimii, cnd, ntr-adevr,
S-a cobort Duhul Sfnt peste Sfinii Apostoli ca o suflare de vnt, sub chipul limbilor ca
de foc, i a revrsat n ei o putere nou, necunoscut lumii pn atunci (...)13 Sofian).
Exist situaii n care oratorul parafrazeaz, facnd trimitere la evanghelia sau
apostolul zilei ori la cunotinele auditoriului, fr a oferi detalii referitoare la capitolele i
versetele corespunztoare (Aa i n pericopa evanghelic de astzi, spus prin gura Sfntului
evanghelist Luca, cum c Mntuitorul Iisus Hristos, mpreun cu ucenicii Si i cu popor mult
se apropia s intre n cetatea Naim, sau mai bine zis oraul Naim A3; cum i n evanghelia
de astzi A5; Ai auzit n Apostolul care s-a citit c se vorbea despre Sfnta Sfintelor
Teofan Popescu; tii din Noul Testament c din Maria Magdalena, care s-a apropiat de Iisus
cu gnd ispititor, Iisus a scos apte draci Arsenie; n Epistola ctre Evrei a Sfntului
10
n cazul anexei 1, un text redactat spre a fi citit de ctre preoi n toate bisericile Arhiepiscopiei Iailor,
trimiterile la Timotei 3,16, Ioan 3, 16, I Corinteni 6, 19, Galateni 2, 20 se fac la sfritul textului, n notele
bibliografice, n timp ce Steinhardt vorbete despre sfntul Ioan Boteztorul apelnd la fragmente scripturistice
paralele (Matei 3,11 i Luca 3,16).
11
Comentariul explicativ asupra celor enunate anterior se face apelnd la un text scripturistic. Vezi, n acest sens
i secvena din Stniloae, n care citatul scripturistic se integreaz perfect n discurs, jucnd rol de explicitare
(Iar Mntuitorul Hristos ne poruncete ca n acest timp, cnd cerem lui Dumnezeu iertare de greelile noastre, s
iertm i noi celor ce ne-au suprat cu greelile lor, adic s nu-i mai urm, ci s-i mbriam cu iubirea noastr.
Cci de nu vei ierta oamenilor greelile lor, nici Tatl vostru nu v va ierta greelile voastre (Matei VI, 15)),
dar i predica printelui Teofil Praian, n care dialogul dintre Fecioara Maria i Sfnta Elisabeta este redat
ntocmai ca n episoadele biblice referitoare la Bunavestire, oratorul fcnd trimitere la evanghelia dup Luca i
indicnd, n acelai timp, capitolul i versetele corespunztoare (A intrat n Sfnta Sfintelor care este smerenia,
pentru c la Bunavestire a zis ctre ngerul binevestitor Iat roaba Domnului, fie mie dup cuvntul tu! (Luca
1, 38), iar Sfnta Elisabeta i-a zis: Binecuvntat este rodul pntecelui tu! (Luca 1, 42) Teofil).
12
Citatele scripturistice devin pri integrate ale enunului referitor la prezena divinitii n om; astfel, se
interptrund comentariile oratorului cu cuvintele scripturii, acestea devenind, uneori, surse corespunztoare
explicitrii.
13
Oratorul citeaz scurte secvene din Scriptur, fr a indica proveniena lor.
501
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Apostol Pavel este scris c Domnul nostru Iisus Hristos, Arhiereul cel venic, n-a intrat
niciodat ntr-o Sfnt a Sfintelor fcut de mn omeneasc Teofil; Vedem, att n V. T.,
ct i n N. T., avem exemple frumoase, temeiuri scripturistice le spunem noi, n care se arat
c muli oameni au iubit pe vrjmaii lor (A5); n Sfnta Evanghelie pe care am auzit-o cu
toii astzi(Teofan Popescu), aa cum ne spune Evanghelia de astzi( A18), i el a luat
Scriptura i, spune Sfnta Evanghelie, s-a dus ntr-o ar strin( A18), Au ajuns, cum spune
Evanghelia, s mnnce cele ale porcilor( A18), i zice undeva un cuvnt: nu v temei cnd
vei merge ca s dai rspuns, c Duhul Sfnt, care este n voi, acela v va nva ce s spunei
i ce s grii(A18).
Dac pasajele scripturistice reprezint liantul argumentativ al discursurilor religioase,
acelai lucru este valabil i n cazul citatelor sau trimiterilor de ordin patristic 14: Din Sfnta
Fecioar ntrupndu-Se, spune Marele Vasile, Dumnezeu S-a smerit pe Sine, chip de rob
lund, fcndu-Se pe Sine asemenea cu chipul smeritului nostru trup, ca s ne fac pe noi
asemenea chipului slavei Sale 15 (Teofan 1); Omul, mrturisete Sfntul Simeon Noul
Teolog, este chemat s devin familiar lui Dumnezeu i casa, i sla al Treimii
dumnezeieti, vznd limpede pe Fctorul i Dumnezeul su i vorbind cu El n fiecare zi
(Teofan 1); Doamne, Dumnezeul nostru, (...) precum din nlime Te-ai plecat pentru noi,
pleac-Te i acum spre smerenia mea. i precum ai binevoit a Te culca n peter i n ieslea
necuvnttoarelor, aa binevoiete a intra i n ieslea necuvnttorului meu suflet i n ntinatul
meu trup, rostim n rugciunea de pregtire pentru primirea Sfintei mprtanii16 (Teofan
1); Aceasta deoarece numai degetul lui Dumnezeu lovete corzile minii i le mboldete la
grire adevrat, cum spune Sfntul Simeon Noul Teolog. Aceasta deoarece numai
Dumnezeu Cel ce slluiete n om l nva pe un asemenea om despre cele viitoare i cele
prezente, nu prin cuvnt, ci prin nsui lucrul, prin experien i realitate17(Teofan 1); Tot
dumnezeiescul Palama spune: Iat, i mpria ne-a pregatit-o de mai nainte(Galeriu);
i ne spune Sfntul Grigorie Palama c att de mult a sporit n rugciune Maica Domnului n
aceast perioad, c n inima sa a pus suiuri att de nalte, nct a ajuns la Cer, prin
rugciune, i L-a atras pe Stpnul Cerului(Galeriu).
i n cazul argumentelor de ordin patristic, acestea snt de multe ori generale, se fac
prin parafrazare, fr indicarea sursei: i Sfntul Efrem Sirul spune acest lucru, c cei care
doresc s schimbe nvtura cretineasc (...), aceia snt uri lui Dumnezeu( A5); pentru c
avea pecetea Lui Hristos aezat pe sufletului lui, pecete care, dup mrturia Sfntului Simeon
Noul Teolog, nseamn s preiei pcatele altuia i s le consideri ca ale tale(Teofan 2);
Rosteam i alt dat acest cuvnt al dumnezeiescului Palama, care zice: Dumnezeu, fire
(natur) fiind, mai presus de orice fire, nu are a sui mai sus, la alt slav(Galeriu); De
aceea, spun Prinii, ne-a dat Dumnezeu credina: ca s-i fac, prin ea, loca n inima
14
Rolul scrierilor Sfinilor Prini este de completare i de explicitare a unor secvene insuficient lmurite n
Scriptur, inndu-se cont de faptul c scrierile biblice nu snt accesibile i comprehensibile n totalitatea lor
oricrui tip de cititor.
15
Mitropolitul Teofan citeaz din Dumnezeiasca Liturghie a Sfntului Vasile cel Mare, Arhiepiscopul Cezareii
Capadociei.
16
Citatul din rugciunea a doua a Sfntului Ioan Gur de Aur, din canonul Sfintei mprtiri, este construit n
stilul rugciunilor de cerere din acatiste; astfel, ntre laude i rugciunea de cerere este interpus o fraz modal
comparativ de tipul precum ai fcut atunci cu ..., aa f i cu noi, Doamne!.
17
Repetiia anaforic de tip explicativ este urmat de citate din Sfntul Simeon Noul Teolog.
502
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
noastr(Galeriu); tim din tradiie c acest drum a fost parcurs n mai multe zile de un alai
numeros (...). Ni se spune c, atunci cnd au ajuns la templu, au fost ntmpinai de preoii
templului i de un alt grup de copii (Teofan Popescu); tim tot din tradiia bisericeasc, c
proorocul Zaharia, care era atunci la templu, a prorocit despre Maica Domnului(Teofan
Popescu); dupa cum ai auzit c zice Sfntul Grigorie Palama, c n inima ei, prin rugciune
s ajung la Cer i s-L atrag pe Stpnul Cerului pe pmnt(Teofan Popescu), dup cum ni
se spune n Vieile Sfinilor(Teofan Popescu), pericopa evanghelic rnduit de Sfinii
Prini( A2), l-a dus la un han, han prin care sfinii prini neleg sfnta biseric( A18),
tim din tradiie c acest drum a fost parcurs n mai multe zile(Teofan Popescu), Ni se
spune c atunci cnd au ajuns la templu au fost ntmpinai de preoii templului i de un alt
grup de copii(Teofan Popescu), Iat cteva fragmente, din vechea tradiie, care s-au
pstrat(Teofan Popescu), tim tot din tradiia bisericeasc, c proorocul Zaharia, care era
atunci la templu, a prorocit despre Maica Domnului(Teofan Popescu); Acolo, dup Tradiia
Bisericii, preasfnta Fecioara Maria a stat 12 ani i fost educat mpreun cu alte fecioare, pn
la vrsta de 15 ani(Teofil).
Unii oratori, mai ales ierarhi ai bisericii, citeaz i din cugetrile prinilor duhovnici
din spaiul eclesial romnesc, dar i din Muntele Athos: Dumnezeu nu iubete plngcioii,
Dumnezeu i are n brae doar pe lupttori, spunea printele adesea celor care se apropiau de
dnsul cu inima zdrobit; Pentru c printele tia un lucru: c trebuie s fie urmtor Sfntului
Pavel, precum Sfntul Pavel este urmtor Lui Hristos; cci unde este adevrul, spunea
printele acum trei ani de zile, acolo este Biserica i Biserica este unde este adevrul i unde
este ortodoxia(Teofan 2)18; cci, precum spunea un printe de la Athos, batrnii cheam
btrnii spre mpria cerurilor(Teofan 2); i aa cum spunea Printele Arsenie 19 i repeta,
Maica Domnului este trist de cte ori noi uitm s-i cerem ajutorul(A8).
i articolele Simbolului de Credin snt invocate n cteva predici: totul s-a savrit
pentru noi i pentru a noastr mntuire, cum rostim n Simbolul credinei(Teofan 1); De
aceea i Mntuitorul Iisus Hristos a venit pe acest pmnt, s-a ntrupat din Sfnta Fecioar
Maria i a ptimit, a suferit, a fost rstignit i a nviat(A3)20; n Simbolul credinei noastre
cretine noi mrturisim despre Sfntul Duh c El este Domnul de-via-Fctorul, Care din
Tatl purcede, Cela ce mpreun cu Tatl i cu Fiul este nchinat i mrit, Care a grit prin
prooroci(Sofian); este lucrul pe care-l mrturisim la sfritul simbolului de credin: atept
nvierea morilor i viaa veacului ce va s fie, amin( A18).
Dei citarea din scrierile sacre (scripturistice i patristice) ocup un loc nsemnat n
economia discursurilor analizate, citatele din crile de cult (din mineie, liturghier, utrenier,
molitfelnic, cri de rugciune), din cntrile liturgice (axioane, irmoase, tropare), dar i din
acatiste, folosite ca argumente de autoritate, se regsesc frecvent n spusele oratorilor
religioi.
n general, participanilor activi la viaa i la slujbele Bisericii, fragmentele citate din
scrierile liturgice le snt cunoscute, de multe ori acetia intonndu-le mpreun cu slujitorii i
18
Referirile din anexa 9 a Corpusului se fac la adresa Printelui Arsenie Papacioc, la nmormntarea acestuia, n
necrologul rostit de ctre PS. Teofan.
19
Ca arhiepiscop al Tomisului, PS. Teodosie aduce n sprijinul afirmaiilor sale cuvintele renumitului duhovnic
Arsenie Papacioc, de la Mnstirea Techerghiol.
20
Oratorul anexei 3 rezum episoade din viaa lui Hristos n stilul Simbolului de credin.
503
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
corul bisericii. Din acest motiv, secvenele citate din astfel de surse constituie argumente de
autoritate, fie integrndu-se n discurs ca pri componente, fie explicitnd sau completnd
spusele oratorului: Cerul i pmntul astazi s-au mpreunat, nscndu-Se Hristos, cnta
Biserica n ajunul zilei de Crciun, Dumnezeu pe pamnt a venit i omul la ceruri s-a
suit(Teofan 1)21; Ne-a ajutat i astzi Sfntul Ioan Gur de Aur s-i cinstim prin Sfnta
Liturghie care s-a svrit, n cadrul creia ne-am adus pe noi nine i unii pe alii i toat
viaa noastr Lui Hristos22(A7); i ochilor le e proprie lumina fizica, ochilor minii
lumina rosturilor, raiunilor, legilor, iar ochilor credinei lumina lui Hristos, care lumineaz
tuturor, cum rostim, n timpul Postului Mare, la Liturghia darurilor-Galeriu)23; Ne gndim
la Maica Domnului n timpul sfintelor slujbe, cnd auzim: Pe preasfnta, curata,
preabinecuvntata, mrita, Stpna noastr, de Dumnezeu Nsctoarea i pururea Fecioara
Maria, cu toi sfinii s o pomenim(Teofil)24; Dar noi ne ntlnim cu Maica Domnului i n
alte zile la slujbele noastre, cnd zicem: Spimntatu-s-au toate de dumnezeiasc mrirea ta,
c tu, Fecioar neispitit de nunt, ai avut n pntece pe Dumnezeu Cel peste toate i ai nscut
Fiu pe Cel fr de ani, pe Cel ce druiete pace tuturor celor ce te laud pe tine 25 (Teofil);
Ne gndim la Maica Domnului cnd auzim la sfintele slujbe: Pe Nsctoarea de Dumnezeu
i Maica Luminii, ntru cntri cinstindu-o, s o mrim26(Teofil); La slujba Sfntului Maslu
este o alctuire, o rugciune ctre Maica Domnului, cu urmtorul cuprins: Pe tine,
preacuratul palat al mpratului ceresc, ceea ce eti multludat, te rog, curaete-mi mintea
mea cea ntunecat cu tot felul de pcate i o f loca nfrumuseat al dumnezeietii Treimi, ca
s laud i s mresc puterea ta i mila ta cea nemsurat, fiind mntuit eu, netrebnicul robul
tu27(Teofil); Doamne, Dumnezeul nostru, (...) precum din nlime Te-ai plecat pentru
noi, pleac-Te i acum spre smerenia mea. i precum ai binevoit a Te culca n peter i n
ieslea necuvnttoarelor, aa binevoiete a intra i n ieslea necuvnttorului meu suflet i n
ntinatul meu trup28(Teofan 1); ncepnd toate rugciunile noastre cu chemarea n ajutor a
Sfntului Duh, Mngietorul, Care este mparatul ceresc - Duhul Adevrului i Sfinitorul vieii
noastre -, i s ne rugm, zicnd: mprate ceresc, Mngietorule, Duhul Adevrului, Care
pretutindenea eti i toate le plineti, Vistierul buntilor i Dttorule-de-via, vino i Te
slluiete ntru noi i ne curete pe noi de toat ntinciunea i mntuiete, Bunule,
sufletele noastre(Sofian)29.
21
Pastorala de fa face trimitere la stihira a doua de la Litie, din Mineiul pe luna decembrie.
22
n discursul rostit la srbtoarea Sfinilor Trei Ierarhi, oratorul ncadreaz o cerere din ecteniile Liturghiei i
ale slujbelor religioase n secvena discursiv care elogiaz activitatea Sfntului Ioan Gur de Aur.
23
Se face trimitere spre Liturghia darurilor mai nainte sfinite, a Sfntului Grigorie Dialogul.
24
Se citeaz fragmentul nchinat Maicii Domnului din ecteniile rostite n timpul Liturghiei, Utreniei i Vecerniei,
dar i n timpul slujbelor de svrire a Sfintelor Taine.
25
Este invocat cntarea a V-a din canonul Nsctoarei de Dumnezeu, care se cnt la slujba Utreniei.
26
Cntare din timpul slujbei utreniei, creia, de obicei, i se rspunde cu cu o alctuire din veacul al VIII-lea,
scris de Cosma Melodul, foarte rspndit n biserica ortodox: Ceea ce eti mai cinstit dect heruvimii i mai
mrit fr de asemnare dect serafimii, care fr stricciune, pe Dumnezeu Cuvntul ai nscut, pe tine, cea cu
adevrat Nsctoare de Dumnezeu, te mrim.
27
Citarea unei rugciuni din slujba Sfntului Maslu este utilizat n anexa 19 (dedicat srbtorii Intrrii Maicii
Domnului n Biseric) ca text de introducere a auditoriului n atmosfera specific a discursului.
28
Este redat rugciunea a doua a Sfntului Ioan Gur de Aur, din Canonul Sfintei mprtiri.
29
Cuvntarea rostit de printele Sofian Boghiu la Praznicul Pogorrii Sfntului Duh se ncheie cu invitaia
adresat auditoriului de a se raporta permanent la partea din rugciunile nceptoare n care este invocat cea de-
a treia persoan a Sfintei Treimi.
504
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Referirile la cntrile liturgice ca argumente de autoritate snt mai rare n predicile
studiate, cele mai multe ntlnindu-se n cuvntarea Printelui Teofil Prian, cunoscut pentru
abilitile oratorice i pentru foarte buna memorie: Ne gndim la Maica Domnului cnd se
spun cuvintele: De tine se bucur, ceea ce eti plin de dar, toat fptura, soborul ngeresc i
neamul omenesc; ceea ce eti biseric sfinit i rai cuvnttor, lauda fecioriei, din care
Dumnezeu S-a ntrupat i prunc S-a fcut Cel ce este mai nainte de veci. C braul tu - scaun
l-a facut i pntecele tu mai desftat dect cerurile l-a lucrat. De tine se bucur, ceea ce eti
plin de har, toat fptura, mrire ie!30(Teofil); Ne gndim la Maica Domnului ca la ceea
ce este mai presus de minte i de cuvnt, cci ni se spune: Pe tine, Maica lui Dumnezeu, cea
mai presus de minte i de cuvnt, care ai nscut negrit sub ani pe Cel fr de ani, credincioii,
te mrim31(Teofil).
b) Autoritatea valorilor specifice32, cu rol de influenare a relaiei discursive cu
auditoriul, are ca elemente i valori care definesc dominanta discursului religios: credina
(Mare este taina dreptei credine Teofan 1), smerenia (Doamne, Dumnezeul nostru, (...)
precum din nlime Te-ai plecat pentru noi, pleac-Te i acum spre smerenia mea Teofan
1; Smerenia, singura care nal,33 - Teofan 1), iertarea (iertarea, singura care aduce
iertare Teofan 1; aa cum nu ajunge s plivim pmntul de buruieni ca s nu fie npdit de
ele din nou, ci trebuie i semnm n locul lor gru, sau flori frumoase i bine mirositoare, s
punem n locul ei iertarea i iubirea, nu ajunge s ne nfrnm de la cuvinte de brfire, ci
trebuie s ne deprindem a vorbi de bine pe cei pe care i brfeam nainte - Stniloae; Pe cei
adormii ntru Domnul, pentru care ai avut grij s fie pomenii la acest Sfnt Jertfelnic, s le
druiasc Dumnezeu acea frm de lumin, care nseamn iertare34- A7); mrturisirea
(Trebuie s plngem pentru pcatele noastre. Dar adevrul este c cine mai plnge pentru
pcatele lui? Vine la spovedanie aa formal, spune cteva pcate, iar dup ce a ieit de la
duhovnic le face i mai mult dect att35 A3; Iubii credincioi, i la mrturisire i
canoanele de spovedanie i nsui Mntuitorul Iisus Hristos ne ndeamn, ntreaga Scriptur
ne ndeamn, s iubim pe aproapele- A5; De aceea v spun s facei spovedanie curat cum
30
Referindu-se la preacinstirea Maicii Domnului n spiritualitatea cretin, printele Teofil Prian mpletete
referirile sale privitoare la aceasta tem cu pasaje citate (fr ns a indica i sursa) din axioane, irmoase sau
condace nchinate Fecioarei Maria. n secvena la care facem referire, prelatul citeaz din Axionul Maicii
Domnului, care se cnt la Liturghia Sfntului Vasile cel Mare, slujb care se oficiaz doar de zece ori pe an n
spaiul cretin ortodox. n aceeai cuvntare, enunarea anterioar este ntrit de Axionul Buneivestiri: Biserica
noastra ne-o prezint ca fiind un sicriu nsufleit, un chivot: Ca de un sicriu nsufleit, ca de un chivot
nsufleit al lui Dumnezeu, nicicum s nu se ating mna necredincioilor, iar buzele credincioilor, fr tcere
glasul ngerului strignd, cu bucurie s zic: Bucura-te, cea plin de dar, Domnul este cu tine! (A19).
31
Maica Domnului este elogiat i prin intermediul Irmosului la nlarea Domnului. n aceeai predic, formele
de superlativ absolut prin care se scot n eviden calitile Fecioarei Maria snt preluate din troparul Nsctoarei
de Dumnezeu, cntat n timpul Paraclisului Maicii Domnului: Toate acestea s-au ntmplat avnd-o n vedere pe
Maica Domnului, care este mai nalt dect cerurile i, dac este mai nalt dect cerurile Bisericii noastre,
dac este mai curat dect strlucirile soarelui, sigur c prin aceasta a intrat n Sfnta Sfintelor nefcut de
mna omeneasc(Teofil).
32
Valoarea devine autoritate i este utilizat ca argument al autoritii, trecerea timpului conducnd la
vehicularea unor rezultate care se caracterizeaz prin consens general.
33
Valorile care definesc dominanta discursului religios snt redate, n anexa 1, prin repetiia unor sintagme aflate
n apoziie, prin intermediul crora se face explicitarea.
34
Oratorul are n vedere pomenirea celor adormii la liturghie, scopul fiind de aducere aminte, dar mai ales de
comuniune i sprijin spirituale.
35
Spovedania este asociat cu plngerea, cu splarea spiritual, fiind vzut ca singura modalitate de uurare n
faa greutilor materiale i spirituale.
505
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
n-ai fcut n viaa voastr Arsenie 2; curii-v sufletele voastre cu rugciuni, cu
spovedanie curat i cu post36 - Arsenie 2); binele (Biruii rul cu binele cci de partea
binelui e Dumnezeu i oare nu e mai tare Dumnezeu ca rul? - Arsenie 2);
c) Autoritatea popular este reliefat prin ntrebuinarea unor expresii populare
romneti, care actualizeaz, n discurs, un fond colectiv tradiional, armonizat cu cel din discursul
individual al predicatorului: n general, n popor se spune aa: Cutare este ca Toma, e
necredincios ca Toma(Calciu); Pentru c spune iari, nu?, un proverb romnesc: precum
un mr stricat dintr-o lad stric pe celelalte mere mai bune i trebuie scos, aa i acel om 37
(A5); O sentin popular spune: Dar din dar, se face rai. Unde domnete dragostea care se
arat n darul ce trece de la om la om, ce nu e oprit nicieri, ce e ca o circulaie a iubirii, cci
el const nu numai din lucrul druit, ci i din inima celor ce-l druiesc, acolo e cu adevarat
raiul38(Stniloae); nu exist, (...) cum spune prea frumos limba romneasc, plat fr rsplat
(Antonie); Nu spunem noi n vorba noastr romneasc, Cine d, lui i d! (Antonie),
Romnul are o vorb: Tot rul spre bine (Antonie). Avem, aadar, reflectarea competenei
paremiologice pentru a amplifica, cu elemente de cultur, limb i civilizaie romneasc, ideile
proprii, proverbele fiind legate de text prin simbolistica lor sapienial.
Discursul religios este un discurs argumentativ care nu i propune att schimbarea
opiniilor receptorilor, ct mai ales consolidarea lor. Auditoriul joac un rol fundamental,
aciunea predicrii implicnd o interaciune ntre partenerii comunicrii; asculttorul este
considerat partener egal n cadrul acestei interaciuni. n funcie de acesta, oratorul i
organizeaz i structureaz predica. Indiferent de fora persuasiv a cuvntrilor religioase,
scheletul acestora se sprijin, necontenit, pe argumente care au n vedere autoritatea
divinitii, a textelor scripturistice i patristice, a simbolului de credin i a scrierilor
liturgice.
Bibliografie
Breton, Philippe, L'argumentation dans la comunication, ditions La Dcouverte, Paris,
1996.
Gheorghi, Ilie, Un veac de la moartea mitropolitului Veniamin Costachi, Tipografia sfintei
Mnstiri Neamu, 1946.
Guia, Sorin, Discursul religios. Structuri i tipuri, Editura Universitii Alexandru Ioan
Cuza, Iai, sub tipar.
Guia, Sorin, Structuri argumentative n discursul religios. Cuvntarea religioas prilejuit de
sfinirea bisericii, n Limba romn: controverse, delimitri, noi ipoteze (II). Pragmatic i
stilistic (Actele celui de-al 9-lea colocviu al catedrei de limba romn, Bucureti, 4-5
decembrie 2009), editori: Rodica Zafiu, Adina Dragomirescu, Alexandru Nicolae, Editura
Universitii din Bucureti, 2010, p. 79-85.
36
Rugciunea, spovedania i postul snt armele de care printele Arsenie Boca vorbete n majoritatea predicilor
sale.
37
Oratorul face referire la cei care au plecat spre alte confesiuni (n ncercarea de a-i proteja auditoriul),
localitatea Cojoci, n care activeaz, confruntndu-se cu problema neoprotestantismului.
38
Printele Stniloae pornete de la un proverb romnesc, de la autoritatea valorilor cernute n timp, pe care l
expliciteaz, raportndu-se mai ales la dimensiunea sa spiritual.
506
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Lo Cascio, Vincenzo, Gramatica argumentrii. Strategii i structuri, traducere de Doina
Condrea-Derer i Alina-Gabriela Sauciuc, Meteora Press, Bucureti, 2002.
Meyer, Michel, Principia Retorica: teoria general a argumentrii, trad. de Aurelia Stoica,
studiu introductiv de Constantin Slvstru, Editura Univesitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iai,
2010Robrieux, J.-J., lments de rhtorique et d'argumentation, Dunod, Paris, 1993.
Rovena-Frumuani, Daniela, Argumentarea. Modele i strategii, Editura Bic All, Bucureti,
2000.
Rovena-Frumuani, Daniela, Semiotic, societate, cultur, Institutul European, Iai, 1999.
Slvstru, Constantin, Teoria i practica argumentrii, Polirom, Iai, 2003.
Tuescu, Mariana, Largumentation. Introduction ltude du discours, Bucureti, Editura
Universitii din Bucureti, 1998.
Corpus
a) cuvntri disponibile on-line
Arsenie 1 Cuvntare rostit de Pr. Arsenie Boca n ziua de 22.02.1942
http://www.crestinortodox.ro/sfaturi-duhovnicesti/parintele-arsenie-boca-despre-lupta-
postului-relele-68423.html, accesat la data de 10 oct. 2012)
Arsenie 2 Cuvntare inut de Pr. Arsenie Boca n ziua de 25.02.1942
http://oasteadomnuluiromanati.blogspot.ro/2011/11/ne-vorbeste-parintele-arsenie-boca.html,
accesat la data de 10 octombrie 2012)
Bartolomeu Cuvntarea PS. Bartolomeu Anania la hramul Mnstirii Nicula, judeul Cluj, la
data de 15 august 2000 (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SMHhaBSLucY&feature=related,
accesat la data de 20 decembrie 2012)
Calciu Predic rostit de Pr. Gheorghe Calciu Dumitreasa, n data de 18 aprilie 1999, la
Duminica Tomei (http://www.ortodoxmedia.com/inregistrare/741/calciu_duminica_tomei,
accesat la data de 14 decembrie 2012)
Cleopa Predic rostit de Pr. Cleopa Ilie la Duminica a IV-a dupa Rusalii
(http://www.crestinortodox.ro/predici/predici-duminica/predica-duminica-iv-dupa-rusalii-
71565.html, accesat la data de 15 ianuarie 2013)
Galeriu Predic rostit de Pr. Constantin Galeriu
(http://www.crestinortodox.ro/predici/predici-duminica/predica-duminica-lasatului-de-carne-
128860.html, accesat la data de 14 ianuarie 2013)
Sofian Cuvntare rostit de Pr. Sofian Boghiu la Praznicul Pogorrii Sfntului Duh
(http://www.crestinortodox.ro/predici/predici-duminica/predica-duminica-rusaliilor-
71605.html, accesat la data de 20 decembrie 2012)
Steinhardt Predic rostit de Pr. Nicolae Steinhardt la srbtoarea ntmpinrii Domnului
(http://www.crestinortodox.ro/predici/predici-duminica/intampinarea-domnului-predica-
parintelui-nicolae-steinhardt-71642.html, accesat la data de 15 ianuarie 2012)
Stniloae Predic rostit de Pr. Dumitru Stniloae la Duminica izgonirii lui Adam din rai
(http://www.crestinortodox.ro/predici/predici-duminica/caderea-rai-caderea-iubire-
87819.html, accesat la data de 15 ianuarie 2013)
507
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Teofan 1 Pastorala la Naterea Domnului a PS. Teofan, Mitropolit al Moldovei i Bucovinei
(http://www.crestinortodox.ro/pastorale/nasterea-domnului/pastorala-nasterea-domnului-
2012-ips-teofan-138717.html, accesat la data de 14 ianuarie 2013)
Teofan 2 Cuvntare rostit de PS. Teofan, la data de 22 iulie 2011, la mnastirea Techerghiol,
la nmormntarea Printelui Arsenie Papacioc
(http://www.razbointrucuvant.ro/2011/07/23/cuvantul-ips-teofan-la-sarutarea-cea-de-pe-
urma-data-parintelui-arsenie/ - accesat la data de 15 ianuarie 2012)
Teofan Popescu Predic rostit de Pr. Teofan Popescu la Srbtoarea Intrrii Maicii
Domnului n Biseric, la Mnstirea Putna, judeul Suceava
(http://www.razbointrucuvant.ro/category/parinti-si-invatatori/parinti-de-la
putna/ieromonahul-teofan-popescu/)
Teofil Predic rostit de Pr. Teofil Prian la srbtoarea Intrrii Maicii Domnului n Biseric
(http://www.crestinortodox.ro/predici/predici-sarbatori/intrarea-biserica-maicii-domnului-
71646.html, accesat la data de 15 ianuarie 2013)
b) cuvntri incluse n corpusul anexat lucrrii Sorin Guia, Discursul religios. Structuri i
tipuri
A 2 Predic rostit de Pr. Constantin Chifan la duminica femenii cananeence n data de 29
ianuarie 2012, n comuna Arbore, judeul Suceava
A 3 Predic rostit de Pr. Juravle Cristian Constantin, la data de 9 oct. 2011, n comuna
Cacica, judeul Suceava
A5 Predic rostit de Pr. Neculai Scheuleac, la data de 2 oct. 2011, n satul Cojoci, comuna
Crucea, judeul Suceava
A7 Predic rostit de Pr. Ionel Marian, la data de 30 ianuarie 2012, la Biserica Sfntul
Prooroc Ilie Tezviteanul din Flticeni, judeul Suceava
A8 Predica PS. Teodosie al Tomisului la data de 1 octombrie 2011, la hramul Mnstirii
Acopermntul Maicii Domnului din Dorna Arini
A18 Predic rostit de Printele Arhimandrit Hrisostom Rdanu la Srbtoarea ntmpinrii
Domnului (2 februarie 2012), la Mnstirea Sihstria Putnei, judeul Suceava
Antonie De veghe ntru pstrarea i aprarea dreptei noastre credine (Cuvnt rostit de PS.
Antonie Plmdeal la sfinirea bisericii din Micfalu, jud. Covasna, n ziua de 28 noiembrie
1986; predica este inclus n volumul Cuvinte la zile mari, Sibiu, 1989, p. 352-357)
508
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
INFLUENCES DE LA LANGUE FRANAISE SUR LE DISCOURS DES CRIVAINS
ET DES HISTORIENS ROUMAINS DU XIXME SICLE
Ana-Elena COSTANDACHE, Assistant Professor, PhD, Dunrea de Jos University of
Galai
Abstract: In the XIXth century, the Romanian Countries underwent serious historic and
cultural provocations. This period has proved to be richest in literary creations because the
men of letters were interested in realities of the others countries and, at the same time, the
Romanian culture was dominated by two complementary tendencies:
a/ the assimilation of ideas and models of the European cultures;
b/ the need of the men of letters to create works which highlight the national specificity.
Our approach proposes a putting in review of the literary and politic speech of certain
writers and historians of the XIXth century, namely Nicolae Blcescu, Mihail Koglniceanu,
Vasile Alecsandri, who understood that the modernity of the literature of the time meant the
linguistic modernity.
As renowned public persons, they proposed to their public (reader or auditor) a speech
strewed with elements which betrayed the influence of French language: adapted or
borrowed word which drove to a mixture of languages. Such as it is attested by the official
letters or other documents, literary or not, their speech built according to the French model,
constitutes a cultural mirror of the time.
Keywords: speech, modernity linguistics, languages, period of time, influence.
Pendant le XIXe sicle lon a fix les repres de la culture roumaine moderne. Les
modles culturels des pays europens ont t repris et adapts au contexte socioculturel
roumain du temps. La langue roumaine a t influence par les langues trangres, car il est
connu que les frontires politiques nont jamais concid avec les frontires linguistiques.
Dailleurs, on ne pourrait jamais les dlimiter avec prcision ; le roumain sest enrichi en
se crant un vocabulaire semi-hybride, grce aux intellectuels roumains duqus ltranger
(comme par exemple Nicolae Blcescu, Vasile Alecsandri, ou lhistorien Nicolae Iorga), qui
ont adapt leurs crits selon les attentes des lecteurs des Provinces Roumaines.
Dans son tude, Le modle culturel europen, Constantin Noica apprciait la culture
du monde occidental comme un repre dfinitoire pour dautres cultures considres comme
mineures ou modestes , telle que la culture roumaine :
Si la culture europenne disparaissait, un tout petit morceau survivrait pourtant:
ce serait le modle quelle a offert au monde historique. Ce modle serait envisag
comme la conscience de toute autre culture mature sil y en avait une. (notre
trad.) Texte original: Dac ar disprea cultura european, nc ar putea
supravieui ceva din ea: modelul pe care l-a dat lumii istorice. El ar reaprea
drept contiina de sine a oricrei alte culturi depline n cazul c ar mai fi
vreuna. (Noica, 1993 : 16)
509
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Ds le dbut du XIXe sicle, les crivains roumains ont t les partisans dune culture
reprsentative. Ils manifestaient leur confiance et leur attachement aux valeurs roumaines. Par
leurs uvres, ils ont marqu la fin du XVIII e sicle considr comme une erre de dcadence
intellectuelle (notre trad : o er de decaden intelectual ). (Eliade, 1982 : 266) Dans ce
contexte, lespace roumain a souffert une vritable crise des consciences, car lon tait soumis
aux renouvellements qui ont prpar le passage vers lpoque nouvelle, moderne. La culture
roumaine sest intgre dans les modles culturels europens, surtout franais, lesprit de la
crativit, selon lopinion de C. Noica :
Pourquoi la culture europenne est-elle cratrice ? Parce quelle na pas t
initiatique,mais a eu des modles. On la transmet ceux qui en tirent profit. Tout
ce qui est nouveau doit servir aux autres. Cest par cela que la culture existe. Rien
ne peut dtruire son esprit crateur ; chaque cration fait natre dautres crations
selon que les rponses de la culture europenne suscitent des questions. Une
culture devient authentique lorsquelle est capable de se renouveler. Elle ne peut
tre obsolte, car cest tout comme une source inpuisable. Ce qui est vivant
souvre devant elle. (notre trad.) Texte original: De ce e creatoare cultura
european? Tocmai pentru c nu e iniiatic. Ea e transmis permanent altora i
nsuit de ei. Trebuie deci s creeze noul permanent, spre a fi. E felul ei de a fi.
Nimic nu pune capt i int spiritului creator; fiecare creaie nate altele, aa
cum rspunsurile culturii europene nasc alte ntrebri. O cultur este autentic n
clipa cnd trezete n ea izvoarele nencetatei rennoiri. Ea nu se poate mbolnvi
de senectute, fiind n condiia izvorului, nu a blii stagnante. Ce este mai viu nu se
afl atunci ndrtul, ci naintea ei. (ibidem : 19)
N. Iorga a su promouvoir les valeurs littraires et esthtiques roumaines en dehors des
frontires de son pays ; ses crits rvlent des ralits nationales que lhistorien roumain a fait
connatre aux autres tout en crivain en langue franaise :
Sil sagissait de prsenter un public tranger les conteurs Roumains pour leur
importance littraire, pour leur valeur esthtique, la prsentation serait sans doute
dtaille. [...]
Ce que nous gardons, en fait, de lhistoire contemporaine, tant pour lOccident et
pour lEurope centrale ou orientale, ce nest quune prparation la vraie histoire
contemporaine. [...] Alors, si lon veut avoir une histoire contemporaine, cette
histoire doit tre, avant tout, lhistoire de tout le monde. (notre trad.) Texte
original : Dac ar fi vorba s-i prezentm pe istoricii romni unui public strin,
prezentarea ar fi, fr ndoial, detaliat. Ceea ce avem, de fapt, din istoria
contemporan, chiar pentru Occident, pentru Europa central sau oriental, nu
este dect o pregtire pentru adevrata istorie contemporan. [...] Deci, dac
vrem s avem o istorie contemporan, aceast istorie trebuie, nainte de toate, s
fie puin istoria lumii. ) (Iorga, 1925 : 5-6)
Iorga a remarqu les influences des cultures trangres sur les crivains roumains.
lpoque, il apprciait tout ce qui contribuait lenrichissement lexical de la langue roumaine
avec des termes du franais, de litalien, de lespagnol, du russe). Dans ce sens, Iorga a fait
des observations sur linfluence de la littrature italienne sur les crits de Ghe. Asachi dans
ltude Les crivains ralistes en Roumanie comme tmoins du changement de milieu au XIXe
510
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
sicle: Geoges Assaki... a introduit des rythmes italiens dans une langue littraire qui tait
allait se former. (notre trad.) Texte original: Ghe. Asachi... cel care a introdus ritmuri de
factur italian ntr-o limb literar aflat pe punctul de a se forma. (ibidem : 16) Lauteur-
historien faisait des apprciations sur lducation et lenseignement du temps, en essayant de
sparer deux manires diffrentes de comprendre une mme gnration :
Lducation se faisait au foyer, par lintermdiaire des bibliothques prives, qui
comprenaient des livres du XVIIIe sicle ; lcole de Iai ntait quune affaire, qui
ne pouvait pas comprendre tous les domaines. En Valachie, il y avait une cole
suprieure aux autres coles, laquelle lon na pas accord le rle bien mrit.
(notre trad.) Texte original : Spiritul se forma mai mult n cas, prin intermediul
lecturilor din bibliotecile printe ti, alctuite din cri scrise n spiritul secolului
al XVIII-lea; coala francez din Iai era o simpl ntreprindere de c tig, care nu
putea s deschid n toate domeniile perspectivele mai vaste i s lase a se
ntrevedea inte neateptate. n Muntenia, e o coal de un caracter mult superior,
creia nu i s-a acordat rolul care i se cuvine. (Iorga, 1999 : 150)
Lopinion de Nicolae Iorga concernant linfluence des cultures trangres sur la
culture roumaine, surtout de la culture franaise tait tranchante, car le critique roumain
observait que linfluence occidentale tait saisie comme un essor qui a veill la conscience
du peuple roumain et qui, en mme temps, a dtermin
le besoin dtre fier de soi-mme, de se frayer un autre chemin lavenir. []
Ce processus, de la dcouverte de la note ethnique particulaire de limitation de
lesprit et de la forme trangre a dur jusqu prsent et durera encore beaucoup
de temps. (notre trad.) Texte original : nevoia mndriei trecutului i
tendinelor spre un viitor mai bun. [...] Acest proces, al dezvlirii notei etnice
particulare din imitaia spiritului i formei strine, dureaz i pn astzi, i va
mai dura nc mult vreme. (Iorga, 1969 : 348)
Une voix importante de lpoque tait celle dAlecu Russo, qui affirmait que dans
lespace des Principauts Roumaines lon dveloppait une activit ducative riche, la
franaise , mais le noyau culturel se trouvait en Moldavie :
La littrature roumaine est partage aujourdhui entre deux coles, celle de
Bucarest, o lon cultivait avec enthousiasme tous les systmes [] et celle de
Moldavie, une cole clectique, dont les partisans voulaient, avant tout, crire en
langue roumaine pour les Roumains et crer une littrature autochtone, sans
aucune inspiration trangre telle que les langues franaise, italienne et le jargon
incompris parl dans la rgion Ardeal. (notre trad.) Texte original : Literatura
romn se mparte astzi n dou coli, una ce i are cuibul n Bucureti, unde se
cultivau cu entuziasm toate sistemele n orice ipet discordant. [...] A doua, ce s-ar
putea numi eclectic, are mai muli partizani n Moldova; aceasta este coala
celor ce doresc mai nainte de toate a scrie pentru romni i romnete i a face o
literatur numai din viele noastre, iar nu din limba francezilor, a italienilor i a
jargonului neneles din Ardeal. (Russo, 1967 : 57)
511
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Cezar Bolliac, un militant de tout ce qui appartenait au spcifique national, niait les
influences trangres et considrait que le public-lecteur roumain ne sintressait plus aux
publications en langue roumaine, mais au contraire, aux publications de ltranger. Bolliac
observait que dans la langue roumaine parle le lexique se mlangeait de termes franais. Un
tel exemple serait son texte suivant parsem de mots franais:
Boierii i cocoanele (les boyards et les boyardes) pot plti spre a se amuza nu au
ns ndestul virtute a-i impune acelai sacrificiu spre a se plihtisi.
i vom rspunde: att mai ru pentru boieri i pentru cocoane; noi tia pre cari
ne-a ferit Dumnezeu de boierie, credem c viaa nu s-a dat omului, fie el boier sau
plebeu, a se petrece ntr-un chief perpetuu; noi tia cari nu suntem nici boieri,
nici parvenii (pervenus), ci ajuni (arrivs) cnd ajungem i noi cte ceva n ara
noastr, noi tia mai credem c nu numai noblea luat n sensul ce va voi cineva
oblig, cic i poziiunea oblig [...]
Dar nu, tot mai e de sperat c dac trdarea nu va fi la mijloc, Romnia nu va
pieri, ea este bel i frumuseea ei a interesat Europa ntreag. Suzeranul ei a
recunoscut-o liber i a pus-o cu dnsul la mas. Marea Britanie, Austria, Prusia,
Grecia i-au dat vizite formale, i locotenena domneasc-i sprijin tronul subt
ieliii a dou milioane i jumtate de alegtori. Sublimul suzeran ce a luat-o subt
marea sa egid nu va suferi nici o pat pe diadema ce i-a pus solul i cumnatul
su; nsui coreligionera sa, Roia cretin i marea Roie nu se va cobor a
martiriza o jun att de bel, i care-i crede arma sa cea mai tare, generozitatea
puternicului ar.
Frana, libera Fran, va saluta i va ntinde mna elevii sale care nu tiu s
profite att de bine, i s-o imite pn i n defecte. Nu, bela Romnie, vrjmaii ti
chiar te privesc cu drag n avntul ce-i luai. (Bolliac, 1959 : 227)
Linfluence des cultures europennes sest avre tre une vraie renaissance de la
culture roumaine. Dans ce sens G. Ibrileanu affirmait quune culture trangre, demprunt,
reste un capital tranger, destin se faire utile sous forme dun bnfice national qui,
autrement, resterait une source non-exploite. (notre trad.) Texte original : O cultur
strin mprumutat este ca un capital strin, menit s pun n utilitate, spre cel mai mare
beneficiu, o bogie naional, care almintrelea ar rmne neexploatat. (Ibrileanu, 2009 :
26) De ce point de vue, lon pourrait affirmer que les ressources nationales qui nont pas t
exploites jusqualors lpoque taient reprsentes par lesprit et la richesse de la langue
populaire.
son tour, Pompiliu Eliade observait que la langue franaise attirait lpoque ; on la
considrait comme
le secret des manires choisies, de la civilisation franaise en gnral : pour tre
civilis il faut absolument connatre le franais. [] Le franais devient la langue
des salons ou la langue des conversations journalires dans des familles. On lui
accorde une place importante dans des coles, o lon tudie les traits de
gomtrie de Goujon et Bossut, Le Trait de gographie de Bouffier, LHistoire
ancienne de Millet. En parlant le franais, les gens finissent par le mler dans la
conversation en langue roumaine. Les boyards de mme rang ne se disaient plus
arhonda , mais mon cher . Dautres formes de politesse et de salut, telles que
512
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
bonjur , bonsoar , mersi , pardon seraient gardes jusqu prsent,
malgr leur inutilit ; dailleurs, une srie de mots, qui navaient pas de
correspondent dans la langue roumaine, tels que soarea , bal , mode , ont
t admis en langue parle. Le phnomne linguistique le plus bizarre a t celui
de lintroduction dans la langue parle des verbes auxquels on ajoutait des suffixes
grecs et qui se conjuguaient selon le modle de la conjugaison roumaine, en i :
des verbes du type : a zidi (btir) : samuser, amuzari, a se amuzarisi : je
mamuse, tu tamuses, il / elle samuse ; selon le mme modle on conjugue les
verbes a publica (publier), a demisiona (dmissionner) etc. La civilisation, le
nouveau style de vie, les manires choisies, tout ce quon avait introduit en
Moldavie et en Valachie depuis dix ans ntait quau merci des influences des
phanariotes et des migrants, cest--dire de la linfluence franaise et de ses
formes de politesse. (notre trad.) Texte original : secretul manierelor alese,
al civilizaiei franceze n general: pentru a fi civilizat trebuie neaprat s tii
franuzete. [...] Franceza devine limba saloanelor, ba chiar, n multe familii,
limba conversaiei zilnice. I se acord un loc mereu mai mare n coli, unde se
studiaz tratatele de geometrie de Goujon i Bossut, Tratatul de geografie (Trait
de gographie) a lui Bouffier, Istoria veche (Histoire ancienne) de Millet. Tot
vorbind franceza, sfresc prin a o amesteca n toate, o introduc n conversaia
romneasc. Boierii din acela i rang nu-i mai spun doar arhonda , ci i mon
cher . Alte forme de politee i de salut ca bonjur , bonsoar , mersi ,
pardon vor supravieui, n ciuda inutilitii lor, pn n zilele noastre; cu att
mai mult erau menite s ptrund cuvintele pentru care nu exista echivalent n
romn, ca soarea , bal , mod Dar fenomenul lingvistic cel mai
curios a fost introducerea n limba conversaiei a unor verbe franuzeti, la care
se adugau sufixe greceti i care se conjugau dup modelul conjugrii romneti
n i (tipul: zidi, zidesc): samuser, amuzari, a se amuzarisi: m amuzarisesc, te
amuzariseti, se amuzarisete etc. i, dup acelai calopod: publicarisi,
demisionarisi etc. Civilizaia, modelele, felul nou de via, manierele alese, tot
ceea ce se introdusese de zece ani n Moldova i n ara Romneasc nu era
datorat dect contactului cu ruii, influenei fanarioilor, exemplului emigranilor:
toate acestea nu reprezentau, ntr-un cuvnt, dect vechea Fran, Frana formelor
exterioare i a politeei. (Eliade, 1982 : 296)
Vasile Alecsandri a t activement impliqu dans la vie culturelle du temps grce aux
traductions quil a faites du franais en roumain. La revue Luceafrul (parue Budapest, en
1905) lui a consacr des pages entires qui comprenaient des dtails sur la vie et sur luvre
de lcrivain roumain. Larticle Les dbuts littraires en langue franaise de V.
Alecsandri dvoile les influences du franais et, surtout, des crivains consacrs de lespace
franais sur lactivit littraire de lauteur.
Pour ceux qui ne connaissent pas en dtails lactivit littraire de Alecsandri, ce
serait bizarre que le pote national, par excellence, a commenc sa carrire
littraire en crivant des vers en franais. Cependant, cest une chose explicable si
lon pense au fait quil avait tudi avec des professeurs dorigine franaise ; ds
son enfance, il a t amen en France et les premiers auteurs quil a lus ont t des
crivains franais : Chateaubriand, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Musset, V. Hugo,
Lamartine.
513
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Lorsquil se trouvait Paris pour obtenir le grade de bachelier s lettres,
Alecsandri fut confi au professeur distingu Cotte, qui eut une grande influence
sur lui. [] Cest lui qui lavait initi aux rgles de la prosodie franaise en lui
montrant les beauts potiques des crits des potes : Homre, Virgile, Horace.
[]
Dune valeur suprieure quant la forme et au fond sont les trois pomes
pares parues dans la revue de Ghe. Asachi et qui taient signs avec les initiales
de leur auteur. Spicuitorul moldo-romn: (Le glaneur moldo-valaque, Iai 1841).
Le cosaque, La jeune fille i A. Mr. De Lamartine. Note: Le cosaque: Spicuitorul,
1841, III, p. 86, tradus n rom.; La jeune fille, ibidem, IV, p. 122, trad. de G. Gusti;
A. Mr. de Lamartine, par un jeune Moldave II, p. 68 trad. Rom. De G. Asachi.
(notre trad.) Texte original: Pentru cei care nu cunosc mai de aproape activitatea
literar a lui Alecsandri, se va prea curios c el, poetul nostru naional prin
excelen, i-a nceput cariera literar scriind versuri franuzeti. Totui, lucrul
e explicabil, dac ne gndim c i-a fcut instrucia cu profesori francezi, c din
fraged copilrie a fost trimis n Frana, c primii autori cu cari i-a hrnit
sufletul au fost autori francezi: Chateaubriand, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Musset, V.
Hugo, Lamartine. La Paris, n timpul cnd i prepara bacalaureatul n litere,
Alecsandri fu ncredinat pentru aceasta distinsului profesor Cotte, care avu o
mare nfluen asupra lui. [...] El l-a iniiat n regulele prozodiei franceze i i-a
artat frumuseile vechilor poei: ale lui Homer, Virgiliu, Horaiu. [...]
Superioare i ca fond i ca form snt cele trei poezii publicate cu iniialele lui
n revista francezo-romn a lui Asachi Spicuitorul moldo-romn: (Le glaneur
moldo-valaque, Iai 1841). Le cosaque, La jeune fille i A. Mr. De Lamartine.
Note: Le cosaque: Spicuitorul, 1841, III, p. 86, tradus n rom.; La jeune fille,
ibidem, IV, p. 122, trad. de G. Gusti; A. Mr. de Lamartine, par un jeune Moldave
II, p. 68 trad. Rom. De G. Asachi. ) (Luceafrul, 1905)
Tout en occupant des fonctions politiques importantes (ministre et diplomate dtat),
V. Alecsandri a t oblig de parler la langue franaise et de lutiliser tant dans les lettres
personnelles, adresses aux amis-crivains, que dans les lettres officielles adresses au prince
Al. I. Cuza. Un tel exemple serait la lettre suivante :
Paris, 3 janvier 1862
Mon cher prince,
Jai attendu une circonstance heureuse pour crire votre altesse et je nai point
perdu pour attendre, puisquenfin, grce votre persvrance, le vu le plus cher
de la nation roumaine vient dtre ralis par lUnion des deux Principauts.
Tout en flicitant mon pays de cet heureux vnement*, cest votre altesse que je
dois adresser mes premires flicitations, car je connais mieux que personne les
efforts constants que vous avez faits, durant lespace de trois ans, pour le triomphe
du principe rgnrateur qui vous a lev au pouvoir.
Lhistoire impartiale rendra chacun la part qui lui est due dans la victoire
politique remporte par la cause roumaine, et elle vous proclamera le fondateur de
lUnion, titre glorieux qui compensera amplement les ennuis des trois dernires
annes. Maintenant lavenir souvre devant nous libre des entraves qui arrtaient
notre marche, il nous reste savoir profiter des moyens qui nous sont offerts pour
atteindre notre but. Nous y parviendrons avec du tact, de lnergie et du
514
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
patriotisme, trois vertus sublimes, dont la trinit a toujours fait des miracles en
faveur des peuples.
Affermi dans cette conviction, je viens souhaiter votre altesse de longues annes,
dun rgne facile et prospre, ainsi que la ralisation prompte de tous ses rves de
gloire et de bonheur pour la nation roumaine et je la prie, en terminant, de se
rappeler quelquefois de son vieil ami tout dvou,
V. Alecsandri
* Cette lettre (de flicitation) fait rfrence deux vnements auxquels V.
Alecsandri a t prsent : lUnion administrative des deux Principauts (la
Moldavie et la Valachie), le 11 dcembre 1861 et la premire sance unique de
janvier 1862. *Dup ndelungate i agitate lupte diplomatice, la care V.
Alecsandri a luat parte activ, la 11 decembrie 1861 s-a realizat unirea definitiv,
administrativ, a celor dou principate. n ianuarie s-a deschis prima Adunare
unic. La aceste dou evenimente se refer scrisoarea de felicitare a lui
Alecsandri. ) (Alecsandri, 1964 : 29)
N. Blcescu a t un autre partisan de lesprit identitaire roumain. Ses Ecrits choisis
plaidaient pour les influences trangres comme sources inpuisables dinspiration pour les
crivains (surtout linfluence franaise), mais aussi pour les influences autochtones de
lhistoire nationale considre comme le premier livre dune nation, o lon voit le pass, le
prsent et, surtout, lavenir. (notre trad.) Texte original: ...cea dinti carte a unei naii. ntr-
nsa ea i vede trecutul, prezentul i viitorul. (Blcescu, 1961 : 71)
Lesprit national de Blcescu sest fait connatre dans des crits en langue roumaine,
tout aussi que dans des uvres en langue franaise (Question conomique des Principauts
Danubiennes, livre paru anonymement en franais), o lhistorien plaidait pour la cration
dune nation nouvelle, de frres, de citoyens libres. Blcescu notait dans un article paru
Paris que
la nationalit reprsente lme dun peuple [] Lunit nationale fut le beau
rve des braves vovodes, de tous nos grands hommes, qui ont symbolis
lindividualit et lesprit du peuple montr aux autres. Cest pour cela quils
avaient vcurent, travaillrent, souffrirent et moururent. (notre trad.) Texte
original: Naionalitatea este sufletul unui popor [...]Unitatea naional fu
visarea iubit a voievozilor notri cei viteji, a tuturor brbailor notri cei mari,
care ntrupar n sine individualitatea i cugetarea poporului, spre a o manifesta
lumii. Pentru dnsa ei trir, muncir, suferir i murir. (Blcescu, apud
Cornea, 1969 : 315)
Dans la vie politique, Blcescu a identifi certains principes spcifiques la priode
rvolutionnaire (de 1848) qui visaient le besoin dune propagande afin dencourager le peuple
roumain et de le faire conscient de ses droits et liberts. Ses uvres littraires ont un caractre
politique et historique vident, issu dune connaissance profonde de lhistoire nationale et des
ralits socio-conomiques et politiques europennes et roumaines. Dailleurs, toutes les
uvres de Blcescu se caractrisent par une critique assidue des problmes sociaux du
temps (tels que le droit de possession des paysans) et politiques (les formes dtat, larme,
les causes et les forces de la Rvolution, le progrs historique et ses lois.) En outre, les
515
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
lments demprunt et les influences idologiques franaises ont reprsents la base assise des
conceptions historiques de N. Blcescu.
Impliqu activement dans les vnements sociopolitiques du temps, N. Blcescu a
dcouvert, dans les crits des reprsentants de lhistoriographie romantique (tel que Jules
Michelet), des modles dcriture qui taient en accord avec ses aspirations. En fait, les
influences trangres ont contribu la consolidation et lenrichissement de son idologie
par des suggestions concrtes. Cest pour cela que lhistorien roumain crivait tant en roumain
quen franais :
Que tous les Roumains soient libres et riches le Roumain riche est la voix du
peuple de lpoque de 1848.
Mais cette reforme sociale, est-elle vraiment correcte ? [] Cest ce que nous
allons examiner ou dmontrer. (notre trad.) Texte original: Tot romnul s fie
liber i proprietar... Romnul proprietar, acesta este glasul poporului la 1848.
Aceast reform soial ce poporul ceru este oare dreapt? Este folositoare? Este
putincioas? [...] Aceasta voim acum a cerceta. (Cest ce que nous allons
examiner ou dmontrer. (Blcescu, 1961 : 150)
N. Blcescu a beaucoup souffert, tout comme les historiens de la premire moiti du
XIX sicle, cause de la contradiction entre les ralits sociales des Pays Roumains et les
e
vnements politiques des pays trangers. Ses crits se trouvent sous le signe bien vident de
linfluence franaise, car les mots demprunt utiliss trahissent les affinits de lhistorien
aux ralits linguistiques franaises :
n micarea ce era s se fac la 1840, partida naional hotrse a fixa printr-o
legiuire formal i curat (nette) poziia ranilor cu dreptul ereditar pe prile de
pmnt ce au n stpnire. [...]
Le parti national posa hardiment ce programme devant le public des 1846, aux
cris dalarme pousss par les boyards. Revoluia de la 11 iunie 1848 veni s o
realizeze. Art.13 al programei revoluionare coprindea: [Desfiinarea clcii
ranilor, care devin proprietari prin despgubire]. (idem)
Dautres exemples de mlanges dcriture franaise et roumaine seraient les
impressions de voyages de Blcescu, parsemes de mots franais :
Ce cltor, trecnd prin acele ri ale Dunrii de gios, prin Principatele
Romne, nu s-au oprit cu mulumire i admirare a contempla aceste locuri aa de
frumoase i mpodobite... Ce cltor, l-aceast frumoas i nveselitoare (riante)
privelite, s-a putut opri n admirarea sa d-a nu striga: Fericit ar! Fericit
poporul pe care Dumnezeu l-a azat n aceast mpodobit grdin!
Dar ndat acest tablou se ntunec (sassombrit) i o alt vedere ntristeaz ochii
si. naintea lui, dintr-o gaur de supt pmnt, iese o figur omeneasc slab,
descul, treneroas, murdar... Inima lui st atunci n cumpn (ballance) ntre
mil i dispre i aflnd c aceast ticloas este locuitorul, cultivatorul frumoasei
grdini ce a admirat, el las a-i scpa din gur aceste cuvinte: Fr ndoial, n
aceast ar popolul este sau cel mai ticlos, sau cel mai nenorocit, cel mai
asuprit (opprim) din toate popoarele.
516
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
El alearg atunci la ora ca s-i dezlege ndoiala, ca s cunoasc adevrul [...]
Aci palate mree i strlucite, echipajurile cele mai frumoase, luxul cel mai
splendid uimete, fermec (blouit, enchante) ochii si... C el, care umbla descul
i mai despoiat n rigoarea iernii, produce (fournit) diamantele, [...] aaz
(dresse) banchetele cele strlucite i mbelugate ale oranilor. [...]
A mbunti (amliorer) materialicete i moralicete soarta muncitorului care
sufere, a pstra ntr-aceeai vreme i nc a mai mbunti buna stare material
i moral a claselor de sus, aceasta este greaua problem a crii dezlegare
partida naional cuta la 1848 [...] Acest problem nu fu acum ntiai dat posat
naintea romnilor; el nu fu o importaie streina; el nu fu nici chiar un echo a
acelii micri analoge care agiteaz acum Europa. [...]
O ochire istoric asupra trecutului ne va ncredina, cci numai n istorie, aceast
lumin a adevrului, naiile pot gsi (peuvent puiser) nvturile politice i
sociale. (ibidem : 145)
Blcescu a prfr crire en langue franaise lorsquil a rdig son uvre sur
lorganisation sociale des Pays Roumains et lenrichissement des paysans :
O soietate organizat pe dreptate nu e oare datoare a protege viaa omului de
foamete i mizerie, dup cum o protege de ucidere? Nu este ea datoare a protege
libertatea muncei de monopol i asuprire, dup cum protege proprietatea de hoie?
Gner le travail du paysan quand il na que ses bras pour se nourrir, nest-ce pas
plus quun vol, nest-ce pas un assassinat?
Cum, dar, cererea poporului romn la 1848 d-a i se recunoate libertatea muncei
poate fi nereapt?
Cum poate fi nedreapt cererea lui d-a i se asigura necesariu, fcndu-se proprietar
deplin prin despgubire pe pmntul ce de secoli posedeaz? (ibidem : 152)
Lun des problmes mis en question dans les uvres de N. Blcescu visait le droit de
possession des paysans roumains qui, cette poque-l, ne bnficiaient que du droit de
travail. Ils navaient ni de terres, ni de proprits, ni de biens ou dhritages.
Aadar chestia mproprietrirei nu era, dup cum strigau i strig boierii, o
despuiere, o mprire a moiilor lor, ci numai substituia dreptului real de
proprietate la dreptul nominal, prin rscumprarea rentei (le rachat de la rente).
Moiile boierilor sunt mprite Dup legile ce am vzut de secoli, 2 din 3 pri
(deux tiers) din fiecare domen sunt mprite la rani Dreptul de proprietate
asupra pmntului se prefcea din condiionat n absolut, cci, dupe cum am artat,
proprietarul, vrnd s robeasc pe ran, a fost silit a-i acorda un drept la munc
(un droit au travail) ranul rmnea liber i proprietar absolut, rscumprnd
de la boier dreptul de rent, i dreptul de munc maintenu envers ltat, aurait t
aboli envers la proprit individuelle dont il est la ngation. [] Este nvederat c
toate aceste preri mai mult vatm soarta ranului (empiraient le sort du paysan),
cci nu numai calc drepturile lui dobndite (ses droits acquis) asupra pmntului.
[] Cu prere de ru mrturisim c s-a gsit i nc se afl i acum mai muli
revoluionari destul de neinteligeni, care, entrans par un dsir de conciliation,
transigrent avec leurs principes au point de soutenir en public ces prtentions des
boyards.
517
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Il en tait de mme de acea prere, ieit din afar de Comisie, din capul unor fali
liberali (faux libraux) i care e mult mai veche dect revoluia de la 1848 i se ine
de opoziia cuasi-liberal de la 1837, d-a respecta actul de emancipaie de la 1746,
declarnd pe ran liber n persoana lui i pe proprietar stpn absolut pe tot
domenul, substinuind astfel, n locul nvoielei silite a Regulamentului, nvoielile
libere ntre ranul cultivator i proprietar.
i spre a sfri aci cu deosebitele soluii ce am vzut ieind pentru aceast grea
chestie, s zicem ceva i despre una ce s-a reprodus mai deunzi: aceasta este
metayajul (le metayage). Acest sistem nu e un mod de apropriaie, dar un mod de
esploataie a pmntului, o asoiaie agricol ntre proprietar i colon.
Le propritaire fait toutes les avances de la culture, cest--dire quil fournit ses
dpenses les bestiaux de labour, les charrues, les outils aratoires, la semence et la
nourriture du colon et de sa famille depuis linstant o celui-ci entre dans la
mtairie jusqu sa premire rcolte; le colon napporte lentreprise que sont
travail et celui de sa famille. Les produits de toute la terre exploite ainsi, grain,
btail, volaille etc. sont partags moiti entre le propritaire et le colon.
(Proprietarul avanseaz, pe cheltuiala sa, tot ce trebuie pentru cultura cmpului,
adic d vitele de munc, plugurile, uneltele agricole, smna i hrana colonului i
a familiei sale din momentul cnd acesta intr n ferm i pn la prima sa recolt;
n aceast ntreprindere, colonul nu aduce dect munca sa i a familiei sale.
Produsele ntregului pmnt exploatat astfel, bucate, vite, psri etc., se mpart pe
din dou ntre proprietar i colon). (ibidem : 154-165)
Les influences franaises au XIXe ont t ressenties tous les niveaux de la vie
politique, littraire, culturelle roumaine. Les crivains, impliqus activement dans la vie
politique, ont propos des discours (oraux et/ou crits) riches en expressions et mots prts
des langues trangres (surtout du franais), termes quils ont adapts au roumain. Les
emprunts ont t considrs, par les uns, comme une manire de senrichir le vocabulaire et,
par les autres, comme une faon de convertir les valeurs nationales. Somme tout, les
influences et les interfrences linguistiques ont t nombreuses et se sont avres tre un vrai
gain de lesprit national.
Bibliographie
Alecsandri, Vasile (1964). Scrisori, nsemnri. Bucureti : Editura pentru Literatur.
Blcescu, Nicolae (1961). Scrieri alese. Bucureti : Editura Tineretului.
Bolliac, Cezar (1959). Pagini alese. Bucureti : Editura de Stat pentru Literatur.
Cornea, Paul, Zamfir, Mihai (1969). Gndirea romneasc n epoca paoptist. tome I.
Bucureti : Editura pentru Literatur.
Eliade, Pompiliu (1982). Influena francez asupra spiritului public n Romnia. Originile,
Bucureti : Univers
Iorga, Nicolae (1925). Les crivains ralistes en Roumanie comme tmoins du changement de
milieu au XIXe sicle. MCM XX. Paris : Librairie Universitaire J. Gambert.
Iorga, Nicolae (1999). Istoria literaturii romneti. Arta i literatura romnilor. Bucureti :
Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne.
518
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Iorga, Nicolae (1969). Istoria literaturii romne n secolul al XVIII-lea (1688-1821), tome II,
Bucureti : Ed. Didactic i Pedagogic.
Noica, Constantin (1993). Modelul cultural european. Bucureti : Humanitas.
Russo, Alecu (1967). Piatra-Teiului, Scrieri alese, Cugetri. Bucureti : Editura pentru
Literatur.
*** (1905). Luceafrul. IVe anne, no 11, Budapesta, le 1er juin ST. V.
519
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
LANGUAGE AND LOGIC AS EFFICIENT TOOLS IN ARGUMENTATIVE
WRITING
Anca Irina CECAL, Assistant Professor, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai
Abstract: Even though largely used in numerous instances of verbal and written
communication, especially in business contexts, persuasive techniques are not paid proper
attention and sometimes seem to even be neglected by students specializing in areas of
business where persuasion skills are an essential asset. The current paper aims, in its first
part, at investigating the logic behind successful arguments, reflecting on deductive and
inductive reasoning, its uses and misuses in argument creation as illustrated in several
contexts. The second part of this work will provide a detailed (yet, not exhaustive) analysis of
some specific language tools used to build argumentative texts such as essays and
memorandums, with a special focus on transitional words and phrases, discourse markers
and other main ways to achieve text coherence.
Keywords: argumentative writing, induction, deduction, transitions, coherence
Introduction
Even though largely used in numerous instances of verbal and written communication,
especially in business contexts, persuasive techniques are not paid proper attention and
sometimes seem to even be neglected by students specializing in areas of business where
persuasion skills are an essential asset. The current paper proposes an investigation into the
form and content of argument construction, which will be conducted by adopting a blended
approach which brings together elements from logic and linguistics at the same time.
A discussion about persuasive or argumentative writing should perhaps start by
clarifying what a debatable argument is and what it is not. An argument arises when two
parties disagree about something; one party gives an opinion and offers reasons to support it,
while the other party gives a different opinion and offers evidence in its support. However,
people may disagree about many aspects that cannot be argued effectively enough to pursue
them in writing or in public speech. Arguments of preference, of belief or religious faith and
of fact, for instance, are not the type of arguments one can effectively and logically explore in
formal persuasive writing or speech.
Within written academic work, the presence of an argument does not always indicate a
disagreement. An argument can be used to:
- support something that has merit a position, a point of view, a program, an object;
- persuade audiences or readers to take or not to take a particular course of action;
- convince audiences that something is true, likely to be true or probable a fact, an outcome;
- show readers the problems or difficulties associated with something a theory, an approach,
a course of action;
- reason with people to get them to change their mind or their practice.
520
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The kind of argument which can be argued logically, and which we are interested in
analyzing here as an essential tool in persuasive techniques, is one that is based on an opinion
that can be supported by clear evidence such as facts. An essential characteristic of an
argumentative piece of writing (such as the persuasive memorandum) or a persuasive
presentation, is that the ideas expressed attempt to change the readers/listeners mind, to
convince the audience to agree with the point of view or opinion of the writer or speaker.
Therefore, we may say that argumentative writing or speech attempts to be highly persuasive
and logical. An argumentative thesis takes a side of one particular issue and, quite enough, it
proposes a specific course of action related to the issue discussed.
Effective persuasion requires a well organized argument structure; it also
necessitates logical reasoning content and appropriate expression language. These are the
key elements of its successful creation. While it is true that eloquent orators have often played
successfully on the emotions of an audience and advertisers and other authors rely on similar
appeals in print, it is wise to assume that readers or audiences are as intelligent as the creator
of a text or speech and therefore to focus on logical reasoning when aiming to defend ones
point of view.
All formal arguments are based on logic. There are three kinds of formal logical
reasoning: inductive, deductive and a combination of the first two. Inductive and deductive
reasoning differ in the fact that they arrive at conclusions from opposite starting points in the
thinking process: inductive reasoning begins by examining details or individual instances to
draw a general conclusion, while deductive reasoning proceeds from a generalization to draw
a conclusion about a particular case. These can be illustrated as follows:
Induction (individual instance general conclusion)
This supermarket brand item is cheaper than its comparable private brand item.
Each of these other eleven supermarket brand items is cheaper than its comparable private
brand item.
Supermarket brand items are cheaper than comparable private brand items.
Deduction (determined generalization conclusion about a particular)
Supermarket brand items are cheaper than comparable private brand items.
Washing powder X is a supermarket brand item.
Washing power X is cheaper than comparable private brand items.
Comparing the two basic reasoning methods from the point of view of their power of
persuasion, it appears that inductive argument is weaker, as induction may lead to a
conclusion which is probable but may not be certain, while deduction can result in more
persuasive argument, leading to conclusions that are not only certain, but valid and true at the
same time. The choice of one of the two methods over the other or the use of a combination of
the two is dictated by necessity and purpose in each instance of communication. It is useful to
examine each of these reasoning processes in greater detail in order to understand the logic
behind persuasive arguments, as well as the advantages and drawbacks of each method.
521
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The methods of inductive reasoning
Among the methods of inductive reasoning, the use of evidence, the appeal to an
authority, analogy and causal generalizations are largely used to build strong arguments.
The use of evidence in argument creation brings authenticity and validity, thus
increasing persuasive power in both written and verbal communication. When using evidence
to generate inductive conclusions, it is important to check and determine whether the evidence
is accurate, representative and sufficient; otherwise the resulting argument will not be credible
enough.
When appealing to an authority to support an inductive argument, the authority should
be a reliable person or source that is well informed about the subject of the argument and
completely impartial about it. A successful persuasive writer most likely avoids statements by
well known individuals who may be authorities in their field of expertise but are foreign to the
topic under scrutiny, or who have some self-interest that causes them to be biased. The use of
authority which has passed the tests of being well-informed and completely impartial can add
great persuasive power to arguments.
Analogies are often used in inductive reasoning to show that because certain previous
circumstances have produced specific results, similar circumstances are expected to produce
the same results. People are used to making assumptions on the basis of analogy. For instance,
we may buy a book by a certain author because we have read his/her previous book and
enjoyed it. The problem with analogy is that its conclusions may be uncertain. We may enjoy
a book written by an author but not another by the same author. Analogies are sometimes
fallaciously used in arguments to relate dissimilar things or circumstances, but this incorrect
practice should be avoided, as readers or listeners may ask themselves a set of questions to
determine the validity of analogies:
- Are the circumstances similar?
- Did the circumstances produce the result?
- Was the result the one claimed?
If constructed properly, analogies can add interest, color and edge to persuasive
writing, illustrating points effectively, and often have high persuasive power.
Cause-and-effect reasoning which leads to causal generalizations is a very effective
persuasive method. For instance, it may be employed to increase the time spent on homework
in the case of high school students. The argument will show that a recent study has
demonstrated that next to intellectual ability, the amount of time spent on homework is the
best predictor of the grades obtained. Therefore, the desirable effect of improving the quality
of high school education may be achieved by eliminating one of the causes of poor student
achievement: the lack of time spent on homework. But the use of causal reasoning in building
arguments should be approached carefully, only after having satisfactory answers to questions
such as:
- Is the stated cause true?
- Is the stated cause the only one?
- Is the stated cause a direct or an indirect one?
Therefore, when writing a persuasive text, one should avoid being vulnerable to
counterarguments about overlooking a cause or its relationship to the effect.
522
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The methods of deductive reasoning
In inductive reasoning, one relies on specific evidence discovered or believed to be
true, yet the generalization that induction leads to is only probable. On the other hand, in
deductive reasoning, if a conclusion about something particular is based on generalizations or
premises considered true, then it can also be considered true. In order to achieve optimal
efficiency, deductive reasoning must not only start from true premises and lead to true
conclusions, but the reasoning process must be logically sound, also. True premises are
essential for successful argument construction, since it is possible to build a sound argument
based on false premises, as bellow:
All students who turn in typed essays on CSR related topics automatically receive a 10.
All the students in Professor Ys class turned in typed essays on CSR related topics.
Therefore, all the students in Professor Ys class automatically receive a 10.
The form of this argument meets the criteria for sound reasoning: a conclusion based on
premises whose terms are logically related. Yet, a deeper analysis reveals that the conclusion
is worthless because it has been derived from a false premise all typed essays do not
automatically receive the highest grade.
The logic behind deductive arguments can be decoded by analyzing the syllogism it is
based on. In classical logic, the syllogism consists of three statements: an initial
generalization, called the major premise, a specific case called the minor premise, and a
resultant statement with a therefore relation to the first two statements, called conclusion.
This logical engendering of ideas is illustrated in what follows:
All electronic devices must pass quality control tests before being shipped abroad.
The laptops our company produces are electronic devices.
Therefore, the laptops our company produces must pass quality control tests before
being shipped abroad.
In the example above, the first statement the major premise - sets forth a generally accepted
principle or rule about electronic devices. The second statement the minor premise
identifies a particular electronic device (the laptop) as belonging to the class mentioned in the
major premise. The conclusion follows logically from these two premises and is consistent
with them, therefore the reasoning is sound. Besides being logically sound, the syllogism is
also true, since most people would accept the premises as truthful ones. Consistency, logical
soundness and truth are necessary components of effective deductive reasoning, no matter
what form the argument takes, for in argumentative writing the syllogism actually rather
appears as an outline or a framework which lays behind the text as such. To avoid failure in
deductive reasoning, a few simple principles may be applied to check its logical soundness:
- Only if the major premise and the minor premise are true the conclusion will be valid;
- The major and minor premises must be set up to follow a correct logical structure in
the form of the argument;
- The terms in one premise must be used in the same way in the other premise.
523
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Language tools in argument construction
Making a claim and presenting evidence to support the claim will not qualify as an
argument in writing a persuasive memorandum or an essay unless the right language tools are
employed in building the unity and coherence of the text. Using the right connectives,
sentence structure and discourse markers will help create the logical connections between
ideas, resources, statements and conclusions. It is important for readers or audiences to
understand why the author has included a particular piece of information, and its relevance to
the overall claim, as this contributes to greater clarity an essential ingredient of efficient
argumentative writing.
Good persuasive writing is highly observant of the principle of coherence, namely that
one idea must follow logically and smoothly from the previous one. A variety of techniques
may be employed to achieve coherence in essays and memoranda, as in all argumentative
texts. For instance, to express deductive reasoning, specific words like coordinating
conjunctions and correlative conjunctions can be used to support premises and conclusions,
as bellow:
- for supporting premises: since , because (of) , given that , in order to , in
order that , rather than , the reason is that , whether or not , due to , not
only but also , if then
Examples: Our company should spend more money on R&D because we are behind our
competitors when it comes to innovation.
Given that we are behind our competitors when it comes to innovation, our company should
spend more money on R&D.
- for conclusions: so , therefore , thus , then , it follows that
Example: We have attended his presentation during yesterdays meeting and we are familiar
with the media reports. Therefore, we can contradict him concerning the success of the
product launch.
Transitional words and phrases are very valuable in creating coherence. They are
mostly attached to the beginning of sentences, usually being preceded by a period or a
semicolon, and their function is to indicate the relationship between the two sentences from
the point of view of meaning. Some of these transitions will be listed below, with indications
of the relationship they denote:
- chronological order: first, second, next, after, last, finally;
- example: for instance, for example, to illustrate, thus
- addition: also, furthermore, moreover, in addition, besides that
- conclusion: finally, to conclude, in conclusion, to sum up
- result: therefore, consequently, as a result, hence, as a consequence
- comparison: like, likewise, similarly, in the same way, on the other hand
- contrast: conversely, however, in contrast, despite this, although, in spite of, on the
contrary, even if, even though
Besides these transitions, there are many more discourse markers which can be used
to indicate the logical connections between ideas, the authors attitude to the research
included in the argumentative text and the relationship between the evidence and the claim
made. Some useful discourse markers are listed below:
- Citing evidence:
524
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
According to Smith,
Smith claims that
Smith states that
As Smith claims/shows/illustrates,
This idea is supported by
Research findings indicate/show that
There is evidence to show that
- Showing agreement/showing disagreement:
At the same time,
As indicated,
Further to,
In support of
- Expressing disjunction:
While
Nevertheless, Whereas
Regardless of Yet
Specific language for addressing the research consulted in order to bring consistent
evidence to support an argument may look as follows:
It is clear that
As shown, current research
In relation to X, this is very important/ significant because
As can be seen, many theorists hold that
There are serious implications that can be drawn from
These findings indicate that
This seems to imply that
It is still not completely clear that
Interesting research has been conducted by
They extend the idea of
Evidence of this can be seen in the work by
Another way to achieve coherence is the repetition of key words, synonyms and
pronouns. Even though argumentative writing is often based on strong viewpoints expressed
by the author, the use and repetition of the pronoun I is rather avoided in papers that are not
self-reflective. The introduction is usually the only place where the use of 'I is sometimes
accepted. The following examples illustrate its appropriate use: In this paper, I discuss/ will
discuss , I argue/ will argue that , I will show , I will present , I will put forward the
claim that , I refer to the work of/theory by Nevertheless, some lecturers and writers
prefer not to use it at all. The use of the personal pronoun I can be avoided altogether by:
- Changing the subject, as in:
This article discusses . . .
This essay puts forward the claim that . . .
This paper argues that . . .
The findings indicated . . .
The intention of the research was to . . .
- Using the passive voice, as in:
525
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
It will be argued that . . .
Four articles will be analyzed . . .
Eight professors were interviewed . . .
It was found that . . .
Conclusions
Although the analysis of linguistic tools used in successful argument design can be
extended significantly to cover many more pages, the series of elements proposed above has
included a detailed discussion of essential ingredients in constructing persuasive texts.
Besides inductive and deductive forms of logical reasoning that underlie argument
construction, methods of achieving text coherence have been presented and illustrated as
efficient ways of increasing the persuasive power of all pieces of argumentative writing.
These key components of persuasive techniques are largely used in business areas and
elsewhere to produce successful written and verbal discourse and it is just in their extensive
use that their significance is made obvious.
References
http://writingcenter.unc.edu/handouts/argument/
http://www.roanestate.edu/owl/argument.html
Zaremba, Alan Jay, Speaking Professionally: A Concise Guide, First Edition, Thomson
South-Western, 2006
Smalley, Regina L. and Mark K. Ruetten, Refining Composition Skills: Rhetoric and
Grammar for ESL Students, Third Edition, Maxwell Macmillan International Publishing
Group, 1990
Toulmin, Stephen, The Uses of Argument, Cambridge University Press, 1964
526
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
UNDERSTANDING RACE IN EARLY MODERN ENGLAND:
SHAKESPEARES DRAMAS
Liliana Tronea-GHIDEL, Assistant, PhD, University of Craiova
Abstract: This papers main focus is on those factors that were at play during the
Renaissance in England and which determined the emergence of race as according to
GayatriSpivak a necessary strategy to protect and defend its national reputation at the
expense of African barbarians. Several assumptions of the term race are considered:
relations of kinship, individual worth or behaviour, status of birth, religious confession,
geographical residence, and skin colour. Mention is being made to AniaLoombas three
streams of ideas that inform the concept or race in early modern Europe. On the other hand,
race is a dream act where significant imagined social relations assume a reality status in the
world so that fantasy effects social transformation. According to StathisGourgouris, one
becomes a national subject insofar as one believes oneself to be a witness to this mysterious
process or ritual called national community, insofar as one participates in (imagines,
constructs, dreams) the fantasy of belonging to a national community. I have also
considered critical approaches of other critics and analysts of the Renaissance, such as Kim
Hall, Stephen Orgel, YumnaSiddiqi and Martin Butler, who have written about race and race
relations in Early Modern Britain.
Keywords: Renaissance, race, race relations, national community
Greek and Roman literatures, Christian religious thought, as well as medieval
writings, were influenced in their views of cultural, ethnic, and linguistic difference. These
views had been shaped by various histories of contact and conflict, the most important of
which were the Greek and Roman interactions with the people they conquered, the Crusades,
as well as the interactions between Jews, Muslims, and Christians within Europe, especially
Iberia. ~AniaLoomba
To start with, we should not be surprised, as it is known that there were no racial
manifestations in ancient Rome or Greece: the presence of dark, kinky-haired Emperors on
the throne of Rome is an attested fact. Those barbarians beyond the limits of the Roman
Empire were simply discriminated to use a modern term on cultural reasons, which had
nothing to do with race. When it comes to Elizabethan England, the things get more
complicated.
It was the age of the great geographical discoveries, of the expansion of the British
Empire, following not only the voyages of discovery of the famous European travellers
Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, and Vespucci, to whom we should add Francis
Drake, Frobisher, and Hakluyt, subjects of the British crown and personal envoys of Queen
Elizabeth I allowed for a direct encounter with the Other: the African, or the Moor from the
coast of Barbary, or the natives of the newly-discovered islands on the distant shores of the
Atlantic Ocean. There is an Indian boy in Shakespeares A Midsummer Nights Dream,
Othello is a hero who turns into a victim of jealousy, manipulation and prejudices. In Titus
Andronicus, Aaron the Moor is as evil as he can be, contaminating everyone with his evil eye.
If Othello dies in the end, thus paying for his own mistakes, Aaron is allowed to live and
527
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
repent, which he never consents to. Finally, there is Cleopatra, the ambitious, seductive
Egyptian Queen, a victim to her own games.
The Jews had been there long before, having reached England three years after the
Battle of Hastings, in 1070. They were officially present on the British soil for more than two
centuries. Their unwanted involvement in financial matters, trade and politics triggered a
wave of persecutions culminating with King Edward Is decree of 1270, according to which
the Jews were considered a threat to the country and were forced to wear a yellow star in
order to be easily identified in public. Many Jews were arrested and eventually executed. In
1290 they were banished from England, and returned only in 1655, when Oliver Cromwell
allowed it.
The term race was used in a number of different ways in this period. It could refer
frequently to relations of kinship (blood) or more generally to genealogy and lineage.
Elsewhere, it might refer to individual worth or behaviour, status of birth (and thus, rights of
inheritance), religious confession, geographical residence as well as, on occasion, skin colour.
Frequently, populations of distant lands were perceived as either being savage or as more
primitive, child-like versions of Europeans. If English writers and statesmen are found to
promote their native land in imperial terms (indeed, James I styled himself as the sovereign
over the Empire of Great Britain), such claims remained most powerful for their textual
persuasiveness rather than the reality of overseas possessions the empire was made up of
conceptual space rather than geographical fact.
In addition to being the product of historical need, race is, therefore, fundamentally an
exchange or transaction of power that employs distinct, identifiable personal features as the
tools of negotiation. As such, race is not uniquely or, for that matter, most significantly
concerned with the particular personal identifying trait or an inveterate practice; rather, races
consequence arises from its transactional function, the establishing of relative merit and
power within a social matrix. For this reason, race is not the historical possession of post-
Enlightenment scientific taxonomies and epistemology (as commonly debated); at the same
time, the identification of context-specific racial traits is crucial to an accurate appraisal of
racial negotiation at distinct periods in history.
Distinguished post-colonial critic AniaLoomba, traces three streams of ideas that go
into the making of beliefs and debates about otherness and race in early modern Europe.
(Loomba, 6) According to her,
The first [stream] is comprised of medieval as well as classical notions about
skin colour, religion and community. Greek and Roman literatures, Christian
religious thought, as well as medieval writings, were influenced in their views of
cultural, ethnic, and linguistic difference. These views had been shaped by various
histories of contact and conflict, the most important of which were the Greek and
Roman interactions with the people they conquered, the Crusades, as well as the
interactions between Jews, Muslims, and Christians within Europe,
especiallyIberia.
The second stream of ideas is comprised of the cross-cultural encounters
challenging the older ideas of the first stream. These cross-cultural encounters became, during
528
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Shakespeares lifetime, more attractive as well as more threatening for Europeans. The
explanation resides in: (a) the overseas trade and colonization of Spain and Portugal; (b) the
reality of the fast-expanding Turkish Empire; (c) the perception of the Other as generated by
the New World and its inhabitants.
Then, there is a third stream, which refers to the notions of difference between men
and women, rich and poor, nobility and ordinary folk that are met in every society.
Concepts of gender, class, and national difference have a profound effect on how any culture
understands its own boundaries and can be thought as the third stream of ideas, just as
important for understanding race as other histories of contact. (Loomba, 6)
She considers that racially marginalized or minority figures seem to have been capable
of only essential and ascribed, not theatrical and achieved, selves. Obviously, the category
inevitably becomes entwined with other crucial axes of identity and culture.
Inseparable from considerations of gender, race must also be understood as a relation
of nation, class, and creed or religious practice. Her central principle is that:
during the early modern period, gender and sexuality provided a language for
expressing and developing ideas about religious, geographic, and ultimately racial difference.
European, Christian identity is increasingly expressed in terms of masculinity, its superiority
and power are described and comprehended as the penetration, rape, or husbanding of an
inferior and feminized race. In these accounts, the word race is not always used, and the
difference between Europeans and others indicated is not always regarded as immutable or
absolute (Loomba, 31).
Race is a dream act where significant imagined social relations assume a reality status
in the world so that fantasy effects social transformation. 1Race as a dream act is, therefore,
among other things, a projection: an externalization of an internal process that seeks the
satisfaction of a narcissistic desire for domination and control (Freud 14: 223). To stipulate
that colour and language are never absolute racial categories a point made dramatically clear
by the womens desire to turn white is to admit that race is an act of interpretation, the
asserted belief of a cultural or national collective. According to StathisGourgouris, one
becomes a national subject insofar as one believes oneself to be a witness to this mysterious
process or ritual called national community, insofar as one participates in (imagines,
constructs, dreams) the fantasy of belonging to a national community. For the dream act,
belief is instrumental in affirming the mythic reality of a racial community that consolidates
and justifies ones belonging; the dream act posits a derogatory racial construction of the
other that simultaneously institutes the interpretive faithin Englishness as a concomitant
imagined racial community.
Gourgouris makes the additional claim: an imagined community always imagines
itself. In so doing, however, it must occlude this act by instituting itself as an ontological
presence that has, somehow or other, always already existed. That is, to assert its eternal
presence, an imagined community like the racial community to which the dominant subject
belongs has to forget the time before its proper emergence and the subsequent infelicitous
histories of itself that are inconvenient and embarrassing to recall. Erasure, as we have seen, is
1
We have been inspired here, first, by the notion of the linguistic performative and speech act theory as
developed by J.L. Austin (1962). Second, we have borrowed Benedict Andersons idea of the nation to imply
that race, too, imagines a community, that race operates as a social-imaginary.
529
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
integral to the installation of power and dominance: the elimination or curtailment of citizen
and legal rights, whether in the Jacobean unification controversy or the Romanization of
barbarians; the eradication of personal identities as in the masques requisite surrender of
blackness as objectionable; or the distortion of history at the hands of cultural legislators by
the rewriting of the traditions of blackness, language, and beauty. At the same time, race from
the English perspective also requires forgetting, the erasure of a national history of color and,
more importantly, linguistic barbarism, a strategy that underwrites the notion of moral
superiority and justifies cultural projection. Thus we can conclude from the indispensable
thesis of Ernest Renans What is a Nation?: Forgetting, I would even go so far as to say
historical error, is a crucial factor in the creation of a nation. In the end, race is a self-
validating dream act that institutes social dominance through multiple acts of denial and
displacement.
When African characters appeared on the English Renaissance stage, their colour was,
admittedly, a striking visual feature. Aaron, Mully, Zanche, Eleazar: for these exemplary
types, blackness constituted an indelible and mostly negative part of the Africans identity in
the periods dramatic literature; unfavourable descriptions of Aaron as black ill-favoured fly
and a coal-black Moor are typical. 2The offstage world of exploration, nascent colonial
expansion, and burgeoning international trade supplied historical and material contexts in
which cross-cultural encounter resulted in a similar colour consciousness. Winthrop Jordans
landmark study White over Black concludes confidently that the most arresting characteristic
of the newly discovered African was his colour. Whether probing the intersections with
gender, sexuality, and religion or arguing the impact of proto-colonial, colonial, and imperial
pressures on the formation of cross-national identities, studies on race in the Renaissance have
relied on colour as a rudimentary aspect of the cultural politics of difference.
Differences between various religions, languages, skin colours, and family
arrangements were fascinating to European royalty, colonists, merchants, intellectuals,
writers, readers, and playgoers, as is evident from the hundreds of books, pamphlets, sermons,
and performances of the early modern period which focused upon these issues. The question
of difference had previously been central to the literature generated by the Crusades and by
the encounters between Jews, Christians, and Muslims in Europe. In Shakespeare's day, as
Europeans searched for new markets and colonies abroad, they became culturally more open,
and yet in many ways more insular. They began to bring in foreign slaves, and to trade with
outsiders, but also to expel those they considered foreign from within their own nations.
They became increasingly aware of the power, wealth, and learning of other peoples, of the
precise histories and geographies of worlds beyond Europe, and yet this awareness often only
intensified expressions of European and Christian superiority. The debates about religious,
cultural, and bodily difference generated during this period were profoundly to shape the
development of racial thinking over the next 400 years.
Kim Hall points out that, by repeating the notion that by 1605 the conceit of
blackness in a court masque was by no means a new invention, critics have effectively
2
All citations from Titus Andronicus follow the Arden edition. Unless otherwise indicated, all quotations from
Shakespeare follow The Riverside Shakespeare. The famous Peacham drawing, a contemporaneous stage
illustration, unique in English theater history, confirms the visual impact of color in its conflated scene from
Titus Andronicus.
530
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
nullified the racial significance of colour in the by subsuming it within theatre history (Hall,
1995: 128). Stephen Orgel launches the counter-charge that our tendency to perceive race via
slavery and imperialism has distorted our ability to understand blackness in this Renaissance
masque (Orgel, 2002: 195).3His adamant objection is ubiquitous; he identifies blackness and
skin color in The Merchant of Venice as more related to xenophobia, something the English
understood well, than about racism (2002: 198). Similarly, in his reading of Elizabeths
expulsion order against Negroes and blackamoors in 1601, Orgel separates the
commodification of blacks as owned property from the fact of their blackness to admit
xenophobia but not racism (2002: 200). As a result, he will concede, the spectacle of Queen
Anne and her ladies as blacks, that is, as marketable commodities and rich possessions, is
surely not irrelevant to the ages construction of women generally; but with that limited
admission, Orgel dismisses race from the analysis (2002: 201). While granting Orgels
argument that the masque uses blackness to represent antithetical court values, YumnaSiddiqi
contends that given the momentous contact of Renaissance England with Africa and
Africans, masques represent not only the workings of absolutist ideology within the court
circle, but also its negotiation of racial alterity. 4
Four of Shakespeares plays deal with non-white characters: Titus Andronicus,
Othello, Antony and Cleopatra, and The Tempest, while in The Merchant of Venice we have
non-Christian characters. Aaron and Othello are North-African Moors, Cleopatra is Egyptian
though her belonging to the African race is only superficially hinted at; Calibans race is not
very well defined, readers understanding him as a savage from the recently discovered islands
and other territories, perhaps an Indian, while Shylock is a money-lending Jew of Venice.
There are a few other characters who contribute to the general picture of Shakespeares
perception of a racial Other: Othellos mother (only mentioned in relation to the
handkerchief); Shylocks daughter Jessica and his friend Tubal, but also Portias African
suitor, the Prince of Morocco, and the Moor woman (The Merchant of Venice); Aaron and
Tamoras black baby (Titus Andronicus); and Calibans mother (who, according to Caliban,
was from Algiers, that is of North African origin). Thus, we have five female Others
Othellos mother, Jessica, Cleopatra, Sycorax, and Launcelots Moor, and seven males
Othello, Aaron, Shylock, Caliban, the Prince of Morocco, and Aarons baby.
Thus far we have encountered a number of opposites: Whites vs. Blackamoors,
Europeans vs. Jews, Europeans vs. Turks, Europeans vs. savages; or, Christians vs. Muslims,
Gentiles vs. Jews, or, to simplify things, Christian vs. Pagans whatever their faith. These are
instances when non-white and non-Christian characters are marginalized to the extent that
they become victims of prejudice and even racism.
George Bests famous quote from 1578 on the alleged encounter between an African
and a white woman an early example of miscegenation illustrates the curiosity Europeans
had about foreign peoples, especially West Africans. The English interpreted Africans in
3
We inevitably see Blackamoors through the history of black slavery and of modern racism, Orgel contends,
but in 1605 the English view of blacks was more complex, and the language of racism was principally applied
to the Irish, where it obviously had nothing to do with skin color (2002: 195).
4
In this period of expanding global networks, William Over suggests that making Africans familiar is an
important market objective: Jonson constructs an interculturaldiscourse wherein the African figures are
fashioned as familiar, commensurate with a seventeenth-century European self-conception an effect
thatreduces the threat from alien identities and supports Englands nascent quest for global markets (27).
531
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
many different ways in the first century of contact with them, casting them as the other based
on their different religion, nation, and societal structure. However, the blackness of the
African was what fascinated them. Blackness was the feature that was mentioned first in
travellers accounts. Africans were both appreciated and feared for their blackness; ultimately
Africans became defined by their blackness. Creating categories of humanity based on the
colour of ones skin was not done before the 17th century. English definitions of the term race
were rooted in a concept of lineage, of individuals derived from a common source. When this
notion of common origin was applied to colours of skin, it paved the way for racism. 5
We should be aware that the change of understanding race in Early Modern Britain
was a lengthy process, which did not occur quickly, automatically, or completely. The reasons
for this change are complex, and they depend upon an integrated set of conditions. Therefore,
George Bests quote may be seen as a useful framework for examining the conditions that
allowed for change.
To be more precise, the status of Africans in the 16th century was not very well-
defined: they were often assimilated with different others, such as the Arabs (Moors,
Egyptians, Barbarians), Turks and Asians, to which the newly-discovered Americans were
added. This unspecified status changed in the century to come. Even if the competing
Portuguese, Dutch, and Spanish traders had been frequently trading with and in Africans
during the seventeenth century, England saw its first sub-Saharan Africans as mid-century.
Commenting on the white-black relationship in the seventeenth to eighteenth
centuries, Karl Westhauser argues that ever since the blacks made their appearance on the
social stage we have witnessed a form of multicultural ideology. In support of his
demonstration, the analyst refers to the traditional annual parades organized for the
inauguration of the new Lord Mayor of London. These celebrations presented conflicting
understandings of race. Conventionally, maps presented diversity by situating the four
continents as the four corners of the world a convenient solution for a printed, rectangular
page. However, during the pageants organized, both Africa and Asia were presented as equal
a surprising approach at the time of the official beginnings of the slave trade in England
and the Africans in the pageant were not shown in a servile position, or as paying tribute to
the Europeans. Moreover, the pageants included direct references to geographic features or
important persons in Africa and Asia, which means a more intimate understanding from the
pageant creators and the audience of the African and Asian countries.
Bibliography
BEST, George. Discourse (1578), in The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and
Discoveries of the English Nation, ed. Richard Hakluyt (New York: AMS, 1965)
GURGOURIS, Stathis. Dream Nation: Enlightenment, Colonization and the Institution of
Modern Greece. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996)
5
The first work to look at for an examination of race in Britain is Peter Fryers, Black People in the British
Empire: An Introduction (London: Pluto Press, 1988).The best scholarship in the field of race construction is
Jordan Winthrops White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550 1812 (North Carolina:
University of North Carolina Press, 1968). Karl Westhauser has an excellent article in response to Winthrop
which focuses on the English origins, Revisiting the Jordan Thesis: 'White over Black
532
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
HALL, Kim. Things of Darkness: Economies of Race and Gender in Early Modern England.
(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1995)
LOOMBA, Ania. Shakespeare, Race and Colonialism (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2002).
WESTHAUSER, Karl E. Revisiting the Jordan Thesis: White over Black in Seventeenth-
Century England and America. The Journal of Negro History, 85 (Summer, 2000): 112-122.
533
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE VANISHING HITCHHIKER IN ROMANIAN URBAN LEGENDS
Oana-Ctlina VOICHICI, Assistant, PhD Candidate, Valahia University of
Trgovite
Abstract: The vanishing hitchhiker or the phantom hitchhiker is one of the most popular
urban legends. The common version involves a driver who picks up a girl standing alone by
the road. She usually indicates an address, but, at some point, she disappears before reaching
the destination, or, in some stories, after she gets off the car. The following article is an
analysis of several versions circulating in Romania in point of characters, setting, functions
of this urban legend.
Keywords: vanishing hitchhiker, urban legend, cautionary tale, ghost, suspense
The vanishing hitchhiker or the phantom hitchhiker1 is one of the most popular
urban legends. The legend circulates throughout the world and, though the most popular and
published examples come from the United States and Great Britain, there are cases in Europe,
Africa and Australia as well2. The story has several variants, but the best known is that about
a lonely young woman wandering by the road who is taken by a driver in his car. Usually, the
girl sits on the backseat; sometimes she is quiet, sometimes she tells the driver an address she
wants to be taken to. At one point, she vanishes without a trace, either from the vehicle in
motion or after she arrives at the destination. The intrigued drivers later investigations reveal
that she was a supernatural entity, a ghost.
The first thorough studies on the legend of the vanishing hitchhiker belong to the
American anthropologists Richard K. Beardsley and Rosalie Hankey who, in early 1940s,
published The Vanishing Hitchhiker (1942) and A History of the Vanishing Hitchhiker
(1943). Their research was based on a corpus of 76 stories collected from 60 different
locations in the United States of America. Initially, the authors had intended to connect the
legend to a real incident. They failed and so did their attempts to identify the original story.
1
The Anglo-Saxon terminology imposed such terms as vanishing/disappearing hitchhiker, ghostly
hitchhiker/phantom hitchhiker.
2
On the east coast of Africa, the hitchhiker takes the shape of a young woman who is given a ride by truck
drivers. At a certain moment, the truck driver looks at his beautiful companion and notices that the girl is
actually a jinni, her feet are goat hooves, at which point she laughs and disappears. In Australia, the legend
speaks about a group of teenagers who go out for a ride every weekend in search of girls and fun. One night,
they see a girl hitchhiking by the road and offer to give her a lift home but, when they arrive at a deserted
intersection, she asks them to stop the car. They refuse, the girl starts to scream and vanishes and the youths have
an accident at the crossroads. Soon after, the owner of the car decides to sell it because he cannot get the nagging
smell of decay out of the vehicle. In other versions, hitchhikers are young men (one who has wet clothes as if he
had fallen into the river nearby he hitchhikes vanishes from the vehicle leaving behind a puddle of water on the
backseat). In some French versions, before disappearing from the car, young female hitchhikers warn the drivers
about a dangerous intersection ahead; in the end, it is revealed that they lost their lives in car crashes at that very
spot. In another legend, a boy gets on a doctors automobile and shows him the route he has to follow to reach
the destination. He drives a few kilometres up a mountain road and, while the boy becomes increasingly agitated,
hears people screaming. The boy asks him to stop and points to a steep. A school bus had crashed and the
children needed help. Eventually, the rescue team finds that the only one who didnt survive was precisely the
boy taken by the doctor in his car.
534
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Unable to find anything similar in the old folk tradition, Beardsley and Hankey concluded, in
1943, that the legend was new, a product of the previous 20 years: a story that is in no sense
a survival from an outdated culture, but stands as a fully-fledged representative of the
contemporary tale (Beardsley, Hankey, 1943: 16). While analysing the corpus of stories, the
authors proposed four types of variants (Beardsley, Hankey, 1942: 305). In version A stories,
the ghost gets in the car, indicates an address and disappears. The driver goes to that address
and here he finds that the passenger has in fact been dead for several years. This first model
comprises stories which Beardsley and Hankey consider to be closest to the original legend.
In version B, the traveller offers to give a ride to an old woman who, during the journey,
issues a warning or prophecy and vanishes from the car. Later on, the motorist receives
information that she died some time ago. Version C deals with a young man who meets a girl
at a dance and offers her a ride; she asks to be left at a graveyard and disappears. The driver
learns that the girl is dead, which is confirmed by some personal objects being left on her
grave. Finally, in version D legends, a mysterious old lady with a basket in her hand is given a
ride and disappears, with the driver later discovering that his passenger is a Hawaiian
goddess.
The typology suggested by Beardsley and Hankey failed the test of time. Apart from
the fact that they considered the legend to be dying out (Beardsley, Hankey, 1943: 22), the
four categories are maybe too restrictive and complicated. Folklorist Gillian Bennett argues
that, alongside the apparitions identified as ghosts in the stories they collected, nowadays
there are texts in which hitchhikers are aliens, angels, demons, evil spirits, Jesus, Virgin
Mary, etc. (Bennett, 1998: 4).
In the decades that followed the publication of Richard K. Beardsley and Rosalie
Hankeys studies, many researchers focused on the legend of the vanishing hitchhiker. Of
them, we should mention the American folklorist Jan Harold Brunvand whose debut volume,
The Vanishing Hitchhiker: American Urban Legends and Their Meanings (1981), a collection
of contemporary legends having as central piece precisely that under discussion (as suggested
by the title itself), significantly contributed to bringing this story to the attention of the public
at large.
A Fulbright scholar in Romania in 1970, Jan Harold Brunvand would indentify in
the classic urban legend The Vanishing Hitchhiker the existence of three elements specific to
the Romanian tradition: two women are offered a ride; the driver accidentally leaves a
personal object in their apartment; when he comes back to recover it, he finds the apartment
locked and is told that the women died a long time ago (Brunvand, 2001: 357). According to
Brunvand, the existence of this legend was attested in our country by its appearance in
literature. For example, in the first chapter (Marea roie) of the novel Vntoarea regal
(written by Dumitru Radu Popescu and published in 1973), the character-narrator, who had
been involved in an accident, got in the car with two old women and found they were
planning the murder of another character (Horia Dunrinu), that had disappeared some time
before. The narrator was then invited to tea and, upon departure, he left his cigarette case in
the two ladies apartment. He came the next day to retrieve it but found, with overwhelming
amazement, that they had been stabbed to death 12 days before.
535
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
In Romanian urban legends about the vanishing hitchhiker 3 the passenger is, without
exception, female. In most cases they are young women and what draws attention is that
3
The analysis of this motif has considered the following versions (the English translation belongs to the author):
1. A normal working day for a taxi driver in Giurgiu. At some point, a chick in a wedding dress gets in and tells
the driver to take her to Nicolae Titulescu street and leave her in front of an old house. Once they arrive there,
the chick gives the cabbie her wedding ring because she has no money on her. His shift over, he shows the ring
to a friend who, on learning the chicks name, says she has been dead for dozens of years, that she killed herself
when her husband got run over by a car on coming out of the church they had been married. Not believing this
story, the cabbie and his friend go to the place he took her earlier and noticed a deserted house. The taxi drivers
friend advised him to bury the ring in the place the two spouses were buried in the Smrda cemetery, otherwise
he will be cursed for life. (http://mituriurbane.vira.ro/mituri-urbane/79/taximetristul-blestemat/)
2. In Trivale, a neighbourhood in Piteti, Arge county, urban legends speak about an abandoned house, in the
forest nearby the quarter, haunted by a dead bride, a ghost, that committed suicide because her husband got run
over by a car and died on their wedding day. This cabbie is said to have taken the bride deep into the woods, at
that particular house, where she gave him her wedding ring for she had no money, but he should wait until she
went in and brought it to him. That she was coming from her wedding party, with her ring on her finger, she had
no place to keep her money, in her dress. The taxi driver suddenly fell asleep and woke up hours later in front of
a block of flats in Trivale, far from the forest, with the car engine stopped. He entered the building to investigate
the circumstances that had brought him there, to find out if the bride had lived there before the wedding. The
wedding, the cabbie learned, had actually happened 10 years earlier, not the previous day as he had thought. He
concluded his client was a ghost, went to the car to look for the proof, namely the shiny wedding ring wrapped in
a handkerchief, only to discover a finger in a state of advanced putrefaction with a ring that was time worn,
resembling a piece of iron freshly dug out.
(http://mituriurbane.vira.ro/mituri-urbane/79/taximetristul-blestemat/)
3. In the middle of the night, a taxi driver in Bucharest takes a thin, pale and very sad young woman who asks to
be given a ride home. Upon arrival, the girl confesses she has no money and begs him to accept a ring. The ring
on her finger. He accepts. The following day, thinking about the girls sadness, pity overwhelms him and decides
to return the ring. The man goes to that address, knocks at the door and an old man opens. The cabbie reveals
why he is there and hands in the ring. The elder looks at it with amazement, then he turns white and starts to
falter. Whispering, he asks the cabbie to describe the girl, listens and murmurs: It is my daughter you took last
night And this is her ring. But my daughter has been dead for ten years (http://mituriurbane.vira.ro/mituri-
urbane/79/taximetristul-blestemat/)
4. Bucharest, the 90s. Late at night. A cabbie yawns exhausted and looks at the watch. Soon his shift will be
over. A slight knock on his window makes him come to his senses. Two old ladies decently dressed get in and
tell him the address. During the journey, one of the women gets sick, faints and starts bleeding from the nose.
The driver stops at the address and helps the ladies climb the stairs. Grateful, they invite him in for a cup of
coffee. As he is tired, the cabbie accepts gladly. While coffee is being prepared, he goes to the bathroom, takes
off his watch to wash his hands and face, then he has his coffee, thanks the old ladies and leaves. Once he is at
home, he realises his watch is missing and remembers he has left it in the womens bathroom. He gets in his car,
returns there, knocks, but theres no answer. He rings the bell several times. Still no answer. A neighbour comes
and asks who he is looking for. The two old ladies living there. What old ladies? No ones been living here for
years! Another neighbour, a woman, comes with the keys of the house. She has been keeping them for some
heirs that live abroad. She unlocks. The house, filled with thick cobwebs, the furniture covered with dusty with
sheets. On a small dusty coffee table the driver sees a cup with some fresh dregs in it. He enters the bathroom,
and, under the thick layer of dust and spider webs, finds his watch. He exits, troubled, making the sign of the
cross, gets in the car. On the backseat a strap of white cloth is shining: a handkerchief stained with a few drops
of blood.
(http://forum.desprecopii.com/forum/topic.asp?TOPIC_ID=28817&ARCHIVE=true&nm=Legende-urbane-
Buhuhu)
5. This is said to have appeared in newspapers. It happened in Craiova. Around 11 p.m., a taxi driver picked up a
woman and, on the way, she started bleeding from her nostrils. The boy offered her a handkerchief and, when
they arrived, the woman left her wedding ring telling him the number of her apartment. 15 minutes later or so,
the boy rang at the door and the womans husband opened. They started an argument, the man calling the police
for he said the ring belonged to his wife who had been dead for three years. People say that, 8 months later, he
obtained an exhumation order and found the womans skeleton without the wedding ring but with a handkerchief
in her hand. (Cristina B.)
6. A taxi driver took a young lady from the cemetery at 2 at night He drove to the address indicated. Once they
arrived, the girl didnt have money to pay so she gave him her gold chain as a guarantee she would return with
536
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
almost all wear wedding dresses, while the narrator insists on their attractiveness: an
extraordinarily beautiful girl or a bride of unrivalled beauty. In some versions her ghostly
features are alluded to: a thin, pale and very sad young woman or two ghostly figures. As
for the other protagonist of the story, more often than not he is taxi driver. His job provides a
perfectly logical excuse to take anybody in his car, however strange they might look, and
drive them any place, no matter how bizarre he might find it.
The action takes place, almost always, late at night or in the evening for the unusual
incident requires a mysterious, even sinister setting, particularly when the listener learns that
the cabbie takes his customer deep into the forest, or that she requires to be driven to or from
the money. Waiting about a quarter of an hour or so, the cabbie went to the gate and started shouting angrily.
Some time later, a woman came out, rather scared, asking what was happening. He replied he was waiting for the
girl to pay the fare and showed the chain that had a picture in a heart-shaped locket, saying the girl had left it as a
guarantee. When she saw it, the woman, stupefied, said that was her daughter who had died 2 years before in a
taxi cab crash. Ive heard this story from my uncle, who is a taxi driver. (Petra .)
7. I work as a cab driver. One night, I was in my car at the stand waiting for customers, listening to some music.
Suddenly a woman got in and asked to be driven to Dumbrava Cemetery and I should wait for her there for 5
minutes. Twenty minutes later, the woman came out of the cemetery, and told me to take her to a house
(naturally, that house seemed to have been abandoned a long time before) and wait for her again. 10-15 minutes
later, she came out of the house and asked me once again to drive her to the cemetery and again wait for no more
than 5 minutes. Indeed, 5 minutes later she came out and told me to take her again to that house we had been to
half an hour earlier. Once we were there, she said she had no money to pay the fare but she would give me her
husbands gold wedding ring in exchange I thought the ring was worth more than the fare and accepted.
Anyway, 3-4 weeks later, I took an order to go to that deserted house a gentleman with an impressive stature
got in and saw that ring on my finger. Naturally, he recognised it as his name was engraved on it, asked where I
had it from and I replied that, 3 weeks before, I had taken a lady from the cemetery to that house and back
several times and, since she had had no money to pay, she had offered me the wedding ring. What that man told
me was a shocker. He said that wedding ring was from his wife, but his wife had been dead for two years
(http://www.pixme.org/despre-orice/povesti-cu-fantome/211/comment-page-6#comments)
8. An extraordinarily beautiful girl hitchhikes in a less-travelled area. A man, who is unmarried, offers her a ride.
The girl screams in terror at some point, the man brakes and crashes the car into a footbridge or a rock while the
girl mysteriously vanishes from the backseat. The man goes to the police and declares what has happened. They
show him some photos in which he recognises the beautiful hitchhiker and finds out that shes been actually
dead for some time, losing her life in a car crash in precisely that location where he had the accident
9. A cabbie takes an order to go and pick up somebody from a wedding. A younger colleague, unmarried, asks to
be given the order as it is his last race that evening. Nobody knows what happened, but the young cabbie died
that night in a car accident. Witnesses who saw him before he died say they noticed someone on the backseat, a
bride of unrivalled beauty.
10. Soon after the Revolution, an activist from the former womens Communist Party Organisation went for a
meeting in a village on the Some valley, Letca or Lozna, I do not know exactly. The official meeting was
followed by a more informal one with cakes, coffee and some palinka, then the peasant women went on
gossiping, feeling glad they had been given the chance to get away, even for a short while, from the household
activities. It was dark when they called it off. As the storyteller had some relative in Dej, the propaganda team
did not return to Zalu, for the distance was longer and the road was bumpy, but went up the valley. Next to the
village of Rus there is a junction where one can turn right and cross the bridge to Simina or Zalha. If one goes
straight on, theres the railroad and the Some river on the right and an endless steep slope with a thick forest on
the left. From whatever point one comes, once they reach the bridge and see the open space of the meadow
beyond, they feel a burden get off their chest and take a breath of fresh air.
Well, it is here, at this junction, that they saw two ghostly figures in the headlights, waving at them to stop. The
driver intended to stop, but the other passengers asked they should went further, it was too crowded in the car, it
was late and they were rushing to Dej. When they passed the hitchhikers, they heard clearly some wailing voices
asking repeatedly: Take us too! Do not leave us here!
The driver got very scared, accelerated and rushed, leaving the nebulous creatures behind. On arrival in Dej, they
told their kinsfolk what had happened and learned that it was indeed something out of the ordinary, for in that
particular place a horrible car accident had occurred a few days earlier and two people had died. (Caiete silvane,
33 / October 2007, pp. 42-43.)
537
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
a cemetery. There is however a version which sets the story on a normal working day
significantly, in my opinion, for two reasons. First, because nothing hints at a potential
abnormal situation and the audience will be all the more surprised by the odd events. Second,
because, at night, senses are numb (in a story the cabbie yawns exhausted), therefore it is
possible for the nocturnal driver to confuse natural with supernatural objects; in broad
daylight, all is clear and thus the storyteller means that it is impossible that this should not
have truly happened. In other words, he validates the truth of the events about to occur.
Then, there are details which point to location - the name of the city, neighbourhood, street, -
that emphasise authenticity, give veracity to the event.
Once characters presented and setting established, the audience is introduced into the
plot: the two arrive at the destination, the girl claims she has no money and offers the driver
her wedding ring (or any other personal object, usually a piece of jewellery), as a guarantee,
with the promise that she will return shortly with the money. So far, nothing out of the
ordinary. But when the passenger fails to appear, the cabbie goes to claim his payment. He
knocks at the door and is confronted with a troubling situation: the customer had died a long
time before. Those who make the disclosure are frequently members of the family: a father,
mother or husband, who identify the jewel brought by the driver as having belonged to the
woman. In the version where the girl vanishes from the vehicle in motion and the cabbie is
involved in a car crash, he learns from the police that the hitchhiker had long died in an
accident precisely in that place where he wrecked his car.
It is now that the listener finds what caused her death: more often than not, the girl
committed suicide because her husband died in a car accident on their wedding day (which
explains her garments) or she herself fell victim to such a violent occurrence. Sometimes, this
information is missing. Either way, the unexpected revelation is the climax of the story,
amplified by the contrast between the common, explicit details in the beginning and the
disclosure regarding the identity of the passenger.
As for the material evidence left by the ghost, the Canadian researcher Gail de Vos
states that it is not the actual disappearance of the ghost that distinguishes this legend from
other ghostlore. Rather, it is the explanation for the disappearance and the physical evidence
that is left behind (de Vos, 1996: 342). For modern society to accept that a supernatural
encounter takes place, concrete evidence must be provided; and these are, alongside data on
the location of the incident, those precise objects which credit the event.
In the legend about the passenger getting sick and with the bleeding nose, the
handkerchief offered by the driver is found on the womans grave, in the skeletons hand,
after exhumation. In another story, the driver unwraps the handkerchief in which he put the
new shiny wedding ring and finds a finger in a state of advanced putrefaction with a ring that
was time worn, resembling a piece of iron freshly dug out. The cabbie who leaves his watch
in the two old ladies apartment discovers it, the next day, under a thick layer of dust and
spider webs. These are horror details given by the narrator to make an impression on his
audience and thus reach his goal: the listener is afraid, the legend triggers feelings of anxiety,
suspense.
The vanishing hitchhiker legends picture the image of an innocent victim. Though
there are innocents involved, death picks these people randomly. In Gillian Bennetts words,
they have had their life ripped from them by injustice, violence, or accident; they have died
538
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
separated from their homes and families; and, above all, they have died in the fullness of
life, on the threshold of a new joys yet cheated of life's promise (Bennett, 1998: 11). The
ghosts are girls who died on their wedding day or shortly before, therefore before they could
enjoy lifes simplest pleasures. They probably reappear in an attempt to live these pleasures
that were denied to them, hence to fulfil the purpose of life.
Ghosts know exactly where they want to go: home. They do not find their peace
because violent accidents separated them from the loved ones and now they seek to re-enter
their family circles. This may suggest how important it is for a human being not to die alone,
far from their family and without the chance to say goodbye. Therefore, one of the functions
of this legend is to suggest an unfulfilled life.
The fact that someone close to the dead provides the revealing information
emphasises the sadness of an untimely death and, at the same time, undermines the audiences
potential scepticism regarding the supernatural character of the drivers encounter with the
ghost (after all, a parent could not mistake their childs identity).
Sometimes, two people witness the incident (the storyteller and the taxi driver).
Thus, the narrator gives more weight to his words. Alone and with reduced visibility, it would
have been easier and even explainable for the driver to have imagined it all or hallucinated.
There is a rational alternative for the supernatural explanation. With at least two witnesses,
this alternative becomes less plausible, as it would assume that more than two or more
persons simultaneously had the same hallucination (Main, Hobbs, 2012: 29).
Hence, another function of the vanishing hitchhiker legend, that of validating the
supernatural, accepting the supernatural as the only logical explanation for the related
incidents.
Ghosts are not good or evil, they are rather neuter. Nevertheless, there are legends
which reveal that the apparition entails negative consequences: the drivers get injured or die.
One such example is the legend about the Troia Miresei or Troia Margaretei, a cross-
shaped monument built on National Road 7, in the vicinity of Geti, a town in Dmbovia
County. Legend has it that, in the 1930s, a young bride died here on her wedding day.
Margareta was the daughter of a boyar from Cmpulung Muscel and daughter-in-law of
architect Ion Mincu. The newlyweds were returning from the religious ceremony that had
taken place in Bucharest, and were going to Cmpulung for their wedding party. On the way,
the tragic event happened: a car accident with only one victim, the bride. In her memory, her
father had a cross built. Since then, many accidents have happened even though the road is
straight, so people believe it is the soul of the dead bride that keeps looking for the lover she
was separated from. The victims of these tragedies are frequently men. In only one year
(2008-2009) 12 youths died, especially unmarried men. Survivors do not remember much
either, but some witnesses say they saw the ghost of a woman in bridal garments.
A similar story is that of the bride of the Radovan Forest (Dolj County), only now it
deals with a very beautiful young woman who hanged herself on the branches of a tree
because, on the eve of her wedding, she was raped by her employer. Unable to bear the
burden of shame, she committed suicide. They say her soul wanders about in the forest where
she found her death for here the number of car crashes is inexplicably and suspiciously large
since the road is straight and smooth.
539
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
In conclusion, the legends about the vanishing hitchhiker become cautionary stories
which function as warnings about the dangers lurking on the road, especially at night
(warnings such as do not stray from the path, keep your eyes wide open or do not take
strangers in your car). Furthermore, as we have seen, they suggest an unfulfilled life that was
prematurely ended. And, finally, they say that not only does the supernatural exist, but we
should fear it. It is human to fear what is beyond, what we cannot understand and is not
subject to the natural laws. After all, it is but natural to fear death.
Primary sources
http://mituriurbane.vira.ro
(http://www.pixme.org/despre-orice/povesti-cu-fantome/211/comment-page-6#comments)
http://forum.desprecopii.com/forum/topic.asp?TOPIC_ID=28817&ARCHIVE=true&nm=Leg
ende-urbane-Buhuhu
http://www.dinosoria.com/fantome.htm
http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auto-stoppeuse_fant%C3%B4me#cite_note-13
Secondary sources
Beardsley Richard K. i Hankey, Rosalie (1942): The Vanishing Hitchhiker in California
Folklore Quarterly, Vol. 1, no. 4, pp. 303-335, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1495600 (accessed
on 30.04.2013)
Beardsley Richard K., Hankey, Rosalie (1943): A History of the Vanishing Hitchhiker in
California Folklore Quarterly, Vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 13-25, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1495651
(accessed on 30.04.2013)
Bennett, Gillian (1998): The Vanishing Hitchhiker at Fifty-Five in Western Folklore, Vol.
57, no. 1, pp. 1-17, http://www.jstor.org/stable/1500246 (accessed on 30.04.2013)
Brunvand, Jan Harold (2001): Encyclopedia of Urban Legends, Santa Barbara, California,
ABC-CLIO
De Vos, Gail (1996): Tales, Rumors, and Gossip. Exploring Contemporary Folk Literature in
Grades 7-12, Westport, Libraries Unlimited
Main, David and Hobbs, Sandy (2012): The Phantom Hitchhiker: An alternative
perspective in Tradition Today, V2, pp. 24-32, http://centre-for-english-traditional-
heritage.org/TraditionToday2/TT2_Main_Hobbs.pdf (accessed on 30.04.2013)
540
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
RED COLOUR AND ITS TINTS IN TRANSLATION: THE MASQUE OF THE RED
DEATH BY EDGAR ALLAN POE
Arina POLOZOVA, PhD Candidate, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai
Abstract: This article is devoted to the comparative analysis of four texts: Edgar Allan Poes
short story The Masque of the Red Death and its three Russian translations those made
by N.V. Shelgunov (1874), K.D. Balmont (1901) and R.N. Pomerantseva (1976). Special
attention is going to be paid to the translation of the colour terms denoting red and its tints.
Colour terms have proved to be a highly important element of an artistic text: in quite a few
works of verbal art it is their repeated use that helps a careful reader to penetrate into the
authors purport. In this article we focus on the red colour as it has already been shown to be
dominant in the short story under discussion the colour of blood, fear and danger;
moreover, it clearly stands out in the text of the story, even though a variety of other colour
words is used by the author. What we are after is to see whether the texts of translations
preserve the connotations meant by the author and to discover if the resultant impression
produced by the Russian texts corresponds to that of the original.
Keywords: colour terms, the red colour, Edgar Allan Poes prose, comparative analysis,
translation studies
The present article focuses on the comparative translation analysis of colour terms
denoting tints of red in the short story The Masque of the Red Death by Edgar Allan Poe.
The most vivid element of the expression plane of the story is, obviously, the red colour it
appears even in its title. That is the reason why this particular novel is of great interest for our
purposes.
We shall not dwell too much on the personality of the author Edgar Allan Poe is a
well-known American wiriter belonging to the romantic movement of the XIX century. The
most distinctive features of his works of verbal art include originality and unexpectedness,
hopeless melancholy and sense of futility, the combination of the horrible and the comic,
special interest to death and torture, and the so-called crisis world-view1. The elements
widely used by Edgar Poe in his novels are borrowed from the European Gothic tradition 2;
moreover, he not only uses these elements, but also elaborates them, creating a remarkable
investigation of abnormal psychological states and obsessional behaviour 3.
The Masque of the Red Death (1842) is one of the most famous short stories by
Edgar Allan Poe. Its plot perfectly fits into the picture described above: the scene is set at the
abbey where Prince Prospero and his noblemen flee the Red Death a terrible desease spread
in the country. One night Prospero holds a masquerade ball in seven rooms, each of them of a
different colour blue, purple, green, orange, white, violet and black. At midnight a stranger
appears: its robe resembles a funeral shroud and his mask is that of the stiffened corpse with
1
Solovyova, N.A. (coord.) (1991) Istoria zarubezhnoy literatury XIX veka. Moskva: Vysshaya shkola, p. 378.
2
Whitley, John S. Introduction in Poe, E.A. (2000) Tales of Mystery and Imagination. London: Wordsworth
classics, p. XV.
3
Ibid.
541
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
the traits of the Red Death. Prince Prospero pursues the figure, but fails to capture it: when the
stranger turns to face him, Prospero falls dead. When the mask and the robe are removed from
the figure, the noblemen see no solid form underneath. They suddenly realize that is was the
Red Death itself and, contracted, all the guests die of this horrible disease. "And Darkness and
Decay and the Red Death held illimitable dominion over all." 4
As has already been shown, the text is reach in colour terms, both direct and indirect 5.
Obviously, the dominant colour in the story is red the colour of blood and death occurring
in the text of the original 19 times. The aim and purpose of this article is to see whether the
general atmosphere of the story is rendered and whether the associations and connotations
meant by the author are preserved in the texts of Russian translations.
In so far as we have chosen the colour term red, its tints and their translation for the
analysis, we should first concentrate on the general picture i.e. to present the correlation of
the colour terms in the English original and their Russian equivalents in the translation in
tabular form. The three Russian translations chosen for this purpose are those by N.V.
Shelgunov (1874) 6 1, K.D. Balmont (1901)7 2 and R.N. Pomerantseva (1976) 8 3. In the
tables that follow the texts of the translations are arranged chronologically, from the earlier to
the latest ones:
Table 1. Translation 1.
the original red scarlet ruddy blood purple
the translation
krasny 5 3 1 1
aly 1
krovavy 2
purpurovy 2
puntsovy 1
4
Poe, E.A. (2000) Tales of Mystery and Imagination. London: Wordsworth classics, p. 201.
5
Polozova, A. (2013) The red colour in The Masque of the Red Death by Edgar Allan Poe in Branite,
Ludmila, Nimigean, Gina (coord.) (2013) Diversitatea lingvistic i dialogul intercultural n procesul de
comunicare. Vol. 2. Iai: Editura Vasiliana, Chiinu: Editura Universitii Pedagogice de Stat Ion Creang.
6
Poe, E.A. (1874) Maska Krasnoy smerti (perevod Nikolaya Shelgunova): http://bookmate.com/r#d=L6uIN4ic
(consulted on 25.11.13).
7
Poe, E.A. (1901) Maska Krasnoy Smerti (perevod K.D. Balmonta) in Sobranie sochineniy Edgara Poe v
perevode s adgliyskogo K.D. Balmonta. Tom pervy. Poemy, skazki. Moskva: Knigoizdatelstvo Skorpion.
8
Poe, E.A. (2010) Maska Krasnoy smerti (perevod R.N. Pomerantsevoy) in Edgar Allan Poe. Maloye sobranie
sochineniy. Sankt-Peterburg: Azbuka.
542
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Table 2. Translation 2.
the original red scarlet ruddy blood purple
the translation
krasny 6 1
yarko-krasny 3
aly 2
krovavy 2
purpurny 3
Table 3. Translation 3.
the original red scarlet ruddy blood purple
the translation
krasny 5 1 3
bagrovy/bagryany 2 3 1
purpurny 1
Thus, it is not difficult to see that the texts of the three translations differ greatly in the
choice and variety of the colour terms. In the present article we shall try and analyse the cases
where these translations differ in this respect and arrive at some conclusions concerning the
impact produced on the reader and the colour image created in his or her minds eye.
Our next step would be to analyze the functioning of the colour terms under discussion
in the text of The Masque of the Red Death. However, before proceeding to red and its
tints, we shall adduce a passage from the story and see how various colour terms function in
the text. The first example comes from the opening passage of the story in which the plague
ravishing the country and the symptoms of the deadly disease are described:
The Red Death had long devastated the country. No pestilence had ever been
so fatal, or so hideous. Blood was its Avatar and its sealthe redness and the
horror of blood. There were sharp pains, and sudden dizziness, and then profuse
bleeding at the pores, with dissolution. The scarlet stains upon the body and
especially upon the face of the victim, were the pest ban which shut him out from
the aid and from the sympathy of his fellow-men. And the whole seizure, progress,
and termination of the disease, were the incidents of half an hour. The scarlet
543
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
stains upon the body and especially upon the face of the victim, were the pest ban
which shut him out from the aid and from the sympathy of his fellow-men.
The author introduces the plague theme at once. Obviously, the general purport of the
passage is to impress the reader with the horror of the situation and, to a certain extent, to fill
him with fear. To create this effect the author chooses the type of rhythm that can be
described as jerky: the syntagms are short and vary in their length. However, the syntagm the
scarlet stains upon the body and especially upon the face of the victim is much longer than the
preceding ones; thus, we may conclude that this was done deliberately in order to bring out
the passage. As can be seen, here the colour term scarlet is the first stressed syllable in the
contour, its first step which is (according to the rules of the Descending Scale, the basic
intonational contour of the English language) produced on a fairly high note and is, therefore,
quite prominent. The result is that the word which opens the contour is bound to attract the
listeners attention.
It should also be pointed out that in this sentence the author uses alliteration by
repeating the sound [s] (scarlet, stains, especially, face). This produces the effect of hissing
and makes the narration even tenser.
Let us now proceed with the confrontation of the English text with its Russian
translations.
Table 4. The Masque of the Red Death.
The original Translation 1 Translation 2 Translation 3
N.V. Shelgunov K.D. Balmont R.N. Pomerantseva
The scarlet stains , - ,
upon the body and ,
especially upon the , ,
face of the victim, -
were the pest ban , ,
which shut him out ,
from the aid and
from the sympathy
of his fellow-men. .
.
[]
As we can see from the confrontation table, the colour term scarlet is translated in
three different ways: rasny (1), yarko-krasny (2) and bagrovy (3). At first sight yarko-krasny
is the closest correspondence here to scarlet: as our study of the English explanatory
dictionaries has shown9, it indicates a colour that is not just red, but bright red. However,
there are two reasons why this choice seems to be debatable.
9
The present dictionary analysis was based on four explanatory dictionaries Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English, Longman Exams Dictionary, Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary and Cambridge
Advanced Learners Dictionary.
544
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
On the one hand, in terms of the cultural associations and connotations the tints of red
under discussion are meant to produce, bagrovy is markedly more negative than krasny or
yarko-krasny. In this sense it is stronger emotionally and better suited to create the
atmosphere of fear and danger. On the other hand, the author himself prompted a particular
tint of red that he associated with the colour term scarlet. It should be specially emphasized
that scarlet occurs in the opening paragraph of the story and it sets the scene, so to speak,
from the very beginning. Nevertheless, it is preceded by a very meaningful combination of
words in the first sentence of the passage the redness and the horror of blood. Since the
mentioning of blood comes first and scarlet follows it, the colour term is involuntarily
connected with the latter and the careful reader will not fail to notice this connection and to
form a particular picture of the tint of red that the author wanted to use here. Furthermore, two
passages later, the word blood occurs again - this time directly and unambiguously indicating
a tint of scarlet colour: The panes here were scarleta deep blood color. Thus, the author
imposes his own view of the tint under analysis and deliberately darkens it so as not to
mistake it for a cheerful bright tint which in Russian corresponds to aly.
As far as the prosodic organization of the extract is concerned, the colour term of the
second translation acquires additional strength because of its complexity: it is a complex word
consisting of two parts that are both stressed since the colour term is the first member of the
contour. As for the third translation, it even changes the place of the colour term in the
sentence. This results in the shift of accent from the colour term bagrovy to the word pyatna.
The next passage chosen for the analysis describes the Red Death passing slowly and
solemnly through the different rooms where the horrible masquerade was held:
But from a certain nameless awe with which the mad assumptions of the
mummer had inspired the whole party, there were found none who put forth
hand to seize him; so that, unimpeded, he passed within a yard of the princes
person; and, while the vast assembly, as if with one impulse, shrank from the
centres of the rooms to the walls, he made his way uninterruptedly, but with the
same solemn and measured step which had distinguished him from the first,
through the blue chamber to the purplethrough the purple to the green
through the green to the orangethrough this again to the whiteand even
thence to the violet, ere a decided movement had been made to arrest him.
In this passage we draw our attention to the rhythmical organization of the sentence
and the syntactic parallelism of the part of the sentence where the colour terms appear
(through the blue chamber to the purple, through the purple to the green, through the green to
the orange, through this again to the white, and even thence to the violet). The rhythm of the
sentence can be described as jerky since it consists of both small and extended rhythm units.
However, at the end of the passage, in the part where the colour terms appear, the rhythmical
units become similar in length as well as in their rhythmical organization.
Let us analyse the texts of the translations:
545
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Table 5. The Masque of the Red Death.
The original Translation 1 Translation 2 Translation 3
N.V. Shelgunov K.D. Balmont R.N. Pomerantseva
But from a certain -
nameless awe with , ,
which the mad , -
assumptions of the
mummer had inspired . ,
the whole party, there ,
were found none who , ,
put forth hand to seize
him; so that, ; , -
unimpeded, he passed ; -
within a yard of the
princes person; and, - ;
while the vast ,
assembly, as if with one ,
impulse, shrank from . ,
the centres of the
rooms to the walls, he , ,
made his way ,
uninterruptedly, but
with the same solemn ,
and measured step , , , ,
which had , -
distinguished him from ,
the first, through the , -
blue chamber to the ,
purplethrough the -
purple to the green ,
through the green to - ,
the orangethrough . . ,
this again to the .
whiteand even thence .
to the violet, ere a .
decided movement had
been made to arrest
him.
Here we see three different variants of rendering the word purple: puntsovy
(translation 1: ), purpurny (translation 2:
, ) and
krasny (translation 3: , - ).
546
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Moreover, we should point out that in the text of Shelgunovs translation the word puntsovy is
used only once, while in the other variants, including the original, the colour term is
mentioned twice, which doubles the impression. It is clear that all the three Russian colour
terms denote different tints purpurny is colder than krasny and puntsovy. The difference
here is also at the level of associations: purpurny is associated with a high social status, it is
largely perceived negatively, while krasny is more neutral from that point of view; at the same
time, puntsovy is used to describe the colour of cheeks of a young person who is embarrassed;
in the Russian language its connotations are meliorative in most cases. Thus, in the Russian
culture the most negatively perceived one of the three colour terms is purpurny; on the
contrary, puntsovy does not maintain the atmosphere of fear which dominates in the original.
It is important to mention here that colour can be expressed indirectly by words of
different parts of speech10. We shall now analyse two passages where the colour is rendered
by verbs. The first example we adduce describes the moment Prince Prospero sees the Red
Death:
When the eyes of the Prince Prospero fell upon this spectral image (which, with a
slow and solemn movement, as if more fully to sustain its role, stalked to and fro
among the waltzers) he was seen to be convulsed, in the first moment with a
strong shudder either of terror or distaste; but, in the next, his brow reddened
with rage.
As far as the rhythmical organization of the first part of the sentence is concerned, the
rhythm is enclosing the majority of the rhythmical units are short, apart from two at the
beginning and at the end (when the eyes of the Prince Prospero fell upon this spectral image;
in the first moment with a strong shudder either of terror or distaste), which are much longer.
However, after the semicolon there follow three small rhythmical units (but, in the next, his
brow reddened with rage). Such rhythmical organization produces the impression of fury and
anger; small rhythmical units resemble hard breathing.
In the final syntagms of the sentence there is another case of alliteration the
repetition of the sound [r] (brow, reddened, rage). The word reddened that denotes the colour
under discussion is one of the words bearing this sound, thus we assume that is the colour
here is additionally brought out. Moreover, the syntagm under discussion appears at the end
of the paragraph, thus, it is to be followed by a long pause.
The translations of this extract are presented below.
10
See Shkhvazabaya, T.I. (1985) Tsvetooboznacheniya v yazyke i rechi (na materiale angliyskogo yazyka).
Doctoral thesis. Moskva.
547
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Table 6. The Masque of the Red Death.
The original Translation 1 Translation 2 Translation 3
N.V. Shelgunov K.D. Balmont R.N. Pomerantseva
When the eyes of the
Prince Prospero fell ,
upon this spectral ,
image (which, with a , ( ,
slow and solemn ,
movement, as if ,
more fully to sustain ,
its role, stalked to , , ,
and fro among the ,
waltzers) he was ), -
seen to be convulsed, , -
in the first moment , ,
with a strong ,
shudder either of
terror or distaste; . ; .
but, in the next, his
brow reddened with
rage. .
Here we should point out that the colour term red occurring in the original text in the
form of the verb redden, is rendered as bagrovy pobagrovet only in Pomerantsevas
translation ( ). In the other two texts the
idea of red is rendered by the verb vspyhnut (translation 1:
, ; translation 2:
). As for its position in the sentence, it does not
change, still being accented at the end of the sentence. However, the word bagrovet better
renders the idea of anger and rage. Moreover, by using this word Pomerantseva creates the
repetition of the sound [] in the Russian text as well (, ), thus
contributing to the impact produced by the passage.
Having analyzed the colour terms in both texts and the resultant coloured picture and
the readers cultural perception of it, we shall formulate some conclusions as a result of our
research:
colour words are an indispensable part of Edgar Allan Poes prose; they not only
create a vivid picture in the minds eye of the reader, but also produce a particular kind of
atmosphere that of fear, horror and the grim sense of foreboding;
as far as the story The Masque of the Red Death is concerned, the colour term red
turns out to be of special importance here; it symbolizes death itself and is regularly referred
to as the colour of blood;
the confrontation of the original text and the text of the Russian translations has shown
that the colour terms in the translations are not always directly correlatable with those of the
original; this can be explained by the fact that, in some cases, translators see one and the same
colour differently; sometimes the translators choice of the word can be provoked by the
548
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
lexical environment: in order to bring out the sequence by means of alliteration; another
reason for such discrepancy can be the individual literary style of the translator and the poetic
cliches;
however, our research has shown that in some cases such deviations from the text of
the original help the translator to preserve the associations and connotations of a colour term
of the original text; on the contrary, if the translator seeks to most accurately render the tint of
the colour not paying attention to the connotations of the colour term he is about to use, he
risks to evoke opposite associations in the readers mind, which can result in the blurring of
the general picture of the original text; as far as The Masque of the Red Death is concerned,
the author deliberately chose all colour terms in order to impress the reader and to create a
specific atmosphere; in the texts of the translations, however, the impression is not
infrequently lost by simply using a word with positive connotations for Russian speakers;
it follows from what has just been said that the study of the original text and the text of
the translation cannot be conducted without discussing cultural differences concerning the
general perception of a certain colour term; our research has shown that the cultural
associations of the colour term red differ in the English and the Russian cultures, thus,
obviously, when used in a text of verbal art, it is to produce a different impact on the English
and the Russian reader.
Bibliography
Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary. (2003) Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Third edition. (2001) Harlow: Pearson
Education Limited.
Longman Exams Dictionary. (2006) Harlow: Pearson Education Limited.
Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary. Seventh edition. (2005) Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Poe, E.A. (1901) Maska Krasnoy Smerti (perevod K.D. Balmonta) in Sobranie sochineniy
Edgara Poe v perevode s adgliyskogo K.D. Balmonta. Tom pervy. Poemy, skazki.
Moskva: Knigoizdatelstvo Skorpion.
Poe, E.A. (2010) Maska Krasnoy smerti (perevod R.N. Pomerantsevoy) in Edgar Allan Poe.
Maloye sobranie sochineniy. Sankt-Peterburg: Azbuka.
Poe, E.A. (1874) Maska Krasnoy smerti (perevod Nikolaya Shelgunova):
http://bookmate.com/r#d=L6uIN4ic (consulted on 25.11.13).
Poe, E.A. (2000) Tales of Mystery and Imagination. London: Wordsworth classics.
Polozova, A. (2013) The red colour in The Masque of the Red Death by Edgar Allan Poe
in Branite, Ludmila, Nimigean, Gina (coord.) (2013) Diversitatea lingvistic i dialogul
intercultural n procesul de comunicare. Vol. 2. Iai: Editura Vasiliana, Chiinu: Editura
Universitii Pedagogice de Stat Ion Creang.
Shkhvazabaya, T.I. (1985) Tsvetooboznacheniya v yazyke i rechi (na materiale angliyskogo
yazyka). Doctoral thesis. Moskva.
Solovyova, N.A. (1991) Istoria zarubezhnoy literatury XIX veka. Moskva: Vyshaya shkola.
Whitley, John S. Introduction. // Poe, E.A. (2000) Tales of Mystery and Imagination. London:
Wordsworth classics.
549
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ZORA NEALE HURSTONS EARLY FEMINISM
Amada MOCIOALCA, Assistant, PhD, University of Craiova
Abstract: Their Eyes Were Watching God is Zora Neale Hurstons best romance. Its language
is poetic without being folksy, its structure loose without being disjointed, its characters
stylized without being exotic, and its theme of personal wholeness centered on egalitarianism
in living and loving, especially in heterosexual relationships. As in Jonahs Gourd Vine, the
third-person omniscient narrator and characters frequently speak in folk metaphors and
evoke colorful nature images. The narrators most vivid metaphors appear in descriptions of
sunrise and sunset, such as, The sun was gone, but he had left his footprints in the sky and
Every morning the world flung itself over and exposed the town. Physical and human
nature are organically related thematic signs.
Keywords: romance, feminism, egalitarianism, relationship, description
That Zora Neale Hurston was (re-) discovered by Alice Walker is an undeniable fact.
As a writer, Alice Walker has found in Hurstons fiction and folklore an empowering legacy.
Walker set out on her journey in search of the woman herself. She met people that had known
Hurston, but their recollections were contradictory or dim. The essay that records Walkers
pilgrimage is entitled Looking for Zora. Its title and its structure demonstrate the difficulty
of finding out the truth about Hurston, a woman who regularly misrepresented the facts about
her life. Most profoundly, the essay conveys the power of the legacy that speaks from the
grave, as it were, to respond to Walkers call. That legacy has been reclaimed not only by
Alice Walker, who edited the first anthology of Hurstons writing, but also by a generation of
African American writers and feminist critics and scholars who have begun to restore
Hurstons work to its rightful place among the literary traditions of the United States. As the
author of seven books, Hurston was more prolific than any black woman writer before her.
She published four novels, two volumes of folklore and an autobiography, as well as more
than fifty short stories, essays, and plays.
Robert Hemenway has reconstructed the fascinating story of her life in a meticulously
researched biography, and numerous monographs, critical essays, articles, and bibliographies
have been published about Hurston and her work. The superb biography by Robert
Hemenway and the feminist movements reassessment of her literary significance,
spearheaded by Alice Walker, has led to the retrieval from obscurity of Hurstons two books
of folklore; her three romances, Jonahs Gourd Vine (1934), Their Eyes Were Watching God
(1937), and Moses, Man of the Mountain (1939), and her novel, Seraph on the Suwanee
(1948). Most significantly, Hurstons influence on African American literary tradition
continues to grow.
Due to its poetic language, loose structure, stylized characters and its theme of
personal wholeness centered on egalitarianism in living and loving, especially in heterosexual
relationships, Their Eyes Were Watching God has been widely acclaimed as the best of Zora
550
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Neale Hurstons romances. As in Jonahs Gourd Vine, the third-person omniscient narrator
and characters frequently speak in folk metaphors and evoke colorful nature images. The
narrators most vivid metaphors appear in descriptions of sunrise and sunset, such as, The
sun was gone, but he had left his footprints in the sky and Every morning the world flung
itself over and exposed the town. Physical and human nature are organically related thematic
signs.
Their Eyes Were Watching God is Janie Crawfords life story as she tells it to her
friend, Phoeby Watson. As she talks, Janie is encouraged by Phoebys hungry listening to
shape and interpret her experiences. Her conscious life began, she decides, on a spring
afternoon in West Florida when a boy tried to kiss her over her grandmothers gatepost. This
evidence of Janies awakening sexuality alarms her grandmother. She wants Janie to be the
respectable wife of a man with property and so she marries her off to a middle- aged farmer,
Logan Killicks. Nanny assumes that this marriage will prevent man from treating Janie as a
spit cup. She defies him and runs off with Joe Starks, a handsome man whose ambitious
visions represent escape to her. Like Nanny and Killicks, Starks expects Janie to play a role in
his story. As Starks wife, Janie gains the security and respect Nanny has prized yet discovers
that it does not fulfill her. It is in rejecting her grandmothers conservative view of security
that Janie finds her happiness. She falls in love with a younger man, Vergible (Tea Cake)
Woods, and goes to work side by side with him as a migrant farmhand. The novels climax is
violent and dramatic. A hurricane floods the area: in protecting Janie, Tea Cake is bitten by a
dog that turns out to have been rabid. Janie saves her own life by killing Tea Cake. Although,
she is tried for murder, she is acquitted by an all-white jury and returns, weary but satisfied to
live with her thoughts and to tell her story.
The metaphorical style gives poetic intensity to the theme of sexual politics, which is
expressed in the opening paragraphs of the narrative:
Ships at a distance have everymans wish on board. For some they come in with the
tide. For others they sail forever on the horizon, never out of sight, never landing until the
Watcher turns his eyes away in resignation, his dreams mocked to death by Time. That is the
life of men.
Now, women forget all those things they dont want to remember, and remember
everything they dont want to forget. The dream is the truth. Then they act and do things
accordingly. (p. 5).
The inner forces that control the lives of men and women are different; some are
driven by the need to possess things; others are moved by the need for a mutual relationship
to share with people. Thus the dramatic tension in the narrative occurs between the efforts of
Janie Mae Crawford, the heroine, to fulfill her dreams as a coffee-and-cream complexioned
rural woman, and the conventions of a male-dominated, lower middle-class society that
frustrate the realization of her romantic vision of love and fulfillment until she meets Vergible
Tea Cake Woods.
The central episodes of the primary narrative, which is framed by Janies passing on
her story to her friend Pheoby and the fusion of symbols of natural and personal harmony,
focus on the three men who challenge Janies youthful concept of love and personal
fulfillment. The first is Logan Killicks, an older man with property whom her plantation-born
grandmother compels her to marry at sixteen so that men would not make a work-ox, a
551
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
brood-sow, or a spit cup of her. With her unattractive, unromantic first husband, Janie
learned that marriage did not make love. The second is adventurous Joe Starks, who did
not represent sun-up and pollen and blooming trees, but he spoke for far horizon. He spoke
for change and chance (p. 28). Charmed into bigamy by Joes dream of becoming a big
voice in all-black Eatonville and by his whirlwind courtship, Janie is gradually robbed of her
own dream by her second husbands authoritarianism, vanity, and abuse. With the death of
Joe Starks and her youth, Tea Cake comes into her life, and her dream is fulfilled. A fun-
loving, guitar-playing, crap-shooting, knife-carrying handsome young migrant, he looked
like the love thoughts of women. He could be a bee to a blossom a pear tree blossom in the
spring. . . . He was a glance from God (p. 90). Janie and Tea Cake marry and move to the
Everglades, where they share the intense joy of working, playing, and living among black
migrant workers. But in the meanest moment of eternity, Janie kills her rabies-mad third
husband in self-defense after the gun he aims at her misfires three times.
The major problems in the narrative are the awkward handling of point of view,
especially the moral and emotional distance between the protagonist and her grandmother,
and of time structure. Choosing to mix third-person omniscient, dramatic, and first-person
modes of presentation, the implied author begins the framed story in the first chapter with the
omniscient narrator metaphorically setting the mood, introducing the theme, and dramatizing
the conflict between her enlightened, independent central character and the inhibiting
conventions of her folk community. Grounded in the oral tradition of Southern blacks, from
the gossip about Janie by the mouthy Eatonville community to the tales about Big John the
Conqueror by the great flame-throwers in the Everglades, the plot begins nearly twenty-four
years after the events to be narrated have taken place. With Janies confident, content return
after a year and a half to the curious, gossipy community of Eatonville, the stage is set for her
to tell her close friend Pheoby, with whom she has been kissin friends for twenty years,
about the events leading to her return. To start off wid, Janie says, people like dem
wastes up too much time puttin they mouf on things they dont know nothin about. Now
they got to look into me loving Tea Cake and see whether it was done right or not! They dont
know if life is a mess of cornmeal dumplings, and if love is a bed-quilt! (Pp. 9-10).
Rather than Janies first-person narration taking over from this point, the implied
author switches half-way into the second chapter to the point of view of Janies grandmother
Nanny, and in the third and subsequent chapters the omniscient narrator controls the flow of
past events. Although this heightens the dramatic impact of Nannys character, it diminishes
the readers emotional involvement with and moral sympathy for Janie, who boldly asserts the
power to speak in a signifying confrontation with Joe Starks in chapters six and seven, but
whose first-person narration resumes only in the close of the frame in the final two pages of
the story. On the other hand, Hurstons mixture of points of view and time gives her more
latitude to introduce farce, a mock-heroic funeral, and folktales into the narrative, especially
in the sixth chapter.
A closer look at the relationship between Nanny and Janie reveals that the implied
author philosophically and emotionally identifies with her protagonists rejection of her
family as she pursues love and adventure. Raised until six in the backyard of the quality
white folks for whom her grandmother worked, Janie awakened to the possibilities of love
and life at sixteen. After spending a spring afternoon watching bees pollinating a blossoming
552
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
pear tree the symbol of love, marriage, and procreation Janie is seen by her grandmother
allowing a boy to kiss her. This episode reminds nanny of her experience during slavery of
being impregnated by her master, of her seventeen-year-old daughters rape, impregnation
and dissolution, and of her own imminent death, and reinforces her moral imperative to
protect her granddaughter. Nanny is determined that before she dies Janie will marry Logan
Killicks, thereby, in the narrators words, desecrating Janies pear-tree vision. Nanny
assures Janie of her love and passes on to her the ancient lessons about racial, sexual, and
class politics that she has learned:
Honey, de white man is de ruler of everything as fur as Ah been able tuh find out.
Maybe its some place way off in de ocean where de black man is in power, but we dont
know nothin but what we see. So de white man throw down de load and tell de nigger man
tuh pick it up. He hand it to his womenfolks. De nigger woman is de mule uh de world so fur
as Ah can see. Ah been prayin fuh it tuh be different wid you. Lawd, Lawd, Lawd. . . . You
aint got nobody but me. . . . Ah got tuh try and do for you befo mah head is cold.? (p. 16-
17)
Whereas the implied author seems here to share philosophically in Nannys ancient
wisdom, she is closer emotionally and morally, as we shall see, to her protagonists desire
tuh utilize mahself all over (p. 94)
Because she was born in slavery, Nanny tells Janie, It wasnt for me to fulfill my
dreams of whut a woman oughta be and do. . . But nothing can rom em of they will (p. 17).
Nannys dream was to preach a great sermon about colored women sittin on high, but they
wasnt no pulpit for me (p. 18). In coping with slavery and unwed motherhood, she
sacrificed her own dreams of economic security and moral respectability for the benefit of a
daughter who would expound what Ah felt. When her daughter Leafy got lost offa de
highway, however, Nanny save de text for Janie, believing that her sacrifices were not
too much if Janie just take a stand on high ground lak Ah dreamed (p. 18). After passing
on the text of her dream of self-realization as a woman of developing self-esteem, security,
and status in marriage Nanny begs Janie: Have some sympathy fuh me. Put me down
easy, Janie, Ahm a cracked plate (p. 21). However, Janie and the implied author reject not
only Nannys dream of what a woman ought to be and do, but also and this is a major flaw
in the tradition of female friendship and shared understanding that feminist readings of the
text celebrate never really understand or share the ancient power of her love and sacrifice
to provide a better life for her family.
Janie is more faithful to her symbolic significance as a Bodacious Woman an
individualist who audaciously rebels against social conventions and rejects family in pursuit
of her romantic personal interests, dreams, and development than to traditional poor black
women who respect the sturdy bridges of kinship, male and female, that helped them to
survive the pitfalls of life. Janie is alienated from both the legitimate and the spurious middle-
class values of the black community. Rejecting the economic security that Nanny and most
black women dream of as a cornerstone of marriage, a youthful Janie wants things sweet
widmah marriage lak when you sit under a pear tree and think (p. 24). She later confuses
Joe Starkss line that she was made to sit on de front porch with her pious grandmothers
dream that she just take a stand on high ground, scornfully accusing her grandmother of
553
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
wanting her to Git up on uh high chair and to sit on porches like de white madam (p.
96). In contrast to Janies personal feeling that lower middle-class black life is unexciting and
unfulfilling, her friend Pheoby says: maybe so, Janie. Still and all Ahd love tuh experience
is for just one year. It look lakhebentuh me from where Ahm at (p. 96).
For Janie romance is more important than finance in marriage and common folk less
inhibited and pretentious than middle-class people. Rebelling against the class that Tea cake
calls high muckty mucks and Joes his-and-hers gold-looking spittoons to remarry and go
down on the muck with someone both poorer and younger than herself, Janie states: Dis
aint no business proposition, and no race after property and titles. Dis is uh love game. Ah
done lived Grandmas way, now Ah means tuh live mine (p. 96). Of the envious, more often
ambivalent, lower middle-class community of Eatonville, where she endured, even if she did
not enjoy, power and privilege for twenty years as Mrs. Mayor Starks, and to which she
returns an autonomous new woman, Janie feels: If God dont think no mo bout em then
Ah do, theys a lost ball in de high grass (p. 9).
After her husband Joe Starkss death, which she symbolically helped to precipitate by
attacking his male vanity in front of his peers with the power of her verbal wit (When you
pull down yo britches, you look lak de change uh life [p. 69]), Janie, at thirty-nine, takes
stock of her life by reflecting on her mother and grandmother:
Digging around inside of herself like that she found that she had no interest in that
seldom-seen mother at all. She hated her grandmother and had hidden it from herself all these
years under a cloak of pity. She had been getting ready for her great journey to the horizons in
search of people; it was important to all the world that she should find them and they find her.
But she had been whipped like a cur dog, and run off down a back road after things. It was all
according to the way you see things. Some people could look at a mud-puddle and see an
ocean with ships. But Nanny belonged to that other kind that love to deal in scraps. (p. 89)
Nanny had taken the biggest thing God ever made,
the horizon for no matter how far a person can go the horizon is still way beyond
you and pinched it in to such a little bit of a thing that she could tie it about her
grandmothers neck tight enough to choke her. She hated the old woman who had twisted her
so in the name of love. Most humans didnt love one another nohow, and this mis-love was so
strong that even common blood couldnt overcome it all the time. (p. 76-77)
If Janie does not identify with the historic slavery and sexual exploitation of her
female ancestors, can she realistically represent a tradition of female friendship,
understanding, and support? Are Janies security, respectability, and individuality determined
only by her sexual ties with Joe Starks? Is the grandmothers dream for Janie to take a stand
on high ground really reducing life to the pursuit of material things? Although the symbol
of the horizon is a poetically effective expression of the possibilities of life, is it just,
compassionate, or responsible for Janie to despise love and dreams of parents whose historical
circumstances and consciousness influence them to interpret the possibilities of life within the
context of traditional strategies of survival? Is it possible, in short, to cut oneself off
completely from ones parents and past and fully realize ones identity as an individual? For
Janie, the love of Tea Cake, idealized life of folk on the muck, and friendship with Pheoby
are the only human relationships she needs to attain and sustain personal wholeness, however
problematic this may seem for some readers.
554
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
In closing the frame of what Alice Walker, her literary daughter, calls one of the
sexiest, most healthily rendered heterosexual love stories in our literature, Hurston returns
to her thematic metaphors. Ah done ben tuh de horizon and back, Janie tells Pheoby,
and now Ah kin set heah in mah house and live by comparisons. The memory of the love
she shared with Tea Cake, especially in the upstairs bedroom, not only sustains her in his
death but also, by the allegorical manner that she passes it on, inspires Pheoby: Ah done
growed ten feet higher from jus listenin tuh you, Janie. Ah aint satisfied widmahselfnomo.
Ah means tuh make Sam take me fishin wid him after this (p. 158). Reinforcing the
centrality of Janies love of Tea Cake to her fulfillment as a woman, Hurston tells us in the
closing lines of the narrative that Tea Cake
wasnt dead. He could never be dead until she herself had finished feeling and
thinking. The kiss of his memory made pictures of love and light against the wall. Here was
peace. She pulled in her horizon like a great fish-net. Pulled it from around the waist of the
world and draped it over her shoulder. So much of life in its meshes! She called in her soul to
come and see (p. 159).
The tragic irony here is that Janie is probably dying from Tea Cake biting her as she
cradled him in her arms after shooting him. The implied author and heroine of Their Eyes
Were Watching God therefore suggest that genuine love between a man and a woman is an
exhilarating, fulfilling relationship of mutual respect, sharing, and sacrifice. Rather than
exclusively female, however, the tradition that Hurston passes on through Janie is black, oral,
and Southern. It was acquired by listening to and participating in the telling of lies by men
in Florida as well as by the storytelling of her grandmother. The theme, symbolism, style,
structure, and characterization of the narrative combine to impress the reader with the validity
and power of this romantic folk vision of what a woman ought to be and do.
In his 1937 review of Their Eyes Were Watching God, Richard Wright, Hurstons
contemporary and influential figure among the writers of the Harlem Renaissance, claimed
the novel carried no theme, no message, and no thought. This harsh assessment has been
challenged with increasing frequency and vehemence in the wake of the Civil Rights
movement of the 1960s and the feminist movement of the 1970s. Their Eyes Were Watching
Godwas praised for its celebration of the vitality and creativity of uneducated rural black
people, for its honest portrayal of relations among them, and for its successful use of dialect
and folklore. Hurstons presentation of Janie Crawford is affirming. At forty, Janie is satisfied
with her life. She has followed her own course, rejecting security in favor of passion and
adventure. She has found fulfillment in love yet has not sacrificed her independence of her
self. The story she tells is inspiring to other woman. The Pulitzer Prize-winning author Alice
Walker records a similar reaction. She has said that Their Eyes Were Watching God speaks
to me as a novel, past or present has ever done, there is enough self-love in that one book-
love of community, culture, traditions to restore a world.
Bibliography
HURSTON, Zora Neale. Their Eyes Were Watching God. 1937. Reprint. (Greenwich, Conn:
Fawcett Premier Book, 1971)
555
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
WALKER, Alice. In Search of our Mothers Gardens: Womanist Prose. New York: Harcourt
Brace Jovanovich, 1983
PAGE, Yolanda Williams (ed.), Encyclopedia of African American Women Writers
(Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2007)
SAUNDERS, James Robert. Womanism as the Key to Understanding Zora Neale Hurstons
Their Eyes Were Watching God and Alice Walkers The Color Purple.The Hollins Critic
25.4 (1988): 1-11.
556
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
INTER-PHRASEMES: BETWEEN FORM AND CONTENT
Anca Mihaela TEFANACHE (ZAHARIA), PhD Candidate, tefan cel Mare
University of Suceava
Abstract: Appeared as a result of the writers interest towards the same resources, translated
independently in different languages, either from the similar experiences perceived
autonomously, alike however, or through the direct communication which involves the
(reciprocal) linguistic and cultural influencing, inter-phrasemes or the international idioms
designate similarities at a phrase level among various languages. The analysis of this type of
fixed phrases from a Romanian-German contrasting perspective is the theme of the current
study.
Keywords: international idioms, similarity, worldview, source, universals
Ca manifestare i totodat ca resort de structurare a gndirii umane, limba se ofer ca
sistem colectiv de cunoatere n scopul comunicrii, percepia comunitii asupra spaiului n
care triete sau viziunea ce deriv din modul n care i expune modul de cunoatere a
universului care-l nconjoar, fiind factori ce in de natura sa, de fora creatoare, care se
contureaz sub influena condiiilor externe (aezare geografic, clim) i a experienelor
marcante. Toti aceti factori compun, de fapt, structura spiritual, sufleteasc a comunitii
lingvistice respective, fapt reflectat n mod cert la nivel frazeologic, cci frazemele se
constituie n memoria colectiv a unui grup de vorbitori, surprinznd aspecte aparinnd
tradiiilor vechi, faptelor istorice, fenomenelor i raporturilor din cadrul vieii socio-
economico-politice i culturalo-tiinifice. n cazul n care cele dou macrocomponente:
sensul lexicalizat (figurat) i imaginea mental ce se evoc prin interpretarea literal a prilor
constituente ale expresiei idiomatice se suprapun n mai multe limbi, avem de-a face cu
interfrazemele, acestea desemnnd, aadar, conceptualizarea unui fenomen n acelai mod de
ctre comuniti lingvistice diferite, prin unitate att la nivelul formei, al constituenilor
lexicali, ct i pe celelalte dou niveluri, al semnificatului i al sensului.
Contiina prezenei asemnrilor sau chiar a identitii frazeologice ntre limbi exist nc
din secolul al XVI-lea, dovad fiind dicionarul poliglot al lui Hieronymus Magiser, publicat
n 1605, n care autorul a adunat proverbe din limbile greac, latin, ebraic, italian,
german, spaniol, francez, turc i arab. Au urmat dicionare poliglote de proverbe
publicate de Mordechai Zamenhof i M. I. Michelson i numeroase dicionare de citate
celebre.
O surs generatoare de interfrazeme este, prin urmare, literatura, ca urmare a interesului
scriitorilor pentru aceleai izvoare traduse independent n diverse limbi. Biblia, mitologia,
legendele, basmele, operele scriitorilor antici constituie tezaurul spiritual comun limbilor
europene, format ca urmare a influenei exercitate peste timp de limbile greac i latin.
Menionm spre exemplificare cteva frazeme:
557
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
din rom. a-i pune cenu pe/n cap germ. sich Asche aufs Haupt streuen
Biblie: rom. germ. cine seamn vnt, germ. wer Wind set, erntet Sturm
culege furtun;
rom. a se nchina vielului de germ. das goldene Kalb anbeten
aur
rom. Sodoma i Gomora germ. Sodom und Gomorrha
rom. Treac de la mine acest germ. Gehe dieser Kelch an mir
pahar! vorber!
rom. a-i lua/ purta crucea germ. sein Kreuz auf sich nehmen
rom. btrn ca Matusalem germ. alt wie Mathusalem
rom. a porni de la Adam i Eva germ. bei Adam und Eva anfangen
rom. Toma necredinciosul germ. unglubiger Thomas
din rom. munc de Sisif germ. eine Sisyphus-Arbeit sein
literatura rom. sub egida cuiva germ. unter jemandes gide
greceasc rom. Arta e lung, viaa e scurt germ. Das Leben ist kurz, die Kunst
rom. cutia Pandorei ist lang
germ. die Bchse der Pandora
din rom. a vorbi n vnt; germ. in den Wind reden
literatura rom. Timpul zboar fr germ. Die Jahre fliehen
latin ntoarcere germ. Irren ist menschlich
rom. A grei e omenete germ. Proselyten machen
rom. a face prozelii
Interfrazemele de acest tip, catalogate astzi frecvent ca nvechite, sunt ntrebuinate
cel mai adesea n cercurile elevate, acolo unde se permite jocul lingvistic:
SUA evit cutia Pandorei
Criza politica declansata in SUA cu doua saptamani in urma s-a prelungit mai
mult decat era de asteptat.
(http://www.contributors.ro/dezbatere/sua-evita-cutia-pandorei-pentru-cat-
timp/)
Die nukleareBchse derPandora: Indien und Pakistan steuern einer atomaren
Auseinandersetzung entgegen Gentechnik: Bchse derPandora oder neue
Lebensqualitt fr viele?
(http://www.redensartenindex.de/suche.php?suchbegriff=~~die%20Buechse%20der%
20Pandora&suchspalte%5B%5D=rart_ou)
Iuliana Mmlig: Succesul nseamn munc de Sisif
Nu exist nimic imposibil. Sau, cum spunea Einstein, "Exist lucruri care tim c sunt
imposibil de realizat, pn cnd vine cineva care nu tie acest lucru i le realizeaz".
(http://www.allfun.md/article/1590)
Jeder von uns mute wissen, da sie hier eineSisyphusarbeit auf sich genommen hat,
und ich meine, sie hat sie bewundernswert und toll geleistet.
(europarl.europa.eu)
558
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Nu doar literatura este generatoare de interfrazeme, ci i istoria (rom. a tia nodul
gordian germ. den gordischen Knoten durchhauen), cultura spiritual (rom. dup toate
regulile artei - germ. nach allen Regeln der Kunst, rom. roata istoriei - germ. das Rad der
Geschichte), cea material (rom. a arunca banii pe fereastr - germ. das Geld zum Fenster
hinauswerfen; rom. a plti cu aceeai moned - germ. mit gleicher Mnze bezahlen; rom. un
pre piperat - germ. ein gepfefferter Preis) i social (rom. a tri ca un pa - germ. wie ein
Pascha leben).
Dei aflate n stadiu incipient, cercetrile asupra universaliilor lingvistice desfurate
i n planul frazeologiei puncteaz tocmai caracterul universal al frazemelor, o universalie
absolut i de nedezbtut fiind, aadar, faptul c frazemele exist n absolut toate limbile. Nu
se specific, ns, limita inferioar care i-ar conferi unui frazem caracter internaional. 1
Congruena cunoaterii lucrurilor n acelai mod i exprimarea lor cu aceleai
mijloace sunt explicabile prin existena unei uniti universale de gndire i de cunoatere a
lucrurilor, dincolo de orice diferen lingvistic, etnic sau cultural, rezultat din contexte
universale, valabile pentru toat lumea, 2 fapt demonstrabil printr-o ordonare la nivel ontologic
a percepiilor unitare n limbi diferite. n demersul identificrii lor n cele dou limbi avute n
vedere, germana i romna, la nivel ontologic, urmnd modelul Hallig/Wartburg, prin
ncadrarea noiunilor n funcie de lumea exterioar, obiectiv i sinele, eul3 am pornit de la
premisa existenei, la nivelul fiecrei uniti, a unui cuvnt-cheie ce se relev n cadrul
structurii frazeologice ntre elementele lexicale componente ca pivot sintactic n jurul cruia
s-a esut expresia respectiv i pe care cade accentul semantic. n acest studiu ne oprim
asupra cuvintelor-cheie, aparinnd unor domenii ca: universul i omul, incluznd viaa fizic
(corp, nfiare,minte i raiune, caracter, sentimente, moarte i via, sntate i boal).
Regularitatea ce guverneaz reflectarea realitii extralingvistice n cele dou limbi dovedete
premisa existenei unor universalii de percepere a spaiului, timpului, calitii, cantitii,
procesualitii, ct i a activitilor umane concrete, emoiilor, trsturilor de caracter,4 bazate
pe procese logice i asociative. Se observ o predilecie spre anumite sfere de asociere (germ.
Assoziationssphren5) ca: somatisme, zoonime, comportament uman. Spre exemplu
denumirile prilor corpului snt asociate cu anumite noiuni: capul cu raiunea, inima,
sufletul cu emoiile, gura i limba cu activitatea de a vorbi, mna cu activitatea practic,
animalele cu anumite trsturi de caracter: vulpea cu iretenia, punul cu mndria.
1
Wolfgang Eismann, Phraseologische Gemeinsamkeiten der Sprachen Europas n volumul colectiv Handbuch
der Eurolinguistik, Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, 2010, p. 714.
2
Eugen Coeriu, Omul i limbajul su. Studii de filozofie a limbajului, teorie a limbii i lingvistic general,
Editura Universitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iai, 2009, p. 179.
3
Rudolf Hallig, Walther von Wartburg, Begriffssystem als Grundlage fr die Lexikographie, Akademie-Verlag,
Berlin, 1963, p. 52-75.
4
Dimitrij Dobrovolskij, Phraseologie als Objekt der Universalienlinguistik, Verlag Enzyklopdie, Leipzig,
1988, p. 38-39.
5
Ibid., p.42.
559
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Universul
rom. a ltra la lun germ. den Mond anbellen
rom. a aduce (cuiva) i stelele de pe cer germ. (jemandem) die Sterne vom Himmel holen
rom. a fi nscut sub o stea norocoas (wollen)
rom. a sparge gheaa germ. unter einem glcklichen Stern geboren
rom. ara sfnt sein
rom. de parc l-ar fi nghiit pmntul germ. das Eis brechen
rom. ncpnat ca un mgar germ. das Heilige Land
rom. a-i fi / a avea o foame de lup germ. als htte ihn der Erdboden verschluckt
rom. ca petele pe uscat germ. strisch wie ein Esel
germ. hungrig wie ein Wolf sein
germ. wie ein Fisch auf dem Trockenen
Omul, fiin fizic
germ. ein Leib und eine Seele sein
rom. a fi trup i suflet germ. nur Haut und Knochen sein
rom. a fi piele i os germ. dicke Haut haben
rom. a avea piele groas germ. seine Haut retten
rom. a-i salva pielea germ. jemandes rechte Hand sein
rom. a fi mna dreapt a cuiva germ. jemandem freie Hand lassen
rom. a lsa cuiva mn liber germ. unter der Hand verkaufen
rom. a vinde ceva pe sub mn germ. zwei linke Hnde haben
rom. a avea dou mini stngi germ. Hand in Hand
rom. mn-n mn germ. keinen Finger rhren fr
rom. a nu mica nici un deget pentru germ. zu Kopf steigen
rom. a se urca la cap germ. sich etwas in den Kopf setzen
rom. a-i pune ceva n cap germ. den Kopf in den Sand stecken
rom. a-i bga capul n nisip germ. jemandem den Kopf verdrehen
rom. a suci capul cuiva germ. den Kopf verlieren
rom. a-i pierde capul germ. im Herzen bewahren
rom. a pstra n inim germ. am Herzen liegen
rom. a sta la inim germ. alles leicht nehmen
rom. a lua totul uor germ. mit einem Bein im Grab stehen
rom. a fi cu un picior n groap germ. vom Scheitel bis zur Sohle
rom. din cretet pn-n tlpi germ. keinen Rckgrat haben
rom. a nu avea coloan vertebral germ. kaltes Blut bewahren
rom. a-i pstra sngele rece germ. wie ein Gespenst aussehen
rom. a arta ca o stafie germ. in Gedanken versunken sein
rom. a fi scufundat n gnduri germ. eitel / stolz wie ein Pfau
rom. fudul / ano ca un pun germ. vor Neugierde sterben
rom. a muri de curiozitate germ. eiserne Wille
rom. voin de fier germ. vor Wut kochen
rom. a fierbe de mnie germ. vor Wut schumen
rom. a spumega de mnie germ. stumm wie ein Fisch sein
rom. a fi mut ca petele germ. jemandem das Leben zur Hlle machen
rom. a face cuiva viaa un iad germ. sich das Leben nehmen
rom. a-i lua viaa germ. jemanden zu Tode erschrecken
rom. a speria de moarte pe cineva germ. mehr tot als lebendig
rom. mai mult mort dect viu germ. vor Langeweile sterben
560
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
rom. a muri de plictiseal germ. (dahin) sterben wie die Fliegen
rom. a muri ca mutele germ.etwas mit ins Grab nehmen
rom. a lua/a duce (cu sine) ceva n germ. verschwiegen wie ein Grab
mormnt germ. eiserne Hochzeit
rom. tcut ca mormntul germ. besoffen wie ein Schwein
rom. nunta de fier
rom. beat ca un porc
Observm c transpunerea unor situaii n fapte de limbaj se realizeaz, conform
teoriei metaforizrii cognitive (die Kognitive Metaphertheorie) enunat de George Lakoff
und Mark Johnson n lucrarea Metaphors we live by (1980), prin intermediul unui sistem
metaforic conceptual. Altfel spus, omul, n conceptualizarea unei realiti complexe, recurge
la procese metaforice, structureaz experiene sau situaii abstacte, evazive, dificil de definit
cu ajutorul experienelor concrete, elementare. De aceea vom recunoate, spre exemplu, n
frazemul a ine pe cineva n ah (germ. jemanden im Schach halten) o asemnare ntre
scenariul unei partide de ah, pe de o parte, i scenariul unui tip de comportament pe de alt
parte, legnd abstractul de concret.
Culorile ncifreaz la rndul lor cunotine cognitive universale, simbolistica
universal a culorii fiind evident i prin atribuirea funciei refereniale.
rom. eminena cenuie germ. die graue Eminenz
rom. ziua neagr germ. der schwarze Tag,
rom. revoluia verde germ. die grne Revolution
rom. planeta albastr germ. der blaue Planet
rom. planeta roie germ. der rote Planet
rom. lista neagr germ. die schwarze Liste
rom. a-i arta cuiva cartonaul rou germ. jmdm. die rote Karte zeigen
Studiile actuale de orientare geografico-lingvistic conduse de Elisabeth Piirainen
demonstreaz faptul c unele frazeme acoper o arie geografic foarte ntins, de exemplu a
se lupta cu morile de vnt - germ. gegen Windmhlen kmpfen (a crui existen a fost
dovedit de Piirainen n 47 limbi europene), a intra pe o ureche i a iei pe alta (germ. zu
einem Ohr hinein, zum anderen wieder hinausgehen), a pescui n ape tulburi (germ. im
Trben fischen), pereii au urechi (Wnde haben Ohren), totul este bine cnd se termin cu
bine (germ. Ende gut, alles gut).6
Unele frazeme de diferite tipuri i extensiuni depesc deseori graniele limbii
naionale, migrnd i n alte limbi fr a fi calchiate, ci ca xenisme, fiind preluate ca atare.
Snt binecunoscute frazemele din limba francez mot a mot, Crme de la Crme, la carte,
noblesse oblige, enfant terrible, din italian la dolce vita, dolce far niente, giorno, sau din
limba englez black box, high society, fast food, last but not least, five oclock:
6
Wolfgang Eismann, op. cit., p. 719.
561
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Este, pentru autor, efectul reuitei unui frate mai mare dintr-o familie n care
noblesse oblige asupra celorlali, pui n faa unui termen de comparaie
permanent i adesea insurmontabil, sau o concesie fcut strategiei editoriale
de marketing.
(Tomis, septembrie 2005, http://www.edituratrei.ro/stiri.php/)
In era austeritii care domin Europa, Italia spune "ciao, dolce vita". Standard
& Poors a adugat nc un nume pe lista rilor retrogradate din cauza crizei
datoriilor: Italia.
(http://www.wall-street.ro/articol/International/109635/Ciao-dolce-vita-
Cronica-tragediei-italiene.html
Iar covorul rosu a fost strbtut de unele dintre starurile cele mai bine
cotate ale prezentului: Kate Winslet, Matt Damon, Gwyneth Paltrow, Colin
Firth,Viggo Mortensen, Kira Knightly, Michael Fassbender, Monica Belluci,
George Clooney, interpret si regizor al lungmetrajului Idele lui Marte si, last
but not least, Al Pacino, sosit s-i ridice premiul pentru ntreaga carier
regizoral oferit de compania Jaeger-Le Coultre i s-i lanseze noul film Wild
Salome.
(http://www.contemporanul.ro/articol.php?idarticol=324)
Wolfgang Fleischer abordeaz tema proverbelor mprumutate, de obicei calchiate,
menionnd aici ca surse Biblia, literatura greceasc i latin, atrgnd totodat atenia asupra
faptului c nu n toate cazurile n care se constat similitudini ntre proverbe este vorba de un
mprumut: exist i posibilitatea ca proverbele s fi luat natere n mod independent 7
mprumutul poate avea loc, dup cum se observ n exemplele prezentate mai sus, prin
preluarea versiunii originale a frazemului, neopernd nici un fel de modificri asupra lui, sau
prin preluarea mecanismului, a schemei de formare a frazemului, traducndu-l n propria
limb: engl. the devils advocate rom. avocatul diavolului germ. der Anwalt des Teufels.
Senatorul Flutur crede ca deputatul Bejinariu este avocatul diavolului.
(http://www.newsbucovina.ro/actualitate/12902/ )
Concluzionnd, observm c interfrazemele transced viziunea specific culturii
naionale, ce reflect realitatea perceput n mod diferit, oglindind universalul unitii limb-
gndire.
Bibliografie
Coeriu, Eugen, Omul i limbajul su. Studii de filozofie a limbajului, teorie a limbii i
lingvistic general, Editura Universitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iai, 2009;
Dobrovolskij, Dimitrij Phraseologie als Objekt der Universalienlinguistik, Verlag
Enzyklopdie, Leipzig, 1988;
7
Wolfgang Fleischer, Phraseologie de deutschen Gegenwartssprache, Max Niemeyer Verlag, Tbingen, 1997,
p.78.
562
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Donalies, Elke, Basiswissen Deutsche Phraseologie, A. Francke Verlag Tbingen und Basel, 2009;
Eismann, Wolfgang Phraseologische Gemeinsamkeiten der Sprachen Europas n volumul
colectiv Handbuch der Eurolinguistik, Harrassowitz Verlag, Wiesbaden, 2010;
Fleischer, Wolfgang, Phraseologie de deutschen Gegenwartssprache, Max Niemeyer Verlag,
Tbingen, 1997;
Hammer, Franoise, Zur Produktivitt phraseologisch gebundener Farbbezeichnungen im
Deutschen und Franzsischen, n volumul colectiv Baur, S. Rupprecht, Chlosta, Christoph,
Piiranen, Elisabeth, Wrter in Bildern, Bilder in Wrtern, Schneider Verlag Hohengehren
GmbH, 1999
Isbescu, Mihai, Dicionar german romn, Editura Teora, Bucureti, 1997;
Lakoff, George/ Johnson, Mark, Leben in Metaphern Konstruktion und Gebrauch von
Sprachbildern, Carl Auer Verlag, Heidelberg, 2011;
Rudolf Hallig, Walther von Wartburg, Begriffssystem als Grundlage fr die Lexikographie,
Akademie-Verlag, Berlin, 1963;
563
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
SOCIO-LITERARY TERRORISM
Gabriela-Alexandra BNIC, M.A., Mihai Viteazul National Intelligence Academy,
Bucharest
Abstract: The paper deals with announcing and defining a new type of terrorism, named by
the author socio-literary terrorism. The focus of the paper is on how literary works are a
medium for presenting and discussing a major problem of our contemporary-
internationalized society, terrorism. Two literary works are covered in the research:
Underground-The Tokyo Gas Attack and the Japanese Psyche by Haruki Murakami and Mao
II by Don DeLillo. For Haruki Murakamis book the research method used is content
analysis, the word considered is terrorism. And for Don DeLillos novel the working method
used is literary analysis, the aim being to portray the literary and artistic universe created by
the author, in which terrorism proves to be the element that brings to life a fictional novel.
Keywords: invisible terrorism, literary terrorism, Mao II, writers of Earth, socio-literary
terrorism
The first part of the paper, entitled Invisible terrorism in Japan is about a literary
work, Underground by Haruki Murakami that has as a starting point for its creation a terrorist
attack on the civilian population of Tokyo. By using content analysis as a research tool to
analyze the text, the focus is on the impact that the terrorist attack has on the victims/survivors
of the attack, are they able to identify what happened to them as being victims/survivors of a
terrorist attack? The series of interviews conducted by Haruki Murakami on the
victims/survivors of the terrorist attack with sarin gas that took place in the Tokyo subway on
March 20, 1995, staged by Aum Shinrikyo religious sect, shows that it is possible to speak of
an invisible terrorism in Japan because of, not only the nature of the weapon used for the
attack, sarin gas, a formidable invisible weapon, but also because of the response given by the
victims/survivors about the nature of the attack: their inability to understand and realize the
nature of the events that they were part of.
The second part of the paper, entitled Writers of Earth or Terrorism as social
construct, is about a literary work, a fictional novel, that discusses matters related to
terrorism in its content out of the authors own will, Mao II by Don DeLillo. In his novel Don
DeLillo creates a literary universe meant to raise awareness around a major problem of our
contemporary-internationalized society, terrorism. By its nature, being a postmodern creation,
the novel signal a series of changes and ongoing processes in Don DeLillos societal
environment, that are represented in the text by a multitude of interplays, of interest are the
interplays between the notion of writer and that of terrorist, and individual/author-crowd-
image/art. The postmodern tools used by the author, the disappearence of writing into
political action ad the intertextual encounter with photography will be of interest to the
current research (Carmichael 212). From the social load of the novel, representative for trying
to define a new type of terrorism, socio-literary terrorism, is of course the social dimension
564
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
and implications of terrorism as presented by the text. Literary analysis is the means to do it,
and the process is by revealing (all) the writers of Earth present in DeLillos novel.
Invisible terrorism in Japan
Clarification of topic. Terrorism is an anti-human act, using calculated, shocking and illegal
violence on civilian population is the core of terrorism. Such actions started to occur as a
consequence of increased social division of labor and the rise of social differences between
members of a social community, and globally between states. Once triggered this
phenomenon, generated deepening conflicts and contradictions between individuals, social
classes, states and nations (Simileanu 3). Terrorist groups use violence to achieve its goal,
namely, to use the psychological impact of violence or the threat of violence to induce
political, social or religious change. In specialized academic fields, terrorist acts are presented
as being spectacular, designed to frighten and influence a wide audience beyond the actual
victims (Barna 27).
This research is focused on the impact that a terrorist attack has on its
victims/survivors by analyzing the fact if they can identify the events that they experienced as
being viewed as terrorism. A series of interviews conducted by Haruki Murakami and
published in the first part of the book Underground- The Tokyo Gas Attack and the Japanese
Psyche represents the material for the research. Haruki Murakami interviews 32 people, both
passengers and workers of the Tokyo subway, all victims of the terrorist attack with sarin gas
in the Tokyo subway on March 20, 1995.
Presentation of the theoretical framework. The members of the terrorist group Aum used
chemical weapons of mass destruction on the population of Tokyo, the sarin gas used was
produced by the members of the sect in a private laboratory. Although they had the necessary
financial resources and knowledge, considering the fact that some followers were renowned
researchers, they were able to produce a limited amount of toxic gas. Despite the small
number of victims who died, only 12, more than a thousand people were contaminated. This
attack on the Tokyo subway is considered to be the most important one for chemical terrorism
at international level. Relevant in this regard is how the Japanese terrorist group Aum
Shinrikyo, that produced two attacks with such agents: the sarin gas attack on 27 June 1994 in
Matsumoto and on the 20 March 1995, Tokyo subway, did the attacks, by using in the first
case, a fan and a heating element, and for the second, a perforated plastic bag (Barna 109).
Chemical and biological terrorism is called invisible terrorism due to the ease
with which chemical and biological weapons can be obtained by terrorists, and the way they
act on the victims, affecting their nervous system or circulatory system- in the case of
chemical weapons or by the fact that, for insidious biological weapons, the incubation period
of the disease makes the disaster to settle slowly, almost imperceptibly. At first, the victims
get to the hospital, one by one, a few people, the symptoms presented either puzzle the
doctors or are symptoms similar to common illnesses, until medical staff realizes what it is, a
large number of people can be affected (Dulea and Frunzeti 124).
565
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The purpose of the research. The purpose of the research carried out is to portray that the
sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway is an invisible act of terrorism, not only through the use
of the chemical weapon in order to achieve the attack, the meaning that the term has in t he
scholastic work discussing chemical and biological terrorism, but also by the manner the
victims/survivors of this attack are able to categorize the event, this component of terrorism
seems to be invisible to them despite the fact that What they experienced was a terrorist
attack, but they are quite reluctant in using the term.
My research objectives were:
1. To identify if the victims of sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway perceive the
event as a terrorist act.
2. To describe the attitude of the victims, both passengers and employees of the
subway, toward the punishment of the perpetrators.
Assumptions. The assumptions to start the research are:
1. If the victims/survivors of the attack identify it as a terrorist attack they can deal
with what has happened to them.
2. If authors of the sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway would be punished, the
possibility that such an event would happen again decreases.
Methods and research techniques. The research method chosen is content analysis, this was
an option because in the field of social and human sciences, content analysis represents a set
of research techniques for both the quantitative/qualitative verbal communication and
nonverbal communication, and to identify and offer an objective and systematic description of
the manifest and/or latent content, and to draw conclusions on the individual and society or
the communication process in itself, as a process of social interaction ( Chelcea 573) .
This method is able to reveal the Japanese psyche as shown in the interviews
published in Haruki Murakamis book Underground The Tokyo Gas Attack and the Japanese
Psyche, considering the fact that, content analysis was used to identify what determinates
people to communicate, meaning knowing the psychological and social characteristics of
whose that are part of the communicating process. Particularly, it was used in the study of
interviews ( Chelcea 585 ).
The class of documents most relevant to the research, considering the fact that the
objectives of the research is to identify the response victims give toward the sarin gas attack
and their attitude towards punishing the perpetrators, is a series of interviews published by
Haruki Murakami, because he does not interfere with the interview and give the interviewees
the opportunity to speak freely without asking questions that would interrupt the flow of
consciousness.
The 32 interviews are divided into seven categories according to the line that the
attack took place and the starting station and/or destination. For each category we chose at
random, random sampling, two people with Japanese names, it was opted for two interviews
in each category, as a third category, namely Marunouchi Line, train bound for Ikebukuro
there are just two people were interviewed, Shintaro Komada and Ikuko Nakayama. From the
Chiyoda line eight people were interviewed, two were chosen for the research: Toshiaki
566
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Toyoda and Kiyoka Izumi, for the Marunouchi line (destination: Ogikubo), the two interviews
out of seven were analyzed, those of Mitsuo Arima and Sumio Nishimura; for the Hibiya line,
the train departing from Naka-Meguro, out of four people interviewed, three Japanese and one
American, the two chosen were: Kozo Ishino and Yoko Iizuka, for the train departing from
Kita-Senju, destination Naka-Meguro, out of the three people interviewed the two selected
were: Masaori Okuyama and Michiaki Tamada, and from the last set of interviews for Hibiya
line, out of four testimonies two were selected: Takaori Ichiba and Michiru Kono. And from
the last category, the seventh, Kodemmacho station, the interviews of Ken'ichi Yamazaki and
Koichiro Makita were analyzed.
For content analysis the recording unit chosen was the word; as unit of context, to see
if the recording unit has positive, negative or neutral feature, the sentence was chosen, and as
unit of number the last five phrases of each interview. Of the 14 people whose interviews
were analyzed two used the word terrorism by referring to the sarin gas attack, both of them
were passengers. And on the topic of punishing the perpetrators, three people have ruled for
the death penalty, two of them had a positive orientation, an employee and a passenger, and
the third, an employee, neutral. Two other persons, both passengers thought that those who
are guilty must answer for their deeds ''trialed, sentenced and done away with'' - Shintaro
Komada ( Murakami 96 ), ''properly sentenced in court'' - Ikuko Nakazama ( Murakami 101).
Conclusion. Only two persons of the victims/survivors of the sarin gas attack on the
Tokyo subway has identified what happened to them as a terrorist attack and five other people
mentioned in their interview the problem of punishing those who were guilty, this illustrates
that it is possible to speak of invisible terrorist in Japan not only by the nature of the weapon
of the terrorist attack, but as well as by reference to the inability of the victims to understand
and realize the nature of the attack. Although it is intended to punish those found guilty, the
victims/survivors of this terrorist attack do not use the word terrorism for what happened to
them, by making terrorism an invisible component of the events that took place, they are
virtually denying its existence.
Writers of Earth or Terrorism as social construct
Bill Gray, the main character of the book, a novelist, who is struggling to finish a new
book, tells about one of the themes of the novel theres a curious knot that binds novelists
and terrorist, this curious knot reveals the novels social dimension by staging a lost battle
between the author of a literary work, the novelist, and the author of a terrorist attack, the
terrorist. This clash between the notion of writer as creator of work meant to have an impact
on society and events that the social sphere experience and by doing so, brings into play a
new creator, the terrorist, presents a change in the social apparatus. This change triggers a
domino effect in the social life of Don DeLillos text and is a source of analyzing the social
dimension of terrorism in a literary work.
Bill Gray, also, announces that the authored suffered a lost of territory: In the West
we become famous effigies as our books lose the power to shape and influence. Years ago I
used to think it was possible for a novelist to alter the inner life of the culture. Now bomb-
makers and gun men have that territory. They make raids on human consciousness. What
writers used to do (Don DeLillo 41). For a writer the medium of expression is his literary
567
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
work, his books, for a terrorist the medium of expression is the crowd, the gathering of people
subject to his direct infliction of terror that leads to victims, and indirect infliction of terror,
the large numbers of people that find out about terrorist attacks.
More information about the writer and his connection to the work he produces is
offered by Brita Nilsson, a photographer, also a creator, an author, but one that works in and
with a different medium of expression, photography. She is described in the text of the novel
as having dedicated an important part of her career to immortalizing the figures of writers, so
it is understood that she is an experienced creator in her medium of expression. Writers are
the subjects of her work, of whom she illustrates not only in photographs, but also in words:
The writers face is the surface of the work. Its a clue to the mystery inside. Or is the
mystery in the face? Sometimes I think about faces. We all try to read faces. Some faces are
better then some books. Or put the pictures in a space capsule, that would be fantastic. Send
them into space. Greetings. We are the writers of Earth (Don DeLillo 26). Keeping in mind
that Bill Gray announces a bind between novelist and terrorists, some features of the novelists
are translated to terrorists. What Brita sees is no longer a writer concerned only by his work
that would shape the society, but a writer concerned by the fact that someone else will take his
place in making raids on human consciousness, the terrorist. By sending an image in space of
a writer haunted by another figure able to alter the inner life of the culture and not him
anymore, i.e. the terrorist, Greetings. We are writers of Earth has a new dimension, the
terrorist is also a writer of Earth, he is a figure that was able to shape the history of our planet,
Earth.
There is another writer of Earth present in DeLillos literary work, Mao Zedong, he
can be found at both the levels of the story and discourse in the novel. Mao Zedongs
personality is often associated with the mass production of his books and image. The Don
DeLillo cult of Mao refers to both instances of the Chinese leader. DeLillo acknowledges
him as a book writer: The cult of Mao was the cult of the book a summoning of crowds
where everyone dressed alike and thought alike Isnt there beauty and power in the
reception of certain words and phrases?... They became a book-waving crowd. Mao said, Our
god is none other than the masses of the Chinese people. And this is what you fear, that
history is passing into the hands of the crowd (Don DeLillo 162), and as a worldwide famous
image, in the very title of his novel, Mao II.
There are two main passages in the text discussing the title of the book, Mao II, the two also
illustrate key entities of the text individual/author-crowd-image/art the link between them:
He was running a little late but wanted to look at the Warhols only a few blocks
away. The museum lobby was crowded. He went downstairs, where people
moved in nervous searching steps around the paintings. He walked past the
electric-chair canvases, the repeated news images of car crashes and movie stars,
and he got used to the anxious milling, it seemed entirely right, people eager to
be undistracted, ray-gunned by fame and death. Scott had never seen work that
was so indifferent to the effect it had on those who came to see it. The walls
looked off to heaven in a marvelous flat-eyed gaze. He stood before a silk screen
called Crowd. The image was irregular, deep streaks marking the canvas, and it
seemed to him that the crowd itself, the vast mesh of people, was being riven by
568
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
some fleeting media catastrophe. He moved along and stood finally in a room
filled with images of Chairman Mao. Photocopy Mao, silk-screen Mao,
wallpaper Mao, synthetic-polymer Mao. A series of silk screens was installed
over a broader surface of wallpaper serigraphs, the Chairman's face a pansy
purple here, floating nearly free of its photographic source. Work that was
unwitting of history appealed to Scott. He found it liberating. Had he ever
realized the deeper meaning of Mao before he saw these pictures? A subway
rumbled past in the stony dark nearby. He stood and looked a while longer,
feeling a curious calm even with people moving steadily in and out. The surge of
bodies made its own soft roar. (DeLillo 21)
Karen was in the bedroom looking at the gift Scott had brought back from the
city. It was a reproduction of a pencil drawing called Mao II. She unrolled it on
the bed and used objects in reach to hold down the corners. She studied the
picture to see what was interesting about it or why Scott thought she might like
it. The face of Mao Zedong. She liked that name all right. It was strange how a
few lines with a pencil and there he is, some shading in, a scribbled neck and
brows. It was by a famous painter whose name she could never remember but he
was famous, he was dead, he had a white mask of a face and glowing white hair.
Or maybe he was just supposed to be dead. Scott said he didn't seem dead
because he never seemed real. Andy. That was it. (DeLillo 62)
Information about the fragile relation between image and crowd in Don DeLillos literary
work is given by the author himself in The Image and the Crowd: I keep thinking, without
too much supporting evidence, that images have something to do with crowds. An image is a
crowd in a way, a smear of impressions. Images tend to draw people together, create mass
identity. (qtd. Hardack 374) In trying to decipher the link between the rest of the key entities
as revealed by the fragments above, another writer of Earth becomes present in Don
DeLillos text: Andy Warhol. For Andy Warhol the medium of expression is the canvas/ art.
Warhols first series of Mao images produced in 1972 marks his renewed interest in painting,
the series was based on the ubiquitous photograph printed as the frontispiece to Quotations
from Chairman Mao Tse-tung. This first series of Mao images was among the first of his
paintings to feature not only a gestural handling of the background, but also black scribbled
lines that were screened on separately. About his choice to treat the subject, Warhol later
remarked, I really would still do just a silkscreen of the face without all the rest, but people
expect just a little bit more. Thats why I put in all the drawing. (qtd. Livingstone 74) The
people, the art consumer crowd is always present in the mind of the artist, not only as an end
product of his work, but also prior to creating the artwork. The image of Mao Zedong stands
proof of how society consume and appropriate a cultural phenomenon.
In order to understand how much Maos image has traveled along todays culture, it is
important to note that Mao Zedong is placed together with pop stars and Hollywood icons not
only in galleries showing Warhols works but, also, in homeland China. The image of Mao, as
part of the Maocraze, meaning: addressing a later generation who were children or teenagers
at the time of Chairman Maos death, has the status of an icon in the popular sense of the
term, an idol with a visual relevance similar to that reached in the West by Marilyn Monroe or
Elvis Presley ( Dal Lago 51).
569
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Conclusion. Murakami's work aims to reveal the nature of the Japanese psyche by the
way the Japanese people deal with the terrorist attack. The event is a real one, the Japanese
society has experienced such a thing on 20 March 1995. The subject exists, but the need to
filter it through literature is Haruki Murakami's, a man who can slice a problem of his society
through his nature as an author. In this case we can talk about terrorism as it is known to us
all, as an anti-human act, using calculated, shocking and illegal violence on civilian
population is known to be the core of terrorism. However the medium for communicating it to
the public is that of a literary work. Ever since terrorism invaded the media, and in this way
each of us has become a terrorism consumer with the help offered by the media, this
phenomenon being known as ad-terrorism, it is understood that when the general public has
come to consume terrorism through literature a new type of terrorism was born: literary
terrorism.
By analogy with the definition of ad-terrorism, a definition for literary terrorism can
be provided, ad-terrorism refers to advertising terrorism or doing publicity for it, term applied
to the working methods of terrorists meant to intimidate and induce of shock, fear and chaos
among civilians by media or other means of advertising. Also called advertising terrorism or
the message terrorism or terrorist groups, whose ads are addressed to noncombatant subjects. (
Dulea and Frunzetti 177) . A first definition of literary terrorism can be offered, literary
terrorism refers to terrorism that appears in a literary work, or to terrorism as being the topic a
literary work. It is also a term meant to define the everyday reality of terrorism poisoning the
society, given the fact that terrorism has invaded even the literary creations.
A definition of literary terrorism was offered by analyzing the literary work created by
Haruki Murakami: Underground. In the second part of the paper the focus was on the social
dimension of terrorism as it is found in the novel Mao II by Don DeLillo. This is done in
order to give some completion on the nature and name of terrorism found in literary works.
Often is not enough to call it just literary terrorism considering that the terrorism consumed
through books has an important social component, as it is found in the literary works whose
theme is terrorism. An enlarged term and definition is put to question, i.e. the existence of a
socio-literary terrorism.
Writing about terrorism is a social act in itself, the authors need to deal in writing
with a real even, the terrorist attack on the Tokyo subway, as in Haruki Murakamis case, or
with a concept, a phenomenon that consumes our present day society, terrorism, and by
dealing with non-real events triggers a series of social characterizations by fostering them in
the text of his literary work, as in Don DeLillos case, allows the term socio-literary terrorism
to announce its existence and place itself on the market of types of terrorism.
Bibliography
Barna, Cristian. Terorismul-Ultima soluie .Bucureti: Editura TOP FORM, 2007
570
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Carmichael, Thomas. Lee Harvey Oswald and the Postmodern Subject: History and
Intertextuality in Don DeLillos Libra, The Names, and Mao II Contemporary Literature
34.2 (Summer, 1993). 204-218
Chelcea, Septimiu. Metodologia cercetrii sociologice- Metode cantitative i calitative.
Bucureti: Editura Economic, 2007
Dal Lago, Francesca. Personal Mao: Reshaping an Icon in Contemporary Chinese Art Art
Journal 58.2 (Summer, 1999). 46-59
DeLillo, Don. Mao II. U.S.A.: Penguin Group, 1992
Dulea, Gabriel & Frunzeti, Teodor. Psihologia terorismului n era globalizrii. Bucureti:
Editura Centrului Tehnic- Editorial al Armatei, 2009
Hardack, Richard. Twos a Crowd: Mao II, Coke II, and the Politics of Terrorism in Don
DeLillo Studies in the Novel 36.3 (Fall, 2004). 374-392
Livingstone, Marco. Do It Yourself: Notes on Warhols Technique in Andy Warho: A
Retrospective ed. McShine. New York: Museum of Art, 1989, 63-78
Murakami, Hurakami. Underground- The Tokyo Gas Attack and the Japanese Psyche.
London: Vintage, 2003
Simileanu, Vasile. Radiografia terorismului. Bucureti. Ed. TOP FORM, 2008
571
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
SALMAN RUSHDIES THE MOORS LAST SIGH: PEELING OFF HISTORY AS
THE NECESSITY OF BECOMING AN INDIVIDUAL
Roxana Elena DONCU, Assistant Lecturer, and Liliana ANDRONACHE, Assistant
Lecturer, Carola Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest
Abstract: As a postcolonial writer, Salman Rushdie is preoccupied with re-conceptualizing
the identities of postcolonial migrant subjects as hybrid, often straddling two opposite
cultures. The Moors Last Sighs concern lies with defining palimpsest identity, an instance
of the traces colonial history has left on the colonial/postcolonial subject. At the same time,
placed under the unbearable burden of history, torn between his commitments to multiple
traditions, the individual strives for freedom, love and authenticity. The main character of the
novel, Moraes Zogoiby (the Moor) embodies the search for an authentic identity among the
many palimpsests of the divisive colonial history.
Keywords: postcolonialism, hybridity, palimpsest identity, authenticity, individualization
1. Introduction
Written in exile and under house arrest, The Moors Last Sigh (1995) can be read first
and foremost as an allegory of Rushdies own condition as a writer living in hiding under the
threat of death1: the narrator, Moraes Zogoiby, recounts his escape from imprisonment by his
mothers spurned lover Vasco Miranda. Attempting to comply with Vascos demand that he
should write his autobiography or else face death, he compares himself both to Scheherezade,
under pressure to keep telling stories in order to save her life, and to Martin Luther 2, nailing
his theses on the door at Wittenberg in protest against the Catholic Church.
In a similar fashion to Midnights Children, the novel works on multiple levels:
through the first person perspective of Moraes Zogoiby it traces the downfall of the Zogoiby
family and at the same time fictionalises the rise of Hindu nationalism (the Hindutva
movement) which followed the Emergency of Indira Gandhi. On the other hand, the novels
concern with multiplicity and hybridity as postcolonial issues is mirrored in its
conceptualization of palimpsest identities. The divisions engendered by colonial history and
the inability of postcolonial individuals to shake off the burden of the past are again posited as
the historical roots of contemporary evils like Hindu right wing extremism. If Saleem Sinai
was born into a family of Indian Muslims (to discover later that he was the offspring of mixed
English-Indian parentage), Moraes Zogoiby is the hybrid descendant of a Catholic mother
(Aurora) and a Jewish father (Abraham), calling himself, in a manner that echoes Joyces
description of Leopold Bloom as a Jewgreek in Ulysses, a cathjew (428). His mother
Aurora, Indias greatest artist, comes from a Portuguese family related to the 15 th century
1 After the publication of The Satanic Verses, the Iranian spiritual leader Ayatollah Khomeini pronounced a
fatwa (death punishment) against Salman Rushdie.
2 The Moors identification with Luther may be open to several interpretations: Luther stands for protest and
radicalism (as one side of the Moors family does), but also for the division of the Catholic Church (paralleling
the divisions inside Moraes family and nation). Finally, as the novel is written in the form of the Moors
autobiography, Luther is linked to confession as a Christian practice with which Moraes compares his effort.
572
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
explorer and colonizer Vasco da Gama, while his father, a Cochin Jew, may possibly be the
illegitimate offspring of the last sultan of Granada, Boabdil.
2. The divided postcolonial subject
The divisions in the Moors family reflect both the internal divisions in his personality
and the religious and political factionalism that marks the beginning of communalist conflict-
Rushdie started writing the novel after the riots that followed the destruction of the Babri
Mosque3, a major Muslim shrine in Ayodhya. His ancestry is also a mark of cultural
difference: as a Christian-Jew, Moraes belongs to a minority, and his exploitation by Raman
Fielding in the course of the novel points to the way Hindu nationalist politics chose to deal
with minorities in the 1990s. The Moors family line illustrates both the wonderful plurality
of Indias many ethnic and religious groups and the status of minorities in a new, post-
independence nation.
Aged 36, yet burdened with the body of a 72 year old man (he is doomed to go
through life at double-speed), Moraes looks back at the end of his life upon his deeply-rifted
family, trying to come to terms with its ruin. He traces the history of his family as far back as
his great-grandparents, the da Gamas. Through the da Gamas, Rushdie makes an inventory of
the conflicting attitudes to British colonialism that later led to factionalism, the rise of Hindu
nationalism and communalism. Auroras grandmother Epiphania, honouring her rich
husbands illustrious ancestor, takes up the spice trade inaugurated by da Gama and is
understandably blind to colonialisms exploitative side. Her complicity in the imperialist
enterprise makes her a willing subject of the British administration, whom she supports
politically almost as devotedly as she follows her Portuguese Catholic faith. She has
completely internalized the colonizers attitude, believing that the departure of the British
would amount to a loss of identity. To her husband Francisco, a nationalist and a progressive
fighting for independence, she replies:
What are we but Empires children? British have given us everything, isnt it? -
Civilization, law, order, too much. Even your spices that stink up the house they
buy out of their generosity, putting clothes on backs and food on childrens
plates. Then why speakofy such treason and filthy up my childrens ears with
what-all Godless bunk? (18)
Francisco, however, refuses to share his wifes justifications of the power abuse and the
oppression of the British colonizers. He demands home rule for India, resting his case on the
ruthless economic exploitation of the subcontinent by its colonizers:
Taxes doubled! Our youngsters dying in British uniform! The nations wealth is being
shipped off, madam: at home our people starve, but British Tommy is utilizing our wheat,
rice, jute and coconut products. I personally am required to send out goods below cost-
3 The Bharatiya Janata Party (the main Hindu party in office) planned the demolition of the Babri Mosque, a site
disputed by Hindu, Muslims and Jainists. Its destruction was carried out during a Hindu nationalist
demonstration in 1992. After this event, the country was rocked by communal riots, in which more than 2,000
people died. In Pakistan and Bangladesh many Hindu women were raped by Muslims in retaliation for the
destruction of the mosque.
573
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
price. Our mines are being emptied: salpetre, manganese, mica. [] nation going to pot.
(18)
Epiphania and Francisco embody two different attitudes to British colonialism, which
their children Camoens and Aires will inherit. On one side of the divide stand Epiphania and
Aires as reactionary conservatives- they were for England, God, philistinism, the old ways,
a quiet life (18), while on the other Francisco and Camoens represent the radical virtues of
nationalism, reason, art, innovation, and above all, in those days, of protest. (18-9) These
familial divisions will resurface in every generation, albeit in a slightly different form; the
death of Francisco, nor any other death for that matter will prove capable of putting an end to
the conflict. As Moraes acknowledges: This, too, is part of my inheritance: the grave settles
no quarrels. (27) As familial and national4 history are made to mirror each other, the blood
baths of communal riots stem from the same old wounds and reproduce themselves in the
same ways as the rifts in the Moors family. The partition of the subcontinent into India and
Pakistan after Independence is paralleled by the division of the da Gama business and estate
after the conflicts of the Lobos and the Menezes clans. Auroras mother Belle decides to
separate the company in two, disregarding Franciscos will (which stipulated that Gama
Trading Industry should be run on a fifty-fifty basis by the two brothers Aires and Camoens).
Divide, and maybe the sickness can be contained in one half only. If we do not live
separately, we will die together (41) says Belle, echoing the arguments put forward by the
Muslim founders5 of Pakistan. She divides the old house on Cabral Island from deepest
bottom to highest top (41) Along with the boundaries used as demarcations between adverse
territories, the things are also split up between the two households: the old family sets of
linen, cutlery, crockery were all summarily divorced, down to the last tea spoon, pillow-slip
and quarter-plate. Animals have to follow the enigmatic whims of their human masters:
even the lizards on the walls were captured, and evenly distributed on both sides of the great
divide. (42) This is how artificial boundaries become natural, in the end. The division of
space is closely followed by the break-up of time, as Belle, in the absence of a second kitchen,
put up a chart of hours on the wall that bisected the week, day by day, allotting alternative
days for cooking to each side of the family. In her first mural fresco Aurora paints Mother
India with Belles face, and Belles symbolic gesture of dividing the family estate is also
transferred on Mother India, who loved and betrayed and ate and destroyed and again loved
her children, and with whom the childrens passionate conjoining and eternal quarrel stretched
long beyond the grave (60-1)
Conflict runs like a red thread through the novel: Moraess parents, Aurora and
Abraham, after a brief interlude of passionate love come to hate one another because of their
vastly different personalities (they represent another long-standing conflict, that between the
Christians and the Jews, leading to the mass torture and genocide of the Holocaust). Abraham
4 The nation is understood as a family (Rushdie frequently uses Mother India to stand for the country). This
construal of nation as a community of descent (ethnic nationalism) rather than a community of assent (civic
nationalism) is questioned throughout the novel.
5 Muhhamad Ali Jinnah, responding to Muslim fears of marginalization from a Hindu government, advocated
the creation of a separate Muslim state. Jinnahs urgent demands for Pakistan, which led to a rather sudden
Partition and many violent incidents, came from the fact that he was suffering from terminal tuberculosis. Like
the Moor, he was running against the clock of his biology and wanted to see his dream fulfilled before dying.
574
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
is a business-minded pragmatist, who redeems the declining family business by transferring it
to Bombay. There he will become a lord of the underworld of crime, trafficking in girl
prostitutes, arms and even nuclear weapons, dealing in drugs and speculating in real estate. In
sharp contrast to her level-headed husband, Aurora is depicted as an artist of genius, a
complex, often conflicting personality. She shows the readers another face of Mother India 6:
plural, sophisticated, by her artistic genius able to offer the most inclusive view of modern
India. Her vision charts the historical transformations of India, starting from King
Gondophares and the Apostle Thomas, Taj Mahal and the battle of Srirangapatnam, to
modern history, All-India Congress and the Muslim League. She also engages with the
Boabdil theme, using her son to pose for a rewriting of the story set in an imaginary
Mooristan- a place where different realities meet. Mooristan is depicted as an allegorical
counterpart to a post-independence India, dominated by prejudice, dissent and
fundamentalism. Yet, although her painting begins with the huge murals depicting the whole
cultural and religious history of India, after she and the Moor grow apart, her work becomes
darker, more fractured. In a review of the novel Coetzee calls Aurora a distracted mother,
who suffers intermittent remorse for not loving her children enough, but prefers finally to see
them through the lens of her art. (www.nybooks.com) Auroras palimpsest paintings, in
which she renders eternal her own vision of a plural, multiple India by painting it over the
corruption and deformity of the present, amount to no more than a romantic myth of the
plural, hybrid nation. (www.nybooks.com) Rushdies critical stance towards the metaphor of
the nation as family can be surmised in his portrayal of feminine figures symbolic of mother
India: Belle, Aurora, and finally Uma Sarasvati. Whereas Belle embodies the spirit of endless
division, Aurora, in spite of her depiction as the brilliant voice of the nations hybridity, has
her failings. As Coetzee pointed out, she is too much of an artist to be a good mother: her
preference for representation leads to an objectification, a reification of her relationship with
the Moor and his three sisters. This happens because representation is a relationship which
establishes a hegemonic one-way relationship between the representer and the represented;
love on the other hand implies a two-way communication. Eventually, she (as well as her
husband) is responsible for the destruction of their children. Through her identification with
the image of Mother India, Rushdie problematizes the notion of a postcolonial identity mainly
dependent on national definitions (however inclusive). In a way, the novel is Rushdies last
sigh, his last looking back towards the concepts of nation and national identity before
dropping them in favor of his own version of cosmopolitanism. Moraes writes Motherness-
excuse me if I underline the point- is a big idea in India, maybe our biggest: the land as
mother, the mother as land, as the firm ground beneath our feet. (137) It is no coincidence
that Rushdies following novel The Ground beneath Her Feet will deal with the shakiness
rather than the stability of the ground: the idea of motherhood, of the nation as family is
finally dismissed in The Moors Last Sigh, and in his next piece of work Rushdie is more
concerned with growing up as a coming to independence than with questioning the
allegiances to family and nation.
6 Mother India is also the name of a popular Hindi movie directed by Mehboob Khan and produced in 1957.
The figure of Radha, a strong peasant woman and mother, stands for India.
575
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
An attendant problem on the issues of conflict and division that suffuse the Moors
narrative is how to explain them. My contention is that these issues are related to a specific
understanding of nationalism and a particular distribution of gender roles during colonial rule,
both of whom were challenged by the increasing individualization of postcolonial societies. In
The Nation and its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories, Partha Chaterjee
delineates a model of Indian nationalism that was developed in opposition to Westernized
concepts of imagining the nation. According to Chaterjee, the early anticolonialist nationalists
produced their own domain of sovereignty by dividing culture into material and spiritual areas
and staked their independence on the claim to the spiritual sphere, represented by religion,
caste, women and the family. In order to preserve their sense of an authentic identity,
communities engaged in an artificial separation of the material and spiritual spheres:
The material is the domain of the "outside," of the economy and of statecraft, of science and
technology, a domain where the West had proved its superiority and the East had succumbed.
[] The spiritual, on the other hand, is an "inner" domain bearing the essential" marks of
cultural identity. The greater one's success in imitating Western skills in the material domain,
therefore, the greater the need to preserve the distinctness of one's spiritual culture. (6 )
Because the domain of the spiritual was imagined as a repository of essentialized
authentic identities enabling political contest, the aspirations of the marginal groups (among
them women) included in the spiritual dimension were subject to normalization and
naturalization. Women were ascribed gender roles that helped defined an atavistic and
authentic body of tradition, while men represented the progressive, or revolutionary,
principle (McClintock 2) Thus postcolonialism inherited a double (and divided) idea of
identity: the concept of an internal identity, essential and mythic and an outside concept of
political and economic identities. While women were forced to hide their difference and
complexity under an essentialized concept of motherhood, men evaluated their social,
economic and political positions according to the borrowed standards of Western ideology.
Radhakrishnan, commenting on Chaterjees model, notes that
nationalist rhetoric makes woman the pure and ahistorical signifier of
interiority. In the fight against the enemy outside, something within gets even
more repressed and woman becomes the mute but necessary allegorical ground
for the transactions of nationalist history. []
The result is a fundamental rupture [] a radical collapse of representation.
Unable to produce its own history in response to its inner sense of identity,
nationalist ideology sets up Woman as victim and goddess simultaneously.
Woman becomes the allegorical name for a specific historical failure: the failure
to coordinate the political or the ontological with the epistemological within an
undivided agency (84-5)
Rushdies feminine characters have to suffer the consequences of this double idea of
identity. Auroras mother Belle challenges the patriarchal gender system by reversing the
stereotypical roles assigned to women and men: she takes care of the family business and
adopts tough male strategies in order to do that. The recognition of her being a tower of
576
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
strength comes with her moniker Queen Isabella of Cochin. Other strong women like
Aurora and Uma choose to follow the path of their artistic development, ignoring the binding
essentialisms that are the heritage of the anticolonial struggle for independence. Yet in so
doing, they destroy themselves and the men they love. The division of the family/nation into
clearly separated gender roles and the failure of nationalism to provide opportunities for
change are analyzed as the major ills affecting postcolonial nations like India.
3. Peeling off history in order to become an individual
The fate of the Moor illustrates the effects of this conflict/division on the construction
of subjectivity. He is born under his great-grandmother Epiphanias curse: a house divided
against itself cannot stand [] may your house be forever partitioned, may its foundations
turn to dust, may your children rise up against you, and may your fall be hard ; (99) Since
the family (and nation, by extension) is conceived as a site of ongoing struggle, Moraes gets
caught in the middle: between his willful, brilliant mother, who in her art attempts to build the
myth of a plural, hybrid nation able to accommodate her own difference and a father
corrupted by the Western capitalist drive for profit. As he tries to forge an identity, he will
successively identify with his mother, Uma, his father and then Raman (Mainduck) Fielding.
All these identifications are tainted by history and fail in the end. His mothers love proves
insufficient: whereas at the beginning he is part of her political project of offering a counter-
image to nationalist India, Moraes sees his mothers possessiveness as an attempt to stifle his
personality. In unconscious protest against her terrible love, he strives for freedom and love.
In this state of mind, he encounters Uma Sarasvati, a rival artist of his mothers. Uma
embodies another type of pluralism: while Aurora stands for an integrative pluralism, Uma
represents the protean, hybridized, postmodern and postcolonial subject who turns out to be
faithless and destructive (Baker 242) Uma is as fraudulent as his father, an artist who
creates various personas in order to catch the Moor in her trap: her hidden purpose is
destruction- revenge against Aurora, whose place as the essential Indian artist she intends to
take. After sending Aurora the tapes with the Moors insulting remarks directed at his mother,
Uma accidentally swallows the poison she had prepared for the Moor. She crushes his heart,
but also makes him acknowledge his mistaken love for the pluralist Uma, with her multiple
selves, her highly inventive commitment to the infinite malleability of the real, her
modernistically provisional sense of truth, who had turned out to be the bad egg (272) Umas
identity consists in a collection of roles with which she identifies- a set of radically different
personae (265) without an integrative core that can hold them together while at the same
time allowing for change and transformation.
As a result of Umas jealous intervention, the Moor is disinherited and kicked out of
his parents home. The moment is described as one of disorientation (a foreshadowing of The
Ground beneath Her Feet):
I stumbled through them, giddy, disoriented, lost. I was nobody, nothing. Nothing I had
ever known was of use, nor could I any longer say that I knew it. I had been emptied,
invalidated; I was, to use a hoary but suddenly fitting epithet, ruined. I had fallen from
grace, and the horror of it shattered the universe, like a mirror. I felt as though I, too, had
shattered; as if I were falling to earth, not as myself, but as a thousand and one
fragmented images of myself, trapped in shards of glass. (278-279)
577
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
In a similar fashion to The Ground beneath Her Feet, the moment of disorientation is
understood as the beginning of maturity (the fall from grace also echoes the fall from the
bombed plane in The Satanic Verses). In spite of his broken heart and the shattered vision of
his childhood world, the Moor articulates the necessity of finding his own true self,
independent of his parents, several times throughout the narrative: in writing this, I must peel
off history, the prison of the past. It is time for [] the truth about myself to struggle out, at
last, from under my parents stifling power(136) and I need no longer be what ancestry,
breeding and misfortune had decreed, but could enter, at long last, into my self- my true self.
(295) Even if the project Moraes outlines here, that of being true to himself, will eventually
fail, his being able to articulate this desire for authenticity counts as a step forward in the
conceptualization of postcolonial subjectivity. Saleem Sinai in Midnights Children is
incapable of articulating such an ideal- he remains forever committed to a sense of history and
self being inseparable and inevitably interlocked. Charles Taylor analyzes the desire for
authenticity as one of the major moral ideas that have shaped and continue to shape
modernity. He argues that behind the self-fulfillment, moral relativism and subjectivism
characteristic of our age we can distinguish the moral force of the ideal of authenticity. (15-6)
Here is Taylors definition of authenticity, closely linked to the goal of self-fulfillment:
Being true to myself means being true to my own originality, and that is something only
I can articulate and discover. In articulating it, I am also defining myself. I am realizing
a potentiality that is properly my own. This is the background understanding to the
modern ideal of authenticity, and to the goals of self-fulfillment and self-realization in
which it is usually couched. This is the background that gives moral force to the culture
of authenticity, including its most degraded, absurd, or trivialized forms. It is what gives
sense to the idea of doing your own thing or finding your own fulfillment. (29)
What Taylor calls the culture of authenticity is not only a modern, but also a
specifically Western culture, with roots in the Christian theology of St Augustine, the writings
of Rousseau and the philosophy of Herder. Rushdies criticism and final abandonment of
pluralism (Aurora) and multiculturalism (Uma) as wrong matrices for the development of
subjectivity coincides with the adoption of a cosmopolitan model, in which the individual is
conceived as less dependent on his membership in cultural communities and where voluntary
affiliations (Hollinger 3) are favoured.
After his release from jail (where he was thrown following accusations of
having poisoned Uma) the Moor, lacking the protection of his family, is forced to join the
criminal underworld of Bombay as the right-hand man of Raman Fielding, a thinly disguised
caricature of Bal Thakeray7 . (Coetzee www.nybooks.com) Raman Fielding, a Hindu
demagogue with an army of thugs stands for what Latour called the work of purification. He
is an apostle of cultural purity, who believes that the true nation is what we must reclaim
7 Balasaheb Thakeray, ex- leader of the Shiv Sena Party (SSP), whose SS initials are a fateful (and not
altogether wrong) reminder of fascism. Rushdie calls them the most overtly Hindu-fundamentalist grouping
ever to achieve office anywhere in India (The Riddle of Midnight 322). The SSP (whose symbol is the Bengali
tiger) is an extreme right wing group, with overt anti-Muslim views.
578
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
from beneath the layers of alien empires. (299). A specter of Hindu fundamentalism on the
rise, Fieldings ideology is reactionary and repressive:
He was against unions, in favour of breaking strikes, against working
women, in favour of sati, against poverty and in favour of wealth. He was
against immigrants to the city [] against the corruption of the Congress and
for direct action, by which he meant paramilitary activity in support of his
political aims, and the institution of a bribery-system of his own. He derided the
Marxist analysis of society as class struggle and lauded the Hindu preference for
the stability of caste. In the national flag he was in favour of the colour saffron
and against the colour green8. (298-9)
Moraes acts as the right-hand man of Raman Fielding: he is a physical colossus, six
feet and a half tall9 and he possesses a misshapen club-like right hand, with whom he knocks
down his adversaries. The associations that the misshapen right hand of the Moor calls to
mind are used to throw into doubt Raman Fieldings political power. The symbolic meanings
of the hand are traditionally linked to power and authority. Additionally, the right hand is
associated with the solar, the rational and the conscious- with the yang energy in Asian
cultures. Moraes deformed right hand serves as an indication of the illegitimacy of Fieldings
power- based on intimidation and aggression and sustained by a vast underground criminal
network, similar to his fathers. The deformity of his hand points to an alteration of the
rational, to Fieldings rhetorical stratagems and his reliance on the irrational powers of
religious fundamentalism to gain adherents. He acknowledges peoples thirst for the irrational
and decides to enlist it as his powers secret source: it is not the civil social norm for which
men yearn, but the outrageous, the outside, the out-of-bounds. (305) Since Abraham and
Fielding are competing for primacy in Bombay, the Moor stands divided in his loyalties: he is
at first enlisted in Fieldings underground army, and then switches his allegiance to his father.
Neither master appeals to him- as Moraes notes, echoing Vasco Miranda corruption was the
only force we had that could defeat fanaticism. (332)
The struggle for primacy between Abraham and Fielding ends in the murder of the
latter and an explosion that destroys half of Bombay, driving Moraes to Spain. The flight to
Spain is a symbolic return to origins (in search of his true hidden self), as the Moor returns to
the very spot where his ancestor, the sultan Boabdil had abandoned his power. His exile from
India is construed as the only adequate response to the increasing violence and religious
fundamentalism of his native country. Yet the alternatives to the constraints of a rigid
definition of nation- pluralism and multiculturalism- have been deeply problematized
throughout the novel.
Paul Cantor argues that Moraes encounter with a multicultural Spain turns up to be
equally criticized by Rushdie, who comes to raise doubts about the value of cultural
hybridity itself . (Cantor 133) The cultural pluralism that the Moor observes in Spain is
devoid of authenticity: in the village of Benengeli the Moor suddenly finds himself
8 The colour saffron represents the Hindu majority, while green stands for the Muslim minority, as the favourite
colour of Prophet Muhammad, who wore a green cloak and turban.
9 6.5 feet is 1.98 meters, 2 meters approximately.
579
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
in a most un-Spanish thoroughfare, a pedestrianised street full of non-
Spaniards [] flanked by a number of expensive boutiques- Gucci, Hermes,
Aquascutum, Cardin, Paloma Picasso- and also by eating places ranging from
Scandinavian meat vendors to a Stars-and-Stripes-liveried Chicago Rib. (390)
Cantor notes that for Rushdie the commodity culture of capitalism abstracts from the local,
from anything that roots a people in their soil, and substitutes instead a world of falsely
universal brand names, epitomized by the fast-food chains that spring up everywhere and
belong nowhere (134).
A somewhat strange figure depicted in the manner of Bulgakovs Woland (the devil
from The Master and Margarita) whispers in his ear It may be hard for you to pity these lost
souls in alligator shoes and sport-shirts with crocodiles over their nipples, but compassion is
what is required here [] these blood-suckers are already in Hell. (390)
It is clear that this is capitalist Hell, and multiculturalism appears as just another of its faces.
Thus the Moor is again caught between two versions of evil: while in India he would have
been forced to adopt a narrow definition of identity, the tolerant capitalist ideology in Spain
would oblige him to relinquish any sense of self and identity. Cantor concludes that in spite of
his celebration of cultural hybridity, Rushdie has always worried that it can degenerate into
empty forms of amalgamation, in which the elements coalesce only because they have been
stripped of all serious content (135)
Vasco Miranda, Auroras lover now turned her rival, epitomizes the spuriousness of
capitalist multicultural hotchpotch: a talented Goan painter and Auroras former lover, he has
sold out to the capitalist drive for accumulation and has amassed a fortune by selling kitsch to
Westerners. Driven insane by jealousy, he imprisons the Moor in his fortress, letting him live
as long as he goes on with his story. The story thus becomes equivalent with his life, and the
construction of subjectivity is finally entrusted to the words that build up narrative meaning.
The search for identity is a search for love (understood as the unifying, harmonizing principle
that binds together the many facets of human subjectivity): when Vasco Miranda dies upon
the portrait of Aurora, the Moor meditates on his mothers death: She, too, had gone beyond
recall, and she never spoke to me, never made confession, never gave me back what I needed,
the certainty of her love. (432) Confession is here understood as a gesture of reconciliation- a
reconciliation prevented by Auroras untimely death (her murderer was none other than her
husband Abraham). This association between love, confession and identity shifts the weight
of identity-construction from supra-personal machines to the individual. When subjectivity is
understood as a result/effect of identifications with nation/state/culture/religion its
construction is plagued by contradictions; it is only at the individual level of making meaning
that personal identity can take shape.
4. Conclusion
What Rushdie dramatizes in different ways in his fiction is the thoroughly modern
necessity of dropping traditional understandings of the individual as essentially constituted by
his belonging to a group or community and focusing instead on the responsibilities and
difficulties of what Ulrich Beck called individualization: the compulsion to create, to stage-
manage, not only ones own biography but the bonds and networks surrounding it, and to do
580
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
this amid changing preferences and at successive stages of life (27) The individual thus
becomes the nodal point of social structure as a result of the rapidly changing social, political
and economic environments.
Works cited
Baker, Stephen. You Must Remember This: Salman Rushdies The Moors Last Sigh.
Bloom's Modern Critical Views: Salman Rushdie. Ed. Harold Bloom. Philadelphia: Chelsea
House, 2003. 233-246
Beck, Ulrich. Individualization: Institutionalized Individualism and its Social and Political
Consequences. London: Sage Publications, 2002
Cantor, Paul A. Tales of the Alhambra: Rushdie's Use of Spanish History in The Moor's
Last Sigh. Bloom's Modern Critical Views: Salman Rushdie. Ed. Harold Bloom
Philadelphia: Chelsea House, 2003. 121-144
Chatterjee, Partha. The Nation and Its Fragments: Colonial and Postcolonial Histories.
Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993
Coetzee, J.M. Palimpsest Regained: The Moors Last Sigh. The New York Review of Books
21 Mar.1996. www.nybooks.com. 7 May 2011
http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/1996/mar/21/palimpsest-regained/
Hollinger, David A. Postethnic America: Beyond Multiculturalism. New York: Basic Books,
1995
McClintock, Anne. No Longer a Future in Heaven: Gender, Race and Nationalism.
Dangerous Liaisons: Gender, Nation, and Postcolonial Perspectives. Ed. Ella Shohat.
Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997. 89-112
Radhakrishnan, Rajagopalan. Nationalism, Gender and the Narrative of Identity.
Nationalisms and Sexualities. .Eds. Andrew Parker, Mary Russo, Doris Summer and Patricia
Yaeger. London: Routledge, 1992. 77-95
Rushdie, Salman. The Moors Last Sigh. London: Vintage, 2006
Taylor, Charles . The Ethics of Authenticity. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London: Harvard
University Press, 1991
581
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
'BRAKING' NEWS BREAKS SPIRITS. A CRITICAL PERSPECTIVE ON MEDIA
DISCOURSE WHILE TAKING AN ETHICAL APPROACH
Ioana RAICU, Assistant Professor, PhD, Valahia University of Trgovite
Abstract: Nowadays, media discourse functions as a confusing source of information, as an
independent creator of stories. People no longer trust what they see, they no longer trust what
they hear. We deal with myths, legends, stories. Do we still deal with facts? The present paper
aims at making sense out of a process (the media process) that resembles more and more,
with each day that passes, the eternal fight between good and evil, a process in which we are
not sure anymore whether it is 'good' that is being promoted or 'evil'. By taking a critical
stand and embarking on a critical discourse analysis of the media discourse, we shall also
draw upon our understanding of some ethical concepts in an attempt to come to a more
thorough interpretation of the media process, its development and its future directions.
Keywords: media discourse, news, critical discourse analysis, ethical approach
Analysing newspapers, analysing news, stories, programmes shown on national and
international television channels, analysing radio broadcasts of news bulletins, analysing
special news editions, in a word, analysing media discourse is an endeavour which
sociologists, linguists, socio-linguists, psychologists, political, social or cultural analysts,
theorists or activists, philosophers, have embarked upon and have been carrying on for quite
some time now. However, the topic is not in the least worn out, and this is due to its inherent
characteristic of constantly renewing itself.
We consider taking a stand against what is happening in the media nowadays to be
important because, in our opinion, the discourse of the media has a crucial role in triggering
social changes, in creating social movements, in shaping or reshaping social practices.
Paradoxically enough, the discourse of the media is triggered by social practices and, in
return, triggers social changes. This type of dialectical relationship between language and
social changes has first been theorised and dealt with by Norman Fairclough, in his work
Discourse and Social Change1. In a later work, he returns to the subject and brings further
emphasis on how news reports rely on the recontextualisation of communicative events and
social practices, which are determined by the 'goals, values and priorities of communication in
which they are recontextualised' (Fairclough 1995: 41). Analysing media discourse implies
the analysis of the use of certain words, the analysis of certain social, cultural and political
patterns that characterise a society at a certain point in time, it implies the analysis of the
respective society's cultural mentality and identity, its historical context, its background of
events.
What is disturbing for a certain class of viewers/listeners/readers nowadays is the
impossibility of correctly deciphering a piece of information they come into contact with.
This impossibility comes from the fact that the conveyor of the respective piece of
1
Norman Fairclough, Discourse and Social Change, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1992
582
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
information does not represent a reliable source, whether we talk about a certain newspaper, a
TV channel, a radio station, a profile magazine, or other media of transmitting the
information. According to whether the newspaper, the TV channel, the radio station is being
controlled by a certain (leftist or rightist) political party or not, the information we receive
shall be presented in such manner as to influence the reader's/viewer's/listener's opinion in
respect to a certain matter or another. We may agree that manipulation has always been part
of the ways and means of the mass media. Nevertheless, what we seem to be lacking more
and more is the tools we need in deciphering those manipulative ways and means. We have no
critical understanding of events, we lack the critical stand in respect to the 'stories' we are
presented with. An inclination towards sensationalism seems to characterise a whole world
and the media makes no exception.
In order to be able to come to a more thorough understanding of what is happening
around us, we need to regain our abilities to counteract a possible deceit. And we can do that
by redeveloping a critical thinking, a susceptible attitude, a non-gullible stance. The
discussion does not set itself as a purpose to induce a feeling of total disbelief, nor does it
promote extreme or conspirational theories. The goal is not to 'induce' anything; on the
contrary, the article's aim is to try to promote a sort of 'freedom of thought', a freedom from
the various types of constraints that are naturally part of the social landscape. The object of
this paper is to merely come up with some solutions to a problem that societies are faced with,
namely that of not being sure whether the choices we make are our own and if we are, indeed,
free to make those choices. Even though it may be commonly agreed that we have not been
free from quite some time now to make any kind of choices, it is worth, however, to try to see
where the root of the problem actually resides and if there is something that can be done.
Our analysis could only have been undertaken from a CDA (Critical Discourse
Analysis) perspective, should we consider that, as Richardson states in his book on Analysing
Newspapers, CDA starts by identifying a social problem, then takes the side of those who
suffer most and critically analyses 'those in power, those who are responsible and those who
have the means and the opportunity to solve such problems' (van Dijk 1996: 85), and because
'in response to social inequality and the abuse of power, CDA demands 'politically involved
research with an emancipatory requirement' (Tischer et al., 2000, cited in Richardson 2007:
2). In Richardson's opinion, news are in close connection to the actions and opinions of
powerful social groups and, while it is evident that they have to be understood in connection
to the target and intended audiences, it is wrong to consider that important issues such as
'contemporary democratic politics, social values and the continuing existence of prejudice and
social inequalities' should be looked into outside the influence of journalism. They are key
themes that are also the result of the 'structures, functions and power of journalism' (2007: 1)
Richardson's 'five fundamental assumptions about language', namely that: 'language is
social', 'language use enacts identity', 'language use is always active', 'language use has
power', and, finally, that 'language is political', are assumptions that we can clearly identify
with when we think of how language is used in the process of transmitting the information.
The statement that language is social comes to reinforce the above mentioned arguments
about the dialectical relationship between language and social change, as theorised and best
explained by Fairclough. That 'language use enacts identity' might seem self-evident if we
think that we project a certain image of ourselves by the mere things we say and the ideas we
583
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
identify with. By arguing that 'language is active', we argue that things are being done through
language, a statement which is founded on the idea that progress is impossible without
communication through language. At the same time, however, whoever holds the key to
communication, holds the key of power and language proves to be the engine that produces
power. Finally, that 'language is political' is probably the conclusion analysts and linguists
have reached once they realised that everything that is being transmitted through language is
based on a certain agenda.
Discourse is language in all of the above situations. Discourse is 'language in use'.
What critical discourse analysts do is to go further than accepting this and to promote the 'aim
of linking linguistic analysis to social analysis' (Woods and Kroger, 2000: 206). Responding
to the idea that discourse must play a part in producing and reproducing social inequalities (as
a result of accepting that language use contributes to the (re)production of social life), CDA
'seeks to have an effect on social practice and social relationships' (Tischer et al., 2000: 147)
of disempowerment, dominance, prejudice and/or discrimination and that such critical
analysis may take place 'at different levels of abstraction from the particular event: it may
involve its more immediate situational context, the wider context of institutional practices the
event is embedded within, or the yet wider frame of the society and the culture' (Fairclough,
1995b: 62). Out of the general principles of CDA established by Wodak (1996) and cited by
Richardson, there are four key themes that require more profound discussion as they also
apply to media (newspapers) discourse: 'the constituted and (re)creative character of
discourse; power and social relations in discourse; ideology; and hegemony.' (Richardson
2007: 27) All these key themes relate to the role and influence of the media discourse. The
(re)creative character of the media discourse is to be reflected in newspaper articles, TV
shows, news coverages, social campaigns done by the media representatives, promoting social
or cultural events, etc. Power and social relations are displayed in the media discourse
whenever a certain social or political event, which is of crucial importance in the evolution of
events at a certain point in the development of a nation, is made public, is presented to the
people. The way in which the event is made public and presented will trigger certain social or
political changes and will have an influence on the future development of events. Media
discourse is characterised by a certain type of ideology, in the sense that it preserves a sense
of 'how things should be done'. If we think of a type of ideological discourse, we think that it
must lead to something. Media discourse always leads to something, or claims to do so, or
sets itself as a goal to do so. Hence, its hegemonic feature, its struggle to remain on top of the
list of communication means.
Richardson was arguing that the investigation of certain words is an important step in
doing discourse analysis (Richardson 2007: 47). It is a well known fact that the media
discourse is characterised by the use of certain words, that there are so-called clichs that we
are already familiar with. In today's discourse of many journalists, reporters, editorialists,
columnists, etc., there is however a tendency towards using terms that do not really mean
anything in themselves, but are merely meant to create an atmosphere of 'breaking' news.
Words like 'sensational', 'really', 'actually', 'extraordinarily', 'extremely', 'practically',
'phenomenal', 'formidable', 'stunning', 'terribly', 'incredible', 'unbelievable', 'shocking' and the
list may go on, are, most of the times, used excessively, sometimes without there being the
need to use them, mainly they are used to get the viewer's/listener's/reader's attention or to
584
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
make the story sound as the story of the moment. The redundancy of such words tends to bore
or even annoy at a certain moment. The problem arises when some people actually relate to
these words in the sense that they come to perceive any story or event as a 'sensational', as a
unique happening in their own life, in the sense that they seem to sometimes identify with the
stories, they crave to know the 'sequel', what happens next, they cannot go on with their own
daily lives unless they have the knowledge of what happens next in the life of a certain person
involved in a certain 'sensational' story whose development they have watched eagerly, or in
the life, for instance, of certain public figures whose lives are publicised in the media or who
are part of certain reality shows. Nothing beats the 'sensational' anymore, nothing beats the
'shocking' news.
Van Dijk (1998) was talking of 'cognitive constraints', also known as frames and
scripts, which may be seen as the representation of social, economic and ideological values in
which the recontextualisation processes are reflected. Through recontextualisation, we
understand elements of one social practice appropriated within another, often dominant,
context or text for some strategic purpose (Chilton and Schffner 2002: 17). In his article on
'Representation of Foreign Justice in the Media: The Amanda Knox Case', Michael S. Boyd
argues, by making a reference to Fairclough, that recontextualisation texts are transformed in
various ways through a process which is 'contingent upon the nature of the events and texts
that mediated meanings move into' (Fairclough cited in Boyd 2010: 73). It is in this sense that
Richardson gives the example of journalists (and editors) who 'help to legitimate the existing
power structure and the existing ways of seeing and doing things' (Dunlevy 1998 in
Richardson 2007: 89). He further notes that news producers play an important role in
determining social practices:
through its power to shape issue agendas and public discourse, it can reinforce
beliefs; it can shape people's opinions not only of the world but also of their place
and role in the world; or, if not shape your opinions on a particular matter, it can
at the very least influence what you have opinions on; in sum, it can help shape
social reality by shaping our views of social reality (Richardson 2007: 13)
Boyd adds, while citing Bell (1991), that another important aspect of news production
is its 'layered' or 'embedded' nature, so that 'at each stage in the production of the story, earlier
versions are transformed and recontextualised in ways which correspond to the concerns,
priorities and goals of the current stage []' (Fairclough 1995: 48). He then goes on to
emphasise that it is not just previous versions that are recontextualised, but also the source
texts upon which the stories are originally based, such as interviews, foreign news reports,
court documents, etc. The level of complexity increases when the media reports are subject to
translation.
At this point one wonders what the bases are for the values propagated in the media. If
we consider along with Fowler (1991: 19) that news values are regulated by the 'mental
categories which are present in readers' and which the media builds upon, then we agree with
van Dijk's assertion that 'cognitive constraints' influence news values and are a reflection of
social, economic and ideological values. At the same time, Richardson sees value judgements
as operating at all phases of development during the news making process, in a process of
585
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
what we may call on-going recontextualisation. (Richardson 2007: 86). Sometimes, the use
and recontextualisation of certain terms may lead to an erroneous interpretation and retelling
of the events and facts. (Boyd in CADAAD 2013: 47). The cognitive constraints also play an
important role in the sense that people use their own background knowledge and
presuppositions about what is right and wrong in the form of stored frames and scripts.
If we go back to CDA as a theoretical approach, we may argue that this methodology
proves helpful in our endeavour precisely because it embarks upon discourse analysis with a
social agenda in mind. However, Richardson argues that there is a tendency in CDA to regard
discourse independently, 'as a thing that in itself can include or exclude, reproduce social
inequalities or effect social change'. 'Discourse is a practice not just of representing the world,
but of signifying the world, constituting and constructing the world in meaning.' (Fairclough
1992: 64)
The fact that questions of power are of central interest to CDA may be interpreted in
two different ways: on the one hand, critical analysts interpret a piece of text or talk looking at
the relations of power that are given by the context in which the text or talk occurs: either
local (setting, time, participants) or global (as part of organizational, institutional actions) (see
van Dijk, 1996); and on the other hand, the piece of text or talk is regarded as empowering
language use, that is, discourse that contributes, by content, context, purpose, rhetoric, to
social change. (see Fairclough, 1992) It is commonly agreed upon that power bears upon the
production, consumption as well as the understanding of discourse. Admitting that CDA
'engages with, analyses and critiques social power and how this is represented and, both
explicitly and implicitly, reproduces in the news', Richardson formulates the question 'what is
social power?'. Although power is 'another incredibly slippery concept', one that has been
endlessly dealt with in academic discussion about what it is or what it means, Richardson
chooses to take one more perspective and expand it, that of Steven Lukes (1974) who
distinguishes three faces of power: 'the view of the pluralist' (that Richardson calls the 'one-
dimensional view'), the view of their critics (which he calls the two-dimensional view) and a
third one which he will call the three-dimensional view of power. According to Richardson,
the one-dimensional view 'focuses on behaviour, on outcomes and in the making of decisions
on which there is observable conflict. This one-dimensional view of power is simplistic
because it emphasises the importance of conscious initiation and explicit decision-making. It
therefore takes 'no account of the fact that power may be, and often is, exercised by confining
the scope of decision-making to relativelysafe issues' (Bachrach and Baratz, 1970 cited in
Richardson, 2007: 30).
The second 'face' power 'brings in the notion of the 'mobilisation of bias' into the
definition of power, and critiques those who benefit from the 'rules of the game' 'are placed in
a preferred position to defend and promote their vested interests' (Bachrach and Baratz, 1970
cited in Richardson, 2007: 31). This is important, in his opinion, if we want to understand
how journalists and the news media 'are used by social groups with power' and how 'power is
instrumental in making 'non-decisions'': for instance, releasing certain stories or
foregrounding certain policy decisions over others, thus challenging the values and interests
of the decision-maker. (2007: 31) As a conclusion, the 'two-dimensional view of power
retains the behaviourist focus of the one-dimensional view, but expands its analysis to allow
'considerations of the ways in which decisions are prevented from being taken on potential
586
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
issues over which there is an observable conflict of (subjective) interests' (Lukes, 1974, cited
in Richardson 2007:31).
The third view of power suggests that 'power should be viewed as a more systemic
phenomenon.', because the second 'face' of power makes it possible for groups and institutions
to succeed in 'excluding potential issues from the political process', allowing individuals and
groups to gain power 'from their social relations to others and their position in a hierarchical
social system.' To 'logically' better explain it, he cites Lukes: the structural biases of the
system are 'not sustained simply by a series of individually chosen acts, but also, most
importantly, by the socially structured and culturally patterned behaviour of groups and
practices of institutions'.
A may exercise power over B by getting him to do what he does not want to do,
but he also exercises power over him by influencing, shaping or determining his
attitudes, beliefs, and very wants. (Lukes cited in Richardson, 2007:31)
As a conclusion, Richardson suggests that all this 'occurs through discourse and,
specifically, in the ability of language to act ideologically.' (2007: 32, emphasis added).
It is probably fair to say that the way in which news and events are presented by the
media influences not only our perception of things or our understanding of what happens in
the world, it also influences the way we behave in relation to other people, our attitude and
our beliefs. It may, in fact, change our lives for ever if we are subject to images and words
that have a deep psychological impact. This, in our opinion, is a major responsibility, one
which every journalist or reporter should be aware of whenever they cover or report on a
certain piece of information or a certain event. They should also be aware of their
responsibility of how they might influence people's actions through the way they present
news. A very important example that falls into this category is probably the way in which the
events of 9/11 were covered by the media at the time they happened and subsequently.
iek makes in Welcome to the Desert of the Real!2 a critique of the way in which
America, and other states along with it, chose to interpret the 9/11 attacks and to start the 'war
on terror', of the way in which the population was manipulated, in his opinion, into thinking
that no other choice other than war was a possible response to the WTC attacks and thus
actions and measures were taken that were going to cost other lives and that were not always
sticking to the democratic values in the name of which America and its allies claimed to fight
the war. He disagrees right from the introduction of his book on the opposition 'democracy'
'fundamentalism' which he considers to be a false choice, as the states proclaiming democracy
as the only possible answer to the fundamentalists' attacks were offering, in fact, the only
expected answer simply because it was desired to be like that: 'And is it not the same today
with the choice 'democracy or fundamentalism'? Is it not that, within the terms of this choice,
it is simply not possible to choose 'fundamentalism'? What is problematic in the way the
ruling ideology imposes this choice on us is not 'fundamentalism' but, rather, democracy
itself: as if the only alternative to 'fundamentalism' is the political system of liberal
parliamentary democracy.' ( iek, 2002: 3)
2
Slavoj iek, Welcome to the Desert of the Real! Five Essays on September 11 and Related Dates, London:
Verso, 2002
587
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Not to mention the way the media coverage of events influenced the perception of the
Muslim community not just in America, but in various parts of the world. The situation
created within the Muslim communities around the world (especially in the US and the UK)
was, most likely, one that could not have been avoided. What is necessary to be done in times
and at moments like that is to keep close to the ethical perspective that does not allow one to
generalise, that keeps one from turning into revengeful tools. In times of war, one party
usually tends to go after not only the main adversary, but also after 'ones' rival partners', and
what looks like fratricidal acts of violence might sometimes prove just as extreme as those
between the main groups involved in the war. (Derrida, 2003). Consequently, it is important
not to let certain currents, like that of fanaticism, take over 'to an obscurantism armed to the
teeth with modern techno-science, to the violation of every juridico-political principle, to the
cruel disregard for human rights and democracy, to a non-respect for life.' (Derrida in
Borradori, 2003: 113)
We must help what is called Islam and what is called Arab to free
themselves from such violent dogmatism. We must help those who are
fighting heroically in this direction on the inside, whether we are talking
about politics in the narrow sense of the term or else about an interpretation
of the Koran. When I say that we must do this for what is called Islam and
what is called Arab, I obviously mean that we must not do any less when
it comes to Europe, the Americas, Africa, and Asia! (ibid: 113)
Nevertheless, Derrida thinks that everything the United States does as not to identify
the enemy as the religious foreigner, the Muslim, is just a strategy and that he has his doubts
about the discourse of 'tolerance', in this case:
It is said over and over: We are not fighting Islam; the three monotheistic
religions have always taught tolerance. We know, of course, that this is
largely inaccurate, but little matter, it's certainly better than the contrary.
These official declarations of tolerance also obey a strategy: there are many,
indeed more and more, Muslims in America and in Europe; it is thus
necessary to reassure them, to gain assurance of their support, to dissociate
them from 'terrorism', to divide the enemy camp. Fair enough, that's part of
fighting the good fight. Though I clearly prefer shows of tolerance to shows
of intolerance, I nonetheless still have certain reservations about the word
'tolerance' and he discourse it organizes. It is a discourse with religious
roots; it is most often used on the side of those with power, always as a kind
of condescending concession... (Derrida, 2003: 127)
The above mentioned philosophers also chose to speak, in this case, of the way the
events were covered by the media and what they represented in the 'mental readings', the
'mental frames' of the population. Slavoj iek, in Welcome to the Desert of the Real! Five
Essays on September 11 and Related Dates makes a keen passage from the concept of 'Virtual
Reality' to the scene of the attacks and thus emphasises the 'spectacular' side of the way in
which the events were presented. First, when he refers to 'virtual reality', what he has in mind
is the idea of accepting a 'lesser' variant of something (a thing, a product, an abstract concept)
for the 'original' something, without taking into consideration that what that particular
something lacks is its exact essence. For instance, the coffee without caffeine, the cream
588
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
without fat, the beer without alcohol is a list of 'products deprived of their malignant
properties':
And the list goes on: what about virtual sex as sex without sex, the Colin
Powell doctrine of warfare with no casualties (on our side, of course) as
warfare without warfare, the contemporary redefinition of politics as the
art of expert administration, that is, as politics without politics, up to
today's tolerant liberal multiculturalism as an experience of the Other
deprived of its Otherness (the idealized Other who dances fascinating
dances and has an ecologically sound holistic approach to reality, while
practices like wife beating remain out of sight )? Virtual Reality simply
generalizes this procedure of offering a product deprived of its substance,
of the hard resistant kernel of the Real just like decaffeinated coffee
smells and tastes like real coffee without being real coffee, Virtual Reality
is experienced as reality without being so. What happens at the end of this
process of virtualization, however, is that we begin to experience 'real
reality' itself as a virtual entity. ( iek 2002: 10-11)
iek's purpose behind this interesting account of 'Virtual Reality' is to make a
reference to the 'framing' of the event, to the way it was all perceived by those who watched it
as depicted by the media: 'For the great majority of the public, the WTC explosions were
events on the TV screen, and when we watched the oft-repeated shot of frightened people
running towards the camera ahead of the giant cloud of dust from the collapsing tower, was
not the framing of the shot itself reminiscent of spectacular shots in catastrophe movies, a
special effect which outdid all others, since as Jeremy Bentham knew reality is the best
appearance of itself?' (2002: 11) Remember that Habermas makes a similar reference to
Hollywood scenes, that iek undertakes only in a different manner, one that combines a
sense of irony with a bitterness of the realization that the desire for the 'spectacular'
sometimes goes as far as turning a tragic, bitter reality into a 'spectacle of the Real':
And was not the attack on the World Trade Center with regard to Hollywood
catastrophe movies like snuff pornography versus ordinary sado-masochistic
porno movies? This is the element of truth in Karl-Heinz Stockhausen's
provocative statement that the planes hitting the WTC towers was the ultimate
work of art: we can perceive the collapse of the WTC towers as the climactic
conclusion of twentieth-century art's 'passion for the Real' the 'terrorist'
themselves did not do it primarily to provoke real material damage, but for the
spectacular effect of it. When, days after September 11 2001, our gaze was
transfixed by the images of the plane hitting one of the WTC towers, we were all
forced to experience what the 'compulsion to repeat' and jouissance beyond the
pleasure principle are: we wanted to see it again and again; the same shots were
repeated ad nauseam, and the uncanny satisfaction we got from it was jouissance
at its purest. It was when we watched the two WTC towers collapsing on the TV
screen, that it became possible to experience the falsity of 'reality TV shows': even
if these shows are 'for real', people still act in them they simply play themselves.
The standard disclaimer in a novel ('Characters in the text are fictional, any
resemblance to real-life characters is purely accidental') also holds for participants
589
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
in reality soaps:what we see there are fictional characters, even if they play
themselves for real.
Baudrillard also makes reference in The Spirit of Terrorism (2002) to the role and
power of images and media transmissions of the events. According to him, what one always
retains is the impact of images and their fascination, since they are the primal scene, and he
says about 9/11 that it has resuscitated both images and events. But what the image does is to
consume the event, in the sense that it 'absorbs it and offer it for consumption. Admittedly, it
gives it unprecendeted impact, but impact as image-event.' So, he asks himself: 'How do
things stand with the real event, then, if reality is everywhere infiltrated by images, virtuality
and fiction?' (2002: 27) (see iek)
We are not far from the truth if we conclude that, given a situation in which the media
seems to lack the kind of responsibility we were talking about, one needs to come up with
something to counteract this lack. And the only thing to come up with is a more critical
perception, a more critical attitude, a less gullible instinct during all this transfer process.
Because we deal, indeed, with a transfer (a piece of information is being transferred from a
type of source to a type of receiver) and if this transfer is corrupted from the very beginning,
meaning from the moment the information leaves the source, then the damage is done and, in
some situations, it can be so great that it might lead to certain inauspicious social changes and,
from that point on, all might become irretrievable. One must keep an open mind, free from
corruption, constraints, frames and scripts, free from prejudices, from pre-approved patterns, a
mind inclined towards critical thinking, not in the bad, destructive, negative or conspirational
sense, but in a very constructive one. A critical thinking that helps one get a clearer image, a
clearer understanding of what we are shown. Since what we are shown is not a reality, it is a
built reality, it is someone's reality, but one which might not coincide with our own or with
anyone else's, for that matter.
Bibliography
Baudrillard, Jean (2002) The Spirit of Terrorism, London and New York: Verso
Borradori, Giovanna (2003) Philosophy in a Time of Terror. Dialogues with Jrgen
Habermas and Jacques Derrida, Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press
Boyd S. Michael (2013) 'Representation of Foreign Justice in the Media: The Amanda Knox
Case' in CADAAD, vol 7 (1), pp. 33-50 also available at
rd
http://cadaad.net/files/journal/CADAAD%202013_Boyd.pdf. Accessed November 23 2013
Chilton, Paul (2006) Analysing Political Discourse. Theory and Practice, London and New
York: Routledge
Chilton, Paul and Christina Schffner (1997) 'Discourse and Politics', in T. A. van Dijk, ed.
Chouliaraki, Lilie and Norman Fairclough (1999) Discourse in Late Modernity. Rethinking
Critical Discourse Analysis, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press
Derrida, Jacques (2003) Autoimmunity: Real and Symbolic Suicides. A Dialogue with Jacques
Derrida, in Giovanna Borradori, Philosophy in a Time of Terror
Fairclough, Norman (1989) Language and Power, London: Longman
Fairclough, Norman (1992) Discourse and Social Change, Cambridge: Polity Press
590
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Fairclough, Norman (1995a) Media Discourse, London: Arnold
Fairclough, Norman (1995b) Critical Discourse Analysis: The Critical Study of Language,
London: Longman.
Fairclough, N. & Wodak, R. (1997) 'Critical Discourse Analysis'. In T. A. van Dijk (ed.)
Discourse as Social Interaction. Introduction to Discourse Studies: 258-284, London: Sage
Fowler, R. (1991) Language in the News. Discourse and Ideology in the Press, London and
New York: Routledge
Foucault, M. (1980) Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-1977,
Colin Gordon (ed.), New York: Pantheon
Habermas, Jrgen (2003) Fundamentalism and Terror. A Dialogue with Jrgen Habermas,
in Giovanna Borradori, Philosophy in a Time of Terror
Richardson, John E. (2007) Analysing Newspapers. An Approach from Critical Discourse
Analysis, New York: Palgrave Macmillan
Van Dijk, T. A. (1996) 'Discourse, power and access', in Carmen Rosa Caldas-Coulthard and
Malcolm Coulthard, eds., pp.84-107
Van Dijk, Teun A. (1997) 'Discourse as Interaction in Society', in T. A. van Dijk, ed.
Van Dijk, Teun A., ed. (1997) Discourse as Social Interaction. Introduction to Discourse
Studies, London: Sage Publications
Van Dijk, Teun A., ed. (1998) Discourse as Structure and Process, London: Sage
Publications
Wodak, Ruth and Michael Meyer, eds. (2001) Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis,
London: Sage
Wodak, Ruth and Paul Chilton eds. (2005) A New Agenda in (Critical) Discourse Analysis.
Theory, methodology and interdisciplinairty, John Benjamis Publishing Company
Ziek, Slavoj (2002) Welcome to the Desert of the Real. Five Essays on September 11 and
Related Dates, London and New York: Verso
591
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE RENDERING OF SUPERLATIVE PARANOMASTIC CONSTRUCTIONS IN
QURANIC ALJAMIADO-MORISCO TRANSLATIONS
Daniela-Corina CHIRU, PhD Candidate, University of Bucharest
Abstract: Paronomasia, used as a grammatical device, is a construction much favoured in
Semitic languages. It comes as no surprise to encounter such structures in calque languages.
However, considering that those translations are very literal, its unusual to come across
paronomastic constructions when they dont appear as such in the original texts. That is the
case of the Romance translations of some superlatives in the Aljamiado-Morisco Koranic
manuscripts. Hence, the present paper aims at addressing the following question: Does a
translation such as la ms ermosa figura e las figura (manuscript J 39, 150 r) meant to
render the superlative asani taqwmin (Koran, 95:4) rely on a certain oriental mental
logic of the translator, as linguist Galms de Fuentes (2009: 118) noted, or is actually the
result of the translators efforts to render the original text as accurately as possible?
Keywords: Aljamiado, Moriscos, superlative, paronomasia, manuscripts
0. Introducere
Frecvena ridicat a structurilor paronomastice constituie una dintre caracteristicele
limbilor semitice. Abundena lor n cadrul limbilor calc, n traducerile menite s redea literal
textul original, nu surprinde ctui de puin. ns tocmai caracterul literal al traducerii face ca
prezena acestor construcii s fie neobinuit atunci cnd acestea nu se regsesc i n textul
original. Este cazul redrii superlativelor relative cu ajutorul construciilor partitive
paronomastice, n cadrul traducerilor aljamiado-morisce. Astfel, o traducere de tipul la ms
ermosa figura e las figura (codicele J 39, fila 150 r), menit s redea superlativul asani
taqwmin (Coran, 95:4) se bazeaz oare pe o logic oriental, aa cum a semnalat lingvistul
Galms de Fuentes (2009: 118)? Sau este tot rodul strdaniei traductorului de a reda
originalul arab ct mai fidel? Acestea sunt ntrebrile la care ncerc s rspund n studiul de
fa.
1. Literatura aljamiado-morisc. Scurt prezentare
Literatura de expresie aljamiado-morisc este creaia unei minoriti criptomusulmane
hispanofone. 1 Este vorba despre comunitatea morisc prezent pe teritoriul iberic pn la
nceputul secolului al XVII-lea, stabilit n regiunile recucerite cel mai devreme (Galms de
Fuentes, 2009: 111). Abund astfel manuscrisele de origine aragonez, dei exist i un
numr redus de manuscrise care provin din zonele castiliene (Hegyi, 1995: 737; Galms de
Fuentes, 2009: 111).
Primele lucrri dateaz nc din cea de-a doua jumtate a secolului al XIV-lea, secolul
al XVI-lea fiind perioada cnd aceast literatur cunoate epoca de maxim nflorire, iar etapa
1
Aceasta poate fi considerat ca fiind unic la vremea respectiv din dou puncte de vedere: era singura
comunitate de musulmani din vestul Europei i, totodat, singura comunitate din lumea islamic n care se
vorbea o limb romanic (Lpez-Morillas, 1994a: 23).
592
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
final coincide cu perioada ulterioar expulzrii moriscilor (Hegyi, 1995: 737). n rndul
acestor opere se ncadreaz astfel i scrierile din timpul exilului dup anul 1609 (Alatorre,
2002: 252-253).
Ct privete termenul aljamiado, acesta provine din cuvntul aljama, care i are
originea n cuvntul arab al-acamiyya(t). Dac iniial desemna limba romanic vorbit n
Peninsula Iberic, ulterior, n spaniola modern, a cptat aproape semnificaia opus: este
vorba de o anumit varietate a limbii spaniole i anume cea transcris n caractere arabe 2
(Lpez-Morillas, 1994a: 17; Hegyi, 1995: 736). Totui, n manuscrisele trzii de la nceputul
secolului al XVII-lea, se renun la alfabetul arab, n favoarea grafiei latine 3 (Alatorre, 2002:
252-253; Hegyi, 1995: 737).
Aceast literatur a luat natere ca urmare a eforturilor moriscilor de a pstra
motenirea cultural islamic (Hegyi, 1995: 737). Dei aceast minoritate uitase limba arab,
tocmai acest aspect justific utilizarea scrierii arabe, ca simbol al apartenenei la cultura
islamic (Galms de Fuentes, 2009: 111; Lpez-Morillas, 1994a: 17). Situaia lingvistic se
aseamn, din acest punct de vedere, cu cea din subcontinentul indian, unde orientarea ctre
diferite medii culturale i religioase e asociat cu utilizarea unui anumit alfabet. Pe de o parte,
limba urdu este scris n alfabet arab i e deschis la influenele arabo-persane, iar pe de alt
parte, limba hindi recurge la devangar i folosete sanscrita pentru mprumuturi (Hegyi,
1995: 751).
Fiind vorba de o literatur clandestin, contemporanii cretini nu tiau despre
existena acesteia. Cu excepia ctorva descoperiri din secolul al XVIII-lea, majoritatea
lucrrilor au fost gsite n cea de-a doua jumtate a secolului al XIX-lea, odat cu drmarea
unor case vechi, n ziduri i n alte ascunztori (Hegyi, 1995: 737). Se consider c cea mai
semnificativ dintre acestea a fost cea de la Almonacid de la Sierra, n vara anului 1884
(Villaverde Amieva, 2010: 92).
Dup cum arat Bernab Pons (2010: 27), majoritatea textelor aljamiado-morisce sunt
de factur religioas, mai exact islamic. Este vorba, la urma urmei, de o literatur scris de
ctre musulmani i destinat acestora, (Lpez-Morillas, 1999: 279-81) iniial n Aragon, iar
ulterior n timpul exilului n nordul Africii i ntr-o msur mai mic pe teritoriile
otomane de pe rmurile orientale ale Mrii Mediterane. Ca urmare a numrului redus de texte
cu caracter profan, se poate considera c acestea nu reprezint dect o excepie n cadrul
vastei literaturi aljamiado-morisce. Tematica acesteia nglobeaz, astfel, urmtoarele domenii:
tiine coranice (Coran, comentarii exegetice, lecturi coranice), tiina tradiiilor profetice,
gramatic i lexicografie, predici, polemici, texte juridice, literatur religioas (norme
ascetico-morale, ritualuri), literatur spiritual (discursuri, lucrri despre profei), naraiuni cu
caracter didactico-moral, naraiuni pe teme escatologice, poezie de caracter religios, tratate de
2
Prin extensie, aljamiado se aplic i scrierilor n alfabet ebraic i fenomenelor similare din afara Peninsulei
Iberice; este cazul unei literaturi de expresie srbo-croat, german, latin, maghiar (sporadic) i chiar chinez
sau n limba afrikaans (Hegyi, 1995: 736-7).
3
Spre exemplu, manuscrisul 235 din Biblioteca de Castilla-La Mancha i manuscrisul 232 din aceeai
bibliotec, care dateaz din aceeai epoc, transcris, probabil, de ctre acelai copist. Manuscrisul a fost studiat
de Abboud-Haggar; a se vedea Abboud-Haggar, S. (2003b, p. 242-257): El tratado jurdico islmico de Al-
Tafr en el ms. morisco T232 de la B.P. de Toledo, en caracteres latinos, fechado en 1607, n Monferrer Sala,
J.P. y Aldon, M.M. Cdices, manuscritos e imgenes. Estudios filolgicos e histricos, Studia Semitica 2,
Cordoba
593
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
oniromanie, reete medicale, itinerarii, cri de cltorie, documente personale, literatur de
caracter profan (Bernab Pons, 2010: 33-34).
Printre cele mai importante titluri se numr deja celebra oper Poema de Yuuf (~ cea
de-a doua jumtate a secolului al XIV-lea - nceputul secolului al XV-lea), poeziile lui
Mohamad Ramadn (sfritul secolului al XVI-lea), i Coplas del aliante de Puey Mann
(nceputul secolului al XVI-lea) o descriere n versuri a pelerinajului la Mecca.
Ct privete lucrrile n proz, merit amintite naraiunile epice cavalereti i cele care
relateaz vieile profeilor. Exist i naraiuni fr personaje religioase; totui, chiar i acestea
pot conine lecii de ascetism, cum este cazul operei Estorya de la cibdad de cobre, n timp ce
altele sunt n ntregime de caracter profan (Bao de Ziryb) sau adaptri ale operelor
romanice (Pars y Viana) (Montaner Frutos, 2010: 54-55).
Cu privire la textele aljamiado-morisce, Rafael Lapesa (1981: 69) conchidea c:
nu prezint interes doar ca vestigiu al unei drame istorice, ci i n calitate de
mrturie lingvistic: poemul Yuuf, cartea Libro de las Batallas i opera
Recontamiento del rey Aliandre au o adevrat valoare literar; opera Libro
de las Batallas ridic ntrebri importante cu privire la originile epicii; El
condenado por desconfiado i lucrrile lui Gracin au fost influenate de
povestiri i legende morisce; iar mistica lui San Juan de la Cruz prezint
afiniti surprinztoare cu cea a unui morisc din Arvalo. [trad. aut.]
Ct privete textele coranice, acestea au jucat un rol central n cadrul comunitii
morisce. Prima traducere a fost realizat n anul 1456, sub patronajul Bisericii, dup cum se
obinuia la vremea respectiv n cazul traducerilor latine. Diferena era c de aceast dat
traductorul era un nvat musulman, versat n tiinele coranice. Este vorba despre celebra
traducere realizat de Ya Gidelli, care din pcate s-a pierdut. Perioada urmtoare (sfritul
secolului al XV-lea i nceputul secolului al XVI-lea) este una n care prolifereaz traducerile
coranice de expresie aljamiado-morisc (Lpez-Morillas, 1999: 279-81).
Singura traducere coranic integral care s-a pstrat pn n prezent se gsete n
manuscrisul 235 din Biblioteca de Castilla-La Mancha, al crui text a fost retransliterat de
ctre copist din scrierea arab n caractere latine la nceputul secolului al XVII-lea, n ajunul
expulzrii moriscilor. Celelalte douzeci i ase de manuscrise coranice prezint textul sub
form abreviat, selectnd n spe capitole sau versete din sure cu precdere mecane
(Bernab Pons, 2010: 34).
n context islamic, literatura de tip aljamiado nu este ctui de puin ieit din comun,
ci poate fi relaionat cu situaii asemntoare n care o minoritate folosete alfabetul arab;
caracterul hibrid care atrage atenia n textele aljamiade apare i n cele persane, turce (din
epoca otoman), malaeze i din alte limbi vorbite n spaiul islamic. Gradul de arabizare, la
fel ca n cazul literaturii aljamiado-morisce, variaz n funcie de genul literar cum era de
ateptat, arabizarea se resimte mult mai puternic n textele de factur religioas (Hegyi, 1995:
751).
594
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
2. Status questionis
nc de la sfritul secolului al XIX-lea (n anul 1888), a vzut lumina tiparului
antologia de texte aljamiado-morisce realizat sub coordonarea lui Gil, Riber i Sanchez -
Coleccin de textos aljamiados. n ultimele decenii, aceast varietate hispanic puternic
influenat de limba arab a fost studiat n numeroase lucrri. 4 n repetate rnduri au fost
prezentate trsturile sale arhaizante i influenele dialectale5 aragoneze.6
Au fost editate o serie de manuscrise aljamiado-morisce, multe dintre acestea n cadrul
tezelor doctorale, ns accentul a fost pus cu precdere pe critica textual i mult mai puin pe
latura lingvistic. Totui, se remarc cteva lucrri care au analizat manuscrisele coranice i
dintr-o perspectiv lingvistic. Arabista Consuelo Lpez-Morillas a editat manuscrisul toledan
235, de altfel singurul manuscris dintre cele enumerate mai sus care conine o traducere
coranic integral, realiznd i un studiu lingvistic (ns fr s utilizeze textul original
corespunztor) fr s insiste, totui, pe influenele arabe (2011: El Corn de Toledo. Edicin
y estudio del manuscrito 235 de la Biblioteca de Castilla-La Mancha, Gijn: Trea). Aceeai
lingvist a realizat un studiu lingvistic i pentru manuscrisele BNE 4938, BNE 5078, BNP
425, J 18, J 25, J 39, limitndu-se ns la un singur capitol coranic (1982: The Qur'n in
Sixteenth-Century Spain: Six Morisco Versions of Sra 79, Londra: Tamesis Books Limited).
Se remarc, printre altele, i articolul The Genealogy of the Spanish Quran (2006), extrem de
util, ntruct grupeaz traducerile coranice aljamiado-morisce n familii de manuscrise.
Limba textelor aljamiado-morisce contrasta cu limba textelor cretine din aceeai
epoc nu doar prin trsturile arhaice i dialectale, ci mai ales prin influena limbii arabe
(Hegyi, 1995: 751). n opinia lui Dhla (2008: 97), aceasta se face simit mai ales n plan
morfosintactic i stilistic, printr-o adevrat varietate de calcuri. 7
Hegyi (1995: 751) observ existena unui Sprachbund, 8 atunci cnd amintete de
afinitile care apar ntre limbi de provenien diferit. n acest caz, Sprachbundul s-ar datora
suprastratului arab. De altfel, nu sunt puini cei care au vzut n idiomul aljamiado-morisc o
variant islamic a spaniolei9 (Hegyi, 1995: 751; Lpez-Morillas, 1994a; Mar Gmez Renau,
2000).
4
Spre exemplu: Abboud-Haggar - Al-Tafr' de Ibn-allb. Edicin, estudio lingstico y glosario del
manuscrito aljamiado nmero XXXIII de la Biblioteca de la Junta y su confrontacin con el original rabe;
Bernab Pons - Interferencias entre el rabe y el romance en los textos cornicos aljamiados; Galms de
Fuentes - La lengua espaola de la literatura aljamiado-morisca como expresin de una minora religiosa;
Gmez Renau - La lengua aljamiada y su literatura: una variante islmica del espaol; Lpez-Morillas - El
Corn de Toledo. Edicin y estudio del manuscrito 235 de la Biblioteca de Castilla-La Mancha, lista putnd fi
continuat cu multe alte lucrri.
5
Vespertino (2004: 1734) semnaleaz, totui, c este mai degrab vorba despre o varietate koin castilian-
aragonez.
6
Se remarc, mai cu seam, articolele lui Vespertino - Contribucion de los textos aljamiado-moriscos al
estudio del lexico aragons (1985), El aragons de la literatura aljamiado-morisca (2004) i articolul lui
Neira Martnez, Los prefijos des-, es- en aragons (1969).
7
Totui, lingvista Lpez-Morillas (1994a: 23) consider c cele mai puternice influene arabe se produc n
sfera semantic.
8
n Peninsula Iberic, asemenea situaiei din alte spaii limitrofe n epocile de tranziie, Sprachbundul islamic i
se opune celui de factur latino-occidental, dezvoltat la rndul su n contact cu un suprastrat lingvistic cultural
complex, reprezentat pe de o parte de latin n diversele ei manifestri (ecleziastic, umanist etc.) i pe de alt
parte, de suprastraturile secundare variantele literare ale varietilor romanice (Hegyi, 1995: 751)
9
n opinia lui Casassas Canals (2010: 9-11), astfel de exprimri sunt ct se poate de pertinente. De altfel,
arabistul propune o revizuire a terminologiei lingvistice. Din punctul lui de vedere, datorit faptului c influena
595
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
n contextul enunrii existenei unui asemenea Sprachbund religios, merit
menionat i observaia lui Grigore (1997: 38) cu privire la afinitile lexicale:
n limbile vorbite de popoarele musulmane au fost mprumutai muli termeni
coranici la primele traduceri pentru noiunile noi. Aceste mprumuturi au
dat natere unui corp de cuvinte religioase comun ntregii lumi islamice. Astfel
cuvinte precum qibla (direcia de rugciune), ayya (semn divin, verset), anna
(paradis), ahannam (infern) .a.m.d. se regsesc n toate limbile popoarelor
musulmane inclusiv n chinez care este considerat o limb extrem de
refractar la mprumuturi ceeea ce a dus la o unitate, n form i coninut, a
vocabularului religios islamic.
Aceste mprumuturile lexicale, cu precdere n cmpurile semantice juridic i religios,
se regsesc ntr-un numr foarte mare chiar i n textele aljamiado-morisce. Lingvistul
Galms de Fuentes (2009: 115-116) arat la rndul lui c, dei la o prim vedere aceste
mprumuturi ar prea s nu se justifice pentru c ar exista termeni echivaleni n limba
spaniol n urma unei analize mai atente se poate observa c, din punct de vedere islamic,
nu exist n realitate o astfel de coresponden:
Nu ncape ndoial c un almalq sau nger coranic nu coincide, n conotaiile
sale cu ngerul biblic; tot la fel se poate spune i despre alanna i paradis,
despre annab i profet, despre concepetele de all - permis i arm
interzis [...] Pentru a transpune, a adar, cultura islamic n spaniola
aljamiad, era necesar ca toi aceti termeni tehnici s rmn netradu i.
[trad. aut.] (Galms de Fuentes, 2009: 115-116)
Trebuie aduse n discuie i cteva considerente privind traducerea Coranului. Dup
cum remarc Grigore (1997: 28), ideea unei traduceri coranice substitutive este de neconceput
n viziunea teologic musulman. Caracterul inimitabil al Coranului nu permite dect
realizarea unor traduceri explicative, ale semnificaiilor acestuia. Pentru musulmani,
transpunerile Coranului n alte limbi nu sunt nimic mai mult dect o interpretare; de altfel,
chiar i manuscrisele coranice aljamiado-morisce includ ntr-o msur mai mic sau mai mare
pasaje de exegez scriptural cunoscute n terminologia arab drept tafsr (Lpez-Morillas,
The Genealogy: 4-5; 2011: 53).
Foarte important este i distincia ntre influenele datorate contactului lingvistic real,
istoric i cele datorate contactului lingvistic din cadrul traducerilor (Rubio, 2009: 195). Exist,
fr ndoial o diferen considerabil ntre textele scrise i idiomul vernacular din regiunea
respectiv, mult mai puin arabizat (Hegyi, 1995: 751). Este vorba despre o limb liturgic,
despre o variant religioas a idiomului romanic vernacular (Hegyi, 1985: 647; Galms de
Fuentes, 2009: 117; Casassas Canals, 2010: 9-10, Vespertino, 2004: 1753) i nu despre limba
vorbit de comunitatea respectiv.
n acest caz, este vorba aadar despre influena limbii-surs asupra limbii-int ca
urmare a procesului de traducere, proces cunoscut n literatura de specialitate anglo-saxon
limbilor liturgice n calitate de suprastrat este un fenomen rspndit n lume, putem vorbi de un Sprachbund
religios un hiero-Sprachbund.
596
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
drept translationese10 (Rubio, 2009: 195) i nu presupune existena vreunui contact istoric
local ntre vorbitorii limbilor implicate.
Trebuie fcut de asemenea o diferen ntre influena sintactic real i calcurile
lingvistice (Rubio, 2009: 195). Pe alocuri gradul de literalitate este att de puternic, nct un
cititor fr cunotine de arab va ntmpina dificulti serioase n nelegerea textului.
Soha Abboud-Haggar (1997: 90-91) face o delimitare asemntoare, cnd difereniaz
traducerile literale de structurile calchiate. n opinia acesteia, simpla traducere literal un
poate fi considerat un calc, pentru c reflect pur i simplu suprapunerea unor termeni care
n arab formeaz o propoziie ntreag, n timp ce n limba romanic nu transmit nimic,
ajungndu-se uneori la pasaje total lipsite de neles. Astfel, aceast dorin de a urma ct mai
ndeaproape originalul i de a nu omite nimic, de a transpune mesajul fr modificri, poate
avea tocmai efectul contrar, aa cum se ntmpl n cazul traducerii aquello fue porque ello
es que era que (T 235, fila 318 v), menit s redea sintagma arab lika bi-annahu knat
care s-ar fi putut traduce pur i simplu prin esto, porque... (Lpez-Morillas, 2011: 84)
Dup cum observ Lpez-Morillas (2011: 84) i Feria Garca (2000-2001: 304), nu
surprinde ctui de puin c traducerea este foarte literal, procesul fiind rspndit n cazul
limbilor calc, aa cum a fost i cazul varietii ladino:11
Dac n cadrul traducerilor moderne, un asemenea grad de literalitate este
privit ca un defect, n acest caz situaia este opus. Traductorul este dator s
nu se ndeprteze prea tare de original, pentru ca versiunea lui s pstreze
caracterul sacru al acestuia. [trad. aut.]
Pe de alt parte, nu tot ce pare la o prim vedere rezultatul influenei arabe este ntr-
adevr aa unele structuri se ntlnesc de asemenea n idiomurile iberoromanice (mai cu
seam n aragonez). De pild, n timp ce Abboud-Haggar (1997: 90) vede n antepunerea
verbului fa de subiect o influen sintactic arab, Dhla (2008: 103-104) demonstreaz c
aceast topic apare ca norm n Glosele emiliene. De asemenea, structurile de tipul no...
sino se regsesc i n aragoneza modern (Lpez-Morillas, 1994b: 56), iar formele
accentuate ale pronumelor personale utilizate n cazurile dativ i acuzativ ar fi de asemenea o
trstur dialectal romanic, dup cum observ Lpez-Morillas n repetate rnduri (1982: 34;
1994b: 46; 2011: 123) i nu o influen arab (Abboud-Haggar, 1997: 87; Galms de Fuentes,
2009: 117); situaia nu difer nici n cazul valorii active a participiului prezent (Lpez-
Morillas, 1994b: 54; 2011: 127), dei unele studii o consider de provenien arab (Lopez-
Morillas, 1994a: 19; Abboud-Haggar, 1997: 88; Galms de Fuentes, 2009: 117).
Morfosintaxa limbii spaniole nu a suferit transformri sub influena celei arabe.
Contactul cu araba a dus totui la mpmntenirea unor anumite structuri care erau deja
prezente n limbile romanice (Lapesa, 1981: 151-2; Obediente, 2007: 152-4; Dhla, 2008:
104).
10
Este vorba despre traducerile extrem de literale, rezultatul unei fideliti nelese greit (Zoica, 2009: 207-
16): se reproduce ntocmai forma din limba-surs, imitarea acesteia fiind n detrimentul redrii nelesului.
11
Prin ladino neleg aici limba scris, nu cea vorbit. Pentru mai multe detalii, a se vedea MANUEL ALVAR
(1999) El ladino, judeo-espanol calco, Madrid: Real Academia de la Historia.
597
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
n cazul textelor aljamiado-morisce lucrurile stau ns cu totul altfel. Lucrrile
respective urmeaz, n general, tiparele sintactice semitice. Acest fapt nu surprinde ctui de
puin, ntruct nu ncape ndoial c traductorii ncercau s urmeze n cea mai mare msur
posibil originalul arab o traducere ct mai fidel risca mai puin s l trdeze (cu att mai
mult dac era o traducere coranic).
Interesante sunt pasajele n care, la o prim vedere, apar n traducere structuri specific
semitice, dei originalul arab nu recurge la acestea. Rmne ns de vzut dac sunt ntr-
adevr structuri semitice profund nrdcinate n limba traductorului mrturie a existenei
unei logici orientale care controla structurile mentale ale moriscilor, dup cum considera
Galms de Fuentes (2009: 118) sau dac nu cumva oglindesc doar strdania traductorului de
a transpune ct mai literal textul arab n idiomul romanic, acesta ncercnd s redea nuane
ale limbii arabe recurgnd la mijloacele pe care i le punea la dispoziie idiomul romanic.
3. Metodologia cercetrii
n ceea ce privete corpusul, menionez c pentru studiul de fa am analizat pasaje
din apte manuscrise: T 235 (Toledo, Biblioteca de Castilla-La Mancha), BNM 4938 (Madrid,
Biblioteca Naional a Spaniei), BNP 447 (Paris, Biblioteca Naional a Franei), J 18, J 25, J
39, J 47 (toate cele patru din Madrid, Biblioteca Toms Navarro Toms). Toate codicele
dateaz din secolul al XVI-lea, cu excepia manuscrisului T 235, care i are originile la
nceputul secolului al XVII-lea.
Am delimitat apoi corpusul, cutnd pasaje relevante pentru studiul de fa i
ncercnd, pe ct posibil, s analizez secvene care se regsesc n mai multe manuscrise,
pentru a putea contrasta traducerile.
Dup ce am adunat datele, am realizat fie cu pasajele respective, clasificndu-le n
funcie de criterii precum structura gramatical arab, rdcina arab i versetul coranic pe
care l traduc.
Am analizat apoi exemplele, recurgnd n acest demers la calculul coeficienilor
statistici relevani, dup cum voi arta n seciunea urmtoare.
4. Analiza corpusului
Cum obiectivul prezentei const n studierea anumitor construcii paronomastice, e
important de notat c exist diferene de opinie n privina definirii paronomazei. Pe de o
parte, unii lingviti vd paronomaza drept un procedeu stilistic ce const n alturarea
verbului i a unui complement al acestuia derivat de la aceeai rdcin (Grigore, 1997: 133;
Lpez-Morillas, 1982: 38; 1994b: 54). Totui, astfel de structuri nu se limiteaz doar la
complementul absolut (Grigore, 1997: 134). Lpez-Morillas (1982: 39) le consider false
paronomaze (n contrast cu cea real).
Sunt ns i lingviti care extind accepia termenului de paronomaz, considernd c
acesta nu se rezum doar la complementele interne, ci nglobeaz toate construciile care
constau n utilizarea aceleiai rdcini sau aceluiai termen cu funcii sintactice diferite, n
cadrul unei singure propoziii (Hegyi, 1995: 145; Bergstrsser, 1995: 20). Acesta va fi i
nelesul cu care se folosete termenul paronomaz n lucrarea de fa.
598
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
De asemenea, n timp ce unii arabitii clasific construciile paronomastice drept
procedee stilistice sau retorice (Bergstrsser, 1995: 20), n viziunea altora limba arab le
folosete mai degrab cu o funcie gramatical i nu doar ca procedeu stilistic, ca n limbile
europene (Hegyi, 1995: 745), avnd un rol de ntrire i de preluare a funciilor pe care le au
adverbele n limbile europene etc. (Grigore, 1997: 133; Bergstrsser, 1995: 20).
Dei limbile romanice au dezvoltat acest procedeu, frecvena ridicat a paronomazei
este specific limbilor semitice (Hegyi, 1995: 745; Lpez-Morillas 1982, 38-9). n cazul
traducerilor coranice aljamiado-morisce, construciile paronomastice se ntlnesc foarte
frecvent ca urmare a influenei arabe, chiar i acolo unde nu se regsesc n originalul arab
(Lpez-Morillas, 1982: 38-9)
n traducerile coranice aljamiado-morisce se ntlnesc diferite tipuri de construcii
paronomastice (Carmelo, 1999: 34). n primul rnd, merit menionat intensificarea
paronomastic a nedeterminrii, oglindind construcia partitiv arab (Lpez-Morillas, 1994a:
19; 1994b: 55; Abboud-Haggar, 1997: 90; Galms de Fuentes, 2009: 117):
(1) T 235 (fila 302 r) 53:56 Este es pedricador de los pedricadores primero {quiere deir
Muhamed}.
(2) J 18 (fila 158 r) 53:56 Ete e monetaor e lo monetaore p(i)rimero [].
Foarte frecvent se ntlnete complementul intern sau absolut, cunoscut n
terminologa arab drept mafcl mulaq (Lpez-Morillas, 1994a: 19; 1994b: 54; Abboud-
Haggar, 1997: 89; Galms de Fuentes, 2009: 117):
(3) T 235 (fila 306 v) 56:4-7 Y quando tremolar la tierra tremolamiento, // y sern
desmenuados los montes esmenuamiento // y sern polbo que se los llebar el ayre, // y
seris naturaleas tres.
Lpez-Morillas (1994b: 54) menioneaz i cazurile n care subiectul are aceeai
rdcin ca verbul:
(4) T 235 (fila 128 v) 12:10 Dixo vn dezidor dellos {y era Raubil}: No lo matis a Yuf,
mas lanadlo en partida del poo; y hallarlo an partida de los traginantes si vosotros lo
hazis.
Construciile partitive precum cea de la exemplul (1) nu sunt neobinuite, ntruct
imit structura paronomastic din originalul arab: particula min precedat de un substantiv
nearticulat urmat de pluralul articulat al aceluiai substantiv. n acest caz, entitatea respectiv
este total nedefinit un rege (oarecare) malikun mina l-mulk; f yawmin mina l-ayym
ntr-o bun zi12 (Wright, 2004: 136; Badawi et alii, 2010: 98; Goldenberg, 2012: 114).
Interesante sunt ns contextele n care n care traductorul alege s foloseasc astfel
de construcii partitive paronomastice n traducere (foarte asemntoare cu cele semitice), n
ciuda faptului c originalul nu le conine; de pild, redarea superlativului relativ f 'asani
taqwmin:
(5) T 39 (fila 150 r) 95:4 [...]la ms ermosa figura e las figura []
12
Astfel de construcii sunt specific semitice; structuri paralele cu cele arabe enumerate mai sus se regsesc i
n fenician: w-m mlk b-mlkm (Goldenberg, 2012: 114).
599
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Manuscrisul J 39 este singurul manuscris care recurge la o astfel de construcie. n
celelalte manuscrise, sintagma este redat fr a apela la paronomaz, ntruct originalul arab
nu este 'asani taqwmin mina t-taqwmn:
(6) T 235 (fila 343 v) 95:4 [...] que ya alequemos a la persona en la mejor de las figuras
(7) BNM 4938 (fila 46 r) 94:4 [...] aleqamo a la per(e)ona en la ma fermoa de la
figura
(8) BNP 447 (fila 82 r) 94:4 [...] cri a la persona en la mejor de las figuras
(9) J 25 (fila 70 v) 94:4 [...] ke ya aleqamo a la persona en la ma fermoa e la figura
Pentru a gsi o explicaie legat de aceste construcii paronomastice, sunt ilustrative
cazurile n care aceeai rdcin apare n diferite construcii, aa cum este cazul rdcinii sfl,
dup cum se poate observa n urmtoarele exemple.
Cum limba arab este o limb cu flexiune intern, un elativ este transpus n traducere
printr-o construcie analitic, ntruct idiomul romanic nu dispune de un mecanism sintetic
similar. Putem analiza urmtorul exemplu de redare a elativului al-asfilna:
(10) T 235 (fila 256 v) 37:98 y pusmolos a ellos los ms baxos
Iat i traducerea unei construcii partitive paronomastice care pornete de la aceeai
rdcin (sfl) mina l-asfilna:
(11) T 235 (fila 273 v) 41:29 y meterlos emos debaxo de nuestros piedes porque sean de
los ms baxos
(12) J 18 (fila 11 r) 41:29 i meterlo emo ebao e n(u)wet(o)ro p(i)yee por ke
sean e lo ma baxo en el f(u)wego
(13) J 47 (fila 21 v) 41:29 i meterlo emo ebao e n(u)wet(o)ro piee para ke
sean e lo ma bao
Observm c n cazul redrii unei construcii superlative paronomastice din
arab (n care att elativul, ct i substantivul anexat pornesc de la aceeai rdcin; n
acest caz aceeai ca n exemplele enumerate mai sus rdcina sfl) asfala sfilna
toate manuscrisele, fr excepie, recurg la o construcie partitiv paronomastic n
traducere:
(14) T 235 (fila 343 v) 95:5: despus la tornaremos el ms baxo de los baxo
(15) BNM 4938 (fila 46 r) 95:5 dep(u)we tornamola en la ma f(a)laka manera de lo
flako en
la bejeat
(16) BNP 447 (fila 82 r) 95:5 despues tornar-lo-e mas baxo que los baxos
(17) J 25 (fila 70 v) 95:5 dep(u)we tornamola el ma bao e lo bao
(18) J 39 (fila 60 v 61 r) 95:5 ep(u)we tornamolo el ma flako // e lo flako en la
bejea
Din aceste exemple reiese c redarea superlativelor prin construcii partitive
paronomastice este rodul strdaniei traductorului de a reda ct mai literal originalul arab.
Chiar dac originalul arab nu folosete o construcie de tip partitiv, moriscul recurge la
aceasta pentru c nu dispune n idiomul romanic de o construcie sintetic paronomastic
600
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
pentru redarea superlativului. Observm c traducerea imit forma originalului arab, ns
recurgnd la mijloacele prezente n limba-int: elativul este redat printr-o construcie
superlativ analitic.
Drept urmare, am analizat toate paragrafele de acest tip prezente n cele cinci
manuscrise. Am comparat astfel modul de redare a superlativelor relative. Am analizat doar
pasajele unde superlativul relativ este exprimat n textul arab prin structuri paronomastice de
tipul unor anexiuni elativ + articol + substantiv (articulat, plural sau nearticulat, singular)
(Ryding, K., 2005: 252-3) contrastndu-le cu pasajele n care superlativul este exprimat cu
ajutorul unor structuri neparonomastice de tipul asanu + substantiv plural articulat sau
ayru + substantiv plural articulat. Am obinut urmtoarea distribuie:13
[+] Construcii
[-] Construcii partitive
partitive Total
neparonomastice
paronomastice
[+] Construcii
paronomastice (elativ + 0 14 14
substantiv)
[-] asanu + substantiv
35 1 36
ayru + substantiv
Total 35 15 50
Datele din tabel arat c distribuia este aproape complementar. Valoarea extrem de
ridicat a coeficientului 2 (de 45,37, cu mult peste pragul minim de 3,84) arat c datele sunt
fiabile (ntruct probabilitatea ca acestea s se datoreze hazardului este sub 1 la 10 000; p <
0,0001). Pe de alt parte, valoarea de 0,95 a coeficientului (care aproape c atinge pragul
maxim), arat c interdependena form-context este foarte puternic (distribuia este aproape
complementar14).
Din datele analizate reiese astfel c ipoteza este valid: construciile partitive
paronomastice sunt menite n acest caz s redea construciile superlative paronomastice din
originalul arab. Aadar, i acesta este un caz de ncercare de a transpune ct mai fidel forma
originalului arab.
Cum se explic totui traducerea din exemplul (5)? n acest caz, este vorba de o
excepie, cauzat cel mai probabil de contextul n care se gsete aceast traducere. n
13
Pasajele selectate iniial au fost mai multe, ns nu am inclus n analiz exemplele neconcludente (cnd fie nu
se utiliza superlativul, fie se folosea o cu totul alt construcie), precum:T 235 (fila 6 v) 2:85 al fuerte al@deb
T 235 (fila 131 v) 12: 59 y os e fecho buen gospedaje?
T 235 (fila 189 r) 22:58 arrizque bueno
T 235 (fila 67 r) 5:114 que T eres el buen dante arrizque
BNM 4938 (fila 46 r) 95:8 e p(i)yena ke Al.lah no jugara a lo jugaore?
14
n cazul rdcinilor rm i km este chiar complementar.
Spre exemplu, cnd originalul arab recurge la construcii paronomastice, paronomaza este prezent n toate
cazurile pentru rdcinile rm (4 cazuri), sfl (5 cazuri) i km (5 cazuri). Cnd originalul arab nu recurge la
paronomaz, aceasta nu apare nici n traducere, n cazul acelorai trei rdcini: rm (2 cazuri), sfl (1 caz) i km
(3 cazuri).
601
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
vecintatea acesteia se gsesc structuri paronomastice cele citate la exemplele 14-18 i
traducerea versetului 95:8:
(19) T 235 (fila 343 v) 95:8 Y cmo, no es Al.lah el ms justo juez de los juezes?
(20) BNP 447 (fila 82 r) 95:8 {sy que} Al.lah es Juez mijor que los Juezes
(21) J 25 (fila 70 v) 95. 8 pp. 151 pu(w)e, ea, i no e Al.lah el mejor juzgaor e lo
juzgaore?
(22) J 39 (fila 61 v) 95:8 i p(i)yena ke no e Al.lah el ma b(u)wen juzgaor e lo
juzgadore?
O dovad n plus care sprijin aceast afirmaie este i faptul c nicieri, nici mcar n
acelai manuscris (J 39), nu se mai ntmpl s apar o construcie paronomastic n traducere
cnd originalul nu recurge la paronomaz:
(23) J 39 (fila 66 r) 98:7 ke ello on lo mejore e la jente
5. Concluzii
Textele aljamiado-morisce urmeaz, n general, tiparele sintactice semitice. Acest fapt
nu surprinde ctui de puin, ntruct nu ncape ndoial c traductorii ncercau s redea ct
mai fidel originalul arab.
Interesante sunt totui pasajele n care, la o prim vedere, apar n traducere structuri
specific semitice, dei originalul arab nu recurge la acestea (de pild, redarea superlativelor
relative din limba arab prin construcii partitive paronomastice).
Dac la o prim vedere acestea ar putea prea cazuri de structuri semitice profund
nrdcinate n limba traductorului putnd fi privite ca dovezi ale existenei unei logici
mentale orientale aa cum considera Galms de Fuentes (2009: 118), studiul de fa a
reuit s demonstreze c acestea nu sunt altceva dect rezultatul eforturilor traductorului de a
transpune ct mai literal textul arab n limba-int. Acesta recurge la structuri partitive, limba
romanic neoferindu-i o alternativ sintetic prin care s redea paronomaza din superlativele
arabe de tipul elativ + substantiv.
Bibliografie
*** (secolul al XVI-lea): J 18 [Azoras alcornicas], Madrid: Biblioteca Toms Navarro
Toms del CSIC, manuscris digitalizat <
http://aleph.csic.es/imagenes/mad01/0006_PMSC/P_001227524_650922_V00.pdf > (legtur
consultat pe 3 septembrie 2012)
*** (secolul al XVI-lea): J 25 [Azoras alcornicas bilinges y predicaciones en aljamiado],
Madrid: Biblioteca Toms Navarro Toms del CSIC, manuscris digitalizat <
http://aleph.csic.es/imagenes/mad01/0006_PMSC/
P_001227540_650947_V00.pdf > (legtur consultat pe 3 septembrie 2012)
*** (secolul al XVI-lea): J 39 [Legajo de miscelnea], Madrid: Biblioteca Toms Navarro
Toms del CSIC, manuscris digitalizat <
http://aleph.csic.es/imagenes/mad01/0006_PMSC/P_001227661_651209_V00.pdf > (legtur
consultat pe 3 septembrie 2012)
*** (secolul al XVI-lea): J 47 [Comentario del Alcorn en aljamiado], Madrid: Biblioteca
602
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Toms Navarro Toms del CSIC, manuscris digitalizat <
http://aleph.csic.es/imagenes/mad01/0006_PMSC/P_001227681_
651234_V00.pdf > (legtur consultat pe 3 septembrie 2012)
*** (secolul al XVI-lea): BNM 4938 [Alcorn], Madrid: BNE, manuscris digitalizat <
http://bibliotecadigitalhispanica.bne.es/view/action/singleViewer.do?dvs=1347571489371~56
2&locale=en_US&VIEWER_URL=/view/action/singleViewer.do?&DELIVERY_RULE_ID=
10&frameId=1&usePid1=true&usePid2=true > (legtur consultat pe 3 septembrie 2012)
*** (secolul al XVI-lea): BNP 447 [Extraits du Coran avec une paraphrase espagnole
interlinaire], Paris: BNP, manuscris digitalizat <
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8562473v/f245.image.r=Arabe%20447.langEN >
(legtur consultat pe 31 octombrie 2013)
*** (secolul al XVII-lea): T 235 [Alcorn], Toledo: Biblioteca de Castilla-La Mancha,
manuscris digitalizat < http://bvpb.mcu.es/es/consulta/registro.cmd?id=397610 > (legtur
consultat pe 25 septembrie 2011)
*** (2004): Al-Qur'nu l-Karm, Damasc: Daru l-Macrifa (lectura War can Nfic)
ABBOUD-HAGGAR, S. (1997): Al-Tafr' de Ibn-allb. Edicin, estudio lingstico y glosario
del manuscrito aljamiado nmero XXXIII de la Biblioteca de la Junta y su confrontacin con
el original rabe (tez de doctorat), Madrid: Universitatea Complutense
(2003, 242-257): El tratado jurdico islmico de Al-Tafr en el ms. morisco T232 de la
B.P. de Toledo, en caracteres latinos, fechado en 1607, n Monferrer Sala, J.P. y Aldon, M.M.
Cdices, manuscritos e imgenes. Estudios filolgicos e histricos, Studia Semitica 2,
Cordoba: Sts
ALATORRE, A. (2002): Los 1001 aos de la lengua espaola, Mexic: Fondo de Cultura
Econmica
BADAWI, E., CARTER, M.G., GULLY, A. (2010): Modern Written Arabic. A Comprehensive
Grammar, New York: Routledge
BERNAB PONS, L.F. (2005, 109-128): Interferencias entre el rabe y el romance en los textos
cornicos aljamiados, n Bdenas de la Pea, P. et alii (ed.), Lenguas en Contacto: El
testimonio escrito, Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientficas
(2010, 27-44): Los manuscritos aljamiados como textos islmicos, n Memoria de los
moriscos. Escritos y relatos de una dispora cultural, <
http://www.bne.es/es/Micrositios/Exposiciones/
MemoriaMoriscos/documentos/estudios_1.pdf > (legtur consultat pe 3 septembrie 2012)
BERGSTRSSER, G. (1995): Introduction to the Semitic Languages. Text Specimens and
Grammatical Sketches. Indiana: Eisenbrauns
CARMELO, L. (1999): A semiose aljamiada e o reverso do sculo de oro ibrico, en vora
(14), Lisabona: Universitatea Autonom din Lisabona
CASASSAS CANALS, X. (2010: 368-396): La literatura aljamiado-morisca en el marco de la
literatura islmica espaola: siglos XIII-XVII (una variedad del castellano vinculada al hiero-
sprachbund islmico, n Benlabbah, F i Chalka, A. [eds.] Los moriscos y su legado desde
sta y otras laderas, Rabat
DHLA, H. (2008, 87-110): La traduccn como contacto de lenguas: el caso de las
traducciones rabe-castellanas del siglo XIII, n Dhla, H. et alii (ed.), Lenguas en dilogo.
El iberorromance y su diversidad lingstica y literaria. Ensayos en homenaje a Georg
603
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Bossong, Madrid: Iberoamericana; Vervuert
FERIA GARCA, M. (2000-2001, 299-323): Los moriscos y el uso de la aljama, en Al-
Andalus Magreb (8-9, fascculo 2), Cdiz: Universitatea din Cdiz
GLMES DE FUENTES, (1986, 21-38): La lengua espaola de la literatura aljamiado-morisca
como expresin de una minora religiosa, n Revista Espaola de Lingstica (16, fascculo
1), Madrid: Sociedad Espaola de Lingstica
(2009, 111-118): La lengua de los moriscos, en Alvar, M., Manual de dialectolga
hispnica. El espaol de Espaa, Barcelona: Ariel
GIL, P.; RIBERA, J. I SANCHEZ, M. (1888): Coleccin de textos aljamiados, Zaragoza:
Litografia de Guerra y Bacque; Tipografia de Comas hermanos
GMEZ RENAU, M. (2000, 71-83): La lengua aljamiada y su literatura: una variante
islmica del espaol, n Castilla: Estudios de literatura (25), Valladolid: Universitatea din
Valladolid
GOLDENBERG, G. (2012): Semitic Languages. Features, Structures, Relations, Processes.
Oxford: Oxford University Press
GRIGORE, G. (1997): Problematica traducerii Coranului n limba romn, Bucureti: Editura
Ararat
HEGYI, O. (1985, 647-656): Una variante islmica del espaol: la literatura aljamiada, n
Homenaje a lvaro Galms de Fuentes, Oviedo-Madrid: Universitatea din Oviedo-Gredos
(1995, 736-754): Die Sprache der Aljamiado-literatur und der Moriscos. La lengua de
la literatura aljamiado-morisca, n Metzeltin, M.; Schmitt, C. [eds.] Die einzelnen
romanischen Sprachen und Sprachgebiete vom Mittelalter bis zur Renaissance (vol. II),
Berlin, Boston: X_Max Niemeyer Verlag
LAPESA, R. (1981): Historia de la lengua espaola, Madrid: Gredos
LPEZ-MORILLAS, C. (1982): The Qur'n in Sixteenth-Century Spain: Six Morisco Versions of
Sra 79, Londra: Tamesis Books Limited
(1994a, 17-24): Aljamiado and the Moriscos' Islamicization of Spanish, n Mushira,
E. et alii (ed.), Perspectives on Arabic Linguistics VI: papers from the sixth annual
Symposium on Arabic Linguistics (vol. 4), Amsterdam: John Benjamins
(1994b): Textos aljamiados sobre la vida de Mahoma: el profeta de los moriscos,
Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientficas Agencia Espaola de Cooperacin
Internacional
(1999, 277-292): Lost and Found? Ya of Segovia and the Qurn among the Mudejars
and Moriscos, n Journal of Islamic Studies (10)
(2006, 255-294): The Genealogy of the Spanish Qur'an, n Journal of Islamic Studies
(17)
(2011): El Corn de Toledo. Edicin y estudio del manuscrito 235 de la Biblioteca de
Castilla-La Mancha, Gijn: Trea
MONTANER FRUTOS, A. (2010, 45-55): La literatura aljamiada, n Memoria de los moriscos.
Escritos y relatos de una dispora cultural, <
http://www.bne.es/es/Micrositios/Exposiciones/MemoriaMoriscos/documentos/
estudios_2.pdf > (legtur consultat pe 3 septembrie 2012)
NEIRA MARTNEZ, J. (1969. 331-341): Los prefijos des-, es- en aragons, n Archivum:
Revista de la Facultad de Filologa (tomo 19), Oviedo: Universitatea din Oviedo
604
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
RUBIO, G. (2009, 195-240): Semitic influence in the history of Latin syntax. Language
contact and translation n Baldi, P., Cuzzolin, P. (ed.) New Perspectives on Historical Latin
Syntax. 1 Syntax of the Sentence, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter
RYDING, K. (2005): A Reference Grammar of Modern Standard Arabic, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press
VESPERTINO RODRGUEZ, A. (1985, 63-78): Contribucin de los textos aljamiado-moriscos al
estudio del lxico aragons, n Archivo de filologa aragonesa (36-37), Zaragoza: Institutul
Fernando el Catlico
(2004, 1731-1754): El aragons de la literatura aljamiado-morisca, n Castaner, R. M.
y Jose Maria, E. (ed.), In memoriam Manuel Alvar. Archivo de Filologa Aragonesa, 59-60
(2002-2004) [2 vol.], Zaragoza: Institutul Fernando el Catlico
VILLAVERDE AMIEVA, J.C. (2010, 91-128): Los manuscritos aljamiado-moriscos: hallazgos,
colecciones, inventarios y otras noticias, n Memoria de los moriscos. Escritos y relatos de
una dispora cultural, <
http://www.bne.es/es/Micrositios/Exposiciones/MemoriaMoriscos/documentos/estudios_6.pdf
> (legtur consultat pe 3 septembrie 2012)
WRIGHT, W. (2004): A Grammar of the Arabic Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press
ZOICA, L. (2009, 207-216): Despre fidelitate n traducere, n Romanoslavica (XLV),
Bucureti: Editura Universitii din Bucureti
605
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
COSTACHE NEGRUZZI - COMMISSIONER OF GOVERNMENT, PROSE
ROMANTIC, EPISTOLIER, TRANSLATOR
Adrian Petre POPESCU, PhD, UCEE Bruxelles
Abstract : Throughout the nineteenth century, we have identified a model of the Trinity-
cultural uses for the most representative Romanian writers, diplomats and freemasons. We
opted for one of these subjective x-rays of Costache Negruzzi, who was considered a second
of Koglniceanu also stands as one of the creators of Romanian prose, considered as an
initiator of the realistic current in modern Romanian literature. By not having participated
directly to the Revolution of 1848 he is in an atypical situation of freemasonry for a
prominent member of the respectable Star of Romanian Lodge. His mediator role is what
suits him best, being also the one who establishes the relation between Heliade and
Koglniceanu, while the directions to move forward into modernity were somewhat different
for the Moldavian and Wallachian intellectuals. The writings published by Costache
Negruzzi in the press of that age contain diplomatic texts, such as Memories of
juvenescence and Philosophy of the provincial man, perhaps the best literary physiology
written in Romanian language. The pamphlet History of a pie or the 200 tried food
recipes written in collaboration with Mihail Koglniceanu are all the more pretexts for
Costache Negruzzi to indirectly address the topic of diplomatic protocol at the tables and also
the topics of transcendental gastronomy meditations and about the physiology of taste.
With regard to Negruzzis diplomatic concerns, we may also add the negotiations with
Transylvanian intellectuals in view of national emancipation. If we were to draw a brief
profile, we should not overlook the fact that C. Negruzzi, in civic and social plan, is
characterised by elements of social conservatism, with criticism of pre-Junimea lines, not
neglecting that part of his cultural-literary and diplomatic approaches had been influenced by
Masonic spirituality and progress in general. Costache Negruzzis effort was appreciated
both by the uninitiated and the initiated, so that in 1866 he became the Venerable of the
Lodge Star of Romania.
Keywords: The nineteenth century, Trinity, writers, diplomats, freemasons , transcendental,
progress
Pe ntreg parcursul secolului al XIX-lea, am identificat instituirea unui model cultural
triangular a unor generaii de scriitori romni diplomai-francmasoni romni, Am optat
pentru una din radiografiile subiective care compun acest model cultural. Mai mult dect
se crede c ar fi fost un secund al lui Koglniceanu, Costache Negruzzi (nscut pe moia
Hermeziu, n 1808, dei se vehiculeaz ca dat i 12 aprilie 1800 decedat la 24 august
1868, n Iai) se remarc, n egal msur, ca unul dintre creatorii prozei romne, prin
scrisorile i nuvelele sale el definindu-se ca un iniiator al curentului realist n literatura
romn modern, dar i unul dintre cei mai de seam reprezentani n acest gen de literatur.
Cert este c, la nceputul secolului al XIX-lea, printre tinerii care prseau casele boierilor
ruginii n romnism spre a studia n universitile Occidentului, probnd cu aceast ocazie
i trecerea de la inutele patriarhale la cele bonjuriste, ar trebui s l regsim i pe Costache
Negruzzi. Aa cum vom putea observa, imaginea lui Costache Negruzzi este mai curnd una
606
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
de liant cultural ezitnd ntre admiraia pentru Pukin i traducerea lui Victor Hugo, sau n
plan romnesc ntre revoluionarii Heliade, Koglniceanu, Bolliac, Alecsandri i pacifitii din
preajma lui Gh. Asachi. Tranzitnd n ritm propriu nceputurile modernitii romneti din
prima jumtate a secolului al XIX-lea, Costache Negruzzi a mprumutat ceva din imaginea
standard a reformistului romn bine temperat. Chiar dac a primit nenumrate funcii (diac,
sptar, ag, postelnic, vornic, efor al Iaiului, director al vistieriei Moldovei, cap director al
Departamentului lucrrilor publice, membru al Comisiei pentru delimitarea frontierelor,
nominalizat n urma ncheierii Tratatului de Pace de la Paris, director al Statisticilor Centrale,
secretar al Obtetii Adunri i ministru interimar la Finane), Constantin Costache Negruzzi
pare s lase impresia de echidistan prin neparticiparea sa direct la Revoluia de la 1848 din
Moldova sau la evenimentele premergtoare Unirii, o situaie atipic pentru un iniiat n
Francmasonerie, pentru un membru marcant n respectabila confreerie din Iai, Loja Steaua
Romniei. Rolul de mediator este cel care i se potrivete cel mai bine, francmasonul
Negruzzi fiind cel care stabilete legtura ntre Heliade i Koglniceanu, n condiiile n care
direciile de naintare n modernitate a inteligheniei moldoveneti i a celei munteneti erau
oarecum diferite. Contemporan cu Costache Negruzzi, Gheorghe Sion l admir pentru
cunotinele sale n ale literaturii, istoriei sau dreptului, socotindu-l unul din cei nti care
fcuse minunea de a se introduce nsocietatea boierilor de clasa nti, de a cpta funciunea
de membru de Divan i rangul de postelnic, funciune i rang ce erau ca apanagiu pentru
familiile aristocratice.. Multele i importantele responsabiliti publice interne i externe i-
au construit o imagine a omului echilibrat aflat ntre marile avnturi ale generaiei sale i
starea de fapt dintr-o Moldov patriarhal. Faptul c Negruzzi era sensibil la orice tentativ
de atragere spre unul dintre poli ne este confirmat prin reacia lui cu privire la acuzele viznd
o alunecare a literaturii sale spre ndulcituri pastorale. ntr-o scrisoare de adeziune la
programul Romniei literare i de colaborare la revista lui Alecsandri, Negruzzi i
mrturisete reticena n faa noului val: Nu nelegi tu c noi, ruginile care scriem ca s fim
nelei, nu suntem oameni de progres? Astzi cnd este de bun-gust a ntrebuina un jargon
neauzit, cine s ne ceteasc? n istoria literaturii romne eroii prozelor lui Negruzzi sunt
consemnai ca fiind o sintez mai perfect de gesturi patetice, de cuvinte memorabile, de
observaie psihologic i sociologic., personaje care au o calitate n plus, anume aceea de a
oferi o imagine edificatoare asupra mijloacelor de expresie pe care le folosete scriitorul, cum
ar fi linia rafinat a gndirii ce oscileaz ntre notaia realist-obiectiv i intervenia
subiectiv dar plin de verv. Literatura lui este catalogat de Eugen Lovinescu ca o
literatur cu desvrire sociabil, care are printre rarele nsuiri remarcate i pe acelea de
a te minuna, de a avea tiina vieei de a deschide cu lesniciune porile inimilor!. Cu
siguran Costache Negruzzi s-a strduit s ajung la un model de limb literar apropiat de
cel heliadesc expus n Gramatica din 1828, fapt care l-a ncurajat n decizia lui de literat
brbat romn de a folosi cu msur elementul arhaic i neologismul, de a combate
tendinele puriste i orice alte excese, fapte ce i-au confirmat perse- verena de a impune o
linie de evoluie a limbii literare pe axa romanitii. Tocmai de aceea, scrierile lui i
pstreaz i astzi ntreaga strlucire.4. Scriitorul particip mai mult ca amator la dezbaterile
filologice, aducnd n interveniile lui argumente de un deosebit bun sim, ferindu-se de orice
fel de exclusivisme. Nu are pretenia de a compune studii i nici nu atac probele mari ale
filologiei, i totui aceasta nu l-a mpiedicat s dea cele mai interesante cronici puriste n
607
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ordine literar. n consens cu observaiile lui erban Cioculescu, includem i efortul lui C.
Negruzzi de a emancipa literatura noastr prin diversitatea prozei scurte pe care o propune.
Un exemplu concludent este oferit n lucrarea Cum am nvat romnete, unde unionistul
este preocupat de problema educaiei, de limba romn, strnind interesul referitor la
nfiarea limbii romne. Despre aceast iniiativ scriitorul face urmtoarea confesiune: Pe
cnd uitasem c suntem romni i c avem i noi o limb, pe cnd ne lipseau i cri i
tipografie; cnd, n sfrit, literatura romn era la darea sufletului, civa boieri, ruginii n
romnism, neputndu-se deprinde cu frumoasele ziceri: parigorisesc, catadicsesc, toate n
esc, create de diecii vistieriei, edeau triti i jleau pierderea limbii, uitndu-se cu dor spre
Buda sau Braov, de unde le veneau pe tot anul calendare cu poveti la sfrit, i din cnd n
cnd cte o brour nvtoare a meteugului de a face zahr din ciocli de cucuruzi, sau
pine i crohmal de cartofe.6 Interesante prim-cadre cu personajul Costache Negruzzi se
regsesc i n jurnalul arheologului Teohari Antonescu, un universitar mason pierdut n
anonimat, care n secvena La o agap nevinovat fratern, relateaz o discuie purtat cu
Negruzzi pe marginea unei teme, provocatoare la acea dat, axat pe problema
transmutaiei culturale: Am rmas eu cu Negruzzi i am vorbit pe sofaua de lng statuia
lui Hermes (a lui Praxiteles) despre Hellada i despre situaiunea rii: Dar te rog, d-le A
(Antonescu)., s-mi spui fr nici o prtinire i sentimentele d-tale de patriotism s nu le faci
s vorbeasc.[...]. Vorbeam despre menirea rasei albe. [...]. Negruzzi zicea: cu timpul vom
ajunge din pricina locomoiunii tot mai mari s pierdem utilizarea picioarelor noastre; acestea
se vor atrofia i vom ajunge s nu mai putem nici s ne micm7. Deschiztor de drumuri n
literatura paoptist, Costache Negruzzi, prin genul memorialistic-epistolar, este un
precursor al lui Ghica, pentru c acesta va scrie mai trziu scrisori ctre Vasile Alecsandri;
iar datorit fiziologiilor sale ar fi socotit ca precursorul lui Nicolae Filimon i Mihail
Koglniceanu 8. Impactul scrierilor sale nu s-a rezumat doar la att. Vom constata c
fabulosul i proverbialul au fost preluate att de Ion Creang ct i de Anton Pann..
Totodat, n cazul lui Costache Negruzzi nu putem face abstracie nici de impactul esteticii
duioiei prin care nuvelistul i anun pe Ioan Slavici, Vlahu i Delavrancea. Poate
nemeritat de ignorat a fost inuta crturreasc a prozei sale descriptive prin care Negruzzi
devine precursorul esteticii lui Odobescu dar i al reportajului lui Hoga. Exegeii literari
susin c a favorizat i germinaia eseului romnesc, peste notele critice care invoc doar
ataamentul pentru dreptate, libertate, datoria ctre patrie.. ntr-adevr dincolo de acest spirit
patriotic, Negruzzi nu ezit s foloseasc nicio mprejurare de a valorifica tezaurul istoric i
folcloric intenii vizibile atunci cnd scrie Alexandru Lpuneanul sau poemul istoric
tefaniada. Limba romn literar rmne n atenia lui Costache Negruzzi chiar i atunci
cnd el traduce din limba rus pe Alexander Pukin sau din cea francez pe Victor Hugo,
traductorul respectnd cu fidelitate sensul ideilor transmise de autori n originale. Cultul
pentru limba romn este de remarcat i n alt context: atunci cnd exult prin promovarea
spiritului unionist, de a crui afirmare categoric a fost, pe nedrept, acuzat n unele ziare ale
vremii care l nvinuiau c ar reprezenta interesele lui Vogoride i ale Austriei. Un bun
exemplu n acest sens este oferit de o scrisoare pe care Negruzzi o adreseaz lui George
Bariiu (1839), n care precizeaz: Ca deputat strig la Camera noastr, ca filolog scriu
articolele, ca romn sftuiesc i propovduiesc Unirea fr care bine nu vom mai vedea. Ni
se confirm o atitudine caracteristic lui Negruzzi i din postura celui care redacteaz la
608
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Braov: Principiile noastre pentru reformarea Patriei!, unde, printre altele se solicita:
Unirea Moldovei i a Valahiei ntr-un singur stat neatrnat romnesc.. n inuta lirico-
patriotic se nscrie i poezia Eu sunt romn, publicat de Costache Negruzzi pentru prima
oar n revista Romnia literar, n care pledoaria pentru cosmopolitism este n ton cu
ideile din snul lojilor masonice: Francez, neam, rus, ce fire te-a fcut, Pmntul tu e bine-a
nu uita, Oricui e drag locul ce l-a nscut; Eu, fraii mei, oriunde-oi cuta, Nu mai gsesc ca
dulcea Romnie De-o i hulesc ci se hrnesc n ea[...] Eu sunt romn, i-mi place ara mea.
O alt categorie de texte o constituie Scrisorile, texte reunite n volumul Negru pe
Alb Scrisori la un prieten, volum ce cuprinde un mozaic de 32 de scrisori i un
Epilog. Epistolarul este ntr-un fel o prelungire i o intersectare a unor notaii particulare cu
articole de uz general, regsite sub form de note, impresii, consideraii publicate n Albina
romneasc, Curierul romnesc, Curierul de ambe sexe, Foaie pentru minte, inim i
literatur, Propirea, Romnia literar, ntre aceste partituri existnd un aer de
nrudire pe linie literar. Punem aici capt mrturisenii noastre, rmind a ne arta restul
pcatelor cnd bhrsbenios crSvaronr de al smatros rucace pethutera pnroviae snt
uflandics meresoc harsomaf. [...]. Trebuie dar csmtii pnroviae, dalcinor rucace cptrahne
rolfrinamu gratamas scop montrica Kersmet fericire mdsot csOmirale ntr-un col mai
bhrsbenios. Criticii literari au pus ciudatele texte codificate de mai sus pe seama unui
simplu moft, considernd c ar fi vorba de un joc de cuvinte exagerat de haotizant,
comparativ cu alt creaie literarenigmatic, pe care Nerguzzi o public n Albina
Romneasc (nr.37, 11 mai 1839, p. 152): La albea-ntrec pe lume orice lucru lucitor: Dac
vrei s m faci, trebuie s m strngi ncetior. Oh ! S nu m strngi prea tare, cititorule, ia
sama C pe loc m fac ca mama. [...]. La un studiu mai atent vom putea constata c
Epilogul, din volumul Negru pe Alb, privit din punctul de vedere al sursologiei, poate fi
un posibil model literar preluat de Negruzzi din operele masonului Prosper Mrime. S nu
uitm c n perioada lui Negruzzi literatura francez era bntuit de astfel de fiziologii. n
ceea ce ne privete, suntem convini c Epilogul este o criptogram real, nu doar un
simplu joc / ghicitoare. n opinia noastr, volumul Negru pe Alb ar putea fi considerat o
carte de iniiere, cu subiecte de reflecie, un fel de ghid de autocunoatere: Cunoate-te pe
tine nsui. Spre exemplu, n Scrisoarea a III-a, Negruzzi iniiaz o radiografie asupra
destinului marilor imperii, asupra locului lor n dezvoltarea civilizaiei, marnd pe
interdependena dintre cauzalitate i schimbare n decursul istoriei, precum rezult i din
extrasul de mai jos: (Vandalism) Ianuarie 1838. [...]. Imperiile i naiile au avut mrirea i
cderea lor; ele ns i-au pzit naionalitatea subt orice mpregiurri, cci dei prefacerile
nrureau n fiina lor politic sau moral, fiecare pstra nc o raz a vechiei sale, raz
scump pre care o inea [...] de scut aprtor mpotriva clevetitorilor originei sale, aducnd
ca argument situaia din Dacia unde Dacul se prefcu n roman, romanul n romn, i
romnul corcindu-se cu neamuri barbare i strine de el, ajunse n acea demoralizaie i
ignoran n care i acum zace, i de care va fi greu a-l curi. Francmasonul Costache
Negruzzi surprinde i cu textul din Scrisoarea a VI-a, prin prezentarea unei catacombe din
cetuia Neamului, un loc descris ca fiind propice actului meditativ-gnoseologic, n care
sloboade o raz misterioas de lumin. Este vorba de un loc funerar, o catacomb unde pe
polii se nir tidve cu oase de mori, imagine similar locurilor de ntrunire preferate de
membrii confreriilor vremii i pe care o puncteaz ca atare. n aceeai not de meditaie
609
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
transcendent, dar mutnd cadrul spre spectrul diplomatic, se nscrie Scrisoarea a VII-a, cu
meniunea c aici Negruzzi surprinde efectele micrilor insurecionare, precum a fost
micarea masonic eterist care a constituit preambulul Revoluiei de la 1848. Este de
remarcat i subtitlul Calipso dat de Negruzzi, nume de origine greac, folosit cu
semnificaia de-a se ascunde, prin care autorul atrage atenia c mesajele aternute n
scrisoare mai au un alt mesaj: tii c n anul 1821 a izbutit revoluia Greciei, i c ea i avu
nceputul la Iai. Precum n toate revoluiile, asemene i n aceasta s-au fcut mai multe
eccesuri, cci totdeauna printre patrioi se vr oameni de acei care caut a se folosi de orice
tulburare. Dup stricarea eteritilor la Drgani i la Sculeni, toate cpeteniile ce erau mai de
omenie fugind care ncotro, rile noastre rmaser n prada barbarilor. Nu att scurtele cadre
istorice din Scrisoarea a XXVIII-a intitulat Pelerinagiu (1852), ct mai ales evocarea
momentelor de reflecie asupra hotrrilor drepte sau strmbe vin n susinerea ipotezei c
Negruzzi invoca n opera sa doctrine iluministe cum ar fi perceptele lui Martin Luther: Wer
nich liebt Wein, Weiber und Gesang / Der bleibt ein Narr sein Lebenlang Prin acel citat,
Negruzzi ofer indirect un comentariu la perceptele lui Luther din Noul Testament, privitor la
relaia Dumnezeu Omenire, aceasta din urm nelegnd prin nvturile religioase un
rspuns raional la legile orale a adevrului divin, prin care ideea abstract a pierderii i
regsirii credinei se bazeaz pe dragoste i nu pe fric, Justificarea prin credin fiind
element central al crezului lui Luther. Ancorat n aceast formul de meditaie ezoteric se
dovedete a fi Negruzzi i atunci cnd aterne amintirile dintr-un pelerinaj. El insist, cu
acest prilej asupra unui nsemn heraldic postat deasupra uii mnstireti, pe care l remarc
n Monastirea Rducanul situat n cea mai frumoas poziie, pe o stnc din malul
Trotuului. Pasajele scrise ntr-o romn amalgamat cu franuzeasca din care nu
lipsete o epigram buf sunt supuse unei hermeneutici prin care masonul Negruzzi, aplecat
asupra expresiei Veleat (marcheaz momentul evenimentului, dar i trecerea timpului) sau
a semnificaiei literelor alturate (Alpha) (Psi) (Sigma) (Bta) confirm c nu era un
neiniiat. Motivaia preferinei lui Neguzzi pentru o asemenea niruire a literelor din
alfabetul grecesc clasic ionic nu este ntmpltoare i ar putea avea la baz urmtoarea
interpretare: Alfa i Omega reprezint cheia Universului. La ntrunirile masonilor se fac
referiri la ele prin evocarea paragrafului: Eu sunt Alfa i Omega, nceputul i Sfritul, zice
Domnul Dumnezeu, cel ce este, cel ce era i cel ce vine. (Apocalipsa 1, verset 8); (Psi)
este utilizat, de regul, ca un simbol de organizare; (Sigma) are o valoare matematic de
nsumare n cazul de fa putnd s fie folosit pentru un mesaj de reunire adresat unor
organizaii / asociaii / confreerii, iar (Bta) este utilizat pentru a anuna o modificare /
schimbare. Pentru misticii vremii, litera echivala cu filozofia de a-i dirija viaa, iar
pentru astrologi Bta Tucanae descria un sistem stelar format din ase pri. Ca atare, din
perspectiv numerologic avem parte de cifra ase care definete Arborele sefirotic, o
abstractizare a creaiei i a planurilor energetice existente n fiina uman i n ntreg
macrocosmosul. Ei bine, mesajul-cheie pentru iniiai, n coninutul scrisorii se afl tocmai n
coninutul inscripiei citate n Scrisoarea a XXVIII-a. Supoziia se bazeaz i pe un alt
detaliu. Este vorba despre coincidena pe care o sesizm ntre anii n care au fost scrise
textele din volumul Scrisori i anii n care Negruzzi se afla n plin proces de iniiere
francmasonic. Cele 32 de creaii i Epilogul ar putea oglindi cele 33 de grade din
Francmasonerie, prezentate iniiailor dar i profanilor, pentru ultimii apelnd printr-o
610
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
formulare literar n termeni accesibili. Pind pe aria speculativ am putea emite nc o
supoziie, i anume c Epilogul ar putea conine chiar un mesaj de final, transmis de
Marele Inspector General al Lojii funcie pe care Negruzzi o deinea la acea dat doar
iniiailor, cunosctorilor alfabetului masonic folosit la finele veacului al XVIII-lea. Aa am
justifica n text prezena acelor frnturi de expresii sau de cuvinte transcrise ntr-o anumit
formul (fono)logic, inspirat din cuvintele uzuale folosite de hrisoveliii i evreii sudii
(a cror limb era asemntoare cu dialectul ssesc transilvnean), comunitate etnic pe care
autorul a cunoscut-o foarte bine i pe care o numea n termenii unui realism transparent
judani stremoi, rufos judan .a.m.d. Negruzzi folosete practica criptrii pn i n
culegerea unor texte liturgice1, prin intemediul crora putem constata c ele cuprind i
apte rugciuni semnate de unionist, acestea fiind posibil legate de mediul practicilor din
interiorul confreriei pe care o frecventa. Supoziia pornete de la un Ex libris, aflat pe
pagina a doua a textelor liturgice care nfieaz chipul Sfintei Parascheva, ncadrat de
cifrele 1843 dar i de nscrisul circular: Biserica SFM. Paraschiva din Muntimea de Sus Iai
+. Cifrele nu au legtur cu anul ctitoriei bisericii (1852), ci spre surprinderea noastr
ele corespund cu anul n care a fost ctitorit societatea secret Fria. Astfel, cele apte
rugciuni ar putea fi legate de ceremoniile masonice dedicate Arhanghelului Rafael (care se
numr printre cei apte arhangheli postai n faa tronului lui Dumnezeu, descris n
Apocalipsa lui Ioan, i numii ngerii Prezenei), singurul arhanghel, n afar de Mihail i
Gavriil, cunoscut i acceptat att de ctre Biserica Ortodox ct i de cea Catolic, drept un
aductor al darului tmduirii cel care ne arat cum s ne vindecm noi nine prin
iubire i bucurie; el ne permite s gsim vindecarea n natur i n energiile universale..
Constantin Negruzzi ni se dezvluie ns i ca un scriitor impresionist n sensul
propensiunii acestuia ctre o rapid nregistrare a peisajului, ntre ale crei componente
scriitorul introduce i omul, omul prezent i omul istoriei: Dintr-o dat, a creat un gen ce nu
exist la noi. Alturi de scrisorile lui spirituale, sltree, erpuitoare n jurul attor lucruri,
Negruzzi poate arta i blocul de marmur al lui Alexandru Lpuneanu, care nu mai e
jocul unei mini rafinate, ci o creaie pornit din intuiie artistic. Scrierile publicate de
Costache Negruzzi n presa vremii: Albina romneasc; Curierul de ambe sexe; Foaie
pentru minte, inim i literatur; Dacia literar; Propirea, reunite n anul 1857, n
volumul Pcatele tinereilor, conin i texte cu tent diplomatic mai evidente n ciclul
primelor proze semnate de literatul-mason. Putem include n aceast categorie Amintirile
din junee i Fiziologia provinialului, poate cea mai bun fiziologie literar scris n
limba romn. Pretutindeni apar tipuri ale vremii, fr ndoial dup modele autentice, unele
circulnd dintr-o scriere-n alta, cum este postelnicul Andronake Zimbolici din anecdota Au
mai pit-o i alii pe care l rentlnim i n povestea lui Toderic, juctorul de cri (o
nuvel publicat n 1844, n revista Propirea), inspirat dup stilul altui literat mason,
Prosper Mrime (Cronica vremurilor de altdat,1829), dar presrat cu moravuri locale.
Nuvela masonului Negruzzi aducea ns atingere imaginii clerului i administraiei perioadei
sale, motiv pentru care revista a fost ulterior suspendat. Era, ntr-adevr, o nuvel cu tent
critic n consonan cu poziia francmasonilor fa de abolirea privilegiilor preoilor. n
aceeai not critic, amintim i pamfletul Istoria unei plcinte (Scrisoarea XXII), unde
Negruzzi supune sub cerneala acid a penei sale efectele colaterale ale evoluiei societii,
satiriznd ipocrizia i parvenitismul din perioada fanariot prin destinul celor dou plcinte:
611
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
una rzboinic i alta pacifist, de ale crei efecte n plan social este interesat prozatorul.
Carenele lumii romneti sunt evideniate i prin descrierea drumului de la boier la mare
vornic al unui curtean oportunist, intrat n graiile Mriei-sale, mare cunosctor n ale
plcintelor. Curtea mizeaz n acest traseu pe capacitatea stomahului gurmandului
domnitor n care se ngropau ca ntr-un abis fr fund dulcegrii de tot felul: caimac,
gugoae, alivenci, iaurt, sarailii, baclavale, plcinte nvrtite .c.. Faptul c Negruzzi nu era
strin de atari strategii se recunoate n felul n care consemneaz reacia norodului prin
formula oracular-ironic: Cu iaurt, cu gogoele, / Te fcui vornic, miele.1. Scris cu un an
nainte de Revoluia de la 1848, pamfletul are n subsidiar i un mesaj politic care ne poart
cu gndul la necesitatea schimbrii societii decrepite i corupte, aflat n disoluie, printr-o
nou ncercare de reformare social-politic. S mai consemnm i faptul c [...] dup
spargerea eteritilor[...], n vremea domnilor fanarioi, Negruzzi s-a mai folosit de acest voal
tematic-culinar pentru a-i ascunde mesajul, n cursul anului 1841, cnd n colaborare cu
Mihail Koglniceanu publica cele 200 de reete cercate de bucate, prjituri i alte trebi
gospodreti carte aprut i tiprit cu cheltuiala i ngrijirea unei societi de naintare i
strlucire a neamului romnesc., crora le altura alte reete strine. Un bun pretext pentru
Costache Negruzzi de a aborda indirect i tema protocolului de la mesele diplomatice. Acest
interes pentru fascinaia gastronomic este recunoscut i n nuvela Alexandru Lpuneanu,
n care prozatorul insereaz i cteva elemente de culoare n tabloul dejunului fatal oferit
voievod boierilor: n Moldavia, pe vremea aceea, nu se introdusese nc moda mncrurilor
alese. Cel mai mare osp se cuprindea din cteva feluri de bucate. [...]. Pnza mesei i
ervetele erau de filaliu esute n cas. Tipsiile pe care aduceau bucatele erau de argint. Pe
lng prete sta aezate n rnd mai multe ulcioare pntecoase, pline de vin [...] i la spatele
fitecruia [...] dvorea cte o slug. (n C. Negruzzi, Pagini alese, Editura Albatros,
Bucureti, 1976, p. 98). Aceast preocupare tematic era n ton cu meditaiile de
gastronomie transcendental din cadrul confreriilor acelei perioade, n cadrul crora se
prezentau plane tematice despre fiziologia gustului, fiind preluate de la baronul de
Anthelme Brillat-Savarin, autorul volumului Physiologie du Got, ou Mditations de
Gastronomie Transcendante; ouvrage thorique, historique et lordre du jour, ddi aux
Gastronomes parisiens, par un Professeur, membre de plusieurs socits littraires et
savantes de (1825), precum i de la excentrici ca Villon, Baudelaire .a.m.d. Ca atare, este
uor de aproximat direcia nspre care ar fi trebuit s ruleze aceast raiune gurmand,
asumat de un filosof i eseist de talia lui Michel Onfray, anume drept o chestiune (diet)etic,
estetic, metafizic sau chiar ontologic. Numai c, n cazul de fa artizanul rmne sadicul
domnitor i nu buctarul, artistul acestui osp. El, singur, este cel care aduce, n mijlocul
unor tragedii nencetat rennoite, plcerile care mascheaz, sub aspect cultural, fora
exigenelor naturale, tiut fiind c, n opiunea lui Onfray, hedonismul va fi ntotdeauna un
rspuns circumstanial la filosofia tragic. Este o preocupare continuat n confreriile
secolului al XX-lea, fenomen confirmat de Gh. Manolache, potrivit cruia tentativa este
valid, n sensul relaionrii culturii gastronomice cu artele frumoase, tiinele sociale
ori naturale, concentrate i pe sistemul nutriional al corpului uman. Este, n fapt, o
preocupare care mizeaz pe faptul c, dintre principalele activiti ale unui gurmet, nu ar
trebui eludate: descoperirea, degustarea, experimentarea, cercetarea, nelegerea i/sau
documentarea asupra alimentelor (mncrurilor i/sau buturilor) .a.m.d. Mai subliniem
612
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
faptul c, n dreptul preocuprilor diplomaticeti ale lui Negruzzi, se pot aduga tratativele
cu iluminaii ardeleni n scopul emanciprii naionale i, evident, demersurile lui ca
judector, de la Divanul Domnesc, sau cele administrative din sfera de aciune a comisarului
mputernicit n Basarabia cedat de rui Moldovei (dup Tratatul de la Paris). Prodigioasa
activitate politic a lui Negruzzi precum i ntreaga sa creaie literar, att de divers, de la
valoroase traduceri din cultura universal pn la conceperea unor lucrri cu iz reformator au
constituit tot attea motive pentru a fi propus i numit n 1867 membru al Societii Literare
Romne, viitoarea Academie Romn. Referitor la ideea ncetenit cu privire la imaginea
unui Negruzzi memorialist, a crui proz aduce n literatura romn tehnica literar a
memorialului, D. Popovici este convins c afirmaia nu corespunde ntrutotul realitii
dect n condiiile n care avem n vedere doar anumite seciuni din arhitextul lui Negruzzi,
scriitorul care are talentul particular de a pune ntr-o lumin aparte cauzele mici ale
marilor prefaceri. Dac ar fi s-i creionm un profil de sintez, n-ar trebui s omitem c lui
C. Negruzzi, n plan civic-social i sunt proprii,,elemente de conservatism social, cu critice
prejunimiste mpotriva procesului de formaie a societii noastre, fr a nelija faptul c o
parte din demersurile sale cultural-literare i diplomatice au stat sub influena spiritualitii
masonice i a progresului n genere. Efortul lui Costache Negruzzi a fost apreciat att de
neiniiai ct i de iniiai, motiv pentru care, n 1866, va ajunge Venerabilul Lojii Steaua
Romniei. Dup cum, n plan literar, el va rmne ca autor al unei opere strbtute de o
atitudine impur, eclectic, n sensul c romantismul i romanescul se ntlnesc cu
realismul, adeseori de cea mai bun calitate. La o privire general descoperim o activitate
bogat, dar nchinat, n cea mai mare parte a ei traducerilor. Mai puin importante rmn
traducerile pentru teatru, importante sunt traducerile din Victor Hugo mai cu seam baladele
acestuia , precum i acelea din Thomas Moore, Antioh Cantemir i Pukin. Remarcabile
sunt schiele sale de moravuri, care pun n lumin unele dintre calitile sale eseniale:
umorul, ironia, pe de o parte; vziunea realist pe de alt parte. [...] Prin nuvelele i prin
scrisorile sale, el se definete ca un iniiator al curentului realist n literatura modern i ca
unul dintre cei mai de seam reprezentani ai lui n aceast literatur. [...] Toate acestea ne
arat c Negruzzi.
Bibliografie
Arhiva de Stat de la Iai, dosar 892/1897
BERINDEI Dan, Din nceputurile diplomaiei romneti moderne, Editura Politic,
Bucureti,1965.
BURTEA Maria Belu, Plcintele lui Negruzzi, n: Jurnalul Naional, Bucureti, Nr. 4925;
ediie de colecie din 21.01.2009.
CLINESCU George, Istoria Literaturii Romne. Compendiu, Editura pentru Literatur,
Bucureti, 1968.
CIOCULESCU erban, Vladimir Streinu, Tudor Vianu, Istoria Literaturii Romne moderne,
Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1985.
CIOCULESCU erban, STREINU Vladimir en VIANU Tudor, Istoria LiteraturiiRomne
moderne, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1985.
DASCL Mihai, Repere istorico-literare, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,1974.
613
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
GHIULESCU Vintil Constana, Ceaslov story, Despre procopseala nvturii, n:
Dilema veche, nr. 349, din 21-27 octombrie 2010.
LEONTE Liviu, C. Negruzzi, Proz, Poezie, n: Opere, Vol. 2, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,
1984.
LOVINESCU Eugen, Costache Negruzzi. Viaa i opera lui, Editura Casei coalelor,
Bucureti, 1913.
LOVINESCU Eugen, Istoria civilizaiei romne moderne, ediie i studiu introductiv de Z.
Ornea, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1997.
GEORGESCU Constantin, Amintiri simple, Editura Tineretului, Bucureti, 1966.
MANDACHE Rodica, 200 de reete... cercate!, n: Jurnalul Naional, Nr. 5699, din 29 mai
2011.
NEGOIESCU Ion, Istoria Literaturii Romne (1800-1945), Editura Minerva, Bucureti,
1991.NEGRUZZI Costache, Opere Complete, vol. II, ediie ngrijit de E. Carcalechi i Ilarie
Chendi, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,1909, pp. 33-34.(n: Romnia literar din 1855 are titlul
Cntec).
NEGRUZZI Costache, Amintiri din junee. Fragmente istorice. Negru pe alb, Editura
GRAMAR, Bucureti, 2008.
NEGRUZZI Costache, Opere, Proz, Poezie, Vol. 2, Ediie ngrijit de Liviu Leonte, Editura
Minerva, Bucureti, 1984.
NEGRUZZI Costache, Negru pe alb, Scrisori la un prieten, postfa i bibliografie de Ion
Rotaru, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1976.
NEGRUZZI Costache, Negru pe alb, Scrisori la un Prieten, postfa i bibliografie de Ion
Rotaru, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1976.
NEGRUZZI Costache, Negru pe alb, Scrisori la un Prieten, Postfa i bibliografie de Ion
Rotaru, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, 1976.
POPA N.I., Costache Negruzzi, n: Istoria Literaturii Romne, volumul al II-lea, Editura
Academiei, Bucureti, 1968.
614
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
DO MENTION IT!
THE (HUSHED-UP) USE OF TRANSLATION IN THE TRANSFER OF
KNOWLEDGE AND TERMINOLOGY FROM L1 INTO L2
Ileana Oana MACARI, Associate Professor, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of
Iai
Abstract: The evolution of the use of translation in foreign language teaching in the
Romanian education system follows the average European 'rise and fall' trend. At least at the
level of educational policies, after the regime change in 1989, EFL teaching in Romanian
schools shifted away from the audio-lingual method garnished with grammar-translation
strategies that had been in use for many years. Nevertheless, though practitioners have been
loath to admit it openly, translation has never been completely abolished from classes, for
reasons including the conservative attitudes of older teachers and the persistence of
translation tasks in certain national or entrance tests. This paper looks at an area in which
translation can be recognized as a useful teaching tool in the transfer of knowledge and
terminology from L1 into L2.
Keywords: English only policy, pedagogical translation, L1 use, EFL methods, bilingual
techniques
Introduction
Research interest in the use of translation in foreign language teaching and learning
has grown in recent years (Roberts Auerbach 1993; Schweers 1999; Cook 2001; Lindsay
&Knight 2006; Brooks-Lewis 2009, Siefert 2013, etc.), as more and more professionals have
started to question the rule that completely bans in-class translation and L1 use. Such an
interdiction can be explained by the connection automatically made in peoples minds
between translation tasks and the Grammar Translation Method. The latter, as Siefert puts it,
often [] is not even named explicitly when the topic of translation is handled, but L2
instruction and SLA, with words such as traditional, old-fashioned, or historic, still
manage to make references to the GTM in coded form during their discussions of translation.
(Siefert 2013: 5-6)
Research in this direction has already started to trigger a reconsideration of the
English only policy in the FL class. In this view, it has been acknowledged that the teacher
should stop pretending that students have no mother tongue. Since in the contemporary
philosophy of education learners are encouraged to construct their hypotheses based upon
their prior experiences and try them out in the real world, effective teaching presupposes the
understanding of the mental models that students use to perceive the world and this cannot
exclude their native language.
As an individual with experience in both systems (I studied English before and shortly
after 1990 and have been teaching it since the mid 90s) I have never lost contact with the
theory and practice of interlingual rendition, inside either practical translation or theoretical
language classes at university level. However, a clarification of the etymology and meanings
of the polysemous term translation is essential, and a line should be drawn between teaching
translation from or into the L1, using translation techniques in the process of teaching a
615
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
foreign language and making use of the L1 to give instructions or explanations during the FL
class. Leonardis observations below serve to distinguish between the first two categories:
Confusion tends to be made, at times, between pedagogical translation and
translation pedagogy. Whereas the former refers to translation as a valid teaching
tool in foreign language learning the latter refers to the teaching of translation to
train professionals. (Leonardi 2010: 81)
In my view, pedagogical translation (Leonardi labels it as the fifth skill in SLA) -
which employs various pre-, while- and post-translation activities - encompasses the use of
the L1 which can be seen as a subtype circumscribed in it.
As regards the meaning and etymology of translation, I have selected three definitions
only from the enormous number of interpretations proposed especially by translation studies
theoreticians, as this study is not concerned with the pedagogy of translation. Thus, the
Etymonline Dictionary points to the direct relation between the noun of action translation
(from Latin translationem) and the past participle stem of transferre (www.etymonline.com).
In Dictionary Reference, the Latin trnsltus (past participle of trnsferre = to transfer), is
equated to trns- trans-+ -ltus (suppletive past participle of ferre = to bear)
(http://dictionary.reference.com).
Scribans Dictionary explains *translaine/-ie in Romanian: (lat. transltio, -nis,
d. trans, dincolo, i latio, ducere.) as Transferare. Traducere. Micarea unu solid fr a-
schimba poziiunea (fr rotaiune) (http://dexonline.ro).
The definitions above will be used further on to explain my current attitudes towards
the use of translation and L1 in teaching and learning.
Overview of EFL methods used in the Romanian education system
The evolution of the use of the L1 and translation in foreign language teaching in the
Romanian education system follows the average European 'rise and fall' trend. Thus, through
the middle of the 20th century, teaching practices moved from the Grammar-Translation
Method (first employed in schools in late 18th century especially for the study of classical
languages) and the Direct/Natural Method (established in Germany and France at the
beginning of the 20 th century and focusing on spoken language) towards a mixture of
techniques and strategies belonging to the Audio-Lingual/Army Approach (early 1950s,
focusing on drilling and error correction) and the Natural Approach (late 1970s - early
1980s, intended to build communicative skills with little or no conscious learning).
In the Romanian textbooks before 1990, translation tasks (into and from English) co-
existed with comprehension questions, vocabulary exercises, grammar drills and writing
assignments. The L1 was still present in such school materials, as their target group was
chiefly a monolingual class, where all the learners shared Romanian as their first language.
At least in the case of English, the communicative language teaching (CLT) rapidly
gained terrain soon after the political regime change in 1990, and, particularly thanks to the
British Council policy and experts, the whole landscape of EFL teaching professedly did
away with the previous strategies that had been in use for many years. Nevertheless, even
616
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
against school policies and course materials1, in practice translation and L1 use have never
been completely abolished from classes, for reasons including the conservative attitudes of
older teachers or schools and the persistence of translation tasks in certain national or entrance
tests, though professionals have been loath to admit it.
Unlike the actual practice in schools, at university level both lecture and seminar-type
classes were conducted only in the target language before 1990. This monolingual behavior
was possible mostly because all students were bilinguals with strong initial literacy due to the
fact that they were selected after a very difficult entrance exam. After 1990, the shift towards
mass education resulted in lower linguistic competence levels of students and this produced
significant changes in the teaching strategies in universities.
Brooks-Lewis enumerates the progression of the attitudes towards the L1 use in
association with FL teaching methods and approaches. Beginning with the Direct Method,
continuing with the Natural and Audio-Lingual Approaches to CLT, the majority of
theoreticians and practitioners recommend limited use of mother tongue intended to fend
away interference, or even exclusion of the L1 (Brooks-Lewis 2009: 218-9).
The overview above makes it clear that officially in Romanian schools there is no or,
at best, little room for translation and L1 use in FL teaching and learning.
Description of activity
The activity described here the course in English morpho-syntax is based on the
course book Morpho-syntax An introduction with special focus on the Romanian student of
English, Editura Universitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza Iai, 2013 and is carried out in the first
semester (October to January), with the English minor students of the Department of Foreign
Languages and Literatures at the Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iasi. Each course meets
once per week for two lecture hours and one seminar hour throughout a 14-week semester.
Class attendance is obligatory and the size of the groups varies between 100 and 150 students.
This course provides a general introduction to Morphology (the structure of words)
and Syntax (the structure of phrases and sentences). Its main objective is to provide a
foundation for understanding and analyzing English grammar; it is built on the prior
knowledge the students have acquired about the grammar of Romanian and English during
secondary school, as well as about General Linguistics, English Lexicology and English
Phonetics and Phonology during their 1st year at the university.
Consequently, because this course deals with the English language, it uses English
examples to illustrate the theoretical points (many of them selected from literature or
newspapers, for the sake of authenticity), but instances from and analogies with the Romanian
grammar are discussed as often as this can throw light on the more difficult issues. This
choice is backed up, on the one hand, by the results of the actual experience I have had with
teaching Morpho-syntax to Romanian students of English for more than five years, and, on
the other, by an additional argument in Huddleston and Pullum's Preface to A Student's
Introduction to English Grammar, an argument I find very useful for the present discussion:
1
The series Pathway to English (English My Love, Perspectives on English and English News & Views) is
realized by a team of Romanian teachers of English advised by British specialists. Its target is the Romanian
learner of English, so that besides the coverage of all four language skills, it includes a systematic development
of translation skills. In this respect, it is an exception among the textbooks used in Romanian schools.
617
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Knowing the grammar of your native language is an enormous help for anyone
embarking on the study of another language, even if it has rather different
grammatical principles; the contrasts as well as the parallels aid understanding
(Huddleston & Pullum 2007: viii).
Participants reading and responsibilities
Students are expected to study the sections assigned for each session in advance,
according to a schedule they receive at the beginning of the semester. Each week they should
spend at least two hours and a half on reading for this course. On average, they will spend
approximately 90 minutes on reading the material, and 60 minutes on the exercises. However,
the two activities cannot be separated and should be done sequentially, because the practice
exercises and questions are designed to sustain their progress and to help them reflect on the
issues covered in the course.
Students are encouraged to spend time at home writing down the questions or comments they
might have concerning the assignments and the answers they get to them during class
discussions. The questions usually become useful discussion topics for the seminars and this
will contribute to their successfully meeting the specific objectives of the course. Apart from
building up competence, the immediate result of these tasks is that their own written notes and
summaries will build their portfolio. They are advised to keep all such material, as much of it
will be useful in the exam sessions.
Responsibilities are always discussed with the students during the first class. They are invited
to ask questions, express their opinions, and propose amendments to the outline I propose.
After a five years experience, I should say that this preliminary discussion is crucial for the
success of the activity, since teachers and students have to share the responsibility of decision-
making and agree upon a number of things. According to Kohonen, as the teachers and
pupils roles are complementary, it is not possible for one of the partners to make a unilateral
declaration of independence as to his a her role; the new roles need to be negotiated and
agreed upon (Kohonen 2006: 5).
Discussion
The main pedagogical reason behind using translation in L2 teaching is my conviction
that, since novice teachers will mimic their teachers' styles (according to the saying you will
teach the way you were taught) and because most of my students prepare to become English
teachers, they should be offered the tools that can capacitate them to provide clear
explanations, assess justly and make proper corrections.
In the same line of thought, Kolln and Funks observations below point to some advantages
every student has at his/her disposal.
When you study the grammar of your native language, then, you are studying a
subject you already know; so rather than learning grammar, you will be
"learning about grammar. If youre not a native speaker, you will probably be
learning both grammar and about grammar; the mix will depend on your
background and experience. Its important that you understand what you are
bringing to this course even though you may have forgotten all chose parts of
618
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
speech labels and definitions you once consciously learned. The unconscious, or
subconscious, knowledge that you have can help you if you will let it. (Kolln and
Funk 2012, 15)
When I teach Morpho-syntax, I find it important to start from the things students
already know from prior L1 instruction (such as, for example, common Romanian
grammatical terminology) and use such knowledge to build analogies and draw
correspondences with the new information introduced about the L2 language structures. By
seeing forms and functions in both languages side by side in a table (which is, in fact, a form
of translation) the similarities and the differences between them become more obvious. Such
awareness can be very useful in the process of grammatical analysis and, besides, a useful
revision and reinforcement of the theoretical knowledge about the L1 is also achieved.
I invite students to look at a number of anticipated difficulties, i.e. the declarative
positive declarative negative/interrogative positive/interrogative positive/ interrogative
negative sentence transformation. Romanian learners often encounter difficulties when using the
English operator because there is no such mechanism in their native language. This process
requires knowledge about the operator and its functions, and the Romanian speaker of English
needs to be familiar with the English patterns - where the operator and subject change places -
unlike in Romanian where interrogatives have a simpler structure. A table with the English
examples translated into Romanian is truly effective and memorable.
Such bilingual tables can prove useful in another problem area, that of false cognates.
It can easily be inferred that one should be cautious with grammatical knowledge transfer
from one language into another even with seemingly similar terms. Thus, the members of the
pairs phrase fraz, complement complement can be rated as false friends, while the
correspondences subject - subiect, predicate - predicat, verbal verb are only partial because
inside a pair they share some features but not all of them. A listing of the English word
classes contrasted with the Romanian pri de vorbire, or of the clause functions vs. prile de
propoziie, with suitable definitions and examples exploits students previous knowledge on
which the new one is successfully built.
In this way, students assemble a bilingual inventory of terms designating word classes,
groups and clause elements that articulate the old and the newly acquired material, and which
becomes a useful resource when they need to explain grammar to their own students.
In following the contrastive approach, I propose analogous constructions in the L1 and
L2 (such as the Passive Voice, whose broad structure is, both in Romanian and in English, be
+ participle) and I dwell upon the similarities and differences between them. Equally valuable
are the partial analogies; thus, even if the grammatical category of aspect is said to be absent
in Romanian, the contrast between Simple Past and Past Progressive can successfully be
demonstrated by using the relationship between two Romanian (past) tenses, namely perfectul
compus and imperfectul. Students are asked to describe the actions of the verbals in the
sentences Ieri la ora 3 citeam o poezie and Ieri la ora 3 am citit o poezie, then to translate
them into English. The subsequent discussion highlights the function of aspect and leads to a
better understanding of this verbal category in English.
There are certain L1-specific errors mostly generated by interference (such as the use
of the present simple instead of the present perfect in examples like l cunosc de cnd era
619
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
copil translated I know him since he was a child) and students should be trained to recognize
and anticipate them in order to be able to make pertinent corrections. In Leonardis view, one
of the benefits of using translation activities in the FL classes is the control of L1 interference
over L2 acquisition. [] [T]hrough the application of CA interference can be controlled in
such a way that negative transfer can be reduced whereas positive transfer can be increased
(Leonard 2010: 81).
The late ban on translation goes hand in hand with the abolishment of the L1 use from
the English class, but observation and reflection over the years, as well as student feed-back,
have led me to conclude that learners manifest increased self confidence if they know they
can always rely on analogies built through the targeted translation of particular structure types
both when they teach and when they asses language in use. In more the same way, they regard
grammar knowledge as a strong point that boosts their language competence.
Conclusions
The overall goal of my approach to pedagogical translation is to help Romanian students
and teachers of English build confidence in approaching and analyzing the L2 sentences, clauses,
phrases and words by simultaneously exploiting their knowledge of the L1.
Brooks-Lewis mentions the current recognition in literature of the L1 relevance in foreign
language teaching in the humanistic approaches (the New Current Method, Community
Language Learning, and Dodsons Bilingual Method) and the superiority of bilingual
techniques to their monolingual counterparts (Brooks-Lewis 2009: 220). Based on my
teaching experience I have reached the same conclusions, on the empirical pathway.
If the activity that I describe here can indeed lower students learning anxiety and ultimately
enhance their self-efficacy, then the use of pedagogical translation may develop further into a
requisite strategy which will reconsider the role of the L1 in FL teaching and learning.
References
Brooks-Lewis, K. A. (2009). Adult learners perceptions of the incorporation of their L1 in
foreign language teaching and learning, in Applied Linguistics, 30 (2)
Coronado-Aliegro, Javier. (2006). The Effect of Self-Assessment on the Self-Efficacy of
Students Studying Spanish as a Foreign Language, http://d-scholarship.pitt.edu/1397/
Huddleston, Rodney and Geoffrey K. Pullum. (2005). A Student's Introduction to English
Grammar. Cambridge University Press
Kohonen, Viljo, On the notions of the language learner, student and user in FL education:
building the road as we travel, http://www.ecml.at
Kolln,Martha & Funk, Robert. (2012). Undestanding English grammar, Pearson Inc.
Leonardi, Vanessa. (2010). The Role of Pedagogical Translation in Second Language
Acquisition, From Theory to Practice. Peter Lang Publishers
Roberts Auerbach, Elsa, Reexamining English Only in the ESL Classroom, in Tesol
Quarterly Vol. 27, No. 1, Spring 1993
Siefert, Thomas Raymond. (2013) Translation in Foreign Language Pedagogy: The Rise and
Fall of the Grammar Translation Method. http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-
3:HUL.InstRepos:10952296
620
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Vermes, Albert. (2010). Translation in Foreign Language Teaching: A Brief Overview of
Pros and Cons, in Eger Journal of English Studies X 8393
http://www.etymonline.com
www.dexonline.ro
621
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
CONCEPTUAL EXOGENOUS MODELS AND TERMINOLOGICAL STRUCTURES
Doina BUTIURC, Associate Professor, PhD, Petru Maior University of Trgu-
Mure
Abstract: Our study Conceptual exogenous models and terminologica structures aims to
reserch the terminological metaphor from a genetic and structural perspective. From a
genetic point of view we will analize the medical metaphor taking into consideration three
conceptual models: the mineral Kingdom, the Cosmos and the animal Kingdom. From a
structural perspective our reserch will examine the monolexical denominative metaphor on
one hand and the polilexical metaphor formed on the basis of associated conceptual patterns
on the other hand. The theoretical framework of the research, research methods and goals,
specialized interdisciplinary nature of communication, patterns of interdisciplinarity are
some other issues that are addressed in our study.
Keywords: terminology, conceptual models, conceptual models exogenous
I. Conceptual models: the mineral kingdom and the Cosmos
An important source of conceptualization in medical terminology is the mineral
universe and the elements of the cosmos. Throughout history, man has found many models
knowledge in the universe.
There are numerous situations where metaphors terminology referring to remedies, the
hereditary anemias are modeled on the animal kingdom: thalasso - Greek Thalassa (cf.
- , sf) signifies great in the medical language simillar termes ar used: ro.
thalassemia , sf (cf. fr. thalassemia , sf , en. Thalassa (a ) emia ) , ro. thalassotherapy, S.F. (cf.
fr. Thalassothrapie sf ; en.thalassotherapy ). The Romans observed the phenomenon of
rotting wood, fruit, and wall collapse and called it in Latin, caries, ei (sf). Scientist
conceptualized this reality by time decay (cf. fr. carie, sf, en. caries) meaning the molecular
disintegration or necrosis of bone ... ". Calci- , calciu (cf. Lat. calx , calcis s.f. var) is used
as a conceptual model in units such as calciferol (cf. fr. Calciferol , sm ; en.calciferol ).
The word lit(o)-, -lito-,-lit, was used in Greek as stone, rock (cf. Gr . Litho - , lithos ,
- , - s.m. / s.f. stone, rock , marble) and has been pre-conceptual schema of the
concept of lithiazis, sf (cf. fr. lithiase sf , en. lithiasis).
Landforms contribute to the formation of terminological metaphor. Eremo- desert,
desolate, isolated (cf. Gr. ,- adj., silent, quiet) was another source field: eremofobie
(cf. fr. eremophobie, sf, en. eremophobia) . Stero-, swamp mud (cf. Gr. ,-,- adj.,
solid, hard, powerful") is a scheme that is found in establishments such as fr. sterols (S. M.),
en. sterol.
An unusual phenomenon of equivalence of characteristics is the model offered by
xylo-, xylo-,-Xil (a) wood "(cf. gr.,-) for two medical concepts: xylene sm (cf. fr.
xylene, sm, en. xylene) and xylose sf (cf. fr. xylose sf, en. xylo). These are terms that refer to
the substance (cf. xylene -, colorless liquid, soluble in alcohol and ether by distillation of
petroleum, used as a solvent) and a type of pentose (xylose-cf, vegetable pentose involved in
622
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
carbohydrates binding outside the cell; used in the investigation of intestinal function at the
purely biological and / or physiological level. The conceptual model, wood is at least
strange for ordinary human logic. On specialized languages, however, such equivalences are
of great productivity.
There are numerous cases of interdisciplinary conceptual model based on the mineral
concept. Terminologizare processes are varied.
A) The same lexical- semantic root knows multidisciplinary development specific to
multiple domains and / or subdomains. In this case, the abstract notion replaces the usual
sense in Greek and / or Latin, provided they maintain marks of opposition (semantic, notional,
etc. ) of conceptual systems belonging to different scientific areas.
The word ,- ( sn ) has the Greek meaning of spider, mite. In medical
terminology, the metaphor acarid, acaridan ( fr. mites, s.m.; ro. acarian, s.m.) designates
the parasite mite; in biology , mites designates bed bug order of class arachnids
arthropods. Other Greek and Latin roots require semantic and notional opposition, following
the trends of specialization and strict specialization of domains / branch of science:
gr . ,- (sf ) , spin , plant with thorns with multiple terminological
units developed in medicine, botany, in the military;
lat. acinus,-i (s.m.)/ acina, -ae (s.f), meaning grape provides the pre-
conceptual schema of medical metaphors used in the study of whine making etc.
gr . ,- (sf ), spider in medicine, biology ;
gr . ,- (sf ), mixed meal in medicine, the food industry;
gr . ,- ( sm ), axis , stalk in medicine , physics, mathematics,
astrology
lat. bacillum, -i (s.n.), meaning stick in medicine, biology
lat. carbo, carbonis (s.m.), meaning coal in medicine, industry, technology
gr . ,- ( sm ), fruit, product, seed in medicine, botany
gr . ,- (sf ) , dew in medicine, botany
gr . ,- ( sm ), hedgehog spike in medicine, biology
B) The medical term neutralizes the lexical valences the word has in the matrix
language (Greek, Latin). For example, the noun , - (s.m.) had the meaning of
charcoal in the Greek language. "The set of lexical signs loses relevance in medical
terminology. Of particular interest in occupational medicine the word anthracosis (fr.
anthracose, s.f.; ro. antracoz, s.f.) is the concept of occupational disease
pneumoconiosis caused by the chronic inhalation of coal dust" (Valeriu Rusu, Medical
Dictionary, 2007, p . 207).
In Latin bulbus-, i (s.m.) was used to signify onion bulb. In medical language, a conceptual
particularity is atributed to the metaphor bulb (fr. bulbe, s.m; ro.bulb) - part of an organ.
Fauna was, in Latin mythology, the sister or daughter of the god Faunus - God of farmers and
shepherds, later identified with the Greek God Pan. It is another multidisciplinary cognitive
model, as cardinal points or the Cosmos model: aer, os, (cf. gr. , ) was a Greek noun
meaning air and tereia ment to contain. This portrais the medical term artery (the
ancients believed that the arteries contain air, given that the arteries in corpses were empty).
Carcinos(-nus) means the sign of Cancer. Vennus,Venneris s.f. (Venus, goddess of love)
623
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
became the matrix of terms that refer to the medical branch (cf. fr. vnrologie;
en.venereology ; ro.venerologie).
II. The animal kingdom
Less numerous then mineral models are the animal patterns in terminology. It is based
on the equivalence of the concepts of science in general, and the animal kingdom body
parts, attitudes, reactions, effects, and presence of the animal world. Zoomorphic size is
based on different conceptual models. Here's a list of them:
a)fish:
beloni- ,,teleostean fish (cf. lat. belone,-es s.f; gr. , - ,,needlefish);
gadi- ,,cod (cf. gr. , - s.m. ,,cod);
salmoni- ,,trout (cf. lat. salmo, salmonis s.f. ,,trout).
b) wildlife:
bufo- ,,toad (cf. lat. bufo,-onis s.m. ,,toad);
ciconii- ,,stork, heron (cf. lat. ciconia,-ae s.f. ,, hobbledehoy);
cunicul- ,,rabbit(cf. lat. cuniculus,-i s.m. ,,rabbit);
echin(o)-/echini ,, hedgehogs, with thorns(cf.gr., - s.m. ,, hedgehogs);
falconi- ,, falcon, eagle(cf. lat. falco, falconis s.m. ,,eagle);
lacerti- ,, lizard(cf. lat. lacerta, -ae s.f. ,, lizard).
lic(o)- ,,wolf(cf. gr. , - s.m./s.f. ,,wolf);
melit(o)- ,,bee(cf. gr., - s.f. ,,bee).
rani- ,,frog (cf. lat. rana,-ae s.f.,,frog);
erpeto- ,,reptile(cf. gr.,- s.n. ,,reptile);
c) domestic animals:
capri- ,,goat(cf. lat.capra, ae s.f. ,,goat)
cheno- ,,goose(cf. gr. , s.m./ s.f.,,goose)
cin(o)-/chin(o)- ,,dog(cf. gr. , s.m./s.f.,,dog)
d) Animal body parts:
cerco-,- cerc ,,tail(cf. gr. , - s.f. ,,tail)
Term capital (cf. neutrul pl. latin capita - capete) denotes the concept of a firm's full
financial resources (money, shares), basing the conceptual terminology for about 23 units in
the international language of business: negative active capital (fr. capital actif ngatif, sp.
capital activo negativo), circulant capital (fr. capital actif circulant; it. capitale di
circolazione; sp. capital circulante), human capital (fr. capital humain, sp. capital humano, it.
capitali umani). The notion is related to a custom of the Romans when lifestok owners would
lend a number of animals, a number of capita / capitis.
If one or another category of conceptual patterns remain immutable, resisting any
arbitrary substitutions, it is because the language it uses is the product of its fundamental
cultural factors.
624
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
III. 1.Structuri terminology: nominative metaphor monolexical
Notional equivalence and function equivalence are discussed elsewhere. In this
context communication, we propose to tackle the problem of feature equivalence.
Greco-Roman conceptual model developed a unified and coherent system of medical terms
based on features that expresses:
a) Object downsizeing: lat . Granum, i (n) - grain / grain have the diminutive granulum -i
(s.n.) used to mean tiny seed, grains. Metaphors based on the model developed from granulum
contribute to the development of interdisciplinary fields / industries, as shown in the
nomenclature and definitions of general dictionaries and / or specialized dictionaries. In
Microbiology, intracellular particle is a grain (med. en. granule; med.fr. granule; med. ro.
granul. When discussing symptoms, A particle / inclusion is still a grain located in cell /
bacteria / tissue (med. en. granulation; / med. fr. granulation/; med. ro. granulaie). At the
same time pre-conceptual schema model plant is found in metaphor granulitis (fr. med.
granulie; med. ro. granulie). The surface of a tissue is a tiny seed sequence, if we refer to
various types of tissue: med. granulous (fr. granuleux, -euse, adj.; ro. granulos). In Latin, the
areola, ae / f are a diminutive noun for area (arie) and it designates a small courtyard: med.
areola (fr. arole) as lat. Auricula, ae (s.f.) designates tiny ear.
In Old French the noun fontanelle was a diminutive of Fontaine. In anatomical nomenclature,
fontanelle/ fonticulus (pl. fonticuli) appoints a room, an ossified, membranous depression,
located at the meeting points of the cranial sutures in newborns ( DM , 2007: 496).
b) Color: lat. albidus, a, um (adj.) ,,witish; , - (-) s.n. algo ,,pain, sadness;
blefaro- (s.m.) ,,eyelid, eye; dipso , - (s.f.),, thirst. Medical practice use a
large number of chemical compounds as medicinal remedies. In Greek, ,-,- (adj.)
ment green, green - purple to yellow; pale (A. Gioroceanu, 2008, p.72) and , - ment
violet. Purine base present in most tissues is called xanthine, whose conceptual pattern is gr.
- ,- (adj.) used in the common language meaning, yellow. In chemical
nomenclature, chlorine, iodine (cf. fr. Iode, eng. Iodine) are conceptual metaphors formed the
basis of the color: GREEN chlorine, iodine is violet. The Greek - had an impact on
the whole European concept, becoming, image-schema "interdisciplinary numerous other
metaphors - in pharmacy and medicine. Unlike chemistry, medical metaphors have a more
complex structure, is used according to certain conceptual-semantic features, including:
a) color component: iodopsin (( fr. iodopsine; ro. iodopsin) has two conceptual models,
namely, iodine (purple) + gr. - , view;
b) Purpose: iodoform, local antiseptic: iodine (purple) + lat. formica (furnic);
c) Appearance: iodotyrosine (fr. iodotyrosine; ro. iodotirozin) name under which
derivatives are known for tyrosine - iodine (purple) + tyros (cheese);
d) Attraction components: iodophilia (fr. iodophilie; ro.iodofilie) compound term of iodine
(purple) + gr. ,-,, to love, to care"
To know thyself as a defined being, man conceptualized the reality of its own body by
resembling it to the elements of the material world, concretely determined in space and time
having habitat components exogenous in nature.
625
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
III.2. Associated Metaphorical patterns
The internal dynamics of medical language may use two or more pre-conceptual
schemes, based on a logical links to form a new concept : med. Bacteriorhodopsin (fr.
bactriorhodopsine, n.f; ro. bacteriorodopsin, s.f.) : gr. , - (s.f.) ,,stick + gr.
, - (s.n.) ,,rose + gr. , (s.f.) ,,sight, resemblence; med. ,,cytotrophoblast
(fr. cytotrophoblaste, s.m.; ro. citotrofoblast, s.n.): gr. , - (s.n.) ,,cavity, urn, shield,
armor, skin, body + gr. , - (s.f.) ,,food, education, supplies + gr. , -
(s.m.),, germ, bud, egg, son;
med.,,cycloergometer: gr., - (s.m.) ,,circle, circular object+ gr. ,-
(s.n.) ,,act, action, deed, facility, work + gr. - (s.n.) ,,mesure; mesuring instrument
The idea of the metamorphic value of composed words is not new. The application
was made in general to the common vocabulary. Michael Bral highlighted metaphor
contribution to enriching the common vocabulary (Bral M., 1897 ), K. Bhler notice that any
language that contains composed words is a somewhat metaphorical language ... " (K. Bhler
, trad . It . Rome: 402) . In DSL , Angela Bidu-Vrnceanu notes that many composed words
have stylistic values " (Dictionary of Language Sciences , 2001 : p.125 ).
Our study proposes the concept of associated metaphorical pattern when researching
specialized languages. In the compound terms (linguistic) and / or terminological phrases, the
matrix patterns are expanding founded on a series of regime features. These features are of
a conceptual or semantic nature and they lead to the formation of new concepts: med. en.
neuroblastoma (cf. fr. granuloblastome , en. neuroblastoma , en . granuloblastom ) en.
granulocytosis (cf. fr. granulocytose , en. granulocytosis , en . granulocytic ) med. en.
granulopexic (cf. fr. granulopexique , adj. , en. granulopexic , en . granulopexic ) med. en.
granulopenia (cf. fr. granulopnie , en. granulopenia , en . granulocytopenia) etc. . Compatible
from a semantic and conceptual point of view, two (three or more) structural metaphorical
models form a new terminological unit, motivated purely nominative. Medical language
developed on an impressive number of associated patterns, the extension of this patterns in
metaphorical expressions as well as composed words ensure continuity and consistency of the
Greek- Roman model..
The metamorphic pattern we call associated has a strong impact on conceptual
dynamics of terminology. The term granulocytopenia, for example, consists of three
components: granular (cf. lat. Granum, seed) + cyto (cf. Gr. ,--, armor, shield,
cavity, cell ") + FTEs (cf . g. ,--, poverty, shortage ") - based on the trait, compatible".
- Granulocytopenia (the dictionary definition, particles decrease in blood cells, "cf DM, 2007:
p.343) is a term that bares an autonomous cognitive content. Study of the structural elements
may interest the linguist and / or etymologist, the language researcher, but never the scientist.
- the composed word sums the conceptually stabile image eliminating the subjective traits
belonging to the associated metaphorical patterns.
Associated metaphorical patterns indicate four fundamental aspects in the birth of medical
terminology:
1. linguistic in nature
2. onomasiology nature
3. logical in nature, meaning that the components must be compatible grammatically
626
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
3. The nature of specialization and specialization education
Metaphorical composed words are exocentric: the referent designate an entity, an
object that is extra linguistic that is designated based on a pattern, referring to only one
meaning: ignipuncture "(cf. fr. Ignipuncture ; ro.ignipunctur ) is a metaphor developed based
on two compatible models: fire ( cf. lat . ignis , is , torch , lightning, fire ") + puncture ( prick)
- identifying the notion of , cauterization by applying electro cautery points ... " ( DM
2007:583) . The feature that makes the composed word compatible "allows the creation of a
double filter : one and the same medical concept meets concurrently - the semantics
compound - both metaphorical models ( ignipunctur = stinging fire ). At this point, the
denomination of compusele terminology differs from existing metaphors compusele lexical
category , where two separate connotation does not meet pre-conceptual designs ro .
Barbneagr , ro . Fruntelat became surnames , ro . ragamuffin , ro . roasted mat have
stylistic values . And the effects are different : if compuselor terminology , the effect is purely
cognitive , reported the signified and representation of lexical compuselor effect is primarily
iconic and then cognitive.
Three are the conclusions drawn from our examples: the field of medicine, anatomical
metaphor "is generating numerous metaphors terminological level subdomains / branches;
model matrix remains metaphorical disease, before any kind of abstraction /
conceptualization, keeping and quasi-universal character. In science, nothing is born ex nihilo.
Conceptual differences between the same matrix metaphorical terms are determined
semantically by the tools available to each natural language.
Sources
DLR= Dicionar latin-romn. Guu, Gheorghe. 2003. Humanitas, Bucharest.
DM=Dicionar medical. Rusu, Vasile. 2007.Editura Medical, Bucharest.
Dorland, 2003. Dorland`s Illustrated Medical Dictionary.30th edition, Douglas Anderson
(editor). Saunders. An imprint
of Elsevier 2003.
Gioroceanu, Alina, 2008.Terminologia greco-latin n romna actual.Editura Aius Print,
Craiova.
Walter W.Skeat, 2007. The Concise Dictionary of English Etymology. Wordsworth Editions
Limited.
References
Bjoint, Henri i Philippe, Thoiron, 2000. Le sens en terminologie. Presses Universitaires de
Lyon, Lyon.
Benveniste, Emile, 1999.Vocabularul instituiilor indo-europene.Paideia, Bucureti.
Bidu-Vrnceanu, A., 2012. In :Terminologie i Terminologii. Editura Universitii din
Bucureti, Bucureti,11-71.
Cabr, M.T., 1998. La terminologie. Thorie, mthode et applications. Presses de l`
Universit d` Otawa et Armand Colin.
627
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Depecker, L., 2002. Entre signe et concept. Elments de terminologie gnrale. Presses
Sorbone, Paris.
Eco, Umberto, 2009.De la arbore spre labirint. Translation by tefania Mincu. Editura
Polirom, Iai.
Gentner, Dedre, 1980.The structure of analogical models in science. In: Technical Report No.
4451,Cambridge.
Lakoff G. & Johnson, M.,1980. Metaphors We Live. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Steen, G., 1999. From linguistic to conceptual metaphor in five steps. In: Metaphor in
cognitive linguistics, edited by G. Steen & R. Gibbs. John Benjamins, Philadelphia.
Turner, M., 1987. Death is the Mother of Beauty: Mind, Metaphor, Criticism. University of
Chicago Press, Chicago.
628
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
MARITIME ENGLISH AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION AT SEA
Lavinia NDRAG, Professor, PhD, Ovidius University of Constana
Abstract: The studies carried out by the author over a twenty year period have shown the
main features of this particular type of communication (at sea), in a Romanian-English
language context, and how it can be improved through practice in English classes.
This research has had the aim to identify the context and, therefore, the necessity of
teaching/learning and using English as an international maritime language. The literature
and our own inquiries testify that, nowadays, the role of English in maritime contexts is
tantamount, as it is used by seafarers in daily activities, in sending and receiving orders
onboard ships, between ship and on-land stations, between ships and helicopters, and in
specific conditions: navigation on seas and oceans or in shallow waters, difficult weather
conditions, to preserve military traditions, and to send extremely valuable verbal and
nonverbal messages, sometimes redundant, but crucial to the safety at sea.
The paper draws on Prof. Tatiana Slama-Cazacus "Contextual-Dynamic Theory"
(1999:221-241) applied to the study of maritime communication. We used questionnaires and
dialogues in experimental situations, which have revealed the most important characteristics
of dialogues in maritime context, the factors which can have an impact on the process of
coding and decoding information via dialogue, in maritime context, as well as suggested
ways for improving the process of learning and teaching maritime English.
Keywords: maritime communication, psycholinguistic approach, teaching
Introduction
The process of communication has been a permanent subject of study and many
sciences have been attempting to improve it. Several definitions have been provided by
specialists from very different areas of study. Each definition focuses on certain elements and
factors and it is usually accompanied by models (Shannon and Weaver, 1949; Lasswell, 1948;
Newcomb, 1953; Gerbner, 1956; Jakobson, 1960, etc.).
Thus, communication is the social interaction through messages conversations,
negotiations (Fiske, 1990: 2), or the martial art of communication: graceful, enjoyable and
very effective (OConnor, Seymour 1990: 41), etc. However, when talking about
communication, we should keep in mind the process of sending and receiving information
through the form of messages, considering both the verbal and nonverbal components of
communication (see Ndrag, 2008).
1. Psycholinguistics and communication
Romanian psycholinguistics (see Slama-Cazacu, 1964) defined communication as a
psychological process involving the following elements: the language or code, the role of
language (to organize, plan and coordinate work, to stimulate and synchronize movements),
the process of sending and receiving messages in certain physiological and psychological
conditions, the role of context), the influence of work on the selection of a way of
communication i.e. a channel for message distribution, the articulated and non-articulated
629
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
speech, the acoustical and visual signs used to convey useful, and sometimes vital
information, etc.
Psycholinguistics, as an interdisciplinary study, has been paying close attention to the
complex phenomenon of human communication: the relationship between partners, the verbal
and nonverbal components of the code, the social circumstances, the organization of the sign
system, of the message and the context in which messages are conveyed, the human beings as
partners and their psychological traits, etc.
According to T. Slama-Cazacu (1999), language must be analyzed especially in
dialogues (which are taking place in social-historic contexts). A dialogue is a form of
communication signalled by the real and active presence of at least two partners who have the
role of emitter and receiver, and who, through their speech, make the amount of information
to progress. A dialogue also involves certain rules: adaptation to the partner and the known
common context, the intention to communicate, listening to the receivers reply, inhibition of
the own reply, controlling emotions, promptness of reply, short-term memory, etc. (Slama-
Cazacu, 1982: 218).
By studying communication as a real process, with changes in messages as a result of
the communication situation, psycholinguistics implies a complex study of messages not only
as results of a linguistic code but also as a result of mimics, gestures, other nonverbal
elements of communication, and different situations which accompany speech and dialogue.
The dynamic-contextual methodology conceived by T. Slama-Cazacu (1999) and used by
some other Romanian and foreign linguists and psycholinguists relies on the collection of data
in their dynamic process and development.
Romanian psycholinguistics has also studied and defined the notions of context,
contextual levels, the influence of the social context, the limits of this influence (see T.
Slama-Cazacu, 1978, 1987). The research on communication must always take into account
the contextual levels, the explicit context (linguistic or verbal and extralinguistic) and the
implicit context (i.e. the linguistic system of the emitter, known by the receiver and the
situational context, the socio-historic context). The social context implies the relationship
between emitter and receiver, the individuals linguistic system, the influence of the message
on the psycho-social components of the partners, the social community, the socio-historic
moment and the society in general.
Romanian psycholinguists have also focused their attention on the visual, acoustic and
kinesthetic means of communication that are commonly used along with the verbal message.
Their role is to complete or substitute the verbal elements of communication. In 1976, T.
Slama-Cazacu introduced the term mixed syntax, i.e. the inclusion of nonverbal elements
among verbal elements in the same syntactic unit. Verbal elements interweave with
kinesthetic, articulatory and facial expressions which are purposefully used with gestures and
which form the complex, integral act of communication. Gestures, mimics, gaze, and even the
objects used as communication markers, the actions with objects, posture, distance are very
useful during working activities. When there is noise, gestures may become the only means of
communication. Noise, darkness, reduced visibility influence the choice of signal systems and
communication network. Under certain circumstances, especially vital ones, necessary
redundant elements are being used. Some elements are repeated, communication is
completed, gestures and intonation become extremely useful.
630
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
In short, psycholinguistics studies the changes in message during the concrete act of
communication due to the relationships established between emitter and receiver, along with
their psychological mobility, mutual influence, the impact of the general context in which
they are placed, etc. (Slama-Cazacu, 1968: 42-43).
2. Maritime communication
English is the official maritime language adopted by the International Maritime
Organization (IMO). The use of correct and effective verbal and nonverbal components of
communication by seafarers may be, in many cases, a vital issue. Due to disturbances (noise,
fog) which may occur at sea in the process of conveying messages, the need for secret
keeping (in the Navy) and the necessity of preserving traditions, sailors use both verbal and
nonverbal components of communication, all of them being regulated nationally and
internationally. Messages are typically doubled or tripled to secure their correct encoding,
decoding and interpretation.
Communication in the Navy and the Merchant Marine has certain particulars as a result
of the complex situations which may arise in military and civilian seamens activities, both on
land and at sea. Day-to-day activities, but also the occasional ones require the compliance
with well established rules, learning standard orders, and their safe formulation and
transmission along with some other information verbally and through signs and signals
used with the intention of communication: semaphores, the salute between ships, the military
uniform, acoustic, optic, radio telegraphic, and radio means.
Present marine communications requirements are established under the SOLAS (Safety
of Life at Sea) Convention (see Manolache, 2000, 113-114; 2004). The amendments to this
convention-treaty incorporate the newest advances in technology, both terrestrial and through
satellites. Ships traveling on oceans are required to carry communication equipment
depending on their area of operation. Systems operate in a) the very high frequency (VHF)
bands, and satellite systems (channel 16 is the distress and calling channel, monitored by local
coastal rescue centers, also used to disseminate local and coastal weather forecast and
navigational warnings); b) medium frequency (MF) bands (on ships operating 20-100 nautical
miles offshore to broadcast meteorological, weather, safety and urgent and navigation
warning information in textual format to mariners at sea NAVTEX); c) high frequency (HF)
bands (to disseminate high seas warning, meteorological, weather, safety and navigational
information using voice single side-band, radio facsimile, and simplex teletype over radio
SITOR). Satellite communications are mainly conducted through INMARSAT-A (an analog
system which provides voice, telex, low/high speed data, broadcast/group calling and vessel
tracking), INMARSAT-B, INMARSAT-C, INMARSAT SafetyNet, INMARSAT-M. Under
the SOLAS regulations, it is required that ships have GMDSS (Global Maritime Distress and
Safety System) equipment.
When at sea, many other factors must be taken into account: the code used, the physical
channel through which messages are transmitted, congestion, interference, the receiver, etc.
Despite all the measures taken by the countries which own merchant fleets, difficulties are
still encountered because of the incorrect use of VHF procedures, busy frequencies, problems
in encoding and decoding messages, etc.
The main types of maritime communication are:
631
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Communication between ships
Communication between ships is required by the following groups of factors: types of
information (e.g. hazard, fire, collision, etc.) the need to identify each vessel, asking for a
pilot to come aboard (the ships master requires the presence of an authorized person, the
pilot, to lead the ship to the berth), transmission of warnings under very different and
complex circumstances (when there are fog banks, unidentified floating objects, mines, oil
spills, fishing boats in the area, search and rescue operations, military operations, pipelines,
when water is shallow or when there are wrecks, rocks, bridges which will not open and
impede navigation), granting assistance when a ship is sinking, damaged, on fire, running
aground, running into collision, etc., and the ship requires a rescue boat, helicopter, medical
and fire-fighting assistance, tugboat or ice boat (see Manolache, 1999).
Communication onboard ships
Communication aboard a ship is performed through an internal telephone system or by
sending commands through a speaking tube/voice pipe (Beziris et al., 1985: 522), through
face-to-face communication in the mother tongue or in English (most of the time) when crews
are multinational or multilingual. Orders (Popa, 1992) for the engine room are transmitted
from the bridge through the ships telegraph or an amplification system. For clear, fast,
effective and unambiguous communication, several conditions must be met. The masters
orders most of the time, the message sender depend largely on the degree of crews
training (officers, NCOs, sailors) who receive the messages, and orders and carry them out on
time and in an efficient way. Specific to the Navy is the dialogue needed in the transmission
and performance of orders.
Communication used for other purposes
Another type of communication, on all seas and oceans of the world and in all foreign
ports, occurs in English: NATO military drills, including those on the Black Sea, and in
international waters, in navigation e.g. a pilot is required to come on board to lead the ship
to berth; passage through straits and channels supervised by certain coastal stations; towing;
medical inspection and control of the vessel on entering a foreign port; signing contracts with
agents from different countries for loading, unloading; receiving and distributing cargo;
purchase of food and technical supplies; technical assistance request in certain cases; repairs;
resolving disputes relating to collisions, the quality of goods, the conditions under which
cargo was delivered.
3. A psycholinguistic approach to maritime communication based on T. Slama-Cazacus
dynamic-contextual concept and methodology
The study of communication as a real process, with message changes as a result of
adaptation to the communication situation (T. Slama-Cazacus theory), is a psycholinguistic
approach and involves a complex study of messages, not only as achievements of the
language/code, but also including situational elements, mimics, gestures accompanying oral
speech and dialogue. The methodological principles envisaged by T. Slama-Cazacu (1961,
1999) to select linguistic facts and thus to create a corpus and then interpret and use it as a
whole is referred to as Dynamic-Contextual Methodology. This consists of collecting real
632
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
facts from actual reality, in their dynamics, i.e. during communication, in their development,
and in their real contexts in which they arise (see also Ndrag, 1999).
Methods and results
The research methods (Questionnaire and Experiment) and the process of data
collection and interpretation are based on the principles of the psycholinguistic methodology
envisaged by Tatiana Slama-Cazacu (1968: 107-131). The subjects were students of Mircea
cel Btrn Naval Academy in Constanta. They had studied in Romanian, during the
navigation and seamanship classes, but also during the English language classes, the rules that
need to be observed in maritime dialogues in order to increase communication efficiency.
Questionnaire
A questionnaire, applied to students, in the Romanian language, by the same professor
the author - highlighted the students motivation and their need for learning both the English
language in general and maritime English (terms referring to military and merchant ships,
military technique, navigation equipment, orders, shipping, underwater weapons, artillery and
missiles, radio-electronics, mechanical shipping.
Simulated dialogues (experiment) simulated dialogues between students cadets, in
English, recorded on a cassette and in direct protocols. The data collected covered four
themes. The experiment was conducted under the same conditions for each pair of students.
The elements that the author considered were: how students focused or not on the same topic,
turn taking, inhibition of verbal response, the situational context, the nonverbal components
of communication (gestures, mimicry, gaze direction, smile), lexical, morphological and
phonological features, the dynamic features of the dialogue, the syntactic link between the
lines dialogical syntax (Slama-Cazacu, 1982).
All dialogues began by using general opening formula and ended by using special
formulas for radio communications (over; over and out) or politeness phrases when dialogues
took place on land (in repair yards or agencies dealing with supply). Dialogues on issues of
supply and repairs allow a greater use of politeness formulas, especially in responses.
In radio transmissions, the presence of greeting formulas is mandatory, as it is required
by maritime radio communication rules. Politeness formulas are designed to show the identity
of the participants in the dialogue, and to lead to the general understanding of the message and
context.
As a result, students focused on the suggested topics by responding to verbal requests,
and always inhibiting their verbal response until the partner had completed his reply.
Dialogues recorded during the experiment prove compliance with the rules of dialogue: turn
taking, balanced replies, information exchange, a linguistic-contextual syntactic link between
replies.
A look at the dialogues noted down in protocols highlighted: the theme, purpose (shown
immediately after the introductory formula), the logical sequence of the lines, means of
supporting arguments and conversation. Each dialogue serves cooperation, planning and
coordination. Dialogues are based on mutual interest, knowledge of general English and
knowledge of maritime English. The pauses that occurred in dialogues were imposed by the
633
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
students desire to produce correct sentences in English (as the experimenter found out from
the subjects).
The analysis of verbal fluency in the experimentally induced dialogues revealed a small
number of pauses and incorrect phrases. Variation in the pauses and hesitations quantity is
determined by the extent of the dialogue produced, by the maritime phrases used, the fluency
of thoughts and the speaking level of each interlocutor. Comprehension was facilitated by
practice during the English classes, by the exercises done in language laboratories, the small
number (12-15) of students in a group, increased supervision of students participation in the
English lessons.
The tenses used by the students meet the requirements of the Standard Marine
Vocabulary (1985). The dialogues produced reveal some other aspects. The students know
how to build questions, to express demands, satisfaction, to communicate information,
particularly through the use of standard formulas. At the lexical level, one can notice the use
of maritime terms usually as standard formulas, and words from the active English language
vocabulary. The ratio between the two categories of words varies depending on the issues
under discussion: if the dialogue is taking place on land, then the students can display greater
knowledge of English.
4. Teachers role
However, the studies that we have been carrying out show the never ending role of
the teacher. He/She must take into account a lot of factors which may have an impact on
teaching/learning English. From the whole range of sociolinguistic and psycholinguistic
variables which influence the process of teaching/learning a foreign language, maybe age is
an extremely important factor. It is closely related to motivation, abilities and the methods of
teaching/learning a foreign language.
The teacher provides stimulus and opportunities for the student to experience the
language, but the learning occurs inside of the student. The teacher does not have direct
control over this. Consequently, the more the student feels that the material presented is of
relevance to him/her, the more he/she will internalize and the faster he/she will learn it. The
teacher must coordinate classroom activities so that they form a smooth progression leading
towards greater communicative abilities (see C.M. Stnioar, 2003).
In many activities, the teacher will perform the regular role of language instructor.
He/She will present new language, exercise direct control over the learners performance,
evaluate and correct it, etc. While an activity is in progress, the teacher may be a consultant or
an advisor. He/She may move around the class to check for the strengths and weaknesses of
the students. The teacher can also be a participant in an activity, introducing challenges. It
may be necessary to move into one method or another slowly because the students are
probably not used to all types of activities. It would probably be wise to begin with activities
that make relatively light demands on the students linguistically and from there move step by
step to more complicated/demanding work. This will help build the students self confidence.
With a lot of encouragement and support from the teacher, creativity usually increases
dramatically in the classroom.
The teacher should be a psychological support for shy or slow students. Extra assistance
and easier roles can be given to these students in the initial stages so that they have more time
634
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
to build their self confidence. The teacher must be understanding, patient, tolerant, gently
critical, very encouraging and helpful. Teachers must create a classroom atmosphere where
the students feel comfortable experimenting with the language. Students should not feel
intimidated or afraid to make a mistake.
5. Conclusions
In our opinion, the study of maritime communication, from a psycholinguistic
perspective, can contribute to establishing its main features and the factors that influence the
process of information coding and decoding in maritime context. From this point of view one
can draw the following conclusions:
the need for dialogue among students (seamen and cadets) at sea in various
situations (departure, landing, etc.) reinforces the essential function of the
language, we would say vital, namely communication;
a successful dialogue is influenced by the correct use of standard maritime
vocabulary, the importance of the task, the way the student adapts to the partner
and to the communication context;
the respondent must pay attention to the verbal and nonverbal elements of the
maritime code and the situational context;
the dialogue in these specific conditions is not free. Dialogues at sea involve
the use of standard maritime phrases, specific to maritime communication;
turn taking is determined by the need to observe the discipline imposed by the
Standard Marine Vocabulary, and quite often messages must be repeated to
show that they have been understood well;
sometimes verbal elements are accompanied by nonverbal, redundant but
necessary elements;
In conclusion, it is the teacher who utilizes the strengths of the students while giving
them the feeling that they are responsible human beings by having them help in classroom
tasks, in preparation of materials and in conducting of certain activities in class. On the other
hand, it is obvious that the acquisition of communicative ability by the learners is a gradual
process. It depends not only on educational organization, and the teachers professional
training, but on various other factors as well, including the learners age, nationality,
motivation, etc. Communicative competence includes not only the mastery of grammar and
vocabulary, but also the rules of speaking, i.e. what topics are appropriate to particular speech
events, how to hesitate, how to interrupt, what to say in a particular context.
Bibliography
Beziris, A. et al. (1985). Dicionar Maritim Englez Romn. Bucureti, Ed. Tehnic.
Fiske, J. (2006). Introduction to Communication Studies, Padstow, Cornwall, TJ International
Ltd.
Manolache, P. (1999). Maritime English, Constanta, MTC.
Manolache, P. (2000). Maritime English, Constanta, Ex Ponto.
635
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Manolache, P. (2004). Advanced Communication in English. Study Guide for Romanian
Seafarers, Constanta, CERONAV.
Ndrag, L. (1999). Comunicarea maritim n limba englez, din perspectiv psiholingvistic.
Constanta, Ed. Europolis.
Ndrag, L. (2008). A Psycholinguistic Approach to Communication in English Language
Teaching. In vol. Knowledge based organization, The 14th International Scientific
Conference, Sibiu, 27-29 Nov. 2008, pp. 148-155.
OConnor, J., J. Seymour 1990. Introducing Neuro-Linguistic Programming - Psychological
Skills for Understanding and Influencing People, Mandala.
Popa, I.C. (1992). Expresii marinreti n limbile englez i romn, Bucureti, Ed. Militar.
Slama-Cazacu, T. (1961). Dialogul la copii, Bucureti, Ed. Academiei.
Slama-Cazacu, T. (1964). Comunicarea n procesul muncii. Bucureti, Ed. tiinific.
Slama-Cazacu, T. (1968). Introducere n Psiholingvistic. Bucureti, Ed. tiinific.
Slama-Cazacu, T. (1976). Nonverbal components in message sequence: Mixed sintax, In
W. McCormack, S. A. Wurm (Eds.). Language and man. Anthropological issues. The
Hague-Paris, Mouton Publishers, pp.217-227.
Slama-Cazacu, T. (1978). Psycholinguistique. In Grand Larousse de la Langue Francaise,
vol.7, Paris, Larousse, pp. 4749-4755.
Slama-Cazacu, T. (1982). Structura Dialogului: Despre Sintaxa Dialogat, I i II, Studii
i Cercetri Lingvistice, 33, 3-4, 211-224, 301-320.
Slama-Cazacu, T. (1987). Nonverbal components of communication and the field of applied
psycholinguistics. In Abstracts Kassel, p. 99.
Slama-Cazacu, T. (1999), Psiholingvistica - O tiin a comunicrii. Bucureti, Ed. ALL.
Standard Marine Navigational Vocabulary. (1985), London, IMO.
Stnioar, C. M. (2003). Interactive English Language Training Course for Students and Not
Only. Bucureti, Ed. Aramis.
636
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
BLURRING THE LEXIS - GRAMMAR DISTINCTION IN TEFL
Anca CEHAN, Professor, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai
Abstract: The paper contains an analysis of the impact that corpus linguistics had on the lexis
grammar dichotomy, the advent of the lexical approach, and the implications and
consequences of this approach on the recent teaching strategies.
Keywords: lexis grammar dichotomy, opaqueness, lexical syllabus, lexical approach
Materialele i practicile actuale folosite n predarea limbilor strine reflect nc n
mare msur diviziunea dintre abordrile lingvistice empirice i cele raionaliste. Multe dintre
ele fac uz de exemple de limb inventate iar descrierile sunt adeseori rodul intuiiei autorilor
sau urmeaz exemple preluate din cri de referin bazate, la rndul lor, pe intuiia autorilor.
Pe de alt parte, tot mai multe materiale i practici pedagogice recente folosesc exemple i
descrieri bazate pe analize de corpus i pe surse care asigur date autentice de limb.
Nu vom intra n detaliile dezbaterii legate de compararea intuiiei lingvistice cu
examinarea datelor autentice. Ne vom rezuma s amintim doar c Noam Chomsky i coala sa
promoveaz introspecia i intuiia lingvistic, susinnd c regulile lingvistice pot fi analizate
prin introspecie pe cnd performana real nu poate fi evaluat. Din aceast perspectiv,
lingvistica descrie ce este gramatical sau negramatical, corect sau incorect, iar obligaia unui
profesor de limbi strine este de a-i nva cursanii s produc structuri gramaticale corecte.
Spre deosebire de Chomsky, lingviti precum Charles Fillmore susin c apelul la intuiie i
idiolect nu prezint garanii de autenticitate a produsului lingvistic i c doar folosirea unor
date atestate poate asigura elaborarea unor teorii comprehensive a limbajului i predarea
adecvat a acestuia.
Lexicul gramaticalizat
Incepnd cu anii 80, s-au auzit tot mai multe voci care se ndeprtau de teoria
Chomskian a competenei lingvistice bazate exclusiv pe capacitatea de a produce propoziii
formulate plecnd de la un sistem de reguli cu care ne natem. Aceste voci sugerau c
memorizarea unor ansambluri de limb (chunks) poate fi la fel de important i c aceasta
capaciteaz de fapt achiziia limbii. Ann Peters (1983) afirma c holoexpresiile
(holophrases) cum ar fi this-is-mine, give-me, sau leave-me-alone, sunt achiziionate iniial
de vorbitorii nativi ca uniti indivizibile i doar mai trziu ele devin segmentabile i
analizabile, constituindu-se n surse ale unor reguli sintactice. Conform acestei autoare,
folosirea ansamblurilor (chunking) servete dou scopuri: unul este acela de a oferi copilului
care nva limba matern posibilitatea de a folosi limba pe loc, direct din memoria de scurt
durat, fr nici un fel de analiz; cellalt este de a-i oferi date stocate n memoria de lung
durat pentru analize ulterioare. Aceast dualitate a capacitii de procesare asigur, prin
urmare, att posibilitatea comunicrii imediate pe baza achiziiei ct i nvarea bazat pe
analiz.
637
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Validitatea teoriei chomskiene conform creia produsul lingvistic const ntr-o
infinitate de propoziii noi, rezultat al creativitii individuale, bazat pe aplicarea unor reguli
date, este pus sub semnul ntrebrii i de lingvistica de corpus. Plecnd de la rezultatele
oferite de aceasta, se constat c ansamblurile lingvistice prefabricate reprezint o proporie
semnificativ din produsul lingvistic al vorbitorului nativ. Experiena lingvistic i asigur
acestuia un stoc imens de astfel de ansambluri care sunt extrem de utile pentru o exprimare
facil i fluent. Prin urmare, fluena n vorbire sau scriere nu depinde exclusiv de existena
unui set de reguli gramaticale generative corect i creativ aplicate, dublat de un stoc separat de
cuvinte, ci mai degrab, de accesul rapid la stocul propriu de ansambluri lingvistice.
Pawley i Syder (1983: 194) sunt de prere c un vorbitor nativ adult deine o
competen lingvistic ce poate fi comparat cu un dicionar de expresii nsoit de note
gramaticale. Adultul are la dispoziie un repertoriu imens de ansambluri lexicale, iar cursantul
care dorete s vorbeasc fluent o limb strin are nevoie de un stoc similar dar i de
capacitatea de a distinge ntre folosirea normal, nemarcat a ansamblurilor de cea marcat.
Norbert Schmitt (2000) adaug o remarc important privitoare la modul n care
memoria stocheaz informaia, preciznd c ansamblurile sunt procesate i nregistrate ca
ntreguri, deci ca informaii unice. Dac mintea noastr poate nregistra cantiti imense de
informaii n memoria de lung durat, capacitatea de stocare a memoriei de scurt durat este
limitat i de aceea este mai eficient pentru creier s lucreze cu ansambluri care sunt tratate ca
i cum ar constitui informaie unic.
O dat ce nelegem i acceptm importana ansamblurilor prefabricate, distincia lexic
versus gramatic devine opac. i lingvistica de corpus consider aceast dihotomie ca fiind
nerealist. Conform lui Michael Lewis (1997, 2000) vorbitorii nativi dein sute de mii dac nu
chiar milioane de ansambluri lingvistice pe care le pot accesa rapid pentru a produce un text
fluent, adecvat i relevant. Exprimarea care conine elemente prefabricate ofer avantajul
eficienei i permite utilizatorului s-i ndrepte atenia spre structura general a discursului n
loc s se concentreze pe cuvinte separate pe msur ce acestea sunt receptate. De altfel, s-a
constatat c de multe ori vorbitorii nativi nici nu pot explica anumite cuvinte care fac parte
din ansamblurile lexicale, cum ar fi figment din figment of imagination folosit n propoziia,
ansamblu lingvistic la rndul ei: Its a figment of [his] imagination (Islam i Timmis, 2003).
Accesnd apte cuvinte prin intermediul unui ansamblu n care trebuie adaptat doar adjectivul
posesiv, vorbitorul ctig n fluen i se poate concentra pe aspectele mai generale ale
interaciunii i ale discursului.
Programa lexical
Teoriile de nvare a limbilor strine s-au modelat ntotdeauna pe filosofia limbajului.
De aceea, competena de comunicare ntr-o limb strin a trebuit s fie permanent redefinit.
Astfel, Widdowson (1989: 135) menioneaz coexistena a dou sisteme fundamentale pentru
cunoaterea unei limbi strine: unul bazat pe ansambluri i altul analitic, bazat pe reguli: Este
n mare msur o chestiune de cunoatere a unui stoc de structuri pre-asamblate, de scheme
bazate pe formule i a unui set de reguli, (...) i de posibilitatea de a aplica aceste reguli pentru
a face orice ajustare necesar n funcie de cerinele contextuale. (trad. n.)
O dat cu impunerea lingvisticii de corpus i n special dup succesul proiectului
COBUILD (Sinclair 1987), o nou perspectiv, cea lexical i-a lsat tot mai clar amprenta
638
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
asupra descrierilor lingvistice i a teoriilor de nvare a limbilor. Programele aplicate pe
corpusuri au pus n eviden i au grupat pe categorii ansamblurile lingvistice i au demonstrat
c anumite ansambluri apar cu frecven semnificativ n anumite tipuri de texte. Acest lucru
a determinat lingviti ca Dave i Jane Willis s gndeasc o program lexical, care s
organizeze materialele de studiu al limbii engleze n jurul celor mai frecvente necesiti de
limb i nu n conformitate cu dificultatea structurilor gramaticale. Astfel a aprut Collins
COBUILD English Course (1988). Cursul lui Willis i Willis, adesea citat ca fiind prima
implementare exemplar a programei lexicale, a fost conceput cu intenia de a preda
nelesurile de baz, selectate n funcie de frecvena folosirii cuvintelor. Cele mai comune i
mai importante, cele mai fundamentale nelesuri din limba englez sunt cele exprimate de
cele mai frecvente cuvinte ale limbii engleze. (Wilis, 1990: 46, trad.n.). In consecin,
coninutul primului nivel al cursului s-a conturat n jurul celor mai frecvente 700 de cuvinte.
Datele extrase din corpusuri au artat care este comportamentul tipic al acestora i care sunt
contextele tipice n care apar: structurile n care se ncadreaz (coligaiile), colocaiile i
expresiile fixe. Plecnd de la acestea, autorii au selectat teme i sarcini de lucru care au
constituit coloana vertebral a cursului. Programa lexical a nglobat programa structural i a
descris cum sunt folosite structurile n limbajul natural. Autorii au sugerat ns c programa
lexical trebuie susinut de o nou didactic care s pun accent pe limbajul uzual i
vocabularul comun n contexte naturale. De aceea, cursanilor li s-au oferit nregistrri ale
unor vorbitori nativi care ndeplinesc sarcini similare, iar acest input a fost folosit ca punct de
plecare pentru sarcini de contientizare al cror scop era nelegerea itemurilor lexicale cheie
i a contextului lor sintactic, fr a se folosi ns terminologia gramatical consacrat.
Abordarea lexical
Sub influena lingvisticii de corpus i a programei lexicale a nceput s se dezvolte, la
nceputul anilor 90, abordarea lexical. Aceasta susine c lexicul este fundamental pentru
elaborarea nelesului unui mesaj, iar gramaticii i se rezerv un rol secundar. Folosind
cuvintele lui Michael Lewis, iniiatorul abordrii lexicale, limba const din lexic
gramaticalizat i nu din gramatic lexicalizat (1993: 34, trad. n.). Aceast afirmaie a
constituit un punct de cotitur pentru abordarea lexical i a iniiat un curent de opacizare a
distinciei dintre lexic i gramatic n predarea limbilor. Abordarea lexical identific
structuri de cuvinte relativ delexicalizate, potenialul colocaional al cuvintelor puternic
semanticizate i itemuri formate din mai multe cuvinte, n special propoziii instituionalizate
care necesit un tratament pedagogic diferit i paralel. (Lewis, 1993: 109, trad. n.) Lewis
insist c abordarea lexical nu este o simpl schimbare de prioritate dinspre gramatic n
direcia vocabularului ci mai degrab o schimbare de perspectiv asupra limbii. Aceasta nu
mai este vzut ca fiind format din gramatic i vocabular ci din ansambluri multilexicale
prefabricate: colocaii, expresii fixe sau semi-fixe i idiomuri.
Sesiznd riscul distorsionrii limbii de ctre autorii de materiale de studiu, Michael
Lewis a pledat pentru accesul la limba atestat de corpus-uri. Sub influena lui John Sinclair i
a corpusului COBUILD, el a iniiat o schimbare paradigmatic n lingvistica aplicat, insistnd
pe ideea c intuiia poate reflecta deformat sau incomplet folosirea real a limbii n timp ce
corpusurile furnizeaz rapid informaii privind frecvena, colocaiile i structurile gramaticale
n care apar anumite elemente de lexic n diverse tipuri de discurs.
639
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Inc de la prima publicare, n 1993, Abordarea lexical a nceput s pun ntr-o nou
perspectiv practicile de predare. Insistnd pe ideea c un segment important al nvrii
const n posibilitatea de a nelege i reproduce ansambluri lingvistice prefabricate, Lewis
consider c rolul principal al activitilor de nvare este nsuirea acestor ansambluri utile i
acumularea de seturi de cuvinte adecvate, care pot fi folosite mpreun cu acestea. Abordarea
lexical pune accent n special pe ansambluri, expresii fixe i colocaii care apar frecvent n
dialoguri i care formeaz, conform analizelor i statisticilor furnizate de lingvistica de
corpus, o parte mult mai nsemnat a discursului dect propoziiile i secvenele nou-create,
unice din punctul de vedere al vorbitorului. Intruct ansamblurile prezint structur
morfologic i sintactic, dar acestea sunt tratate doar ca elemente de vocabular, abordarea
lexical contribuie la opacizarea distinciei lexic gramatic.
Abordarea lexical a determinat schimbarea filosofiei de concepere a materialelor i
practicilor de studiu, iar profesorii au nceput s petreac mai mult timp n clas ajutndu-i
cursanii s-i dezvolte bagajul de ansambluri lingvistice i mai puin pentru analiza, exersarea
i consolidarea separat a structurilor gramaticale. n acelai timp, predarea a trebuit s se
concentreze mai mult pe limba autentic, real, n detrimentul limbii fabricate prezente n
unele materiale de referin sau de studiu. Cu siguran, practicienii au fost speriai iniial de
mrimea stocului de structuri pre-asamblate i de implicaiile pe care recunoaterea prezenei
acestora n limbaj le are asupra didacticii limbilor. Programele i materialele de studiu au
nceput ns s includ formule cu funcie social (e.g. How do you do? Would you Iike ... ?
Do you mind if I ... ?) i nceputuri de propoziie (e.g. what I mean is..., at the end of the day,
to cut it short, etc.)
Principiile lingvistice ale abordrii lexicale pot fi rezumate astfel:
limba const din lexic gramaticalizat i nu din gramatic lexicalizat;
distincia gramatic- vocabular este opacizat;
ansamblurile lingvistice sunt considerate un principiu de organizare a limbii;
msura succesului n folosirea limbajului este dat de fluen, fr a exclude
conceptul de acuratee.
Natura lexicului n abordarea lexical
Gramatica modern face distincie ntre lexic i vocabular, iar abordarea lexical a
insistat pe aceast distincie. Prin vocabular se nelege n mod tradiional stocul de cuvinte
separate care au un neles bine definit. n lexic sunt incluse nu numai cuvintele separate ci i
combinaiile de cuvinte pe care le nregistrm n memorie. Abordarea lexical susine c
limba const din ansambluri lingvistice care au neles i/sau funcie lingvistic clar i care,
atunci cnd sunt combinate adecvat, duc la constituirea unui text coerent. Doar puine
propoziii sunt creaii absolut noi. Cunoaterea unei limbi depinde deci n mare msur de
capacitatea de a nelege i produce ansambluri lexicale sub form de ntreguri neanalizate.
Michael Lewis (1993) sugereaz astfel c lexicul (cuvintele i combinaiile de cuvinte)
constituie fundamentul unei limbi, iar atta vreme ct n predarea unei limbi strine se insist
pe nvarea sistemului gramatical, cursanii nu vor ajunge s comunice eficient. El ofer
urmatoarea clasificare a unitailor lexicale:
cuvinte (e.g. window, teacher)
640
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
policuvinte (polywords) (e.g. looking forward to, topsy-turvy)
colocaii sau parteneriate de cuvinte (e.g. notary public, belly dancer)
formule instituionalizate (e.g. Good morning, Ill get it; Well see; Thatll do; If I
were you ...; Would you like a cup of coffee?)
nceputuri de propoziie (e.g., That is not as ... as you think; The fact/ suggestion/
problem/ danger was ....) i chiar structuri de text (e.g., In this paper we explore
...; Firstly ...; Secondly ...; Finally ...)
Din aceast clasificare putem reine diversitatea tipurilor de ansambluri lexico-
gramaticale i combinaia de form i funcie pe care acestea le ilustreaz.
Lingvistica de corpus a demonstrat prin analize statistice importana ansamblurilor
lexicale. O'Keeffe, McCarthy i Carter afirm c (...) limba este gata pentru a fi folosit n
uniti prefabricate n mult mai mare msur dect poate accepta o teorie a limbii bazat pe
primatul sintaxei. (2007: 60, trad. n.) Un ansamblu lexical este o pereche sau un grup de
cuvinte care se folosesc mpreun, nu neaprat n expresii fixe, ci cuvinte care se gsesc n
vecintatea apropiat de un numr semnificativ de ori.
Fenomenul lingvistic al coagulrii cuvintelor n ansambluri lexicale este cunoscut sub
diferite denumiri dinaintea apariiei analizei de corpus i a abordrii lexicale: expresii
prefabricate, expresii lexicale, formule lingvistice, expresii fixe sau semi-fixe, etc. De
fapt, unele ansambluri sunt fixe (e.g., to catch a cold, rancid meat/butter, drug addict) iar
altele mai puin fixe, n sensul c unitile lexicale componentele au un numr mai mare sau
mai mic de posibiliti de combinare: blood / close / distant / near relative; learn by doing/ by
heart/ by observation/ by rote/ from experience; badly/ bitterly/ deeply/ seriously/ severely
hurt. Exemplele de ansambluri furnizate de analizele de corpus i preluate n predare
constituie tipurile cel mai frecvent utilizate n diverse situaii reale.
Lexicul n predare
Contientizarea importanei ansamblurilor lingvistice a condus la redefinirea lexicului
i a statutului acestuia. Abordarea lexical insist mai puin pe studiul cuvintelor individuale
ct, mai ales, pe cel al colocaiilor, al formulelor instituionalizate i a structurilor de
propoziie. Michael Lewis afirm c n loc de cuvinte noi ncercm n mod contient s ne
gndim la colocaii i s le prezentm n expresii. n loc s ncercm s fragmentm lucrurile
n buci tot mai mici, exist efortul contient de a vedea lucrurile n perspective mai largi,
holistice. (1997: 204, trad. n.) Se subliniaz astfel importana sporit a lexicului fa de cea a
gramaticii: lexicul este central pentru crearea nelesului, n timp ce gramatica joac un rol
administrativ de organizare. Cu toate acestea, prezentarea, exersarea i producerea automat
a sute de mii de ansambluri lingvistice pare a fi o sarcin imposibil. Cum adapteaz
abordarea lexical principiile de predare a limbii? Lewis susine c abordarea lexical nu
constituie o ruptur fa de abordarea comunicativ, ci o dezvoltare a acesteia. Multe dintre
principiile abordrii comunicative rmn valabile. Lewis (1993) rezum astfel principiile de
predare ale abordrii lexicale:
limba nu se nva pornind de la sunete i structuri individuale care apoi se
combin, ci prin folosirea deprinderii de a diviza ntregul n pri;
641
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
gramatica se nsuete printr-un proces de observare, formulare de ipoteze i
experimentare;
ansamblurile pot fi folosite ntregi, chiar fr a le nelege prile componente;
nsuirea limbii este facilitat de contactul cu un interlocutor binevoitor care are un
nivel mai nalt de competen n limba int.
nvarea presupune deci un proces de dezvoltare a deprinderilor de observare i
nregistrare a structurilor de limb i a ansamblurilor tipice anumitor contexte. Gramatica
nsi poate fi nvat printr-un proces de observare, formulare de ipoteze i experimentare
lingvistic. Astfel, paradigma observare ipotez experiment nlocuiete paradigma
prezentare exerciiu producie. Limba devine obiectul explorrii i nceteaz a mai fi
obiectul descrierii i al explicaiei. O astfel de metodologie este mai degrab inductiv, bazat
pe contientizare i amintete de ideile lui Krashen (1985) referitoare la input. Pe de alt parte,
Lewis (2000) precizeaz c atenia acordat ansamblurilor este o condiie necesar dar nu
suficient pentru ca input-ul s devin intake. Dac studenii nu sunt ndrumai s acorde
atenie fenomenului lingvistic, exist pericolul ca ei s nu vad textul i astfel s nu aib
acces la nelesul acestuia.
Este desigur imposibil i nici nu este de dorit s se ncerce predarea unui numr
nelimitat de ansambluri lexicale. Dar este benefic pentru cursani s fie expui la ct mai multe
ansambluri i s capete experien n analizarea acestora pentru a le nsui. Direcionarea
ateniei cursanilor asupra fenomenelor de limb (noticing) este esenial ntr-o abordare
modern. Aceasta se poate traduce n explicaii directe sau indirecte/implicite (n cazul cnd
profesorul reconstruiete sau reformuleaz un text produs de cursant); alteori cursanii pot
selecta ei nii caracteristicile pe care le consider utile i atenia lor este auto-direcionat.
Abordarea lexical reconsider i folosete intens strategii didactice neglijate n unele
dintre abordrile i metodele anterioare, cum sunt audiia i citirea intensiv n limba studiat,
comparaia dintre limba matern i cea strin, traducerea efectuat ansamblu cu ansamblu
i nu cuvnt cu cuvnt , folosirea dicionarului i a crilor de referin, toate cu scopul de a
educa deprinderea de a observa, contientiza i nelege fenomenele de limb (language
awareness). Repetiia, reciclarea, ghicirea nelesului din context au drept obiectiv
sensibilizarea cursantului asupra naturii lexicale a limbii. Tomlinson (2003) rezum astfel
principiile, obiectivele, procedeele i avantajele specifice educrii ateniei asupra fenomenelor
lingvistice:
atenia deliberat acordat caracteristicilor limbii poate ajuta cursanii s observe
diferena dintre propria performan i cea a vorbitorilor nativi;
atenia acordat unui fenomen lingvistic poate conferi pregnan unor trasturi ale
acestuia; astfel, acestea devin mai evidente n input-ul lingvistic ulterior i pot
contribui la pregtirea psihologic necesar achiziiei acestor trsturi;
principalul obiectiv este ajutarea cursanilor s devin ateni la limbajul uzual,
pentru ca acetia s remarce diferenele i s fie pregtii s le nvee. Acest lucru
le confer independen att fa de profesor ct i fa de materialele de studiu;
primele faze sunt experieniale i nu analitice; scopul lor este de a antrena cursanii
n interaciunea cu textul. Studenii citesc un text, i exprim propriile opinii
642
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
legate de coninutul acestuia nainte de a studia limba textului sau de a rspunde la
ntrebri care urmresc nelegerea textului.
cursanii sunt ndrumai ulterior s se concentreze pe o anumit trstur a textului,
s o identifice n text, s formuleze ipoteze referitoare la forma i funciile ei, s
elaboreze reguli de folosire.
Strategii noi sau reconsiderate de predare, precum i alte aplicaii practice au fost
propuse nu numai de ctre Michael Lewis n crile sale despre abordarea lexical dar i de
ctre ali lingviti ale cror abordri au fost inspirate de lingvistica de corpus, cum ar fi Tim
Johns, n nvarea bazat pe date (Data Driven Learning DDL).
Neajunsul major al opacizrii
La puin timp dup lansarea abordrii lexicale, au nceput s devin evidente limitele
acesteia. Lingviti precum Skehan (1998: 89) au intuit pericolul ca un sistem de predare care
abuzeaz de acumularea de ansambluri s depind n mult prea mare msur de context. n
acest caz, ansamblurile nu pot fi uor adaptate i transferate n contexte noi sau utilizate
pentru exprimarea unor nelesuri mai complexe. Exist deci riscul cultivrii fluenei n
exprimare n detrimentul complexitii n exprimare n condiiile n care nvarea se rezum
doar la texte de tip ghid de conversaie i dac aportul morfo-sintaxei nu este pus suficient n
valoare. Soluia natural pare a fi cultivarea accesului la ambele sisteme, cel lexical i cel
gramatical, pentru a crea un echilibru ntre performana lingvistic bazat pe reguli i cea
bazat pe acumularea de ansambluri, astfel nct cea din urm s nu devin predominant i s
conduc la fosilizare. Fosilizarea pare a fi inevitabil dac cursantul devine dependent de
limbajul lexicalizat n detrimentul proceselor sintactice.
Concluzii
Plecnd de la rezultatele lingvisticii de corpus i de la programa lexical datorat lui
Jane i Dave Willis, Michael Lewis a impus abordarea lexical. Aceasta reprezint un punct
de cotitur n predarea limbilor strine, dei nu constituie o ruptur total faa de abordarea
comunicativ de la care preia mai multe principii, printre care i cel al cultivrii fluenei n
comunicare. Abordarea lexical prezint ns o provocare pentru convingerile lingvistice ale
profesorilor de limbi strine educai ntr-o alt filosofie a limbajului. Noua viziune presupune
renunarea la perspectiva atomist i adoptarea uneia holistice, inspirat de cercetrile din
domeniile analizei discursului i a genurilor. n plus, principiul asamblrii lexicale, care
opacizeaz distincia dintre lexic i gramatic, determin abordarea neanalitic a unui segment
important al limbajului.
ntr-o lume n care tehnologia digital este tot mai prezent n sala de clas, abordarea
lexical insist n primul rnd pe folosirea limbajului autentic, natural, aa cum poate fi acesta
preluat din corpusuri. Ea pune totodat n discuie distincia dintre vocabular i gramatic,
insistnd pe necesitatea de a se nva ansambluri de cuvinte i colocaii. Principiul care
susine aceast nou viziune este acela c limbajul nu se bazeaz pe un proces sintactic
guvernat de reguli ci pe accesul la ansambluri lexicale stocate n memorie. Fr a presupune
ca o condiie sine qua non accesul la procedee didactice dependente de calculator, Michael
643
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Lewis introduce rezultatele lingvisticii de corpus, ale analizei discursului i ale analizei
genurilor n predarea limbilor strine.
Bibliografie
Bolitho, R, Carter, R, Hughes, R, Ivanic, R, Masuhara, H, and Tomlinson, B (2003). Ten
Questions about Language Awareness. ELT Journal 57/3.
Carter, R. and McCarthy, M. (2006). Cambridge Grammar of English. Cambridge: CUP.
Gabrielatos, C. (1994). Collocations: pedagogical implications, and their treatment in
pedagogical materials. Unpublished Masters essay, Research Centre for English and Applied
Linguistics, Cambridge University, UK. Available online,
http://www.gabrielatos.com/Collocation.htm.
Gabrielatos, C. (2002). Grammar, grammars and intuitions in ELT: A second opinion.
IATEFL Issues, 170, 2-3. Available online, http://www.gabrielatos.com/Grammar-
Intuitions.htm.
Granger, S., Kraif, O., Ponton, C., Antoniadis, G. and Zampa, V. (2007). Integrating learner
corpora and natural language processing: A crucial step towards reconciling technological
sophistication and pedagogical effectiveness. ReCALL 19(3): 252-268.
Kennedy, G. (1998). An introduction to corpus linguistics. London: Longman.
Krashen, S. (1985). The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications. Longman.
Islam C. i Timmis, I. (2003). Lexical Approach 1 - What does the lexical approach look
like?
Teaching English. Available online, http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/articles/lexical-
approach-1-what-does-lexical-approach-look.
Leech, G. (1997). Teaching and language corpora: A convergence. In A. Wichmann, S.
Fligelstone, T. McEnery & G. Knowles (Eds.), Teaching and language corpora (pp. 1-23).
New York: Addison Wesley Longman.
Lewis, M. (1993). The Lexical Approach. Hove: Language Teaching Publications.
Lewis, M. (1997). Implementing the Lexical Approach: Putting Theory Into Practice. Hove:
Language Teaching Publications.
McEnery, T., Xiao, R., and Tono, Y. (2006). Corpus-based language studies resource book.
London: Routledge.
MacEnery T. and Wilson. (2001). Corpus Linguistics, available online,
http://bowlandfiles.lancs.ac.uk/monkey/ihe/linguistics/corpus2/2fra1.htm .
McEnery, T. & Wilson, A. (2001, 2nd ed.) Corpus linguistics. Edinburgh University Press.
Nattinger, J. R. and J. S. De Carrico. (1992). Lexical phrases and language teaching. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
OKeeffe, A. McCarthy, M. and Carter, R. (2007). From corpus to classroom. Cambridge:
Cambridge Universiy Press.
Pawley, A. & Syder, F. (1983). Two puzzles for linguistic theory: nativelike selection and
nativelike fluency. In Richards, J., & Schmidt, R. (eds.) Language and Communication, pp.
191-227. Longman.
Peters, A. (1983). The Units of Language Acquisition. Cambridge Universiy Press.
Schmitt, N. (2000). Vocabulary in Language Teaching, Cambridge University Press.
644
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Skehan, P. (1998). A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning. Oxford University Press.
Vander, V. (Ed.) (2011). Perspectives on Corpus Linguistics, Ed. John Benjamins Publishing
Company Amsterdam, Philadelphia.
Widdowson, H. (1989). Knowledge of language and ability for use. Applied Linguistics, 10,
pp. 128-37.
Willis, D. (1990). The Lexical Syllabus. Harper Collins.
645
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
LA TERMINOLOGIE RELIGIEUSE ORTHODOXE EN LANGUE FRANAISE ET
LE DIALOGUE MULTICULTUREL DES COMMUNAUTS ORTHODOXES DE
FRANCE
Felicia DUMAS, Professor, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai
Abstract : Our article aims to make considerations upon the multicultural dialogue
established at a discoursive level between several different Orthodox communities having a
different (cultural and ethnical) origin constituted in France since the establishment of
Orthodoxy in this country. This dialogue is obvious durig the complex process of
individualisation in French language of a religious Orthodox terminology and also of its
results that happen to be the object of our paper. In theological terms and according to the
liturgical practice of Orthodoxy, it represents the reflection of the ecclesiastical communion
between the local Churches according to archimandrite Placide Deseille, one of the most
outstanding contemporary French Orthodox spiritual fathers. Our corpus is formed of
different Orthodox sources writen in French, issued and used by several canonical
juridictions.
Keywords: France, multicultural dialogue, French religious Orthodox terminology,
discoursive level, canonical jurisdictions
Liminaire
Nous nous proposons dtudier dans ce travail le dialogue multiculturel tabli
discursivement entre les diverses communauts orthodoxes, dorigine diffrente (culturelle et
ethnique), constitues en France depuis limplantation de lOrthodoxie dans ce pays. Ce
dialogue est visible au niveau du processus complexe dindividualisation en langue franaise
dune terminologie religieuse orthodoxe, et de son rsultat. En termes de thologie et
notamment travers la pratique liturgique de lOrthodoxie, il reprsente le reflet discursif de
ce que lun des plus grands spirituels orthodoxes franais contemporains, le pre
archimandrite Placide Deseille, appelle la communion ecclsiastique des glises locales
(Deseille, 2012).
Par dialogue multiculturel, nous comprenons ici le dialogue qui se manifeste entre
plusieurs cultures, traditionnellement orthodoxes, qui coexistent et sont prsentes en France
dans les diffrentes communauts constitues, le long du sicle dernier, sur son territoire.
Pour lanalyse discursive de ce dialogue, nous travaillerons sur un corpus constitu de
plusieurs sources orthodoxes rdiges en langue franaise, relevant de par leur utilisation de
diffrentes juridictions canoniques, corpus qui sest trouv la base de la rdaction des deux
dictionnaires bilingues de termes religieux orthodoxes (roumain-franais et franais-roumain),
que nous avons publis en 2010 aux ditions Doxologia, de la Mtropole de Moldavie et de
Bucovine (Dumas, 2010a et 2010b).
La particularit la plus importante de lOrthodoxie dexpression franaise, cest--dire
de lOrthodoxie pratique en France et exprime en langue franaise (pour la plupart des
paroisses et des monastres), est celle de la coexistence sur un seul et mme territoire de
plusieurs juridictions canoniques, rattaches aux patriarcats des pays traditionnellement
646
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
orthodoxes. Dailleurs, cette ralit peut paratre surprenante aux orthodoxes de ces pays, o
les glises sont nationales et autocphales :
Pour qui vient dune terre chrtienne dEurope orientale, la rencontre avec
lOrthodoxie en France ne manquera pas de le surprendre. Cest tout dabord la
multiplicit des langues utilises en paroisse, ne serait-ce que pour quelques
prires seulement, franais, roumain, slavon, grec, arabe ou gorgien, qui
lintriguera. Elle lui reprsentera un pass plus ou moins rcent, quand la
ncessit poussa des chrtiens quitter leur pays pour chercher en France un
asile ou un travail. Lui qui jusque-l, navait entendu dans lglise de son village
ou de son quartier prier et parler que dans une seule langue et, peut-tre, aperu
quun seul vque, celui de son diocse, le voici confront la pluralit des
peuples, des traditions et des juridictions sur un mme territoire. Sans doute
sera-t-il aussi tonn de rencontrer des Franais orthodoxes, certains baptiss ds
la naissance, dautres ayant choisi lge mr de confesser, parfois aprs un
long chemin, la foi de lEglise indivise 1.
Comme on peut le lire dans lAnnuaire de lglise orthodoxe de France, on parle
lheure actuelle de 500 000 orthodoxes, franais dorigine ou de nouveaux fidles venant de
lancienne Union Sovitique, de Roumanie, des pays issus de lancienne Yougoslavie, et du
Moyen Orient (Samuel, 2010 : 8). Par consquent, il y a donc en France des communauts
orthodoxes, de type paroissial ou monastique, dorigine grecque, russe, roumaine, serbe,
gorgienne, bulgare, ukrainienne, ou des communauts mixtes, devenues francophones.
Afin de mettre en vidence ce dialogue multiculturel ds la rdaction des deux
dictionnaires bilingues de termes orthodoxes, nous avons choisi dy illustrer lemploi des
quivalents franais des termes roumains dans des contextes assez larges dutilisation
(reprsents parfois par des fragments de prires assez tendus), extraits des sources
liturgiques et thologiques rdiges en langue franaise et qui relvent de ces diffrentes
juridictions.
La terminologie religieuse orthodoxe en langue franaise : facteur de cohsion
multiculturelle
Nous avons analys ailleurs le processus complexe dindividualisation en langue
franaise dune terminologie orthodoxe, ainsi que les normes qui lont dfinie du point de vue
lexical (Dumas, 2009). Elle se retrouve dans lensemble des textes liturgiques, catchtiques
ou thologiques employs par les diverses communauts orthodoxes de France, que ce soit
des glises de paroisses ou des monastres. Si aux dbuts de son implantation en terre
franaise, lOrthodoxie tait pratique par les groupes des migrants des pays
traditionnellement orthodoxes tablis en France dans leurs langues dorigine, au fur et
mesure que ces communauts ont accueilli de nombreux Franais devenus orthodoxes, la
langue franaise y a t introduite en tant que langue liturgique, travers la traduction
massive (du grec) de lensemble des livres de culte et des textes liturgiques. Cest ce
processus qui a donn naissance la terminologie orthodoxe, reconnue et employe dans
1
Introduction de Mgr Marc, vque vicaire de la Mtropole Orthodoxe Roumaine dEurope Occidentale et
Mridionale, au livre LOrthodoxie en langue franaise -perspectives linguistiques et spirituelles : Dumas, 2009.
647
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
toutes les communauts orthodoxes de France, quelle que soit leur origine nationale et
culturelle.
Mme si lon ne peut pas vraiment parler dune unit de juridiction canonique de
lOrthodoxie dexpression franaise, par lemploi de cette terminologie saccomplit une unit
dexpression liturgique, spirituelle et thologique, essentielle pour assurer la cohsion de tant
de communauts de dpendances ecclsiastiques diffrentes. Une cohsion multiculturelle,
qui souvre vers luniversalit, trait ecclsiologique dfinitoire de lOrthodoxie.
La particularit la plus importante de la terminologie orthodoxe individualise en
langue franaise est reprsente par son aspect culturel et confessionnel, de nomenclature
de spcialit2. Elle est compose de termes (simples et complexes) qui dsignent de manire
univoque des notions prcises qui appartiennent la religion orthodoxe ; ce sont des termes
qui relvent ( lintrieur de ce domaine confessionnel) de plusieurs champs smantiques,
lexicaliss en franais de faon diffrente selon les champs notionnels qui les caractrisent :
termes liturgiques, termes thologiques, termes de la pratique religieuse courante, termes
relevant de la vie spirituelle des fidles. lintrieur de chacune de ces catgories, on
distingue plusieurs sous-catgories : par exemple, parmi les termes liturgiques, il y a des mots
qui dsignent des livres, des objets, des vtements, des offices, des hymnes, des prires, etc.
En ce qui concerne les termes thologiques, il y a galement dautres sous-catgorisations
possibles : termes relevant de la thologie dogmatique, termes propres la thologie morale,
la thologie sociale, etc. (Dumas, 2010a).
Au niveau de cette terminologie, on retrouve les mmes mots pour dsigner les
contenus confessionnels et rfrentiels propres lOrthodoxie, notamment pour ce qui est des
termes appartenant aux domaines thologique, spirituel et liturgique, connus et employs dans
toutes les communauts orthodoxes, quelles que soient leurs origines et leurs juridictions
canoniques. Voyons quelques exemples de termes thologiques, tirs de sources rdiges en
langue franaise, circulation gnrale dans les milieux orthodoxes de France et plus
largement, occidentaux francophones:
Knose (f.): Dieu se vide , devient vulnrable dabord dans lacte de la
cration, puis dans lIncarnation, et la mort et la descente aux enfers. Il sagit
donc dune knose vivifiante, car le Christ, en ressuscitant, nous fait participer
la vie divine. De l lexigence de lEvangile : nous serons un avec le Christ dans
la mesure o nous nous perdrons nous-mmes pour Lui, cest l notre
propre knose par la Croix (Marc 8, 34-36). VTO.
Parousie (f.): LEglise attend la Parousie, la Seconde Venue du Seigneur... La
Parousie a un double aspect : redoutable, car nous serons jugs et un autre
plein despoir, parce que la Venue du Christ inaugurera dfinitivement le
Royaume de Dieu. VTO.
Thotokos (f.): Lhumble est galement pieux et silencieux, et cest pourquoi il
sapparente la Thotokos pleine de grce, la Vierge Marie, qui, alors quElle
2
La terminologie est dfinie gnralement comme lensemble des mots et expressions, pourvus de leur
dfinition, par lesquels une discipline scientifique ou technique rfre aux notions qui la constituent : Cabr,
1998. Terminologie est parfois synonyme de nomenclature et de langue de spcialit (ce dernier syntagme tant
employ dans la didactique des langues) : Charaudeau, Maingueneau, 2002 : 547.
648
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
portait en Elle le Verbe de Dieu incarn, garda le silence jusqu ce quelle
naquit le Verbe, qui parla Lui-mme au moment opportun. LPP.
Prichorse (f.): Chacune des trois personnes de la Trinit demeure dans les
deux autres en raison dun perptuel mouvement damour (ce que dsigne le mot
prichorse, qui signifie interpntration, rciprocit, flux de vie). VTO.
consubstantiel (adj.m.): Et en un seul Seigneur Jsus-Christ, Fils unique de
Dieu, n du Pre avant tous les sicles, Lumire de Lumire, vrai Dieu de vrai
Dieu, engendr non cr, consubstantiel au Pre, par qui tout a t fait (Credo).
DLMSA.
Pour nous arrter de manire explicite sur le dernier terme, il est employ dans ce
contexte trs prcis de son utilisation, du Symbole de la foi, dans toutes les traductions
franaises de la Liturgie eucharistique de saint Jean Chrysostome qui sont employes
effectivement dans la pratique liturgique de diffrentes communauts orthodoxes. Le contexte
cit est tir du Credo insr dans le texte de la Divine Liturgie traduite et publi par le pre
archimandrite Placide Deseille au Monastre Saint-Antoine-Le-Grand, dont il est le fondateur
et lhigoumne. Ce terme est utilis galement dans le Liturgikon paru au monastre de
Cantauque3, dans la version franaise de la Liturgie eucharistique de saint Jean Chrysostome
propose par lAssemble des vques orthodoxes de France 4, ainsi que dans la traduction du
mme texte liturgique publie par la Diaconie Apostolique (et qui appartient au pre Denis
Guillaume) 5.
Les deux premiers contextes, mentionns pour lemploi des termes franais knose et
Parousie, sont tirs de lun des rares dictionnaires consacrs en langue franaise au lexique
thologique orthodoxe, savoir le Vocabulaire thologique orthodoxe, rdig avec le
concours de grands thologiens franais dorigine russe et publi aux ditions du Cerf, dans la
collection Catchse orthodoxe 6. Cet ouvrage reprsente la rfrence unanimement
reconnue en matire dcrits dinitiation thologique spcificit confessionnelle orthodoxe,
dans lensemble de lespace francophone.
Pour lemploi du terme Thotokos, appellation dogmatique de la Vierge Marie en sa
qualit de Mre de Dieu, nous avons cit une source dorigine grecque, une version franaise
des Lettres spirituelles du pre Passios, moine du Mont Athos, trs connu et vnr pour sa
saintet. Ce terme est employ tel quel, cest--dire avec la forme grecque de son signifiant
dans toute la littrature de spiritualit orthodoxe, y compris thologique et liturgique, rdige
ou traduite en langue franaise. Il figure comme entre lexicographique dans le seul
dictionnaire des mots du christianisme qui existe en franais, rdig par Dominique Le
Tourneau (2005: 619).
Mentionnons galement quelques exemples de termes spirituels, qui se retrouvent
leur tour dans la plupart des textes de spiritualit orthodoxes rdigs ou traduits en langue
franaise :
3
Divines liturgies de saint Jean Chrysostome et de saint Basile de Csare, traduites du grec par larchimandrite
Jacob, le hiromoine Elise et le pre dr. Y. Glodman, seconde dition corrige et complte, Monastre de la
Thotokos et de Saint Martin, Cantauque, 2006, p. 47.
4
La Divine Liturgie de saint Jean Chrysostome, traduction de lAssemble des vques orthodoxes de France,
dite par la Fraternit Orthodoxe en Europe occidentale, Mayenne, 2007, p. 73.
5
La Divine Liturgie de saint Jean Chrysostome, Diaconie apostolique, ditions de Chevetogne, 2000, p. 49.
6
Vocabulaire thologique orthodoxe, Paris, Cerf, 1985.
649
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Nepsis(f.): La nepsis dsigne la vigilance, ltat dveil. RNM. Nepsis: terme
qui dsigne la sobrit et la vigilance. LPP.
hsychasme (m.): Lhsychasme athonite: Lorigine de lhsychasme mdival
nest pas directement due linfluence dun matre spirituel dtermin. SOLP.
pitimie (f.): pitimie: exercice pnitentiel donn par le prtre lissue de la
confession. Le plus souvent, il consiste en des prires dont le type correspond
aux besoins du pnitent. PC. Quand la pnitence est accomplie, le pnitent
revient chez son confesseur et reoit de lui labsolution de lpitimie, avec la
permission de communier aux divins mystres. SNS.
Afin de mettre en vidence, au niveau discursif, ce dialogue entre les diffrentes
cultures orthodoxes prsentes en France qui nous intresse dans ce travail, nous avons illustr
lemploi de ces termes de spiritualit dans des sources orthodoxes rdiges par des
personnalits de grande notorit spirituelle et thologique qui pourraient tre considres
comme appartenant davantage lune ou lautre de ces diffrentes cultures: le pre
archimandrite Placide Deseille, moine athonite franais, le hiromoine Marc Alric, moine
franais de lglise roumaine, le pre Denis Guillaume (moine greco-catholique dorigine
belge, devenu orthodoxe vers la fin de sa vie, lun des premiers traducteurs des offices
orthodoxes et le plus prolifique: il a traduit du grec lensemble des livres liturgiques de
lOrthodoxie), des moines et des moniales francophones de Grce (pour les versions
franaises des Lettres du Pre Passios et, respectivement, de La rception nomocanonique du
Monachisme7).
Voici galement quelques exemples de termes liturgiques, emploi et circulation
francophones larges et gnraliss :
litie (f): Litie: ensemble de prires de supplications dites aux vpres des ftes
dans le narthex (vestibule intrieur) de lglise. SNS.
paraclisis (f.): Le terme grec paraclisis signifie la fois intercession et
consolation. Loffice est chant pour la gurison des mes et des corps, en
priode daffliction ou de pril... La Paraclisis est chante tous les soirs du
carme de la Mre de Dieu, quinzaine prparatoire au 15 aot, lexception
des ftes de la Transfiguration et de la Dormition. SNS.
hirmos (m.), pl. hirmi: Lhirmos a une fonction musicale: cest un modle de
rythme et de chant pour lexcution des tropaires qui le suivent. Le rle de
lhirmos est aussi textuel : par son contenu, il relie le thme de lode biblique
celui de la fte clbre dans les tropaires. VTO.
agrypnie (f.): Au monastre, cest lagrypnie de lExaltation de la Croix. LAM.
Ce pre ne sasseyait jamais dans sa stalle, mme pendant les agrypnies, mais
se tenait toujours debout et disait la prire de Jsus. FJMD.
prosphore (f.). Au cours de la proscomidie, le prtre dcoupe et dtache dune
prosphore un cube de pain appel Agneau qui sera consacr lors de la Liturgie
des fidles, le place sur la patne (dique), y joint un certain nombre de parcelles
extraites des autres prosphores et de celles apportes par les fidles. VTO.
7
Dont lauteur est larchimandrite Grigorius D. Papathomas, ditions Epektasis, 1998 (voir la section des sigles).
650
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Ces exemples dentres lexicographiques, tirs de notre dictionnaire roumain-franais
de termes religieux orthodoxes, refltent leur tour, toujours de manire discursive, cette
coexistence de plusieurs cultures orthodoxes en France, au niveau des sources cites pour
illustrer lemploi large en langue franaise de ces termes spcificit liturgique. Ces sources
sont reprsentes par le Lexique du culte et de la liturgie qui clt le Spoutnik, nouveau
Synecdimos du pre Denis Guillaume (Guillaume, 1997), par le Vocabulaire thologique
orthodoxe dj mentionn, par la version franaise dun livre grec du pre Passios, moine
du Mont Athos (Passios, 1998), ainsi que par une brochure pistolaire adresse aux amis de
leur communaut par les moniales franaises du monastre orthodoxe de Solan, dpendance
canonique (mtochion) du monastre athonite de Simonos Petra.
En mme temps, ces termes liturgiques figurent dans le dictionnaire des mots du
christianisme, dj cit comme rfrence lexicographique de base pour lusage large des
lexmes quil contient, rdig par le thologien catholique franais D. Le Tourneau, en tant
que termes spcificit orthodoxe, ce qui reprsente une preuve vidente de leur emploi
normatif et large dans les milieux orthodoxes franais et francophones : le nom fminin
agrypnie est mentionn la page 35, les termes prosphore et litie, aux pages 513 et,
respectivement, 369, et lemprunt grec hirmos apparat en haut de la page 311.
La notion dusage ou la conscience mtalinguistique dune multiculturalit orthodoxe
francophone
Rappelons que par multiculturalit, nous comprenons ici la coexistence de plusieurs
cultures sur le mme territoire; dans notre cas trs prcis, elle fait rfrence des cultures
orthodoxes qui se ctoient de manire harmonieuse dans lHexagone, au niveau de la pratique
de la foi orthodoxe qui souligne discursivement leur dialogue et leur interaction.
Les acteurs normatifs impliqus dans le processus complexe dindividualisation
lexicale de la terminologie religieuse orthodoxe8 ont toujours eu la conscience de lexistence
de certaines particularits locales des diverses traditions qui caractrisent les cultures
orthodoxes prsentes en France; ou bien de ce ct multiculturel de lOrthodoxie dexpression
franaise. Lun des premiers lavoir exprim est le pre Denis Guillaume qui parle dans ce
sens dusages diffrents, en y faisant plusieurs fois rfrence dans son Lexique du culte et de
la liturgie. Au niveau de la pratique liturgique, il fait surtout la diffrence entre lusage grec et
lusage slave: Le terme apolytikion nexiste que dans lusage grec (pluriel: des apolytikia).
Dans lusage slave, on parle simplement de tropaire (tropar) . (Guillaume, 1997 : 1062).
Cette notion dusage renvoie trs justement daprs lui la ralit pratique de la tradition ou
des traditions liturgiques locales dveloppes par les grandes glises autocphales, notamment
grecque et russe, suivies galement en France, par les paroisses et les monastres
francophones. Les quelques particularits de celles-ci se retrouvent du point de vue
terminologique au niveau du champ notionnel de la pratique liturgique, des chants ou des
prires. Employ avec cette signification, largie toutefois vers lensemble des rgles et des
pratiques liturgiques qui rgissent la clbration de la liturgie eucharistique, le mot usage
8
Processus accompli notamment travers les options de traduction valeur normative imposes dans les
versions franaises quils ont proposes pour les diffrents textes liturgiques, thologiques et spirituels de
lOrthodoxie.
651
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
apparat galement dans les paratextes reprsents en principe, par des notes explicatives de
bas de page de certaines traductions du texte de la Divine Liturgie de saint Jean
Chrysostome, comme celle de lAssemble des vques orthodoxes de France, o il veut dire
traditions particulires concernant la pratique liturgique, lgrement diffrente dune
communaut culturelle lautre. On y lit la page 42, par exemple: Il y a plusieurs usages
dans la faon de chanter ce Psaume (145): on peut ne chanter que certains versets ; ou bien,
la page 57: Autre usage: en semaine, on peut ajouter ici la litanie pour les dfunts 9. Cette
mention paratextuelle explicite de la coexistence de plusieurs particularits concernant la
pratique liturgique orthodoxe de France reprsente une autre preuve discursive de la
manifestation du dialogue multiculturel qui caractrise lOrthodoxie dexpression franaise,
qui nous intresse dans ce travail.
Un autre champ smantique relevant de la terminologie religieuse orthodoxe
individualise en langue franaise qui est caractris par des usages culturels bien particuliers
est celui de la vie monastique. Font partie de cette catgorie les noms de quelques habitations
propres au Mont Athos, dont nous mentionnons en guise dexemples les termes hsychastre,
kellion, kalyva, employs dans des sources de spiritualit grecque, de tradition grecque-
athonite (Dumas, 2011). La conscience mtalinguistique des traducteurs ou des auteurs de ce
type dcrits lgard dune multiculturalit orthodoxe francophone est trahie par leur recours
la mme pratique de linsertion des paratextes, dont les plus frquents sont reprsents par
des notes en bas de page, qui explicitent ces termes, ou par des glossaires finaux, toujours
fonction dinitiation terminologique de nature culturelle (cf. Passios, 1998 et 2005).
Limaginaire linguistique
La constitution du corpus fondamental de sources qui sest trouv la base de notre
dmarche lexicographique de rdaction des deux dictionnaires bilingues (roumain-franais et
franais-roumain) de termes religieux orthodoxes nous a persuade de lexistence dune
conscience de lemploi du franais comme langue liturgique orthodoxe et donc, comme
support dexpression de lOrthodoxie (Dumas, 2008), qui anime les fidles orthodoxes de
diffrentes origines de France 10. Nous sommes l en prsence dun imaginaire linguistique
fortement intressant, compris dans la direction dAnne-Marie Houdebine, comme le
rapport du sujet la langue , lensemble des reprsentations quun locuteur se fait par
rapport la langue quil utilise (Houdebine-Gravaud, 1998 : 12). Mme sil y a certaines
diffrences discursives entre les versions franaises des textes employes dans la pratique
liturgique des paroisses et des monastres dorigine et de culture diffrentes, les fidles
orthodoxes sy retrouvent grce cette terminologie commune, individualise en franais et
lemploi de la langue franaise comme langue liturgique de lOrthodoxie.
Cette terminologie spcialise comprend de nombreux emprunts grecs et quelques
emprunts slavons, des rsultats lexicaux invitables des contacts linguistiques produits entre
les langues grecque et slavonne et le franais, lors du processus de traduction des textes et des
livres liturgiques ; nanmoins, la plupart de ces emprunts lexicaux de type terminologique,
9
La Divine Liturgie de saint Jean Chrysostome, traduction de lAssemble des vques orthodoxes de France,
dite par la Fraternit Orthodoxe en Europe occidentale, Mayenne, 2007.
10
Qui emploient la terminologie orthodoxe et qui pratiquent leur foi en langue franaise.
652
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
dnotatifs (Guilbert, 1975 : 91), coexistent au niveau de cette terminologie avec des doublets
smantiques franais, qui les traduisent en quelque sorte, les transportant des cultures
traditionnellement orthodoxes quils refltent discursivement, dans la culture religieuse
franaise spcificit orthodoxe, dont ils deviennent des marqueurs discursifs identitaires
(Dumas, 2011) et laquelle ils soulignent ainsi le caractre polyphonique, multiculturel.
Voyons quelques exemples seulement: les formes de pluriel pimanikia et manchettes sont
employes simultanment pour dsigner des accessoires liturgiques du prtre, qui serrent les
manches de son sticharion ; les termes mtochion et dpendance sont utiliss dans diffrentes
sources orthodoxes pour dsigner la dpendance canonique dun grand monastre ; les mots
Horologion et Livre des Heures dsignent tous les deux un livre liturgique trs prcis, qui
comprend le typique des diffrentes heures des offices, des vpres, les complies, les matines
(en roumain, Ceaslov) ; lemprunt slavon Pokrov et le syntagme franais la Protection de la
Mre de Dieu son utiliss en simultanit pour nommer une grande fte de la Mre de Dieu,
etc.
Pour conclure
Tous ces aspects mettent bien en vidence lexistence dun dialogue multiculturel qui
caractrise discursivement lOrthodoxie dexpression franaise, dfini en termes dchange et
de communion. Il est visible galement, de faon trs concrte, au niveau de la pratique
religieuse, travers ce quon pourrait appeler une politesse de laccueil liturgique, lorsque les
fidles appartenant des cultures orthodoxes diffrentes sont invits prononcer, de manire
individuelle ou collective, certaines prires, ou chanter certains tropaires et hymnes dans
leur langue dorigine, lors des offices auxquels ils participent en dehors de leurs communauts
(Dumas, 2010c).
Du point de vue thologique, ce dialogue sexprime notamment en termes de
communion ecclsiale entre des glises locales, fondement de lunit dans la foi et dans
leucharistie des diffrentes communauts orthodoxes de France, qui composent sans aucun
doute, lglise Orthodoxe de France :
Les juridictions ne sont, fondamentalement, que des diocses, qui ont le dfaut
dtre localement imbriqus les uns dans les autres, mais qui sont tous lEglise
du Christ. Le fait quils relvent dEglises-mres diffrentes ny change rien.
Dans chaque paroisse o la Divine Liturgie est clbre, cest lEglise de Dieu
qui est prsente, il faut en tre conscient avant tout et ne pas faire des
appartenances juridictionnelles des cloisons tanches. Quand saint Irne
clbrait Lyon, ce ntait pas lglise de Smyrne qui tait reprsente ; la
communaut rassemble, compose de commerants grecs et de nophytes
gaulois, tait simplement lEglise de Dieu Lyon. Si lon parvient un jour
unifier toutes les paroisses orthodoxes en France sous lautorit dun unique
archevque, et tablir des diocses territoriaux, ce sera certainement un bien,
car la situation redeviendrait conforme aux saints canons. Mais, en dfinitive,
cette Eglise unifie dans sa structure ne sera pas davantage lEglise de
France , ou plutt lEglise de Dieu en France , que la mosaque
juridictionnelle actuelle . (Deseille, 1984).
653
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Sigles :
DLMSA = Divine liturgie de saint Jean Chrysostome, Monastre Saint-Antoine-Le-Grand,
2009.
FJMD = Fleurs du jardin de la Mre de Dieu, par le pre Passios, moine du Mont Athos,
dit par le Monastre Saint-Jean-le-Thologien, Souroti de Thessalonique, Grce, 1998.
LAM = Lettre aux amis des monastres Saint-Antoine-Le-Grand et Protection de la Mre de
Dieu.
LPP = Lettres, Pre Paissios, moine du Mont Athos, traduit du grec par Soeur Svetlana
Marchal, dit par le Monastre Saint-Jean-le-Thologien, Souroti de Thessalonique, Grce,
2005.
PC = Le Pre Clopas, pre Ioannichi Balan, traduit du roumain par le hiromoine Marc,
prface de Mgr Daniel, mtropolite de la Moldavie et de Bucovine, introduction de Jean-
Claude Larchet, Lausanne, lAge dHomme, collection Grands spirituels orthodoxes du
XXe sicle , 2003.
RNM = La rception nomocanonique du Monachisme (2e-7e sicles), archimandrite
Grigorius D. Papathomas, Editions Epektasis, 1998.
SNS = Le Spoutnik, nouveau Synecdimos, par le Pre Denis Guillaume, Parma, Diaconie
apostolique, 1997.
SOLP = La spiritualit orthodoxe et la Philocalie, pre Placide Deseille, Paris, Albin Michel,
2003.
VTO = Vocabulaire thologique orthodoxe, par lquipe de Catchse orthodoxe, Paris, Cerf,
1985.
Rfrences bibliograpiques
Cabr, Teresa, 1998, La Terminologie. Thorie, mthode et applications, Otawa, Les Presses
de lUniversit dOtawa, Armand Colin.
Charaudeau, P., Maingueneau, D., 2002, Dictionnaire danalyse du discours, Paris, Seuil.
Deseille, Placide, archimandrite, 1984, Tmoignages : chemins vers lorthodoxie, Etapes
dun plerinage , Le messager orthodoxe, no 95.
Deseille, Placide, archimandrite, 2012, Certitude de linvisible. lments de doctrine
chrtienne selon la tradition de lglise orthodoxe, Monastre Saint-Antoine-Le-Grand,
Monastre de Solan.
Divine liturgie de saint Jean Chrysostome, 2009, Monastre Saint-Antoine-Le-Grand.
Divines liturgies de saint Jean Chrysostome et de saint Basile de Csare, 2006, traduites du
grec par larchimandrite Jacob, le hiromoine Elise et le pre dr. Y. Goldman, seconde
dition corrige et complte, Monastre de la Thotokos et de Saint Martin, Cantauque.
Dumas, Felicia, 2008, Reflets des imaginaires linguistique et culturel au niveau de lemploi
dune terminologie religieuse orthodoxe en langue franaise , Analele tiinifice ale
Universitii <<Al. I. Cuza>> din Iai, Seciunea III e, Lingvistic, tomul LIV, Iai, Editura
Universitii, p.121-131.
654
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Dumas, Felicia, 2009, Lorthodoxie en langue franaise perspectives linguistiques et
spirituelles, avec une Introduction de Mgr Marc, vque vicaire de la Mtropole Orthodoxe
Roumaine dEurope Occidentale et Mridionale, Iai, Casa editorial Demiurg.
Dumas, Felicia, 2010a, Dicionar bilingv de termeni religioi ortodoci: romn-francez, Iai,
Mitropolia Moldovei i Bucovinei, Editura Doxologia.
Dumas, Felicia, 2010b, Dictionnaire bilingue de termes religieux orthodoxes : franais-
roumain, Iasi, Mtropole de Moldavie et de Bucovine, ditions Doxologia.
Dumas, Felicia, 2010c, Plurilinguisme et ducation en franais Rflexions thoriques et
analyses de cas, Iai, Junimea.
Dumas, Felicia, 2011, Marques lexicales dune identit plurielle de lOrthodoxie
dexpression franaise , Synergies Italie, no 7, 2011, p. 51-61, Eikon Plus, Krakow.
Guilbert, L., 1975, La crativit lexicale, Paris, Larousse.
Guillaume, Denis, pre, 1997, Le Spoutnik, nouveau Synecdimos, Rome, Diaconie
apostolique.
Houdebine-Gravaud, Anne-Marie, 1998, Limaginaire linguistique : questions au modle et
applications actuelles , dans Limbaje i comunicare, III, Expresie i sens, Iai, Editura
Junimea.
La Divine Liturgie de saint Jean Chrysostome, 2000, Diaconie apostolique, ditions de
Chevetogne.
La Divine Liturgie de saint Jean Chrysostome, 2007, traduction de lAssemble des vques
orthodoxes de France, dit par la Fraternit orthodoxe en Europe Occidentale, Mayenne.
Le Tourneau, Dominique, 2005, Les mots du christianisme, catholicisme, orthodoxie,
protestantisme, Paris, Fayard.
Passios, pre, moine du Mont Athos, 1998, Fleurs du jardin de la Mre de Dieu, dit par le
Monastre Saint-Jean-le-Thologien, Souroti de Thessalonique, Grce.
Passios, pre, moine du Mont Athos, 2005, Lettres, traduit du grec par Soeur Svetlana
Marchal, dit par le Monastre Saint-Jean-le-Thologien, Souroti de Thessalonique, Grce.
Samuel, hiromoine, 2010, Annuaire de lglise orthodoxe de France, Monastre de
Cantauque.
Vocabulaire thologique orthodoxe, 1985, par lquipe de Catchse orthodoxe, Paris, Cerf.
655
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE POLITICS OF HISTORICAL DISCOURSE AND INTERCULTURAL
REPRESENTATION IN TIMOTHY MOS AN INSULAR POSSESSION
Angela STNESCU, Associate Professor, PhD, Valahia University of Trgovite
Abstract: The present paper analyses Timothy Mos interrogation into the nature of historical
experience and records in An Insular Possession, his ironic replication of the traditional
historical novel, which portrays the cultural transgressions and misconceptions opposing the
Chinese and British Empires during the Opium Wars. The paper highlights the diversity of
narrative techniques deployed in the historicising of fictional discourse, as well as the
parodic strategies aimed at debunking the putative objectivity of historiographic writing and
documentary sources. We argue that the novels ingeniously orchestrated pastiche of
historical referentiality, illustrating the multi-voiced, dialogical discourses of textual or visual
archives, articulates a meta-fictional, meta-historical counter-discourse which critiques and
demythologises conventional constructions on the validity of historiographic discourse and
documentary evidence. The paper also probes into Mos ironic questioning of the
potentialities of cultural translation and mediation in achieving intercultural
comprehensibility.
Keywords: postmodern, historicised discourse, Chinese, British, cultural (mis)representations
An Insular Possession (1986) is Mos most daunting project to date, whose agenda
goes beyond the novelists avowed preoccupation with the irreconcilable clash of cultures. It
engages the postmodern philosophy of history, which interrogates the discursive practice of
history writing and the validity of documentary sources. While striving to maintain the
illusion of objectivity and factual realism, Mo questions the objectivity of historical records
and historiographic discourses. If the novel emphasises the subjective nature of all records of
historical events, the novelist self-consciously draws attention upon the inherent subjectivity
of his own representation of the past. Being the first to engage a fictional representation of the
birth of Hong Kong in the aftermath of the Sino-British wars of the 19th century, the novelist
relishes not only the thematic originality of his project, but also the prospect of stamping his
readers imaginative representation of the period. He seems to relish the idea that
everybodys notion of the Opium Wars in sixty years time will be mine, but professes the
sincerity of his endeavour: You see, our version of 19 th-century London is not really
Mayhews or Marxs, its Dickenss version, which is a complete falsificationIve tried to
make the economic analysis of it truthful, and sincere. I may have done violence to the facts at
some stage, but you can rely on it as a sincere representation of that time and place (Mo,
quoted in Parker 34).
Mo emphasises the tenuous distinctions between fact and fiction which underlie the
realist aesthetic and our assessment of its referentiality. He also teases our readiness to take
for granted the illusion of truthfulness installed by the historical or realistic novel. Moreover,
he undermines the authoritativeness and interpretive finality of historical texts, records and
sources. He chooses to play a tantalizing postmodernist game which simultaneously confirms
656
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
and subverts his readers assumptions. As Ho argues, Mo deliberately blurs the boundaries
between fact and the factitious and in doing so, raises serious questions about authenticity as a
criterion of value for historical fiction (Ho 71). Mo artfully mixes the self-conscious bathos
and cynicism of the post-modern mindset with the pleas for credibility and suspension of
disbelief characteristic of the 18th and 19th century novel. Another thing he shares with Swift,
Defoe, Dickens and Thackeray is the confidence in the instructive and formative function of
his prose. This duplicity of voice and vision is captured by Hos comment: In announcing
that what he offers is his own version of the past, and in wanting it to become the decisive
reading, Mo acknowledges the innate subjectivity of his novel. At the same time, he is also
arguing for the power of fiction, much more than conventional histories, to intervene in
shaping our collective memory and understanding of the past(Ho 71).
On account of his Anglo-Chinese parentage and background, many critics have
considered Mo as an apt chronicler of the Sino-British relations. His bicultural education and
heritage have been deemed as a vantage point, which warranties an accurate insight, as well as
a balanced, objective view on the history and culture of the two empires. The critic Dick
Wilson emphatically observes: Mo has a Cantonese father, an English mother and a Hong
Kong birthplace: whom is more suitable to pen a great epic uncovering a rich clash of cultures
and suggesting, as only a good novel can, the plurality of motive and diversity of individual
character that rescue such episodes of history from the straight-jacket of political myth-
making? It is somewhat, perhaps, like Salman Rushdies Midnights Children, which Mo
admires so much (Wilson 60-1). Given the novels focus on colonial appropriation and
possession, many might have expected a markedly postcolonial outlook. With the
equidistance implied by his hybrid identity, the author discretely steers clear of any ostensible
political pronouncements or partisanship. His position remains one of divided loyalties and
equidistant detachment: The fact of Mos birth in Hong Kong convinces many that his work
is primarily preoccupied with postcolonial concerns, especially as he left a colonised location
to be educated at, and later work in, the old centre of the British EmpireAs a migrant writer
with his own tethering to the old imperial centre, Mo occupies that peculiar positions place
both within and without, belonging and not-belonging (McLeod 107, 128). This is indeed the
interstitial, insular position from which he portrays the world of An Insular Possession.
Mo downplays the role of the knowledgeable insider, with an indisputably legitimate
claim to accuracy of insight and interpretation. He strives for the effect of objectivity and
ideological detachment, without assuming the stance of knowingness: As a writer who was
born and first educated in Hong Kong, Mo, in his fictional treatment of its early colonial
history, could have laid claims to the privileged view of the insider. But An Insular
Possession seems to have been deliberately conceived to frustrate any such claim (Ho 1994,
52). Mo achieves this distancing effect through a whole array of narrative strategies. The
central ploy resides in his narrating the events through the neutral, detached perspective of his
American protagonists, whose nationality places them on the periphery of the British opium
trade and the imperial politics that sustain it (Ibid.). The vast historical panorama is the
background to the fates, experiences and careers of Walter Eastman and Gideon Chase.
Swirled in the whirlpool of a war in which they can no longer remain mere spectators, the two
Americans come to act various parts (narrators, commentators, arbiters of opinion and taste,
war reporters, intermediaries, diplomatic mediators and interpreters, and ultimately informed
657
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
chroniclers of history in the making). The centrality of their history, which effaces Mos
narratorial authority and smoothes the postcolonial edges of his discourse, confers the novel
not only the immediacy of lived experience, but also the objectifying perspective of what Ho
calls Mos project of third-party history, as experienced by outsiders struggling for some
form of cultural involvement(Ibid.).
The authors choice of a mediating American perspective is, in Hos opinion,
consistent with Mos interest in marginal characters (Ho 2000, 73). Indeed, all his novels
evince a preference for narrators or observers situated on the margins of the dominant social
or political order, which we also find in Rushdies work. For their protagonists, marginality is
productive of a particular sensitivity to events and atmosphere, which counteracts their claims
to detachment and neutrality. At the same time, their peripheral angle of perception justifies
their claim to objective observation. In An Insular Possession, the American nationality of
the two protagonistsplaces them as outsiders to the Sino-British conflict, and helps Mo
project a version of history written from the vantage point of the disempowered third party
(Ibid.). Mo occupies the middle ground between any clear-cut ideological or cultural
commitments. As Ho argues, the cross-boundary negotiations of identity that are recurrent in
Mos fiction resist precisely those binary structures of which the oppositions of
imperial/periphery and Western theory/non-western writing are too familiar rehearsals (Ho
1994, 52). By relying on the perceptions and judgements of a third party, the novel implicitly
positions itself as the fictional alternative to both imperial (British) and nativist (Chinese)
versions of history, and confronts history and identity as constituted of voices whose
possibility has not been previously imagined (Ho 2000, 73, 75).
The highly opinionated voices of the two American protagonists, initially confined to
the private space of their expatriates enclave at the Factories, strive to penetrate the public
space through the medium of a journalistic venture. The newspaper Eastman and Chase
create, the Lin Tin Bulletin and River Bee, is designed as an anti-establishment publication,
offering an alternative discourse to that of the Canton Monitor, the mouthpiece of the British
opium traders. The title alludes directly to Lin Tin Island, the unofficial headquarters of the
nefarious trade. Its main purpose is to expose the onerous practices of British trade with
China. Its editors also aim to promote fair judgement of the claims staked by the conflicting
sides. At the same time, Chase, who assumes the penname Pursuer, pursues his project of
cultural mediation by writing didactic pieces on Chinese customs and culture, meant to
promote a knowledge and understanding of Chinese cultural idiosyncrasies and thus dispel
distorting Western prejudice. The Bulletin deals with a history that takes place elsewhere, to
which its editorsclaim greater freedom of access and knowledge by virtue of their alibi as
exiles from their own race and ethnic community (Ibid.). Their initial motivation to
counteract the supremacist, colonialist rhetoric of the Canton Monitor soon dissolves into
acerbic commercial, ideological and intercultural competition rendered as a textualised
confrontation which tends to become an end in itself. The printed exchange of affronts and
satirical shafts degenerates in an actual duel, in which Eastman wounds his rival editor. Most
of the narrative consists of extensive reports from the pages of both publications. Mos
dexterity in mimicking the journalistic discourse of the time is remarkable, despite the
somewhat overwhelming length and density of the texts quoted in small type: the period
658
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
flavour in the speech of the Westerners is managed well, though the prose of the two
newspapers can be oppressively orotund (Enright 498).
The press excerpts function not merely as a variation in narrative strategy or as tokens
of documentary evidence, but as a major premise in Mos deconstruction of historical records
and history writing. In highlighting the biased rhetoric of the editors and their contradictory
accounts, the narrative encloses the contest between two competing versions of history
narrated by the two newspapers[and] underlines the conflicting ideologies that inform
them (Ho 2000, 75). The novels humour and irony derive from the discrepancies between
their versions of reported reality. The Canton Monitor represents the voice and very often
the propaganda of belligerent British commercial and imperial interests (Ibid.). Its columns
are mainly devoted to a programmatic disparagement of Chinese culture and its right to
oppose the aggression of British trade. Its xenophobic and hegemonic campaign against the
venal authorities of Canton is characterised by inflammatory urges that the British officials
forsake diplomatic negotiations and resort to military force: If the high road to Free Trade
and riches in China may only be reached through a river of blood, then let the blood which is
shed be Chineselet us have a Napoleon, if we must (Mo 1987, 38). That is why the
measures of Captain Charles Elliot, the Superintendent of Trade, who hands in the coffers of
opium to the Chinese so as to avoid unnecessary military engagements, are constantly
chastised as signs of inadequacy and pusillanimity.
The Monitor is also a fervent supporter of the idea of obtaining from the Chinese a
territory where the British could establish an independent and secure base of trade operations,
preferably on one of the coastal islands. The desirability of a British commercial haven is
propagated in its pages through effusive, passionate expressions of imperial acquisitiveness:
it will then be expedient (tho only in the last resort) to withdraw the British commerce
altogether from the control of the Chinese authorities, and to establish it in some Insular
Position on the Chinese coast where it may be satisfactorily carried on (Idem, 98). The
acquisition of a new imperial possession is heralded in tones which glorify the Empires
resourcefulness and the righteousness of its advance: If the Emperor will not concede some
eligible situation, some suitable island possession, then let us take it (Idem, 100). The
editors martial tone occasionally gives way to a lyrical romanticising of imperial
appropriation and progress, envisioning the acquisition as a utopian realm of unhindered
commerce with the world. The utopian, narcissistic self-justification of colonial discourse is
subtly debunked by Mos ironical view of the imperial dream hymned on the printed page:
Lantao! There may be a name which will be written on a glorious and immortal page of
Britannias destiny! The Gibraltar of the East. Lantao! (Idem, 98). The stylistic convolutions
of the establishment mouthpiece, with its mixture of jingoism, hypocrisy, hard business
sense, and a fearfully arch would-be literariness (Enright 498), accentuate Mos parody of
colonial discourse. The discourse of the Monitor inscribes history seen on a daily basis from
the point of view of the colonialist supremacist (Ho 2000, 75). By contrast, Eastman and
Chases publication advocates reason and malleability, praising the diplomatic caution of
Captain Elliot, and trying to promote a knowledge and understanding of the Chinese world
outside the expatriate cloister of trade and tiffin, club and cricket (Idem, 76). However, the
two heroes ethical commitment is often affected by their divided loyalties. Their self-
659
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
fashioningas idiosyncratic outsiders and fearless challengers to the British establishment
(Ibid.) often comes in contradiction with their increasing proximity to the British forces.
As the conflict escalates towards armed confrontation, the competition between the
two newspapers acquires more serious ideological overtones. The different ethical and
ideological positions are mirrored in their jarring interpretation of events. In order to highlight
such inadvertencies, Mo deliberately juxtaposes excerpts from both papers. The Monitor
commends the bravery of British troops, who have magnanimously saved the Chinese from
their own kind: The men in general behaved very well. There was little opportunity for
plunder and inebriation, the troops rather protecting the houses and abandoned property
against Chinese robbers and marauders. Recounting the same event, the Bulletin focuses on
the scenes of distress, on the destruction and humiliations inflicted upon a proud and
frequently courageous people, who in many instancespreferred death by their own hands to
the dishonour of defeat and defilement. The allegedly gentlemanly conduct of the troops is
denounced as sheer barbarism: Rape, robbery, arson, and murder were the order of the day
among the Indian troops. When their brutish appetites were slaked, they did not scruple to
mutilate the outraged flesh of their victims (Mo, 575-6). These jarring accounts are in turn
checked with the more veridical testimony of Chases letters or the daily entries in a would-be
war journal, which records, in the third person, what he witnessed himself. This is meant to
confirm both the objectivity of the Bulletin and its composite sympathies, divided between the
plight of British soldiery, seen as brave men engaged in a wrongful cause (Enright 498), and
the senseless massacre of the Chinese population. Yet, the reliability of both newspapers in
terms of historical evidence is questionable. Both publications are clearly shown to be
embedded in the socio-cultural and ideological situations of those who produce them and to
put strikingly different constructions on events (Ho 2000, 75).
The dystopia of warfare is graphically recounted (Ibid.) by the newspaper reports
and the narrators notations of Chases experiential peripatetics in a dystopian, embattled
underworld. The entries in this war journal, replete with dates and places, and reported in the
present tense, convey the chaotic engagement of forces by means of richly sensorial imagery.
The account has the immediacy of reportage. It sustains the illusion of veracity and first hand
testimony, in which the time of narration and narrated time are superposed in the dilated
present of an experiencing consciousness. The immediacy of sensation, the accelerating pace
of events, and the hypertrophied perception of horror in this fictitious war-reportage offer a
heart-rending, surreal image of lived absurdity. Short, brisk, elliptical or arrestingly sentential
sentences punctuate the narration like lyrical adagios to an engulfing tragedy. Language is
wielded so as to create a highly cinematic juxtaposition of images, replicating the effect of
filmic freeze frames, dissolves, or cuts, of scenic dilatations of inner duration, rendered by
comments such as : Time slows (Mo 566). It is a pictorial evocation of dystopian warfare, of
a hyper-reality of the mind and the senses, in which the understatement of would-be factual
reporting communicates more than ideological or ethical speeches. Nonetheless, despite the
authors use of indirection and understatement, the narrative resonates with anti-colonial
undertones.
By relying on the authority of would-be authentic texts, the novel comments on the
narrativity of history, which raises questions about what New Historicists have called the
textuality of history (Ho 2000, 74). The novels text is meant to evoke the prismatic,
660
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ideologically informed and ultimately perspectival nature of historiographic records and
documentary sources. In Mos project, historyis not written in the form of a master
narrative, or from the point of view of a single authorityit is a jumble of narratives, told by
a multiplicity of voices, all jostling each other for supremacy (Idem, 75). In its deliberate
avoidance of a coherent, unifying narration of history, the novel illustrates Lyotards
postmodern distrust of in the self-assumed authority of any master narrative. Furthermore,
Mos ironic subversion of the claims to objectivity of factual records enjoins the debate over
the shared narrativity of both historiography and fiction insofar as it installs a critique of the
methods, procedures and ideological alignments of traditional historiography (Ibid.). The
novels subversive blurring of fact and fiction, its concomitant complicity in and critique of
the traditional ideologies underlying both historical and literary representation fall into
Hutcheons paradigm of historiographic metafiction, which she views as an emblematic
product of postmodernisms wariness of realism, of the illusion of referential transparency.
The historical discourse crafted by Mo places the novel in the context of a serious
contemporary interrogating of the nature of representation in historiography (Hutcheon 47).
Much in the manner of Rushdie, Mo envisages a historical novel that is also metahistorical in
that it parodies the lack of self-reflexiveness of much traditional historiography (Ho 2000,
74).
Mos programmatic juxtaposition of texts traditionally regarded as first-hand, veridical
historical evidence letters, journals, press reports tantalises the reader with the illusion of
veracity, exposing the ideologically biased construction on events which such materials
provide. Ho emphasises the authors disingenuous investment in primary documents,
traditionally regarded as indispensable in the verification of facts: In casting a critical eye
on contemporary records of events as post factum constructions, Mo implicitly undermines
the traditional historioghaphic practice of asserting the truth of what happened on the basis
of a study of extant sources (Idem, 75-6). Factual documents are used and abused, as if to
demythologise their infallibility. Mos complicit reliance on the legitimising effect of period
documents, counteracted by the ironical undermining of their reliability, supports the
deconstructive projects undertaken by theorists such as White or Dominic LaCapra, who have
acted to de-naturalize notions of historical documents as representations of the past and of
the way such archival traces of historical events are used within historiographic and fictive
representations (Hutcheon 48). Mos heavy use of such documentary evidence, suggesting
both a complicity with and critique of their mythical aura of truthfulness, subtly demonstrates
how documents can have critical or even transformative relations to phenomena
represented in them (Ibid.). As Ho observes, the devices the objective journalistic report,
realistic visual representation, firsthand or eyewitness accounts in which master narratives
are often justified are counterpointed in the text, and each revealed, in turn, to be inherently
flawed (Ho 2000, 74).
The novels ultimate irony is that its satirical undermining of historical evidence turns
upon itself, in a patently postmodernist movement from irony to self-irony. The appendices
which follow the text, meant to create the illusion of historical veracity, constitute an effective
strategy in Mos pastiche of historical discourse. Mos gives an ironic twist to the traditional
claims to historical referentiality of the realist novel. His use of para-textual features is
germane to the postmodern exchange between realism and fantasy and capitalises on its
661
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
currency of playful generic transformations (Idem, 82). The intersection of fiction and history
is graphically inscribed by the para-textual insignia of scientific accuracy commonly used to
authenticate the historiographic text. Appendix I is purported to be a real document
attesting the veracity of the people and events portrayed in the novel. A Gazetteer of Place
Names and Biographies Relative to the Early China Coast by An Old Hand (Mo 652),
supposedly published in Shanghai in 1935, contains entries which mix the real historical
figures evoked in the novel with references to Chase and the painter ORourke, thus playfully
casting doubt upon their assumed fictitiousness. The short biography of Chase, Professor
Gideon Hall (Idem, 654), is strategically inserted between a historically verifiable personality
and a real toponym, so that the truth status of these two names seeps into that of Chase,
mystifying it with the aura of verity (Ho 2000, 83).
Mos insertion of his characters biographies fulfils a double function: on the one
hand, he gives a sense of closure, informing the reader of the protagonists fates after their
projected departure, with which the novel ends (Chases subsequent career as a world-famous
Orientalist and his lifetime engagement with Chinese culture and the fate of Hong Kong;
Eastmans success in advancing his revolutionary technology); on the other hand, Appendix I
also draws the reader into its ludic processof enigmatic exchanges between fact and
fiction, where the semblance of the real (Ibid.) induces the suspension of disbelief and
tempts us, however fleetingly, to believe in its truth. The illusion of truth is more strongly
sustained than in Appendix II, which purports to offer an extract from Chases works, as a
kind of adagio to the novels historical meditation, but which can be more easily dismissed as
fictional than the technically authoritative Gazetteer. The latter document contains a further
authorial entrapment, baffling the readers predictable reflex to connect Eastmans name to
Eastman-Kodak.
As Ho argues, the fact that Eastmans name is not included in the index of names
poses a problem and a temptation of another kind: This fictional nineteenth-century
photography enthusiast bears the same surname as the actual nineteenth-century American
photography enthusiast who was to invent the Kodak camera and to found Eastman Kodak. It
is as if Mo is challenging the reader not to wonder naively just for a moment whether the
two might be related. In this way, Eastman figures as another signpost of the intersection
between the real and the make believe that tantalise and tease (Idem, 84). Mos authorial
game takes both our credulity and investigative vigilance for granted. He makes us wonder in
order to have us fall precisely into the novels ludic trapset up to subvert established
boundaries between [fact and fiction], in a hazarded attempt to enact closures upon the
debates upon the mimetic, which it is the novels project to re-imagine and carnivalise (Ibid).
Mos parodic use of the para-textual markers of historical texts draws attention to the
fact that his novel is as much about history-writing as it is about history-making. It is relies on
the postmodernist ironic impulse to subversively hybridise the discourses of fiction and
history, in order to challenge our certainties about historical knowledge and its
representations. Meant to illuminate the historical context which led to the birth of Hong
Kong, Mos text draws attention to the cultural antagonism underlying its myth of origin,
subsequently sublimated in the hybridity which the place bespeaks. The irredeemable
incompleteness and partiality of historical knowledge is formally represented by the narrative
incompletion of the novel itself, which drops the destinies of its protagonists at a moment
662
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
which is both an end and a beginning. It is the end of the two Americans wrestling with
history and the two inimical cultures they have tried to reconcile, just as it is the beginning of
their and the new colonys future. Ho contends that the novel does not fulfil the promise of its
title, that the insular possession is given no story, that Hong Kong has no presenceas
community or culture, except in the final moments as the haven or retreat of foreigners
displaced from pone trading post to another (Idem, 86). Yet this is only partly true. The
insular possession inflames the imagination of British traders, Court officials and their
emissaries to China, just as it fills the pages of the official press in Canton, and of the novel
itself, with the promise of utopia. Its final appropriation as colonial possession materialises
their desire to conduct their more or less respectable trade with the East unhindered by
Chinese officialdom, from a place where they can have the best of both worlds.
For Mo, what is worth remembering is not the history of Hong Kongs existence, but
the history of its birth. As Ho also notes, Hong Kongs identity is predicated on its history,
on its coming into being as a colonial possession; the moment the city comes into being in the
narrative is the moment of colonisation (Ibid.). The triumphant possession of utopia is
overshadowed by the dystopia of death and destruction underlying the quest. If the utopian
anchorage was born of the dystopia of the war, the process is now inverted. The achievement
of the traders ideal is to establish a trading community in Hong Kong is encumbered by
epidemics, natural hazards and death. The tension between utopia and dystopia is suggested
by the ironic detail that the proliferating funerals are officiated the cemetery located in the
Happy Valley. With morbid humour, Mo subversively comments on the colonists moral
and physical fragility, on the human costs of possession when the place begins to take its toll.
A fatal misprint in the colonys paper, now renamed The Hong Kong Guardian and Gazette,
has it that The morality at Hong Kong continues to give rise to concern (Mo 606). A
subsequent Erratum admits to the trifling error, with a hilarious indication, incidentally
pregnant with allegorical warnings: For morality read mortality (Idem, 613). Though
intended ironically, this errata can be read as a serious commentary on the shifting truths of
human action and history confronted with the finality of death. The ultimate truth is
reasserted, this time in a tragic key, by Eastmans remark in the last chapter: The only end,
Gid, is death (Idem, 650). Though duly humbled, Chase cannot help adding an ironic touch:
That is as inevitable as the victory of the British (Idem, 658).
It is a victory that puts into sharp relief the defeat of Eastmans and Chases
endeavours. The least we can hope is that some trace of their work will survive somewhere in
a hidden archive, and not share the fate of ORourkes paintings, all burnt to ashes. That the
sole evidence of his work, as Appendix I informs us, survives only in two early
Daguerreotype photographs by an unknown hand (Idem, 660) constitutes Mos ironic
comment on Eastmans new art getting the last laugh in its dispute with painting. This image
of the painter ORourkes work as absence is paralleled by the silence replacing Eastmans
and Chases former articulacy and their defeated ideals. That Chases last protest against an
act of injustice of the early colonial administration is expressed in a private letter which has
no public effect is sadly symbolic of his utter inconsequence in the public forum. There is
also a particularly ironical twist in the fact that the justness of the infant colony is stated in
Chases defeated, silenced voice: Through Chase, Hong Kong is given a non-imperial voice,
but it is only that of an outsider and loserits subject position, if any, is articulated by the
663
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
enfeebled voice of dissent in a last gasp of illusory agency (Ho 2000, 87). Yet, Chases
succeeds in his brilliant career as a Sinologue who continues to disseminate his cross-cultural
project. After all, he becomes an authoritative witness of Hong Kongs history, just as he has
witnessed its arduous coming into being. It is as if the narrative of the insular possession,
interrupted at the start of its colonial destiny, were handed over to Chase to continue.
Despite the elegiac mood of the characters in the novels last scene, riddled with
intimations of mortality and the nostalgia of parting, there is a strong sense of promise for the
place and its people. Even though the spectre of death seems to be haunting the British
triumph, the novel ends with the promise of life, captured in the image of building: The
insects continue working on the roof of the barracks (Mo 650). Eastmans last words of
wisdom to his young disciple praise the certainty of the present moment: At this moment,
Gid, I know I am immortal I know the hot sun on my knee, the smell of smoke in my nostrils,
the refulgent spark of the sea below. Be content with a knowledge of that (Idem, 651). In the
idyllic peace and creative energy of the summer day on the island, it seems as if utopia, as
always, beckons people forward.
Having unravelled and redesigned the history of the colonys birth as an act of
collective colonial imagination, Mo lets his reader imagine, or rather reinterpret the future of
Hong Kong. If the insular possession and its imagined community are born from the clash of
cultures, what remains is the lingering hope that British and Chinese settlers might learn to
co-habit and forge a more inclusive sense of identity. The novel itself incorporates hybridity
in its blending of the teleological perspective of the European novel with the expanding
present of its Chinese counterpart. The seamless juxtaposition of two narrative traditions
creates a hybrid, but coherent text. The illusion of historicity is sustained by the period
flavour of the language, which Ho describes as an idiom which attempts, almost heroically,
to conjure the past in the present in order to fulfil what Mo has called a sincere
representation (Ho 2000, 86). However, the critic expresses her doubts as to the
postmodernist ideological and aesthetic validity of Mos response to his challenge and
concludes, somewhat unfairly, that the novels postmodern, pre-eminently ironic thrust has
fallen short of its target, that it has fallen into the gap between imitation and mimicry[and]
Mo might be said to have fallen victim to his own powers of imitation (Ibid.).
Mos project fully evinces the political and aesthetic duplicity of the postmodern
pastiche, the ironic juxtapositions of discourses, traditions and cultural idioms. More than an
imitation of the historical novel, it is a postmodern collage of discourses and images, retracing
the feel of distant spaces and times in the reinvented idiom of the past. Mo writes a
relentlessly self-reflexive text, which also corresponds to Steven Connors category of the
historicised novel. An Insular Possession is a postmodern experimentation with voices and
idioms, a dialogical, polyphonic novel which brings together Thackeray, Fowles, Rushdie and
New Journalism in a brilliant choric synthesis.
Bibliography
Buruma, Ian. China Syndrome. The New Republic, Vol. 196, No.19, May 11 1987
Enright, D. J. Capturing the China Trade. The Times Literary Supplement, No. 4336, May 9,
1986
664
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Facknitz, Mark A. R. Timothy Mo, in Leslie Henderson (Ed.), Contemporary Novelists.
London, St. Martins Press, 1991
Ho, Elaine Yee Lin. How Not to Write History: Timothy Mos An Insular Possession. Ariel,
Vol. 25, No. 3, July 1994
Ho, Elaine Yee Lin. Timothy Mo. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000
Hutcheon, Linda. The Politics of Postmodernism. London: Routledge, 2002
Mc Leod, John. Living In-Between: Interstitial Spaces of Possibility in Timothy Mos Sour
Sweet, in Steven Earnshaw (Ed.), Just Postmodernism. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1997, pp. 107,
128
Mo, Timothy. An Insular Possession. London: Picador, 1987
Parker, Ian. Interview with Timothy Mo, in Blitz, July 1987
Wilson, Dick. On the Edge of History. Far Eastern Economic Review. September 18, 1996
665
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
LIDENTITE MULTICULTURELLE DANS LA LITTERATURE FRANCOPHONE.
LE CAS DATIQ RAHIMI
Simona MODREANU, Professor, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai
Abstract: The investigation of space and identity, with all the valencies these coordinates
acquire in literature, passing through the multitude of approaches it requires, with a
remarquable intellectual profit for the francophone space hallmarked by diversity, opening,
porosity and by the idea of relationship itself attracts and calls up for important energies.
We belong to the multiculturalism by the nature itself of the subject we approach, as long as
every person, every people, every literature has its own way of referring to the space of its
own identity and of rendering it through literature, through writing. A very convincing
illustration is to be found in Atiq Rahimis novels, as the author, born in Kabul, having
written this novel directly in French and speaking about Persian legends, brings together
influences from modern Western literature, especially brevity of description and cinematic
cutting and editing of scenes, with the flowery tradition of Eastern narratives.
Keywords: identity, alterity, bilingualism, imaginary, freedom
"Lhomme qui songe est un Dieu, celui qui pense un mendiant."
(Hlderlin)
1. La langue comme diffrence : une identits
A-t-on encore besoin dune identit ? Est-elle encore possible, revendique ou
souhaitable lpoque de la globalisation, des mtissages, de la crolisation (Edouard
Glissant) du monde ? Jamais auparavant na-t-on connu pareil dbat autour de ce concept
comme depuis laffranchissement colonial ; ces dernires annes ont vu natre une vritable
explosion discursive et une remise en question de plus en plus radicale de la notion
d identit .
Plusieurs lments ont contribu cette dissolution rapide. Dans un premier temps, il
faut probablement envisager les coups de massue ports la fois par les dcouvertes
scientifiques, notamment en matire de physique quantique, par la psychanalyse et par le
dconstructivisme postmoderne, dont les thories ont considrablement branl la
mtaphysique occidentale, la linguistique, la smantique, la sociologie, etc. Cette rvolution
sest dirige contre une certaine vision statique du monde, du sujet et du langage considrs,
jusque l, comme entiers, unitaires, monolithiques. Depuis Newton et Descartes, notre
conception stait consolide sur des bases essentialistes, le sujet tant soi-mme son propre
fondement, immuable et irrductible. Or, lon sest rendu compte que lidentification, loin
dtre naturellement donne une fois pour toutes, est au contraire, leffet dune construction,
dun processus jamais achev, jamais accompli, toujours en cours. Le problme est que,
mme si le paradigme qui a don naissance au concept d identit nest plus oprant, des
concepts diffrents ou complmentaires, qui prennent en compte tous ces changements de
perspectives, tardent paratre, ce qui nous contraint continuer penser travers celui-l,
quitte le revtir dune forme dtotalisante, dcentre, multiple. Il ne sagit nullement
666
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
dabandonner ou dabolir le sujet en tant que tel, mais de le reconceptualiser, de le repenser
dans sa position dplace, dcale, et de rarticuler sa relation la pratique discursive, plus
particulirement, dans le cas considr, la pratique de lcriture.
Lidentification un certain espace langagier, un certain espace tout court,
reprsente ce que Freud appelait un fantasme dincorporation , qui, cependant, naboutit
jamais une fusion totale. Aux dires du rput sociologue Stuart Hall, lidentification est un
processus darticulation, une suture, une surdtermination et pas une subsomption. Il y en a
toujours trop ou pas assez ; cest une surdtermination, un manque, jamais une totalit.
Comme toutes les pratiques signifiantes, elle est soumise au jeu de la diffrance. (Hall,
2008, p. 269) Cest dans ces interstices de lexcs et / ou de lablation que se glisse, dans
notre opinion, les spcificits de la libert cratrice des auteurs qui ont fait de la langue
franaise leur foyer, pour des raisons varies, allant de ladmiration ou la reconnaissance dun
accs luniversalit jusqu une espce de dpit ou carrment de haine, comme dans le cas
dune partie des littratures postcoloniales. Jcris en franais pour dire aux Franais que je
ne suis pas franais , assne lcrivain algrien Yacine Kateb, en 1966.
La notion d identit est donc prendre avec des pincettes, dautant plus que,
depuis quelques dcennies dj, ct de celle d altrit , elle est au cur des discours
des Etudes francophones et des recherces postcoloniales, relevant dune conception rigide,
fixiste , date de la culture, hrite de la grande priode des Etats-nations et de lveil de la
conscience nationaliste. On est bien au-del aujourdhui, sous leffet de la mondialisation, des
vagues dimmigration massive et des mtissages divers. Certes, un besoin fondamental
dappartenance une communaut, une langue, des traditions se fait encore sentir,
autrement, la question mme de lidentit ne serait plus pertinente, mais les termes de
lquation ont bien chang et ont acquis de nombreuses nuances supplmentaires.
2. Le franais langue entonnoir
Une langue dans laquelle sexprime lune des plus grandes civilisations et qui a
galement servi dinstrument de colonialisation ne saurait rester un idiome national pur. Le
rayonnement universel du franais se manifeste, essentiellement, dans deux directions
divergentes, deux structures de limaginaire opposes, savoir ce que nous avons appel la
langue troite , le goulot de lentonnoir, celle qui est perue comme castratrice et
dominante par ceux qui la subissent, respectivement la langue vase , celle qui, au
contraire, permet un trop-plein touff pour des raisons varies de svader et de goter la
libert. Le fluide linguistique est le mme, cependant les contours et les rves quil gnre
sont des variables infinies, aux connotations multiples, mais globalement assimilables aux
deux ples susmentionns.
Dun ct, nous avons le joug, la soumission, ltranglement identitaire qui se traduit
tout dabord par la langue du conqurant qui engloutit la/les langue/s domine/s :
Comment crire alors que ton imaginaire sabreuve, du matin jusquaux rves,
des images, des penses, des valeurs qui ne sont pas les tiennes ? Commen crire
quand ce que tu es vgte en dehors des lans qui dterminent ta vie ? Comment
crire domin ? (Chamoiseau, 1997, p. 17)
667
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
De lautre, nous avons lxubrance dun terreau fertile, matrice gnratrice, chair
flexible et mallable, promise tous, assumant sacrilges et torsions au nom de la libert de la
pense et de la plume. Rien de plus raffin, mais aussi de plus difficile daccs que le franais
classique, rien de plus riche et ptillant que cette langue crolise, issue de toutes les
frustrations, les humiliations et les songes de beaut mlangs. Le Franais ne se sent pas
vraiment laise dans la langue franaise, il na presque pas le droit dy toucher, de la sentir,
de la malmener, de laimer et de la har. Il doit la respecter, veiller son ternit, la
contempler sur un socle, tout comme le francophone troit . Alors que le francophone
vas , lui, se permet toutes les audaces que sa propre langue lui interdit souvent et
dcouvre, avec merveillement, un lieu sans attaches fixes, une racine volante.
Il y a ceux qui promnent leur monde dorigine lintrieur de la langue franaise, il y
a ceux qui laissent limaginaire de lAutre pntrer le leur et sy substituer mme ; il y a enfin
ceux qui font des allers-retours incessants entre le pays dici et le pays de l-bas
(comme Marius Daniel Popescu), en crolisant la langue, sans le savoir, dans le sens
quEdouard Glissant confre ce mot, savoir lentre de systmes dimages potiques
dune langue dans une autre langue. (Glissant, Gauvin, 2010, p. 111)
Le franais est une langue daccueil pour des crivains venus de tous les coins du
monde. Au-del des raisons politiques, chacun y cherche et y trouve des rponses
structurantes quil na pas trouves dans sa langue maternelle, et ce faisant il rvle aux natifs
franais eux-mmes des chemins inexplors dans leur propre langue. Voici, par exemple, la
confession explicite de lcrivaine danoise Pia Petersen :
Je ne me suis jamais accorde l'esprit du Nord. J'aime le dbat, j'aime discourir.
Je me suis sentie d'emble l'aise avec le franais. Avant mme de la parler,
j'avais cette image d'une langue avec laquelle on peut dvelopper ses ides. On
peut toujours plier un mot dans un sens ou un autre. ( Le Figaro , 8 janv.2009)
2.1. La langue troite
Apprends-moi parler dans tes langues , lanait passionnment lcrivain marocain
Abdelkhbir Khatibi, dans Amour bilingue (1983, p. 131), se rapportant la littrature
maghrbine, mais linjonction peut parfaitement sappliquer tout crivain atterri dans
lespace linguistique du franais. Et pas seulement. Il nest par dpourvu dintrt de voir,
ce propos, la raction du philosophe Jacques Derrida, qui est, son tour, un pied-noir juif, n
Alger, pratiquant donc un franais dans lequel rsonnent des chos dhbreu, de ladino,
despagnol, darabe, et qui est cependant lauteur dune vritable Loi de la langue, selon
laquelle On ne parle jamais quune seule langue (1996, p. 25) Dialoguant avec le
monolinguisme de lautre , Derrida affirme habiter et se laisser habiter par une seule
langue, le franais, qui nest cependant pas tout fait lidiome de lHexagone et, qui plus est,
ne reprsente pas un choix ou un hritage, mais un impratif colonial.
Paradoxalement, peut-tre, lobligation de canaliser ses ressources vers une autre
langue saccompagne, toujours dans cette mme logique de lentonnoir, dun besoin
dpuration, dun culte de la Loi nonce par Derrida, d un got hyperbolique pour la puret
de la langue (ibid., p. 81). Ce qui ressort lautre bout est une quintessence de langue
presquidale, dans laquelle les natifs se reconnaissent avec une sensation dtranget.
668
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
2.2. La langue vase
Lun des lments identitaires constitutifs les plus forts dun tre humain est
indubitablement sa langue dexpression, mais celle-ci ne se vit plus aujourdhui
exclusivement au niveau de la parole ; cest dans ses dimensions plurielles, aussi bien sociale,
conomique, politique, culturelle, que se dclinent les questions portant sur lipsit et
laltrit, sur la constitution dun espace de rfrence intrieure, soumis de multiples
pressions et influences.
Aujourdhui, mme quand un crivain ne connat aucune autre langue, il tient
compte, quil le sache ou non, de lexistence de ces langues autour de lui dans son
processus dcriture. On ne peut plus crire une langue de manire monolingue.
On est oblig de tenir compte des imaginaires des langues. (Glissant, Gauvin,
2010, p. 14)
Cest ainsi que la question du bilinguisme (ou du plurilinguisme) senrichit de
limmense invention potique, souvent double dune puissante rflexion thorique, des
crivains venus dailleurs, qui manient un franais infus de mille voix perceptibles au niveau
du vocabulaire ou de la syntaxe, ou simplement pressentie dans un frmissement linguistique
autre. Ce que Katibi, Kundera, Makine, Popescu, Ben Jelloun, Laferrire et tant dautres
proposent, revt les atours dun paradoxe : cest retrouver la fois lidentit et la diffrence,
mais une identit si pure, si blouissante, quelle nous oblige la lire comme une diffrence.
De fait, cest dune vritable mue quil sagit. Lcrivain glisse hors de son identit originelle
et se tresse une autre peau, riche de toutes les saveurs que la nouvelle langue dcriture
charrie, mais qui nest plus ni tout fait la mme, ni tout fait une autre En rsulte un
franais mtin dexotisme, une mosaque qui brillent demprunts larabe, au slave, aux
langues africaines ou carabennes, au tsigane, etc., une espce de tour Babel foisonnante
dinventivit lexicale et potique, une langue mtisse, modulable selon les identits
recherches.
3. La patience persane et la pierre de touche franaise
N en Afghanistan en 1962, Atiq Rahimi est lev dans une famille librale et
occidentalise, o le pre est gouverneur du Panshir. Passionn de littrature et de cinma
franais, le jeune Rahimi suit les cours du Lyce franais de Kaboul et sprend de Marguerite
Duras, quil dcouvre au centre franco-afghan. Il y voit Hiroshima mon amour , le film
d'Alain Resnais, un hiver, en pleine guerre afghano-sovitique et cest le coup de foudre :
Je suis venu au cinma par ce film. Je ne comprenais rien, et pourtant j'tais boulevers. Je me
suis dis: Kaboul sera mon Hiroshima , explique-t-il plus tard ( Ariane Chemin, BibliObs.,
2010). Chez un libraire, il trouve la traduction en persan du roman de Duras: il tait mal
reli, les pages s'envolaient, mais il est devenu un trsor (ibid.). La joie de plonger dans une
autre langue, dans un autre espace imaginaire est brutalement interrompue par le coup dEtat
communiste de 1978, qui dtruit sa famille. Aprs trois annes de prison du pre, ils quittent
lAfghanistan pour lInde do, en 1984, alors que la situation dans son pays devient
infernale, Atiq dcide de partir pour la France. Il y demande lasile politique, sinscrit
669
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
luniversit et obtient un doctorat de communication audiovisuelle. Aujourd'hui,
mondialisation oblige, les parents d'Atiq Rahimi vivent aux Etats-Unis, avec l'une de ses
surs, l'autre est reste Kaboul et lui, il navigue entre ses deux pays. Cest la mort de son
frre, tu pendant la guerre en Afghanistan, qui le pousse, la rage au ventre, crire. Ce sera
en persan dabord : Terre et cendres (quil adapte au cinma en 2004). Fait intressant, en
2000, sa traductrice et amie Sabrina Noury envoie ce premier livre plusieurs diteurs et
finalement cest Paul Otchakovsky-Laurens des ditions POL qui accepte de le publier. Or,
POL, c'tait l'diteur de Marguerite Duras! Suivent Les Mille maisons du rve et de la terreur
(POL, 2002), Le Retour imaginaire (POL, 2005), Maudit soit Dostoevski (POL, 2011). Ce
nest quen 2008 quil arrive crire pour la premire fois directement en franais. Et ce sera
tout de suite le grand prix. Rahimi remporte le Goncourt avec Syngu sabour. Pierre de
patience.
Jusquen 2002, jtais incapable dcrire en franais, mais en retournant dans mon
pays aprs dix-huit ans dexil, je retrouve ma culture, ma langue et, phnomne
bizarre, je ne pouvais plus crire en persan. Lcriture tait galement devenue ma
terre dexil part entire. (avec Colette Khalaf, LOrient. Le Jour , nov.2013)
Le titre dj roule dans la bouche comme une pierre pleine de cette douceur veloute
de lOrient, de cette spiritualit soufie o flottent des effluves des pomes de Rumi, Hfez,
Khayym, ainsi que de la posie populaire des femmes pachtounes, ou des nouvelles de
Khalil Gibran, mais aussi les voix diverses des lectures, qui vont du romantisme chrtien
trempe de gnosticisme de Victor Hugo, Camus, Hemingway, Faulkner ou Duras,
videmment, le tout bonifi par le regard lucide et juste, dj multiculturel, que lcrivain
pose sur les ralits de son pays, sur ses lgendes, sur ses femmes.
Le caldoscope identitaire de Rahimi provient de rhizomes divers, non pas
uniquement littraires ou linguistiques, car son imaginaire se nourrit galement du 7e art,
dimension qui diversifie sa vision et en mme temps rajoute des interrogations sur son
criture, quon retrouve dans pratiquement tous ses textes. Pense-t-il dabord en images ou en
mots ? Quand on lui pose cette question, lauteur hsite, mais nessaie pas de trancher :
Quand jcris, jai un langage cinmatographique et quand je filme, jai un
langage littraire, tout comme ma double identit. Quand je suis en France, je me
sens afghan et lorsque je vais en Afghanistan je me sens franais. (ibid.)
Une identit double qui se greffe sur une autre, encore plus complexe et difficile
gerer, celle religieuse.
Je suis bouddhiste parce que je suis conscient de mes faiblesses; je suis chrtien
parce que j'avoue ma faiblesse; je suis juif parce que je me moque de ma
faiblesse; je suis musulman parce que je combats ma faiblesse. Et je suis athe si
Dieu est tout puissant. (Ariane Chemin, 2010)
Cette identit plurielle sert aussi bien cacher des blessures profondes, toujours
ouvertes, que la pudeur persane interdit de dvoiler, qu justifier l vasion dans une
670
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
langue plus permissive, dans laquelle une me corche a le droit de crier sa douleur sans
fards. Le jeu des passages de niveau, si on peut le nommer ainsi, sattaque tous les volets de
lcriture, du vocabulaire, la philosophie du temps, en passant par les codes de clture. En
effet, le lecteur occidental est relativement dsempar devant la fin du roman Syngu sabour,
qui nen est pas une, proprement parler. Lunivers entier des contes magiques persans est
structur sur des fins multiples, ou embotes, ou simplement suggres, pour que la libert de
choix du lecteur ne soit pas altre. Nous, Occidentaux, nous avons besoin de clart, de
prcision, dun point de chute dans un texte narratif, alors que dans la culture persanophone,
comme le rvle Rahimi dans une conversation avec Elodie Bernard ( La Revue de
Teheran , fv. 2009), on pratique linfini, on est dans une structure circulaire. Des destins
qui se rejoignent et scartent. Cest pareil en posie, en peinture, en philosophie, dans
lhistoire mme. Pour un lecteur afghan, la construction romanesques est familire, mais la
crudit des propos inhabituelle, alors que pour un lecteur europen, le contenu, mis part le
reflet dune culture inconnue, nest gure choquant, ce qui le dstabilise en revanche, cest de
ne pas savoir exactement comment cela se termine. Lcrivain raconte quil lui arrive assez
souvent dtre arrt dans les rues de Paris pour quon lui demande des claircissements quant
la fin de ce roman, ce qui lamuse beaucoup et le fait rflchir sur les diffrences majeures
entre les civilisations, mais aussi sur la formidable libert que la navigation vers la partie
vase de lentonnoir linguistique, celle qui rejoint et fait fondre toutes les langues des autres,
offre au crateur bilingue.
Ma langue maternelle impose ses limites, une certaine pudeur. Il y a beaucoup de
tabous. Ma langue adoptive reflte la libert que je recherchais en criture pour ce
thme.
La langue persane est trs particulire du fait quelle exprime notre identit. Elle
reflte les tiraillements de nos esprits. Par exemple, on utilise beaucoup de passs
mais trs peu de futurs, linverse de langlais. Tout est dans le pass et la
nostalgie. Cest aussi une langue trs mtaphorique avec une potique elliptique.
Jutilise cette facette de ma langue mais jessaie toutefois de me dbarrasser de ses
penchants naturels. Lutilisation du franais me permet dacqurir alors une
certaine intimit. Lhistoire du corps est constamment rejete en Orient. Une ligne
trs franche sest dessine entre lunivers intime et la socit. Cet cart entre vie
familiale et vie sociale engendre une certaine hypocrisie dans nos socits.
Jespre casser cette ligne de front. Et cest pour dire la douleur dune femme de
mon pays que jai renonc au persan. (ibid.)
Abandonner sa langue au profit dune libert cratrice, contourner sa civilisation par
un dtour provocateur exprim sous masque et ter sa parole lhomme pour que la femme
puisse parler sans entraves, voil le cheminement tortueux, fait de renoncements et de
rvlations, que lcrivain afghan-franais nous propose. Syngu sabour, cest la pierre de
patience renverse, cette pierre magique que, selon la lgende, l'on pose devant soi pour lui
souffler tous ses secrets, toutes ses souffrances... jusqu' ce qu'elle clate. Tandis que la
guerre fait rage Kaboul, une jeune mre veille son mari, hros de guerre, plong dans le
coma, inconscient depuis des semaines et des mois. Elle ignore sil lentend, si ses mots
saccumulent quelque part, sil se rveillera nouveau et quand... Au fil des jours, la femme
671
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
se dcourage, son dvouement lui pse. Sa voix, d'abord timide et hsitante, s'affirme et elle
se met raconter l'homme endormi ses doutes et ses angoisses, puis ses errances, ses
peines, la somme irrductible de ses rancurs, ses frustrations, ses humiliations tout droit
sorties dune longue tradition qui na pas mnag les femmes. La fin nentre pas dans les
cadres romanesques occidentaux ; lhomme se rveille de son coma et clate , comme la
syngu sabour, empoignant sa femme et lui tordant le cou, en mme temps quelle lui enfonce
un poignard dans le cur. Ce qui ne lempche pas daller ensuite sallonger tranquillement
sur le matelas, tandis que, en entendant quelquun entrer dans la maison,
La femme rouvre doucement les yeux.
Le vent se lve et fait voler les oiseaux migrateurs au-dessus de son corps.
(Rahimi : 2008, 155)
Ecriture durasienne, sobre et hache, mystre et posie persans. A chaque fois quune
histoire se termine, une autre commence. On dirait les 1001 nuits ou la fameuse Confrence
des oiseaux de Farid Al-DinAttr. Les oiseaux plerins qui partent vers la montagne du Qf
guids par une huppe la recherche du Simorgh, leur roi, traversent diffrentes valles, la
valle de lamour, la valle du dtachement, la valle de lmerveillement... A chaque valle
traverse, la huppe raconte aux oiseaux une histoire, sans jamais la conclure et si on lui
demande de le faire, elle enchane avec une autre histoire. Cette structure de linfini, que
Rahimi hrite de lIran et de lInde, o les contes se cherchent et se drobent, ne se donnant
pas directement et compltement, est loppos de la vision occidentale, qui veut absolument
une morale, comme dans les fables de La Fontaine. Le mot de la fin nest pas l o on
lattend, puisquil ny a pas de fin, dans la conception de lcrivain oriental, il y a tout juste
un goulot spatio-temporel qui souvre nouveau vers un autre monde. Accepter avec
srnit une identits est plus ais dans ces circonstances-l. Atiq Rahimi, linstar de
nombreux autres crivains qui ont vcu des expriences similaires, est afghan dans sa pense
et franais dans lexpression de celle-ci. A supposer que lon puisse radicalement sparer le
signifiant et le signifi, ce qui nest videmment pas possible, les fils multiples qui
sentremlent dans la situation considree dterminant des transferts rciproques, fertiles et
salutaires. La vision du monde se trouve modifie de par le nouveau moule qui la faonne,
alors que la langue franaise respire au rythme dune autre civilisation millnaire. Il nest
alors pas surprenant de lire, sous la plume de lcrivain mme, lhistoire de cette symbiose
inattendue :
Il y a normment de ressemblances entre le franais et le persan. En italien ou en
anglais, il y a beaucoup daccents. Le persan est une langue linaire tout comme le
franais. Les intonations en franais ressemblent davantage celles du dari. A la
fin des phrases, les accents tombent. Ce sont deux langues rhtoriques,
contrairement langlais que je considre plutt comme une langue fonctionnelle
et comme lallemand qui est plus grammatical. Lalchimie entre les mots, leur
emplacement dans la phrase, le rythme, la tonalit. La mme ide peut tre
exprime de diffrentes manires. Retravailler sur chaque phrase, chaque mot
pour trouver le bon rythme. Jai souhait crer un pont entre lOrient et
672
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
lOccident. Mme dans le langage. Jimplique la rhtorique persane dans la langue
franaise. ( La Revue de Teheran , fv. 2009)
La libert dans la parole peut tre aussi un pige. Parce qu'il faut trs bine connatre
toutes les subtilits culturelles et historiques des langues et des socits qui les pratiquent.
Donc, il est vrai que la langue persane est proche du franais certains gards, mais en mme
temps, passer d'une langue l'autre implique un long voyage faire, aussi bien linguistique
que culturel. Un voyage initiatique pour Atiq Rahimi, venu au monde dans une langue, le
persan, qui lui a transmis tous ses tabous, ses interdits, ses limites, lui imposant de ce fait une
sorte d'autocensure involontaire, une pudeur dans le maniement des mots, car il y a non
seulement un imaginaire des langues, il existe aussi un insconscient de chaque langue. Alors
que dans sa langue d'adoption, le franais, comme il sagit dune langue dlection, les
chanes tombent et la parole multiculturelle se libre vers une unit mouvante, illimite.
Bibliographie
BENIAMINO Michel, La Francophonie littraire, Paris, LHarmattan, 1990.
CHAMOISEAU Patrick, Ecrire en pays domin, Paris, Gallimard, 1997.
COMBE Dominique, Les littratures francophones. Questions, dbats, polmiques, Paris,
PUF, 2010.
DELEUZE Gilles, GUATTARI Flix, Kafka. Pour une littrature mineure, Paris, Minuit,
1975.
DERRIDA Jacques, Le Monolinguisme de lautre, Paris, Galile, 1996.
GAUVIN Lise, LEcrivain francophone la croise des langues, Paris, Khartala, 1997.
GAUVIN Lise, GLISSANT Edouard, LImaginaire des langues, Paris, Gallimard, 2010.
GLISSANT Edouard, Potique de la Relation, Paris, Gallimard, 1990.
HALL Stuart, Identits et cultures. Politiques des Cultural Studies, Paris, Ed. Amsterdam,
2008.
Internationale de lImaginaire, Cette langue quon appelle le franais. Lapport des crivains
la langue franaise, Arles, Actes Sud/Babel, 2006.
KHATIBI Abdelkbir, Amour bilingue, Montpellier, Fata Morgana, 1983 ; Bilinguisme,
dialogisme et schizophrnie in KHATIBI Abdelkbir (dir.), Du bilinguisme, Paris, Denol,
1985.
LE BRIS Michel, ROUAUD Jean, Pour une littrature-monde, Paris, Gallimard, 2007.
MAALOUF Amin, Les Identits meurtrires, Paris, Grasset, 1998.
Acknowledgment. Cet article est le rsultat partiel dune recherche plus complexe dploye
dans le cadre du projet LEspace identitaire dans la littrature francophone contemporaine
(PN-II-ID-PCE-2011-3-0617), financ par lEtat roumain travers CNCSIS UEFISCDI.
673
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
EMINESCU EN FRANAIS. LA LANGUE DES TRADUCTIONS
Mircea ARDELEANU, Professor, PhD, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu
Abstract: For Romanians translating Eminescu is a challenge that surpasses literary
problematics, opening intercultural, transcultural, ethnographic, philosophical and political
aspects. French translations date a century back and abound on the internet. Have they
succeeded in making the beauty of Eminescus poetry known to the Francophone world as
Romanians thoroughly wish?
In Romania one considers unanimously that Eminescus poems do not sound well in
French. One investigates this particular uncommon phenomenon suggesting vertiginous
theories (linguistic confinement, cultural impenetrability, the irreducible character of the
Romanian soul etc.) in a field that goes from the false relief ( one will have tried
everything) to resignation ( impossible task!). Everywhere floats the resentment of an
unconceivable failure.
This failure calls for inquiry full-face. The purpose of this article is to deal with a few
considerations around the problematics of translating Mihai Eminescus poetry into French,
underpinned by analyses and classifications. Our perspective, although essentially linguistic-
semiotic, remains essentially literary and poetic.
Keywords: Mihai Eminescu, poetic translation, translation analysis, translation poetics,
tertium traductionis
Dans cet article nous souhaitons relancer certains questionnements souvent escamots
dans les recherches traductologiques plus rcentes notamment en relation avec la traduction et
la dissmination outre frontires de luvre de Mihai Eminescu. Ce n'est pas sans quelque
sincre nostalgie que nous constatons les bonnes intentions, l'enthousiasme et l'optimisme des
traducteurs minescologues qui depuis plus dun sicle uvrent dans ce champ, car les
rsultats ne sont pas la mesure de tous ces efforts, et cest le montrer que nous consacrons
les lignes ci-dessous, travers une dmarche critique de la traduction autant que proprement
littraire. Nous ne faisons pas ntre lopinion de K. Reiss que toute critique ngative devrait
tre assortie de la proposition d'une solution meilleure 1, ni que lorsqu'un pome est
restitu en langue-cible par une version en prose, on ne saurait parler de traduction stricto
sensu 2, propositions qui nous semblent entraner le critique et le traducteur dans des voies
impraticables, car toute traduction est un compromis et c'est cette unique condition qu'elle
est susceptible de s'intgrer dans la totalit de la vie. En mme temps, nous sommes conscient
de nos propres limites, subjectives, objectives et, sans entrer dans la complexit de la
problmatique du traducteur, en connexion, par exemple, avec la thorie freudienne sur le
paradoxe de l'identit et de l'altrit intrieure de chacun des acteurs impliqus, dont font tat
1
Reiss, Katharina, La Critique des traductions, ses possibilits et ses limites, trad. C. Bocquet, Arras, Artois
Presses Universit, 2002, p. 17.
2
Ibid., p. 56-57.
674
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
les ouvrages dun Norman Holland ou dun Francesco Orlando, nous les assumons tout en les
regrettant.
Comme le disait Ernest Renan, une uvre non traduite nest qu demi publie .
Luvre dEminescu, malgr tous les attraits dont elle se pare, semble plutt avoir oppos aux
assiduits des amants des belles infidles des exigences difficiles satisfaire, encore que
ceux-ci se comptent par lgions, en croire Internet. Stonnera-t-on alors de la voir alimenter
le mythe duvre intraduisible, dclin sur toutes les voix ? Il y aurait dabord ceux qui,
mettant en avant lide romantique dune me spcifique des nations, croient dur comme
fer lintraductibilit de la posie, expression irrductible de cette me. Ce mythe est
doublement dcal, par rapport au savoir et la pratique traductologiques, mais cest bien
dune idologie de ce type quest redevable l institutionalisation dEminescu, qui na pas
peu contribu la mise en place dun systme dinterdits, de formules et de clichs qui
risquent de figer luvre au lieu de louvrir laction transformatrice du temps la lumire de
critres nouveaux. Et l, les traducteurs ont une grande action accomplir. Prenons, titre
dexemple quelques uns de ces clichs : Etant profondment roumain, Eminescu est
universel. Ceci est bien connu de tous ceux qui lisent avec regret que le cadenas des langues
ne peut souvrir avec des cls trangres. Bien des tentatives ont t faites pour transposer
luvre du pote, maintes, pourrait-on dire, mieux abouties, mais Eminescu nest lui-mme
quen roumain 3. Lucian Chiu, qui cite Arghezi, partage et soutient lui-mme la thse du
caractre intraduisible de luvre potique dEminescu. Paula Romanescu, traductrice
dEminescu, dclare : traduire Eminescu, cest tuer le chant de lalouette 4 et elle continue
un peu plus bas : Comment traduire ce miracle roumain qui parce quil devait porter un
nom, on la nomm Eminescu. Dautres traducteurs prfaciers soulignent le paradoxe qui
consiste approcher dans une intention traduisante une uvre qui dcourage par sa difficult :
Paul Miclu5, George Astalos6 et bien dautres. Il serait peut-tre opportun de reproduire ici
lopinion dun des traducteurs franais, le premier qui ait os entreprendre une traduction
systmatique, encore quincomplte, de luvre dEminescu, Louis Barral : Quant la
traduction : jai essay de rendre le plus fidlement possible dabord le sens du vers serrant du
trs prs le texte. Sil y a quelques ides qui nont pas t traduites, outre que je ne crois pas
quelles soient essentielles, la faute en a t mon impuissance maintenir dans la technique
du vers franais la concision que permettaient au pote roumain la rime locale et des
idiotismes intraduisibles pour nous. 7 Barral insiste galement sur les aspects formels et sur
certains lments de prosodie : Jai reproduit, sauf quelques exceptions rares, la cadence
apparente de la posie roumaine, le rythme extrieur, celui qui est immdiatement peru par
un lecteur franais. Je dois dire que la versification roumaine prvoit toujours en plus ce que
3
Cit par Lucian Chiu, Eminescu tradus , dans Caiete critice, 1/2010, p. 52 : Fiind foarte romn, Eminescu
e universal. Asta o tie oricine citete, cu prere de ru, c lactul limbilor nu poate fi descuiat cu cheile strine.
S-au facut multe ncercri de transpunere a poetului, unele, se poate spune, mai izbutite, dar Eminescu nu este el
dect n romnete.
4
Crciun, Cristiana; Crciun, Victor (ed.), Eminescu - peste nemrginirea timpului, p. 335-336 : S traduci
Eminescu e ca i cum ai ucide cntul privighetorii et Cum se poate traduce tot acest miracol romnesc cruia,
fiindc "trebuia s poarte un nume, i s-a spus Eminescu"?
5
Mihai Eminescu, Posies, Bucureti, Minerva, 1989.
6
Mihai Eminescu, Mlancolie, Editions Casa Radio, Bucarest, 2004.
7
M. Eminesco, Pomes choisis, trad. par L. Barral p. 14.
675
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
je pourrais nommer un rythme intrieur, produit par le mlange des anciens pieds latins, plus
souvent le dactyle et le troche. Outre que le public qui ces traductions sadressent, ny et
pas t sensible, cela et cr au traducteur des difficults autant dire insurmontables. 8 Il
met en vedette les difficults dues une perception diffrente de la poticit en roumain et
en franais. Il parle, enfin, des licences linguistiques. Mais Barral doit se reconnatre
vaincu, tant il y a de choses quil naura pas russi passer sur lautre rive : Enfin, et jen
dois laveu au lecteur, ce que ma traduction est loin de faire souponner, cest lharmonie du
vers original ; sa finesse de velout, sa force de concret, cette musique verbale que lon
admire tant chez Eminesco. Quand on songe que mis en face dun instrument encore bien
rudimentaire, malgr Alecsandri, il sest cr presque de toutes pices une langue parfaite, on
en demeure bloui. Pote gnial, Eminesco est encore le plus grand artiste en vers. 9
Quelles que fussent les rticences et les difficults, luvre dEminescu a suscit
lintrt et a fait parler delle dans lunivers francophone : la circulation des versions en
franais des pomes dEminescu tirages, rythmes de rditions, prsence dans les
bibliothques publiques, accessibilit, gographie de la dissmination ditoriale, prsence sur
Internet mme si elle ne privilgie pas les meilleures versions, semble garantir une prsence
dEminescu dans la conscience des lecteurs contemporains tous publics confondus10. Un
simple dnombrement sur le corpus considr pourra servir damorce de dbat sur cet aspect :
jusqu prsent, luvre dEminescu a tent sept ou huit auteurs franais, ayant eu, une ou
deux exceptions prs, un contact direct avec la langue et la culture roumaines, et une
quinzaine de traducteurs dorigine roumaine, parfois vivant ou ayant vcu en milieu
francophone. Mettons tout de suite un bmole : ces ouvrages, majoritairement, sont publis
dans des maisons dditions roumaines et seulement trois dans des maisons franaises. Les
trois maisons ddition franaises publient de grands intervalles de temps, le volume de
Louis Barral (Librairie Lecoffre, J. Gabalda et Cie, 1934), les Quatre pomes: traduits et
prsents par Hubert Juin (Editions Hautefeuille, 1958), et la deuxime dition du volume de
Michel Wattremez (Lille, Wattremez.com, 2002) dont les ditions de la Fondation Culturelle
Roumaine Bucarest avaient publi une premire livraison en 1997. Ni le recueil de Barral,
ni le livre dHubert juin nont t rdits depuis. Cette discussion prcise, en le rduisant
ses dimensions relles, le taux de pntration de cette uvre potique en milieu francophone
car, nen doutons pas, la France a jou et joue toujours, pour le monde francophone, le rle de
relais, sinon de phare. Que reste-t-il donc ? Tournons-nous du ct roumain ! Dire quun livre
de posie traduit et publi dans le pays de lauteur lintention dun public-cible francophone
aura, dans la zone gographique de ce dernier, une circulation plus rduite que le mme livre
mis en circulation par une maison idoine nous semble relever du bon sens. Les traductions de
la posie dEminescu soulvent ainsi demble le problme considrable de sa circulation. Sy
ajoute immdiatement celui de la qualit. Point nest besoin de montrer ici la relation de
dtermination qui relie le second au prmier. Celui-ci mrite de faire lobjet dune recherche,
mais ne nous retiendra pas.
8
Ibid., p. 15.
9
Ibid., p. 16.
10
Nous prfrons ignorer certaines versions qui pullulent sur nombre de sites Internet, sous signature dauteur ou
non, et serions heureux de savoir que le lecteur tranger en fait autant.
676
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Nous nous contentons aujourdhui dexplorer quelques aspects du second. La langue
du traducteur est certes un facteur dimpact, qui fait que la problmatique des traductions
minesciennes se diffracte selon le rapport linguistique du traducteur la langue du texte. L.
Barral, S. Pavs, H. Juin, A. Bosquet, M. Wattremez, J.-L. Courriol traduisent vers leur
langue maternelle, ayant, du roumain la connaissance que leur ont permise la dure de leur
sjour et lintensit des changes avec leur milieu roumanophone et avec la culture roumaine.
Nous ne traiterons pas longtemps de ces traductions, mais nous ferons de renvois et des
comparaisons toutes les fois que notre dmarche le rendra ncessaire. Potes consacrs ou
non, de plus ou moins grande rputation dans la Rpublique des lettres, ces auteurs mettent le
mieux deux-mmes pour comprendre en roumain et pour restituer en franais la posie
dEminescu. Ils utilisent, en gnral, une langue soutenue, matrise, conforme aux
grammaires. Leurs textes soulvent plutt des questions de smantique globale du pome, dus
soit une comprhension insuffisante ou errone de quelque image, mtaphore ou fragment,
soit une trop grande adhrence lnonc roumain, comme en tmoignait L. Barral. La
qualit de leur rendu est galement fonction de leur talent potique propre, mais nous
avons la conviction que les avances dans les sciences du langage et les savoirs
traductologiques accumuls et formaliss au cours de la seconde moiti du XX e sicle nen
sont pas trangers non plus. Langue, savoirs et talent propre font que les traductions executes
par des traducteurs franais font en gnral meilleur effet. Cependant, disons-le tout de suite,
avec de nombreuses exceptions : les versions ralises avant la fin de la Deuxime Guerre
mondiale nous semblent relever dune conception de la posie et de la traduction qui
renferment Eminescu dans un univers (pr)romantique et ne laissent percevoir ni la
profondeur et ltendue de sa philosophie de vie, ni luvre courageuse et incontournable de
travail sur la langue et les codes potiques. Non seulement ils ignorent le make it new !
dEzra Pound, mais il leur arrive de navoir pas saisi la mtaphore dans toute sa richesse, de
brouiller limage originale, la figure, la configuration, la source. Cette proposition vaut pour
des traducteurs tels L. Barral, S. Pavs, quels que soient leurs mrites par ailleurs. Cependant,
mme chez eux, cette image rduite, diminue etc., reste visible grce la cohrence
discursive qui se plie volontiers aux injonctions de la grammaire normative. Mme si ces
traductions ne sont pas habites par le gnie potique, la langue du pome traduit soutient
efficacement le fonctionnement smiotique du texte. Nous croyons galement que lon peut
affirmer quil y a un crescendo qualitatif dans le temps : si les premires traductions
apparaissent plutt comme des approches potiques du pome original (Barral, Pavs), les
traductions ultrieures serrent le sens de plus prs, et lon peut affirmer que la lecture des
traductions existantes y est pour quelque chose. Enfin, la qualit du talent potique propre du
traducteur nest pas trangre celle du rsultat, ce dont tmoignent les traductions dHubert
Juin et dAlain Bosquet qui, tout en tant peu nombreuses, sont mme de donner une ide
prcise de lenvergure de la posie dEminescu. Comparons, titre dexemple :
677
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Alan Bosquet, Michel Wattremez, Jean-Louis Courriol,
A mes critiques, (1999) Au ciel profond (1997) Loin de toi (1987)
Peu de fleurs ont des fruits. Au ciel profond Prs du feu, loin de toi, me revient en mmoire
Toutes frappent aux portes Les champs dtoiles
De ma triste existence la malheureuse histoire,
De la vie, et sans bruit Tissent leurs toiles
Meurent ; vent les emporte Et se dfont Il y a quatre-vingts ans que je suis n, je crois,
Lhiver mme est moins vieux, tu nes plus ici-
Simple : crire des vers Au signe trois
Quand on na rien dire. Mouvant leurs charges bas.
Choisir des mots divers Tremblent les larges
Les souvenirs reviennent un un me hanter,
Qui riment, peut suffire. Vaisseaux de bois :
Exhumer du pass mille riens oublis.
Mais si tous les dsirs Sombres cits
De ses doigts gourds, le vent vient frapper au
Vont lme blesse ; Des ondoyantes
Si, grave, ta pense Et tournoyantes carreau,
Les voudrait recueillir Immensits
Je me reprends croire aux contes les plus
beaux.
Il me semble te voir dans la brume passer ;
Les traductions provenant des auteurs roumains francophones matrisant le franais
parfois un trs haut niveau et vivant ou non en milieu francophone soulvent on pouvait
sy attendre eux aussi ce type de problmes. Mais il y a plus : ils prsentent trop souvent des
dfauts de cohrence discursive, de syntaxe au niveau de la phrase (accords, concordances,
emplois stylistiques marqus, formules impropres, constructions condamnes, etc.), et parfois
mme des erreurs affectant le smantisme du mot au niveau connotatif plutt que dnotatif.
Nous ferons un plus long arrt devant les productions de cet autre groupe de
traducteurs, plus nombreux et beaucoup plus foisonnant. Quoique faites par des personnes
susceptibles de vibrer avec empathie la lecture et, par consquent, de surprendre
correctement limage et lessence philosophico-potique des textes minesciens, ces
traductions prsentent, quelques rares exceptions prs, des dfauts qui soulvent des
questions fondamentales, risquant de remettre en question le sens du travail de traduction. L
encore, nous pouvons surprendre quelques distinctions entre, par exemple, les traducteurs
dorigine roumaine vivant dans le milieu francophone de lexil (France, Belgique, Suisse) :
Steriade, Miller-Verghy, Lahovary, Nicolescu mais sadressant des maisons roumaines en
vue de la publication de leurs versions, et les traducteurs roumains francophones qui, malgr
des liens trs puissants et prolongs avec la langue franaise et avec les pays francophones,
vivent en Roumanie o dailleurs ils ont publi eux aussi leurs traductions. Les annes de
parution surtout entre 1974 et 1989 , concidant avec certains anniversaires, suggrent que
ces publications pourraient avoir t lexpression dun intrt de lEtat roumain travers les
institutions spcialises de lpoque (Ministre de la Culture, Ministre de lExtrieur, Institut
Culturel Roumain, Maisons dEditions participant la mise en place de la politique culturelle
du parti etc.), ce qui naurait rien de mal en soi, si ces traductions ntaient pas de simples
rponses des commandes dEtat et avaient la qualit littraire requise. Malgr notre
totale confiance dans lenthousiasme, loptimisme, les bonnes intentions et la bonne foi de
tous les traducteurs de notre corpus, force est de dire que tel nest pas le cas. Cest donc cet
aspect qui va nous retenir plus longtemps, non avant de faire notre mea culpa, car nous nous
678
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
avanons dans une voie qui, si elle nest pas explicitement interdite, nest pas trs frquente
non plus. La tche que nous nous donnons nest pas de distribuer de bons ou de mauvais
points aux traducteurs, mais de mener une rflexion sur la connaissance de luvre
dEminescu et sur le plaisir esthtique que lon peut tirer des traductions en franais
disponibles 130 ans aprs la publication du premier recueil potique dEminescu par Titu
Maiorescu, et ce dans lespoir dobtenir en mme temps quelques lments pour savoir quel
est le destin de Eminescu dans lunivers francophone et sil correspond lide que nous nous
en faisons.
Afin de commencer dans une note lgrement humoristique prenons un
chantillon des Cogitations du pauvre Dionis11 :
Mihai Eminescu, Cugetrile srmanului
Dionis
Cum nu sunt un oarec, doamne mcar totui are Greu li-i de mindir de paie i apoi din biata-mi piele
blan, Nu mai au ce s mai sug. Intr-un roi mai de un
Mi-a mnca crile mele nici c mi-ar psa de ger stnjen
Mi-ar prea superb, dulce, o bucat din Homer,
Un palat borta-n prete i nevasta o icoan. Au ieit la promenad ce petrecere gentil !
Plonia ceea-i btrn, cuvios n mers pete ;
Pe prei cu colb, pe podul cu lungi pnze de painjen Cela-i cavaler e iute oare tie franuzete?
Roiesc ploniele roii, de i-i drag s te-uii la ele ! Cea ce-nconjur mulimea i-o romantic copil.
Veturia Drgnescu-Vericeanu12, S. Pavs,13
Les penses du pauvre Dionis Les mditations du pauvre Dionis
Si souris je pouvais tre ? elle au moins a une fourrure Dieu, que ne suis-je un rat ? Sa fourrure,
Je mangerais de mes livres pour le froid, je men balance partout,
Elle serait superbe, douce, de lHomre une bonne tranche ; Peut narguer le frimas Je mangerais mes
Un palais mon trou serait-il et ma femme icne pure. livres ;
Homre, tes morceaux seraient de bien doux
Sur les murs pleins de poussire, le plafond, do les toiles vivres,
pendent, Une icne, ma femme et mon palais, un trou
Des punaises rouges foisonnent un plaisir quon les rvise !
La paillasse les dgote, mais de ma peau sec mise Sur les murs poussireux, sous les fils
Rien ne reste pour leur sucette. Presquune toise a leur bande daraigne,
Des punaises en tas, cest plaisir de les voir.
Elles vont la promenade quelle partie gentiment belle ! Ma paille leur dplat et leur pauvre suoir
Lune, qui toute pieuse savance, est une trs ge punaise. Ne trouve plus de sang dans ma peau
Lautre, vif, garon encore parle-t-il la langue franaise ? ddaigne.
Celle qui lassemble contourne, est une romantique pucelle.
Voici leur promenade. Oh, quel essaim
charmant !
La punaise vieille pas pieux savance.
Vois, ce vif cavalier ne vient-il pas de France ?
Et cette frtillante et romantique enfant
11
Ce titre nous appartient. Pour le fragment slectionn, voir : Mihai Eminescu, Posies Poezii, traduction par
Veturia Drgnescu-Vericeanu, p. 26-27.
12
Mihai Eminescu, Posies Poezii, Bucureti, Ed. Minerva, 1974, p. 27.
13
Mihai Eminescu, Posies, traduites par S. Pavs, Bucureti, tipografia Bucovina , 1945, p. 42-43.
679
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
On remarque du premier coup dil que les vers de Pavs sont plus brefs. En effet, si
Veturia Drgnescu-Vericeanu sefforce de respecter le schma rythmique de loriginal
combinant (diffremment) les vers de 15 et de 16 syllabes, Pavs en arrive naturellement, on
dirait presque fatalement, au schma de lalexandrin de 12 syllabes, tout en respectant en
revanche le schma des rimes minesciennes, car ce type de vers est troitement lis des
traditions littraires trs anciennes et le lecteur franais ne goterait gure le vers de 16
syllabes dEminescu. On peut discuter des solutions et trouvailles de Pavs : rat ou
souris ? fourrure partout veut dire fourrure qui le/la couvre entirement ? On
conviendra que le vocabulaire est moins savoureux que celui dEminescu : mcar totui ,
borta , colb , mindir , lide de mesurer, ne ft-ce qu lil la procession des
punaises, etc., et pourtant, malgr tout ce bagage retenu la douane des langues, limage
passe, le lecteur reconstitue facilement lunivers de misre du pauvre Dionis et sa philosophie.
Souffre-t-on la frustration davoir t priv des quatre syllabes supplmentaires du vers
roumain ?
La version de Veturia Drgnescu-Vericeanu est pleine de surprises. Passons sur la
substitution non quivalente dune proposition simplement dubitative dont le sens est :
est-ce que je pourrais tre une souris ? ou, plutt : Et si jtais souris ? , une
proposition exclamative nuance hypothtique irrelle, plus propre exprimer la nostalgie et
linaccompli, ce qui nous semble tre une perte injustifie. Mais ce qui gne le plus est le type
dinversion totalement inconnu dans la syntaxe franaise. Si souris je pouvais tre ? est,
disons-le, incomprhensible. Dailleurs, les inversions sont si frquentes chez cette
traductrice, quelles semblent composer lessentiel de sa mthode de traduction, tel point
quaprs avoir mis en place linversion, elle va jusqu la doubler de linversion canonique
verbe-sujet : Un palais mon trou serait-il ! Un peu plus haut on trouvait une autre belle
cascade dinversions : Elle serait superbe, douce, de lHomre une bonne tranche , et, un
peu plus bas, une autre, non moins voyante : mais de ma peau sec mise . Un inventaire,
mme trs incomplet, des emplois douteux relverait galement limpossibilit de construire
le complment de manger avec la prposition de et celle de faire prcder un nom
propre dun article dfini : de lHomre , limpossibilit smantique dutiliser, en isotopie
livre , le mot tranche , lequel, par ailleurs nest pas une rime ni mme une assonance !
pour balance , ce dernier tant employ lui-mme dans une expression plutt triviale,
sans quivalent dans le texte dorigine ; et nous dirions de mme de mon trou dans le
demi-vers Un palais mon trou . Remarquons que le traducteur franais a vit le pige
en traduisant un trou , qui est loin dgarer limagination du lecteur. Passons sur les verbes
dont on ne respecte pas le rgime (foisonner, pendre), sur les mots et les syntagmes dont on a
du mal comprendre le sens ( rviser , sucette , icne pure , garon encore etc.) et
ninsistons pas non plus sur les rimes inabouties ou obtenues au prix dinadmissibles entorses,
passons sur le rythme heurt et les nombreuses cacophonies (si su, dans Si souris et
nous en passons) phoniques ou rythmiques ! Aucune recherche digne de ce nom ne semble
avoir jamais t effectue pour (re)crer le dispositif potique ; des trucs appliqus ad libitum,
notamment des inversions (inutiles autant quillicites !) en tous genres. Toutes ces inversions
ont une fonction spcifique, bien dfinie et pas du tout insignifiante, puisquelles doivent
assumer la poticit mme du texte darrive, conformment la logique simple : ceci est
du langage soumis un travail perceptible, donc ce nest pas du langage commun, cest du
680
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
langage potique et il convient de mettre en uvre des procdures de finesse pour en saisir le
sens . Cest une manire de transfrer au lecteur la tche de smantisation, que le traducteur
na pas mene bonne fin. Un second exemple, puis dans le mme volume 14 nous servira
affiner cette analyse et vrifier les hypothses que nous avons formules ci-dessus :
Mihai Eminescu, Oricte stele V. Drgnescu-Vericeanu, Quun infini dtoiles
Deci cum voieti tu poi urma crarea. Donc, ta guise sur ton chemin tengage,
Fii bun i mare, ori ptat de crime, Bont, grandeur ou crimes qui te conduisent,
Acelai praf, aceeai adncime, En mme profonde poussire se rduisent.
Iar motenirea ta i-a tot : uitarea. Loubli pour toi, pour tous est lhritage.
Dans lexemple ci-dessus, la bance ouverte par labsence au premier vers du pronom
personnel sujet, pourtant obligatoire selon les grammaires, happe le lecteur et le met devant
un problme insoluble avec les moyens ordinaires. On ne comprend pas, ici, si la traductrice
traduit le prsent de lindicatif tu poi urma crarea par un indicatif prsent tu
tengages , ou par un impratif engage-toi ! Constat ou injonction ? Ce nest pas
tout ! Le dplacement du verbe un endroit qui lui est totalement impropre en franais, tant
lindicatif qu limpratif, le rend plutt apte saccorder ou a donner limpression de
saccorder, loral, avec la suite numrative Bont, grandeur ou crimes , car lintention
numrative invite linversion. Et sur cette pente on glisse trs facilement, dautant plus que
la distribution des signes de ponctuation respectivement en roumain et en franais pointe vers
un dcoupage syntaxique tel, que force est de le dire ! la traductrice traduit un autre texte,
non le texte dEminescu 15 (ce dont on en tait dailleurs prvenu ds le titre, et pour cause).
Au deuxime vers, le texte roumain ouvre une alternative sans faille syntaxique, dont il ne
reste dans la version franais quune relique, le ou . Contrairement ce que lon aura peut-
tre pu esprer, le relatif qui nexige pas, dans cet emploi, le subjonctif qui nous ferait lire
la proposition que ce soient la bont, la grandeur ou les crimes qui te conduisent .
Remarquons en passant que le sens de ce deuxime vers, clair et net en roumain, est
totalement brouill dans la langue de Voltaire, si lon peut dire. Lopposition tu /vs/ tot
(+anim, +humain /vs/ -anim, -humain) du dernier vers est rduite une opposition interne
du domaine +humain, toi /vs/ tous . La squence En mme profonde poussire a
besoin dun article, dfini ou indfini, dont labsence la rend absolument dadaste. Mais
malgr toutes ces faiblesses et autres coupures de rythme, la rime est sauve, puisque
effectivement engage et hritage dun ct, conduisent et rduisent de lautre
riment parfaitement. On se demande seulement si cette russite valait tout ce gchis. Certains
vers rivalisent avec les traductions assistes par lordinateur : Ce sont des rves lun et
lautre,/Sous un signe dgalit:/ Si ternel je suis au monde,/Si je meurs dans lternit. 16
o nous assistons une bien trange manire dexprimer la condition suffisante en hypothse
14
Mihai Eminescu, Posies Poezii, traduction par Veturia Drgnescu-Vericeanu, p. 310-311.
15
Nous parlions tout lheure de ponctuation. Le sujet mrite de sy arrter un instant : en dehors du fait que
chaque traducteur a utilis une dition de base comportant certaines caractristiques orthographiques et
typographiques, il y a sans doute, dans les recueils du corpus, des erreurs dorthographe dont nous pouvons avoir
la conviction quelles ne sont pas redevables aux traducteurs : Saint-Marc sonne la miE-nuit (M. Eminescu,
Mlancolie, trad. Paul Miclu, p. 69).
16
Mlancolie, trad. Paul Miclu, p. 44.
681
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
alternative, malgr la formule, mathmatisante mais bien prosaque et peu pertinente, de
Sous un signe dgalit . Parfois, on utilise les propositions de faon leur faire dire ce
quelles nont pas lhabitude de dire en franais de France : Tu mappelles chez toi sur le
chant du feuillage 17 au lieu de par le chant ; la cause sexprime-t-elle potiquement plus
efficacement par sous comme dans Seffeuille lacacia sous lautomne et le
vent 18 ? On voit les substantifs prcds de travers se priver de leurs articles, et,
dailleurs, ils le font mme moindre prix : Silence de tombeau rgne dans la cit 19. Et
pourtant, pour rendre justice ce traducteur, il russit comme par miracle dexcellents vers de
traduction, qui nous donnent un aperu de ce quauraient pu tre ces traductions si Dans
locan de langue mise mal et de vers bcls, on peut pcher de temps en temps une perle
rare, tel ce vers : de Venise : Cest la lune qui coule et la cit qui luit 20 o lon a tout
pour entrevoir le gnie du pote travers celui du traducteur : picturalit romantique, fluidit,
musique du vers, clart de la langue etc., et mme si ce vers ne correspond pas exactement
Ptrunde luna nlbind preii , le lecteur le lui pardonnerait volontiers. Cependant, et cest
l une remarque gnrale, ces traductions font tat dun vocabulaire trs restreint et dune
syntaxe trop souvent rudimentaire, instruments trs insuffisants pour la traduction potique en
gnral. Une question centrale qui concerne le lexique semble tre un certain ftichisme
du mot minescien, que ce soit une attitude consciente ou non. Cest dabord une question
intralinguistique, mais elle risque de bousculer tout moment la prosodie du texte de la
traduction. Lobstination respecter non seulement lordre des mots mais aussi leurs
catgories grammaticales, en traduisant, par exemple, le substantif par le substantif, le verbe
par un verbe etc., oblige le traducteur faire violence la langue par des entorses dont ils ne
semblent pas mesurer correctement la force destructive de sens, comme dans les exemples
suivants : El este moartea morii i nvierea vieii ! /vs/ Il est mort de la mort,
rsurrection de vie 21, ou
M. Eminescu, Scrisoarea V P. Miclu, Cinquime lettre
Ia ntreab-o, bunoar, Vous causez, par exemple
i-o s-i spun de panglice, de volane i de mode, Elle ne parlera que de rubans, de mode,
Pe cnd inima ta bate-n ritmul sfnt al unei ode Alors que ton cur bat le rythme saint dune ode
Cnd vezi piatra ce nu simte nici durerea i nici mila Devant pierre insensible aux peines difficiles,
De ai inim i minte feri n lturi, e Dalila ! Si tu as cur et esprit mfie-toi, cest Dalile !
Quand le vrai traducteur se prsentera, il aura rsoudre pas mal de problmes
interculturels, interlinguistiques etc. A ce jour, ces problmes sont pour la plupart inentams.
Prenons, cet effet, pour exemple, la fin de Mlancolie. Elle mrite toute notre attention, car
les erreurs sy tlescopent : le verbe croire est trop faible pour faire comprendre
limpression dtranget, la stupeur qui saisit le pote devant le spectacle purement imaginaire
de sa propre vie ; elle coule lgre favorise le malentendu amorc dj avec croire et
risque dentraner le lecteur dans une voie euphorique, contrairement aux intentions du pote ;
17
Ibid., p. 65.
18
Ibid.
19
Ibid., p. 67.
20
Ibid.
21
Mlancolie, trad. Paul Miclu, p. 57.
682
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
la comparaison hypothtique est grammaticalement errone, il fallait employer limparfait du
verbe comme si ce ntait pas , avec, comme bonus, une rythmique
M. Eminescu, Melancolie P. Miclu, Mlancolie, 2004 (1989)
i cnd gndesc la viaa-mi, mi pare c ea cur Quant ma vie, je crois quelle coule lgre
Incet repovestit de o strain gur, Lentement racont (sic) dune voix trangre,
Ca i cnd n-ar fi viaa-mi, ca i cnd n-a fi fost. Comme si ce nest pas toute mon existence.
Cine-i acel ce-mi spune povestea pe de rost Qui raconte par cur mon histoire si dense
De-mi in la el urechea i rd de cte-ascult Que jy tends mon oreille et ris en coutant,
Ca de dureri straine ? Parc-am murit de mult. Comme dun autre mal ? Serais-je mort pourtant ?
et une phontique plus conformes au discours potique ; mais racont (sic) dune voix au
lieu de raconte par une voix est pour le moins douteux. Et l, nous sommes devant le
problme des ajouts, bien connu par les traducteurs. Eminescu na pas dit et naurait jamais
dit en parlant de sa vie mon histoire si dense , cela nest pas dans le pome et on ne
voit pas en quoi cet ajout sert la traduction, except pour la rime existence - dense ;
mal nest pas douleur et comme dun autre mal nest pas lquivalent de Ca de
dureri strine , tout comme, pour en finir, Serais-je mort pourtant est loin datteindre la
profondeur de Parc-am murit de mult. Nous avons pris ces exemples dans ldition de
2004. La traduction tait identique dans ldition de 1989. Cela en dit long. On peut se
demander si dautres ont russi faire mieux. A lire les extraits suivants que nous ne
commentons pas pour des raisons despace, notre rponse ne sera pas oui.
Veturia Drgnescu-Vericeanu, 1974 Elisabeta Isanos, 1999
Quand je pense ma vie, elle semble passagre, Et il me semble, lorsque je pense ma vie,
Tout doucement redite par une bouche trangre, Que cest un conte qui coule des lvres dautrui,
Comme ntant pas ma vie, et net jamais t. Comme si ntait pas mienne, comme si je ntais
Qui est-ce qui, mon histoire, se met raconter, gure.
Me fait prter loreille, et rire, en lcoutant, Qui est celui qui dit par cur ma carrire,
Comme des douleurs dun autre ? Comme mort depuis Si bien quen lcoutant je ris de mes tourments,
longtemps ! Sans en souffrir ? Je semble bien mort, depuis
longtemps.
Pierre Nicolesco, 1931 Emanoil Marcu 1997 (1994)
Et quand je me rappelle ma vie, il me semble quelle Et il me semble, lorsque je pense ma vie,
scoule Qu'une bouche trangre m'en conte le rcit,
Lentement raconte par une voix de la foule, Que c'est la vie d'autrui, que je n'aie pas t.
Comme si ce ntait pas ma vie, comme si je navais pas Qui donc me la raconte par cur ? A l'couter,
t. Je ris de mes douleurs, qui ne sont plus moi ...
Qui donc est celui qui par cur me raconte mon pass, C'est comme si j'tais mort depuis longtemps
Et me fait en lcoutant rire de tout ce que jentends, dj.
Comme de maux trangers ? Comme si jtais mort depuis
longtemps !
L. Barral, 1934 Marguerite Miller-Verghy, 1910 (1901)
Quand je pense ma vie, elle me semble un conte, Quand je pense ma vie, il me semble couter
Quun tranger prendrait lentement son compte, Le rcit mi-voix par la bouche dautrui
Et comme si ce ntait pas ma vie moi. Dune vie trangre et non par moi vcue.
Quest-il donc ce conteur exact qui me doit, Qui donc raconte ainsi cette histoire par cur ?
Si je ris de douleurs que je crois surannes, Jcoute et je me ris de la douleur dun autre ;
Etranger qui suis mort depuis combien dannes ? Il me semble tre mort depuis un temps trs long.
Il arrive au lecteur de se trouver devant des mots ou des syntagmes dont il a du mal tablir le
sens ou qui sont, littralement, dans le contexte donn, incomprhensibles. Ce sont des lieux
o le traducteur a abandonn sa recherche et fait place sa crativit : Et craquent le
683
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
clocher et la planche dappel 22 (vers correspondant : Clopotnia trosnete, n stlpi izbete
toaca . Mais toaca a bien un quivalent en franais, et cest un mot emprunt au grec
dglise, on le trouve dailleurs chez L. Barral, cest : simandre ou simandre de bois :
Le cimetire veille lombre de ses croix/ Sur lune un hibou dort. La simandre de bois/ De
la tour qui gmit branle la charpente /23 On peut se demander quel sens attribuer au mot
sbattre dans Toujours il sbattra, je dormirai toujours. 24. Est-ce que lemprise du
texte roumain est si forte quelle a dtermin le traducteur chercher ses mots au plus prs du
vocabulaire de loriginal : salcmii se bat se vor tot bate ? Et, toujours l, la
mme interrogation pour aussi qui est un mot fort et que lon croit bien connatre, tant
donn sa frquence : Pourtant, si nous mourons tous deux, je ne veux gure / Que lon nous
mette aussi dans un froid cimetire,/ Quon creuse notre fosse au bord dun bon ruisseau,
25 Remarquons, en passant, la faiblesse de gure comme ngation, lindtermination
smantique de froid cimetire traduisant, si lon peut dire, triste zidiri de intirim , le
tout assorti dun bon ruisseau cens correspondre la margine de ru . Les
approximations smantiques ayant impact sur limage globale du pome svissent aussi trop
souvent : prliminaires pour preambul dans Iambul / Le ambe26 :
M. Eminescu, Iambul Veturia Drgnescu-Vericeanu, Le ambe
De l-am aflat la noi, a spune n-o pot ; Lavoir trouv chez nous, je ne puis dire,
De poi s-auzi n el al undei opot, Ni si en lui, londe claire soupire,
De e al lui cu drept acest preambul Ou sil a droit ces prliminaires
Aceste toate singur nu le judec Donner mon avis seul, je nose prtendre ;
balcon pour cerdac dans Sur ton balcon je reste/Stau n balconul tu 27. On peut se poser
des questions quant lquivalence des vers Le vent secoue les arbres des parterres /vs/
i vntul mic arborii-n grdin et quant celle de veste pieptar 28, sachant qu
lpoque on dsignait par pieptar une pice de lingerie fminine, sans manches, qui couvre
le buste , alors que la veste, pour prendre la signification la plus avantageuse, est un
vtement court s'arrtant la taille ou couvrant les hanches, manches longues, boutonn
sur le devant. Or les deux mots nengendrent pas la mme reprsentation : les manches, les
boutons de la veste impliquent une gestuelle beaucoup plus complique que celle quesquisse
le pote et qui peut saccomplir comme en rve. Lemploi dapproximations, de prothses
smantiques en dehors de toute vrification sur leur smantisme et sur leur fonctionnement
nuit et la traduction et au pome, et contrevient aux principes de dontologie du traducteur.
Restons-en au mme pome, prenons en guise dexemple le premier tercet o le lien la
strophe prcdente est garanti par limage des cheveux que lon dfait pour la nuit :
22
Mlancolie, trad. Paul Miclu, p. 47.
23
M. Eminesco, Pomes choisis, trad. Par L. Barral, p. 43.
24
Mlancolie, trad. Paul Miclu, p. 65.
25
Ibid.
26
Mihai Eminescu, Posies Poezii, traduction par Veturia Drgnescu-Vericeanu, p. 313.
27
Ibid., p. 311.
28
Ibid. p. 315.
684
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Lai aruncat pe umeri de ninsoare, Sur des paules de neige tu les rejettes,
Desfaci visnd pieptarul de la sn, Rveuse, la veste tu ouvres sur ton sein ;
Incet te-ardici i sufli-n lumnare Tu te soulves, tu souffles la flammette
Dans la version roumaine, le quatrain prcdent finit par prul despletind , ce qui
permet au pote denchaner au premier tercet avec le pronom COD qui le relaie. Tel nest pas
le cas en franais o le quatrain se termine par une proposition relative qui dveloppe le
substantif vague dor , mtonyme lui-mme de cheveux qui se trouve au dbut du vers,
non la fin, ce qui rend le rappel plus malais, car, par ce mcanisme, cheveux passe au
troisime rang de la signification. En dernire instance, cela nest pas trs grave en soi,
seulement, cet effacement smantique ne permet plus la reprise sans un rappel plus renforc
du dispositif smantique esquiss avant. Plus concrtement, Sur des paules de neige tu les
rejettes prsente une certaine lourdeur smantique : sur des paules de neige qui ouvre le
tercet met un bon moment pour dlivrer sa signification. Au moment o on les rattache
tu et, ensuite, les qui finit dactualiser le dispositif antrieur, on est dj en retard
avec la smantisation, et ce retard ne sera pas rattrap mais augment par la construction
maladroite du vers suivant : Rveuse, la veste tu ouvres sur ton sein car si rveuse, tu
ouvres tait dun accs idal sans aucune perte de matire potique, rveuse, la veste tu
devient une vraie charade, et le flottement smantique sur veste nest pas pour simplifier
le dcodage. On pourrait sans doute continuer, car, au troisime vers, tu te soulves nest
pas sans soulever la question de sa pertinence, alors que flammette nous semble carrment
faux, car son emploi nest autoris smantiquement quen contexte feu , voire incendie ,
et nous nen sommes pas l.
Dresser linventaire exhaustif de ces maladresses linguistiques et smantiques serait un
travail de longue haleine, car il faudrait ajouter notre liste les malentendus, les contresens,
les cacophonies ; les omissions touchant indiffremment mots chevilles, prpositions,
articles, pronom personnel sujet29, auxiliaire, etc. ; lemploi concurrentiel de certaines
propositions (dans ou en ou ) parfois dans la mme proposition30 ; la conjugaison
personnelle de verbes impersonnels31 ; inversions, avec rejet du verbe en fin de phrase : Ton
front blanc aux boucles blondes / Sur mon bras se posera/ Et ta bouche aux douces lvres/La
proie de ma bouche sera 32 ; fautes de prosodie relevant notamment du rgime du e
muet dans la versification franaise lintrieur du vers, la csure, ou, en finale de vers,
la rime ; la question des diminutifs prtant confusion et celle de lexcs de pluriels la place
du singulier, sans doute dans une intention augmentative ; lattnuation de la signification par
lemploi dun quivalent terne et galvaud ou trop fort, dans les deux cas, faux ; la prose
mal rythme que lon veut faire passer pour de lharmonie, pour de la posie ; la priorit
donne aux lments formels de la posie au dtriment de son pouvoir de suggestion
29
Comme si ntait pas mienne, comme si je ntais gure (Elisabeta Isanos, Mlancolie, dans Mihai
Eminescu, Pomes choisis par Ion Acsan, 1999, p. 21).
30
Mlancolie, trad. Paul Miclu, p, 45 : Je ne crois ni en Jhovah,/ Ni en Bouddha, dieux souverains,/Ni la
mort, ni la vie/Ni au nant, comme certains.
31
je semble bien mort depuis longtemps. (Ibid.).
32
Ibid., p. 29.
685
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
gnrateur de mtaphores ; figures parasites comparaisons, mtaphores ( de glace , de
soie ) etc. Comparons:
Altul este al tu suflet, Etranger ton cur de glace,
Alii ochii ti acum, Etrangers tes yeux de soie,
Numai eu rmn acelai, Moi seulement rest le mme,
Bat mereu acelai drum. Je reviens sur mes pas.33
Ajoutons, dans le mme ordre dides lattitude faussement soumise et faussement
respectueuse du traducteur dans sa relation au pote, alors que le traducteur devrait oser lui
aussi, dans son mtier, prendre de laltitude, comme lautre la fait, avant lui.
Faut-il encore stonner que le lecteur tranger ne comprenne pas et napprcie pas la
posie de notre pote national ? Car la moindre incertitude sur la valeur dun mot, la
moindre indtermination smantique ou maladresse syntaxique, la moindre inadquation
lexicale font scrouler des pans entiers de signification, disperser les ides, disloquer les
concepts les plus solides et, non en dernier lieu, chasser lmotion. Certes, le foss ou labme
creus entre les deux langues par les volutions historiques, malgr leur latinit constitutive,
joue son rle. Certes, encore, ces traducteurs, franais et roumains, se sont confronts des
problmes difficiles rsoudre dune langue lautre. Ils ont d faire un travail considrable
de pionniers pour dfricher le champ Eminescu, avec le rsultat ambigu dont nous avons
essay de donner une description, certes, schmatique mais, vridique.
Il nous semble, au bout de cette traverse des ditions officielles dEminescu en
franais, que les divers dfauts des divers traducteurs procdent dune source unique : la vise
trop troitement sourcire , lattachement excessif, pour ne pas lappeler obsessionnel ou
nvrotique, au texte source, leur mimesis textualiste, leur vise matrialiste. Car le premier
mouvement du traducteur doit tre un mouvement de recul par rapport au texte donn, sil
veut viter le mot--mot, si frquent dans les traductions dont nous venons de parler, et viter
les piges que cachent les miroirs aux alouettes du pome-texte. Nous pensons ici dans la
logique du tiers inclus de Lupasco-Nicolesco et nous lappelons pour le besoin de la cause le
tertium traductionis. Il nous est difficile de dcrire ce quest cette entit de troisime rang,
mais nous pouvons dire et soutenir que ce nest pas le pome tel quil est donn par crit sur
la feuille de papier du livre. Disons, afin de mieux dcrire la situation, que chaque pome
imprim et livr ainsi la lecture et la traduction qui sont, en fait, presque la mme chose
devrait porter ltiquette : Ceci nest pas le pome , comme dans la clbre toile de
Magritte reprsentant une pipe. Nous dirions donc que cest comme le lieu dans lesprit o
plusieurs voies soriginent, dont lune est la posie et cest dune importance fondamentale
, car le traducteur doit reculer ou remonter jusqu cet endroit prcis pour prendre son envol.
Cest, pour le dfinir dun mot, le pr-pome, le lieu o rien na pas encore pris expression
linguistique, o rien ne sest encore fig. Le lieu o le pome lu se dfait de lemprise de la
langue, se fait pure image ou pure signification et se met en attente de son habillement
linguistique. Traduire le texte est un travail conceptuel, non un tat motionnel. On peut,
certes, alors sexpliquer pourquoi la tentation est grande de traduire les mots qui sont sur le
papier et qui semblent tre ou offrir des certitudes, et non la posie qui les a gnrs et
ordonns et dont le pome nest que la trace. Une trace, car le traducteur doit construire la
33
Ibid., p. 45, Paula Romanescu, Dans la mme petite rue.
686
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
sienne, qui ne saurait tre exactement celle du pote source. Si la vocation du pome est de
faire (re)vivre au lecteur un tat ou une exprience hors du commun, cest le contenu de cette
exprience d induction potique qui fera lobjet du travail traduisant, ce vcu induit. Cest
son exprience vcue, ou re-vcue, dans sa propre vie, longtemps aprs que la voix du pote
sest teinte, quil faut rendre en re-faisant, dans sa langue et partir de son exprience de vie
et potique, lopration potique originaire. Nos traducteurs ont voulu, de leur propre aveu,
traduire tout, signification et forme, comme si cela tait possible. Il y a des questions simples
auxquelles on na pas encore fourni de rponse : qui a dit que les lments formels rythmes,
scansions, formes traditionnellement fixes devaient passer dune langue lautre
inchangs ? Sinon, que devient la forme en traduction ? Les significations que nous cherchons
avidement dans le pome, comme la matire la plus prcieuse et qui sentrecroisent et
senchevtrent dans un pome, autrement appeles ides, sont-elles la matire la plus
prcieuse de la posie, et ce que le traducteur doit restituer en toute priorit et en toute
fidlit ? Il faut, videmment traduire ces ides, ces significations. En mme temps, force de
lire des traductions on devient vite conscient que la faon la plus banale dtre un mauvais
traducteur est de croire que les pomes sont des montages de mots dont on peut se contenter
de calquer la figure superficielle, laquelle renfermerait et dlivrerait automatiquement la
mme signification et la mme motion flicit ? que le pome original. Or le conceptuel
ne se charge pas automatiquement dexprimer le potique, la poticit. De telles traductions
discrditent et la posie et la traduction.
Les grands traducteurs sont aussi peu nombreux que les grands potes. Luvre
potique dEminescu na pas encore t traduite, elle est toujours traduire.
Bibliographie
Traducteurs franais (ordre chronologique)
M. Eminesco, Pomes choisis, trad. par L. Barral, Paris, Librairie Lecoffre, J. Gabalda et
Cie, 1934.
Mihai Eminescu, Posies, trad. par S. Pavs, Bucureti, Tipografia Bucovina I. E.
Torouiu, 1945.
Mihai Eminescu, Posies /Poezii, prsentation, traduction de Jean-Louis Courriol, Bucureti,
Cartea Romneasc, 1987 (deuxime dition, Piteti, Paralela 45, 2004).
Mihai Eminescu, Pomes posthumes, suivis de Fragmentarium, trad. du roumain par Michel
Wattremez, Lille, 2002.
Traducteurs roumains (ordre chronologique)
Quelques posies de Mihail Eminesco traduites en franais par Al. Gr. Soutzo, deuxime
dition, Jassy, imprimerie H. Goldner, 1911.
Michel Eminesco, Pomes, version franaise de Pierre Nicolesco, Bucarest, Impr.
Universul , 1931.
Mihail Eminesco, Posies, trad. par Marguerite Miller-Verghy, Bucureti, Cartea
Romneasc, 1938.
Mihai Eminescu, Hyprion, texte franais de Paul Lahovary, Bucarest, Luceafrul , 1943.
687
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Mihai Eminescu, Posies Poezii, traduction et avant-propos par Veturia Drgnescu-
Vericeanu, prface par Zoe Dumitrescu-Buulenga, Bucureti, Ed. Minerva, 1974.
Eminescu, Mihai, Luceafrul - Lucifer - Vesper - Der Abendstern - Luciafrul - Hyperion -
Lastro - Az Estesillag - O astro da Tarde, traduceri: Corneliu M. Popescu (englez), Mihail
Banta (francez), Gnther Deike (german), ngrijirea ediiei, Vasile Vlad, Bucureti, Cartea
Romneasc, 1984.
George Apostoiu (d.), Rayonnement d'un gnie, anthologie critique et potique Mihai
Eminescu, Bucarest, Minerva, 1989.
Mihai Eminescu, Posies, prface et version franaise par Paul Miclu, Bucureti, Ed.
Minerva, 1989.
Mihai Eminescu, Posies Poezii, trad. de Elisabeta Isanos, Bucureti, Libera, 1994.
Mihai Eminescu, Elegii i sonete - lgies et sonnets, traducere n limba francez de Emanoil
Marcu, Iai, Junimea, 1994.
Mihai Eminescu, Trente pomes, version franaise par Annie Bentoiu, Vevey, Ed. de l'Aire,
1994.
Mihai Eminescu, Retrouvailles, trad. par Paula Romanescu, Timioara, Helicon, 1996.
Mihai Eminescu, Poezii Posies, traduites du roumain par Dan Solomon, Bucureti,
Univers, 1998.
Mihai Eminescu, Pomes choisis, dition bilingue, traductions par : Annie Bentoiu, Alain
Bosquet, Jean-Louis Courriol, Veturia Drgnescu-Vericeanu, Elisabeta Isanos, Emanoil
Marcu, Paul Miclu, Paula Romanescu, Michel Steriade, D. I. Suchianu, Michel Wattremez,
prface par Edgar Papu, slection des pomes, Ion Acsan, Editions Suflet i grai, Bucarest,
1999.
Mihai Eminescu, Mlancolie, 22 pomes dits par Pierre Lamy ; trad. du roumain par Paul
Miclu (1-21) et Georges Astalos (22), Edition bilingue, Bucarest, Casa Radio, 2004.
Sitographie
M. Eminescu, Opera complet, Edition prpare par Perpessicius, Fundaia pentru Literatur
i Art Regele Carol II, 1939 (version lectronique):
http://eminescu.petar.ro/opera_completa/index.html
Dictionnaire mondial des littratures Larousse, sous la dir. de Pascal Mougin et Karen
Haddad-Wotling, Paris, Larousse 2002,
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k12005026/f396.image.r=Eminescu,%20Mihai.langFR
La grande encyclopdie Larousse, Paris, Larousse, 1973,
http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k12005182/f445.image.r=Eminescu,%20Mihai.langEN
http://www.icr.ro/hommageminescu
Bibliothque digitale: http://galeriilefundatiei.wordpress.com/1-biblioteca-digitala/
Ouvrages critiques relatifs luvre dEminescu
Crciun, Cristiana; Craciun, Victor (ed.), Eminescu - peste nemrginirea timpului,
Propagarea operei n 64 de limbi i leteraturi, vol. IX/Ediie critic de Cristiana Craciun i
Victor Crciun, Chiinu-Bucureti, Litera-David, 2000.
Alain Guillermou, Geneza Interioar a poeziilor lui Eminescu, traducere de Gh. Bulgr i
Gabriel Prvan, Iai, Editura Junimea, Colecia Eminesciana nr. 11, 1977.
688
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Edgar Papu, La posie d'Eminescu, trad. par Claude Dignoire, Bucarest, Ed. tiinific i
Enciclopedic, 1985.
Pcurariu, Dim (ed.), Eminescu dup Eminescu/Eminescu apres Eminescu, Comunicri
prezentate la Colocviul organizat de Universitatea din Paris Sorbona (12-15 martie
1975)/Communications prsentes au Coloque de 12-15 mai 1975, lUniversit de Paris-
Sorbonne, Iai, Junimea, 1978.
Racu, I.M., Eminescu i cultura francez, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1976.
Vanhse, Gisle, Eminescu parmi nous , Caiete critice 1 (267)/2010, p. 58-62.
Ouvrages thoriques concernant la traduction potique
Reiss, Katharina, La Critique des traductions, ses possibilits et ses limites, trad. C. Bocquet,
Arras, Artois Presses Universit, 2002.
Etkind, Efim, Un art en crise. Essai de potique de la traduction potique, Lausanne, LAge
dhomme, 1982.
Meschonnic, Henri, Pour la potique I, Paris, Gallimard, 1970.
Meschonnic, Henri, Pour la potique II : pistmologie de lcriture, potique de la
traduction, Paris, Gallimard, 1973.
Berman, Antoine, La traduction et la lettre ou Lauberge du lointain , in : Les Tours de
Babel : essais sur la traduction, Trans-Europ-Repress, Mauzevin, 1995, pp. 35-91.
Bonnefoy, Yves, Entretiens sur la posie 1972-1990, Paris, Mercure de France, 1990.
Eco, Umberto, Dire presque la mme chose : expriences de traduction, Paris, Grasset, 2006.
Ricoeur, Paul, Sur la traduction, Bayard, Paris, 2004.
Cohen, Jean, Le haut langage : thorie de la poticit, Paris, Flammarion, 1979.
689
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
IDENTITY CRISIS AND SURVIVAL SOLUTIONS IN THE FADED HELL. THE
CASE OF THE ORTHODOX PRIESTS
Emanuela ILIE, Associate Professor, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai
Abstract: The study entitled Identity crisis and survival solutions in the faded hell. The case
of the orthodox priests uses the sociological concept of identity to analyze the complicated
relations between sufferance and survival in the case of the orthodox priests who were
incarcerated during the Romanian communist regime and were able to transform this painful
experience into written confessions. A significant part of their diaries or memoirs, published
after 1990, is centered on the terrible suffering recovery and its metamorphosis into splendor
or happiness. Nevertheless, the Christian authors (Valeriu Anania, Ioan Brda, Dimitrie
Bejan and others) dont forget that the authorities and their ferocious executors tried to
destroy the prisoners material and social identity. Still, even though the incarcerated
experimented the worst prison conditions (including different forms of physical and
psychological torture), they were able to survive, thanks especially to their strong belief in
God, in the power of the prayer and the religious creation. The spiritual identity proved to be
stronger than any physical suffers.
Keywords: prison, identity crisis, orthodox priests, suffering, survival.
n bogata memorialistic a Gulagului romnesc, publicat ncepnd cu 1990, exist o
seciune de un deosebit interes nu att estetic 1, ct etic i mai ales religios: aceea a
memoriilor, amintirilor sau paginilor diaristice scrise de preoii care au trit experiena
cumplit a infernului carceral comunist. Lor li se adaug, firete, o nc i mai bogat
literatur secundar, constnd n amintirile sau portretele fragmentare publicate n paginile
revistelor, fie de ctre apropiaii mrturisitorilor, fie de ctre cunoscuii-martori sau
supravieuitori ai aceluiai infern. n timp, unele au fost adunate n opuri sintetice de un real
interes documentar. Din temnie spre Sinaxare (coord. Danion Vasile, ediia I, Editura
Egumenia, 2008; ediia a II-a, Editura Areopag, Bucureti, 2011), Vasile Manea, Preoi
ortodoci n nchisorile comuniste (Editura Patmos, Cluj-Napoca, 2010) i Mrturisitorii din
nchisorile comuniste. Minuni. Mrturii. Repere (Editura Areopag i Editura Meditaii,
Bucureti, 2011) sunt asemenea lucrri mai degrab statistice sau documentare, n care se pot
descoperi totui informaii preioase privind aspectele s spunem exterioare ale deteniei
slujitorilor Bisericii Ortodoxe Romne n perioada regimului comunist.
Astfel, din cartea lui Vasile Manea se poate afla c numai n perioada ocupaiei
sovietice a rii noastre (1944-1958), conform unui deziderat leninist afirmat ct se poate de
tranant (Nu ncape nicio ndoial: noi trebuie s combatem religia. Acest lucru constituie
abecedarul ntregului materialism V. I. Lenin), au fost arestai aproximativ 2000 de preoi
ortodoci din Romnia, iar dintre acetia, aproape 200 au fost ucii n nchisori. C
1
Excelentele Memorii (Editura Polirom, Iai, 2009) ale mitropolitului Valeriu Anania constituie din aceast
perspectiv mai degrab o excepie dect o norm;
690
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
justificrile pentru arestri au frizat uneori absurdul. Acuzaiile considerate dintre cele mai
grave precum adeziunea la Micarea Legionar, apartenena la Partidul Naional rnesc
sau Liberal, refuzul colectivizrii, spionajul n favoarea americanilor etc. au fcut loc,
adesea, unor motive aproape derizorii: preotul Gheorghe Crstoiu din Sltruc a fost prima
dat arestat n 1949 pentru c a dat o bucat de pine unor drumei flmnzi2, acuzat de
uneltire mpotriva ordinii sociale i anchetat (dup metodele tiute) pn n 1951 la
Rmnicu-Vlcea, Piteti i Craiova. Printele Arsenie Papacioc, duhovnic la Mnstirea
Slatina ncepnd cu 1952, a fost arestat n 1958 pentru c ar fi numit primul satelit rusesc
trimis n cosmos un fier ruginit, aruncat n vzduh, 3 apoi condamnat la douzeci de ani de
nchisoare, dintre care a petrecut n nchisorile de la Braov, Aiud i Jilava primii ase, pn la
graierea din 1964 etc. etc. C, n sfrit, nu tuturor li s-a ntocmit/ permis mcar un proces,
fie el i unul formal. Sau c, n unele cazuri, perioada de detenie a depit pedeapsa primit
n urma condamnrii. Emblematic, din aceast perspectiv, este cazul preotului Dumitru C.
Popescu, paroh la Sltioara, Maramure, Cleanov i Valea lui Cine, Dolj, nchis ntre 1948-
1955, fr s fie judecat. Abia prin sentina 30/ 1955 a Tribunalului Militar Bucureti, a fost
condamnat la doi ani de nchisoare i eliberat, cci s-a constatat c deja i executase
pedeapsa4!
n paginile urmtoare, ne-am propus ns exclusiv prezentarea felului n care
experiena carceral a preoilor scriitori (chiar i a celor devenii scriitori dup 1990, cnd n
sfrit i-au putut publica textele autobiografice scrise n perioada anterioar) se oglindete n
propria lor literatur confesiv. Vom lua n calcul, prin urmare, nu volumele colective,
sintetice, mai sus citate5, ci crile preoilor ortodoci, nc i mai precis, doar pe cele
circumscrise aa-numitei categorii a genurilor biograficului. Or, dup cum cu justee
observ Eugen Simion n cartea intitulat chiar Genurile biograficului, sintagma include i
textele fotilor deinui politici din sistemul totalitar comunist, care sunt cri-document i
acoper toate formele genului biografic, de la memorii la [astfel de] cri vorbite n care
autorul nu-i mai asum responsabilitatea scriiturii 6. Preoii Ioan Brda (Calvarul Aiudului.
Din suferinele unui preot ortodox, text ngrijit i not biografic de Georgeta Pop, cu un
cuvnt nainte de Ana Blandiana, Editura Anastasia, 1999), Dimitrie Bejan (Bucuriile
suferinei. Viaa unui preot martir, Ediia a II-a, Editura Mnstirea Sihstria, 2010), .P.S.
Bartolomeu Anania/ Valeriu Anania (Memorii, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2009) au scris astfel de
confesiuni cu valoare testimonial i paideic n care au oferit att o imagine asupra propriei
individualiti, ct i o reflecie dramatic asupra lumii care a ncercat s o mutileze pe
aceasta7.
2
Vasile Manea, Preoi ortodoci n nchisorile comuniste, Editura Patmos, Cluj-Napoca, 2010, p. 84;
3
Idem, p. 238;
4
Idem, p. 258;
5
Nu vom avea n vedere, din acelai motiv, nici lucrrile tiinifice de cea mai bun calitate dedicate raporturilor
dintre Biserica Ortodox Romn i regimul comunist. A se vedea, spre exemplu, Cristina Piuan i Radu
Ciuceanu, Biserica Ortodox Romn sub regimul comunist, Institutul Naional pentru Studiul Totalitarismului,
vol. I, 2001;
6
Eugen Simion, Genurile biograficului, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2002, p. 139;
7
Memorabil este, din aceast perspectiv, notaia din Memoriile semnate de Valeriu Anania: o mrturie nu
numai a unei lumi, ci i a unui suflet. E vorba de sufletul meu (Valeriu Anania, op. cit., p. 8);
691
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Selecia noastr are n vedere att reprezentativitatea formulei scripturale pentru care
opteaz autorii (crile lui Valeriu Anania i Ioan Brda ncadrndu-se n categoria
memoriilor, n timp ce opul semnat de Dimitrie Bejan se mparte ntre scriitura diaristic i
formula crii vorbite, dialogate), ct i substana problematicii atinse n ele. Realiznd un
amplu inventar al formelor de suferin, dar i al mijloacelor de rezisten n mediul carceral,
aceste cri reuesc s conving de faptul c teribilele ncercri la care autorii lor au fost
supui de torionari nu le-au strivit individualitatea i identitatea spiritual ci c, dimpotriv,
le-au mplinit.
Demersul nostru are, n mod evident, i o tent interdisciplinar, justificat mai nti
de caracterul aparte al acestor mrturii situate (ca problematic, dar i ca structur ori
stilistic) ntr-o zon de interferen, ntre literatur, teologie, istorie, sociologie, antropologie,
filosofie etc. Punctul de plecare al analizei noastre va fi ns un concept sociologic esenial, i
anume acela de identitate. n opinia majoritii cercettorilor n domeniu, identitatea fiinei
nseamn nscrierea ei ntr-un ansamblu de categorii de refereni identitari, dintre care cele
mai importante ar fi urmtoarele: identitatea material (caracteristicile fizice, morfologice
etc., posesiunile), identitatea proprie (originile i trecutul, situaia actual nume, ndatoriri,
sistemul de valori i conduitele specifice, competenele i rezultatele deja obinute),
identitatea social (imaginile identitii date de alii, apartenena la grupuri socio-
profesionale, religioase etc., simboluri i semne exterioare trimind la un loc n ierarhia
social8). Unii teoreticieni i istorici literari interesai de fabula identitar au preluat aceast
diviziune, opernd doar o mic modificare. Manfred Ptz, autorul unei remarcabile sinteze
despre Fabula identitii. Romanul american din anii aizeci, i imagineaz spre exemplu
identitatea ca o triad compus din: identitate material (fizic, corporal), identitate social
(cf. poziia, statutul, rolul) i identitatea spiritual (cf. unicitatea moral, emoional sau
intelectual) 9. Din raiuni multiple dintre care cea mai important privete faptul c ne
interesm de textele confesive ale unei categorii aa zicnd socio-profesionale vom prelua,
n cele ce urmeaz, aceast ultim taxonomie.
n debutul excelentului op despre Modernitatea vienez i crizele identitii, Jacques
Le Rider observ pe bun dreptate c, pe fondul exacerbrii sentimentelor de solitudine, de
fragilitate ale eului subiectiv, de instabilitate a identificrilor interioare i a identitilor de
suprafa, unii autori de jurnale intime vieneze, scrise prin anii 1900, exploreaz cile de
restaurare a identitii prin mijloacele oferite de ceea ce am putea numi radicalizarea
individualismului. Figurile misticului (de exemplu la Hofmannstahl), ale geniului (aa cum l
vede Otto Weininger) i ale lui Narcis (reinterpretat de Lou Andreas-Salom) se degaj ca
trei tipuri principale de afirmare a autosuficienei individului izolat de orice comunitate
omeneasc, a eului concentrat asupra lui nsui, ntr-un soi de nfruntare direct ,
nemediat, cu realitatea lumii. Afirmarea identitii eului trece n acest caz prin reformularea
unei filosofii a Identitii spiritului i a fiinei, a unitii subiect/ obiect.10 Desigur, i autorii
de care ne ocupm n studiul de fa triesc sentimente de solitudine, de fragilitate ale eului
8
Alex Muchielli, Lidentit, PUF, Paris, 1986;
9
Manfred Ptz, Fabula identitii. Romanul american din anii aizeci, traducere i prefa de Irina Burlui,
Editura Institutul European, Iai, 1995, p. 32;
10
Jacques Le Rider, Modernitatea vienez i crizele identitii, Postfa de Adriana Babei, Traducere de Magda
Jeanrenaud, Editura Univesitii Al. I. Cuza, Iai, 2003, pp. 7-8;
692
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
subiectiv, de instabilitate a identificrilor interioare i a identitilor de suprafa (cu totul
fireti, ntr-un context cu mult mai sumbru dect acela cunoscut modernilor vienezi). Dar
niciunul dintre preoii care au supravieuit infernului comunist i au reuit s i transpun
suferinele n discurs (para)literar nu i-a restaurat identitatea prin radicalizarea
individualismului ci, dup cum vom vedea, prin fortificarea spiritualitii cretine.
nc de la o prim lectur a textelor acestor supravieuitori, este evident totui faptul c
fiecare dintre ei sufer la fel ca orice alt deinut care a traversat experiene similare un
proces vizibil de estompare sau de alterare a identitii, n special a identitii materiale i a
celei sociale. Cauzele imediate sunt cele inerente infernului concentraionar: suferina fizic
extrem, determinat de variatele forme de tortur fizic, apoi de cei trei teribili f (frica,
foamea, frigul), ntr-un cuvnt, iminena morii, care transform cel puin iniial experiena
ncarcerrii n intrare ntr-un iad decolorat, precum cel descris de N. Steinhardt n debutul
Jurnalului fericirii: Celula 34 e un fel de tunel ntunecat i lung, cu numeroase i puternice
elemente de comar. E o hrub, e un canal, e un ma subpmntean, rece i profund ostil, e o
min stearp, e un crater de vulcan stins, e o destul de izbutit imagine de iad decolorat.11
Or, fr excepie, mrturiile scrise i implicit adevrurile individuale ale
supravieuitorilor abund n amnunte ocante privitoare la infernul detenional. Din unele
aflm, spre exemplu, c cele mai multe forme de suferin fiziologic au fost experimentate
combinat. Foamea teribil, foamea unic i fr de sfrit12 specific prizonierului trebuia,
n situaii speciale, mbinat cu setea. Pedeapsa pentru tentativa de evadare din lagrul
internaional de prizonieri Oranki, i amintete preotul militar Dimitrie Bejan, era o lun de
zile de carcer aadar izolare i dubl suferin fiziologic: Ddeau o dat pe zi mncare,
un ceai cu sare n el13. Aducndu-i la rndul su aminte de raia zilnic de mncare primit
la Aiud (hrana consta timp de dou zile ntr-un turtoi pe zi i o gamel cu ap cald, iar n a
treia mncare obinuit), Ioan Brda conchide: Numai n pucriile comuniste se putea
vedea un om viu-schelet, care nu mai avea fese i trebuia ajutat de alii s mearg14. O
mrturie similar ofer i Dimitrie Bejan: A fost un iad. Cte trei n pat. Oameni schelete,
nesplai, mirosind greu a hoituri murdare mbrcai n petice scrboase i care se repezeau
ca hienele pe blidul de fiertur15. Raia obinuit de pucria la Negru Vod consta, dup
cum va meniona n Memorii Valeriu Anania, ntr-o bucic de pine i o ciorb de cartofi
mpuii, pe cnd mncarea de la Jilava era una dintre cele mai srace din cte se pot
imagina: o zeam cald, cu cteva frme de cartofi stricai, n care ns se mai fierbea i fn
proaspt cosit. Ajunseser pucriaii n aa hal de nfometare nct se rugau de grzile de
deasupra s le arunce cte un smoc de iarb; preferau so mnnce verde16. Dar abia la
Piteti, unde hrana era nfiortor de srac (...) aceeai gamel cu zeam cald n care pluteau
11
N. Steinhardt, Jurnalul fericirii, Argument de P. S. Justin Hodea Sigheteanul, ediie ngrijit, studiu
introductiv, repere biobibliografice i indice de Virgil Bulat. Note de Virgil Bulat i Virgil Ciomo. Cu Un
dosar al memoriei arestate de George Ardeleanu, Mnstirea Rohia i Editura Polirom, Iai, 2008, p. 82;
12
Florin Constantin Pavlovici, Tortura pe nelesul tuturor, Memorii, Ediia a II-a, Editura Fundaiei Academia
Civic, 2011, p. 143
13
Dimitrie Bejan, Bucuriile suferinei. Viaa unui preot martir, Carte tiprit cu binecuvntarea .P.S. Teofan,
Mitropolitul Moldovei i Bucovinei, Ediia a II-a, Editura Mnstirea Sihstria, 2010, p. 50;
14
Pr. Ioan Brda, Calvarul Aiudului. Din suferinele unui preot ortodox, text ngrijit i not biografic de
Georgeta Pop, cu un cuvnt nainte de Ana Blandiana, Editura Anastasia, 1999, p. 56;
15
Dimitrie Bejan, op. cit., p. 87 ;
16
Valeriu Anania, op. cit., p. 64;
693
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
trei firioare de varz mpuit ntre dou stelue de ulei, deinutul Anania dup cum va
recunoate cu o sinceritate dezarmant mai trziu am simit foamea chinuitoare, obsedant,
foamea fizic i foamea psihologic; noaptea m visam nfulecnd, m trezeam cu flcile
ncletate, ziua nu plnuiam dect ca, dac voi mai fi vreodat liber, s investesc totul n
buctrie i art culinar17.
n alte situaii, nu att cantitatea insuficient de hran, ct modalitatea administrrii ei
era socotit, adesea, o form eficient de tortur fiziologic i psihologic. Printele
arhimandrit Roman Braga, la data arestrii (1948) preot n Scoreni, rememoreaz spre
exemplu un episod cutremurtor din cursul ntemnirii la Piteti: Cnd vedeam mncarea
intram sub pat, cu corpul tot, i afar ne rmnea doar capul, iar n fa ni se aeza gamela.
Noi stam cu minile la spate i trebuia s mncm numai cu gura, fr s atingem cu mna. n
acest timp, cei reeducai se plimbau i grohiau ca porcii. La urm, unul dintre reeducai lua
crpa cu care se spla tineta (hrdul de necesiti) i ne tergea la gur18. Numeroase
rememorri similare scot n eviden mizeria de nedescris n care erau forai s triasc
deinuii privai de condiiile de igien minim. Astfel, n celulele ngrozitor de reci iarna i
asfixiante vara, zecile de deinui trebuiau s suporte att mirosul pestilenial al celor cteva
hrdaie lsate pentru urin i fecale, ct i pe acela specific diferitelor tare epidemice cptate
n aceste condiii mizerabile. n toate ncperile prin care trece la Jilava, deinutul Valeriu
Anania remarc aceeai mizerie nfiortoare: ntro camer de tranzit de lng poart, cei
venii naintea noastr dormeau pe jos i respirau adnc o grozav duhoare de murdrie
omeneasc... Hardul se umpluse cu fecale, urina se revrsase peste margini i fcea iroaie
pe ciment, n parte sorbit de zdrenele osndiilor ... Mam pomenit singur ntro celul foarte
murdar. Se vedea c nimeni nu mai fusese demult acolo; urina fermentase n hrdu i
mpinsese pe de margini fecalele uscate. Un obolan a fugit de sub un pat i a pierit ntro
gaur19.
Ca urmare a lipsei de igien, majoritatea deinuilor aveau diaree i dizenterie, la care
se adugau plgile mucate de obolani sau rezultate de pe urma torturilor, plus diferite alte
maladii pentru care, de regul, nu primeau medicaia corespunztoare. Se tie, astzi, c
torionarii i constrngeau pe unii dintre deinuii bolnavi ca, n schimbul dozelor minime,
necesare supravieuirii, s ofere informaiile pe care nu le cedaser nici mcar n timpul
torturii. Mrturia ctorva dintre supravieuitori a nregistrat cazul absolut uluitor al unora
dintre bolnavii n stare extrem de grav, aflai la Trgu-Ocna, ntr-un fel de nchisoare-
sanatoriu pentru deinuii tuberculoi care se stingeau, lent, n chinuri ngrozitoare. Ei au
refuzat streptomicina oferit de Securitate ca pre al trdrii, susinnd cu fermitate soluia
credinei desvrite i a morii n numele lui Dumnezeu: Vreo dou-trei persoane au refuzat,
spunnd: Nu, preferm s murim pentru Hristos, nu vrem s trdm aproapele! . i aa,
chiar dispreuitor, ofierul de poliie a spus: Du-te i mori pentru Hristos! .20 Suferina lor
putea s par un fel de eroism aparte, chiar i n viziunea unora dintre cei care i-au ngrijit.
17
Idem, p. 312 ;
18
Vasile Manea, op. cit., pp. 68-69;
19
Valeriu Anania, op. cit., p. 315;
20
Cf. Mrturiei Printelui Moise de la Oaa, intitulate Despre eroismul de durat al noilor mrturisitori i
incluse n Din temnie spre sinaxare, Volum coordonat de Danion Vasile, Ediia a doua, revzut, Carte aprut
cu binecuvntarea nalt Preasfinitului Arhiepiscop Justinian Chira al Episcopiei Maramureului i Stmarului,
Editura Areopag, 2011, p. 62;
694
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Vorbind cu printele Moise de la Oaa despre condiiile precare din Trgu-Ocna, un fost
deinut politic, medicul Aristide Lecca, va opera o astfel de distincie lmuritoare: Printe, s
tii c una este eroismul de moment i alta este eroismul de durat. Una este s mori pe front,
ntr-un avnt, ucis de glon, i alta este luni de zile, s te stingi ncet, bolnav de tuberculoz,
cu puroi, cu escare, n nite chinuri cumplite, i s mori foarte senin 21 (subl. ns., E.I.).
Sigur, n memoriile preoilor scriitori, detaliile sordide sunt descrise lapidar i demn,
nu sunt detaliate naturalist i nici potenate larmoaiant, ca n scrierile similare ale mirenilor. n
Bucuriile suferinei. Viaa unui preot martir, Pr. Dimitrie Bejan pomenete, bunoar, ca n
treact: Ne bteau cu ciomege pe toi la rnd, ca barbarii () Ne-au btut peste tot Parc
ddea n altul. Parc bta se oprea la o distan oarecare de mine. Iar Maromete, eful
pucriei [din Jilava, n. ns., E.I.], striga: Ivnic, d-i! Omoar-l, c sta-i catolic! i eu
strigam: Nu-s catolic, sunt ortodox! . Ba, catolic eti, c nu zici nimic! . Dar eu ce s
fac, dac nu m durea?22. Aceeai atitudine resentimentar, anticretin, o va ntmpina la
Aiud, acolo unde directorul care i ndemna frecvent subalternii: Bate-i-i, mi! Nu vedei
c sunt cretini? i alege ca int predilect a urii degenerate preoii ortodoci23. Ioan
Brda relateaz cu aceeai decen despre condiiile greu suportabile din Aiud (btile
cumplite, frigul teribil ori spectacolul grotesc al muribunzilor ce se repezeau s prind ceva
din cojile i cotoarele putrede de fructe aruncate de gardieni). Dar punctul cel mai sensibil al
confesiunii sale ni se pare cel al rememorrii nmormntrii unui preot ortodox. Cnd dricul
(droca braovean, tras de un cal, cu doi gardieni pe capr, ducnd sicriul) care transport
trupul nensufleit al Printelui Ilarion Felea ajunge la poarta nchisorii, deinuii cei de jos
asist la o scen terifiant: venea ofierul de serviciu cu o bar ascuit de fier i o nfigea n
inima mortului, s se conving stpnirea de moartea omului. Ce scen sinistr i lugubr,
demn de evul mediu i ea se petrecea n evul modern, n era comunist! 24, izbucnete
memorialistul Brda spre finalul confesiunii. n care putem vedea, ntr-adevr, o culme n
materie de umilire a identitii materiale i sociale a deinuilor, exercitat post-thanatic.
n Memoriile semnate cu numele de scriitor, Valeriu Anania, .P.S. Bartolomeu
Anania reproduce la rndul su cu o mare demnitate suferinele carcerale. i amintete, astfel,
c la Malmaison a luptat greu, nverunat, nu att cu oamenii i cu propria senzaie de
neputin, ct cu insectele carnivore: noaptea cu puricii de cal, ieii la atac cu miile i miile,
din pmntul amestecat cu balig extrem de agresivi i cu mucturi grozave, n numai
dou zile mi umpluser de snge gleznele, ncheietura minilor i gtul; ziua, cu mutele,
mari, numeroase i tot att de agresive25. C ulterior, la Jilava, a fost mai nti oripilat la
vederea gurilor cu funcie de closete (pe care edea, chircit, cte un ins n spatele cruia
ateptau, n rnd, ali douzeci-treizeci care se ntreceau n a-l huidui pe cel ce icnea din toate
puterile s isprveasc mai repede. Nu se poate pune pe hrtie limbajul ce putea fi auzit
ntrun asemenea ceas de tortur, vorbele ntrecndu-se cu haznaua n a mpui vzduhul),
abia apoi de transformarea oamenilor n bestii capabile s ucid pentru o bucat de pine
21
Ibidem;
22
Dimitrie Bejan, op. cit., p. 94;
23
Idem, pp. 88-89;
24
Ioan Brda, op. cit., p 75; v. i Preot Ioan Brda, O nmormntare la Aiud, text inclus n Din temnie spre
sinaxare, ed. cit., pp. 146-148;
25
Valeriu Anania, op. cit., pp. 30-31;
695
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
rnced. Dar i-a justificat, dup ani, repulsia printr-o reacie fiziologic specific, care i-a
transformat anii de detenie ntr-un veritabil calvar fizic: nu aceast atmosfer pestilenial
m mpiedica s-mi deert intestinele, ci nenorocitul meu sim de pudoare care-mi inhiba
sfincterele, de care am suferit toat viaa i care mi-a fcut din acest banal act fiziologic una
dintre cele mai grele torturi ale anilor mei de nchisoare 26. n alte pagini din Memorii, nu sunt
uitate nici maladiile de care prelatul a suferit n mediul carceral: cci guturaiurile alergice,
mare calamitate n nchisoare, unde pentru o asemenea boal nu se ddeau medicamente 27,
i tuberculoza osoas i-au chinuit practic trupul suplimentar fa de torturile fizice la care era
supus aproape zilnic.
Pentru minile bolnave care au regizat infernul pe pmnt n varianta ei carceral,
foamea i setea, frigul i chiar maladiile ncarcerailor erau departe de a reprezenta cele mai
grele pedepse aplicate sau suportate de acetia. Rolul esenial n procesul de distrugere a
identitii materiale, sociale i spirituale a deinuilor l aveau torturile fizice, uneori diabolice:
dac diavolii, ngeri czui, puteau nscoci chinuri cumplite, numai ordinului mecheresc al
oamenilor i-au putut trece prin minte torturi att de cnite i de ntortocheate28, i va
sintetiza N. Steinhardt amintirile ngrozitoare despre demonia inventiv a torionarilor de la
Piteti. ntr-adevr, niciuna dintre metodele savante sau rudimentare de tortur (de la hrnirea
cu fecale a prizonierilor problematici i btile cumplite cu diverse obiecte pn la tierea
organelor sexuale i ndesarea lor n gura deinuilor n agonie), nu a cptat notorietatea
sumbr a temutei reeducri de la Piteti, care avea de fapt miza efasrii totale a identitii
umane. Gndit ca un proces monstruos, n patru etape: demascarea extern, demascarea
intern, demascarea moral public (n cursul creia victima i blasfemia valorile supreme,
familia i pe Dumnezeu, ba chiar trebuia s le profaneze prin intermediul unor ritualuri
demonice: fiii de preoi i studenii teologi trebuiau s oficieze chiar liturghii negre, avnd
adesea, ca elemente de recuzit obligatorie, cruci confecionate din instrumentele de tortur,
dar i recipiente cu urin sau materii fecale); n sfrit, transformarea reeducatului n clu/
torionar.
Dup cum am mai precizat, crile de confesiuni scrise de clericii ortodoci nu
epateaz, precum mrturiile scriitorilor obinuii, printr-o expunere denudat a suferinelor
atroce29 suportate de autorii lor n nchisorile comuniste. Dar cititorii sunt avertizai c,
adesea, i n cazul lor durerea atingea limita insuportabilului, ceea ce le determina reacii
comune cu ale deinuilor de rnd: O ploaie de lovituri, de amndou prile, ritmic, ca pe
nicovala potcovriei, sa npustit pe tlpile mele. Atunci am nceput s urlu, i-mi era ruine
de mine, i nu voiam s urlu, i urlam ngrozitor, mi ddeam bine seama i mucam aerul i
simeam nevoia s-mi nfig dinii n ceva i am nimerit, zvrcolindu-m, piciorul celui ce
inea de captul funiei i l-am mucat de pantalon i i-am auzit njurtura, apoi am leinat din
26
Idem, pp. 63-64;
27
Idem, p. 267;
28
N. Steinhardt, op. cit., p. 181;
29
Nu ntmpltor moartea cretinilor sub comunism a fost o sintez a modalitilor de moarte violent inventate
de omenire de la nceputurile ei, aici relundu-se, la o scar pn atunci nemaintlnit, toate formele de
sacrificiu uman pe care le-a cunoscut istoria (Monica Papazu, Tcere i cuvnt: Biserica Ortodox
mrturisitoare i martir. Trei sferturi de veac de prigoan n Rusia, n Cristian Bdili, Emanuel Conac
(editori), i cerul s-a umplut de sfini... Martiriul n Antichitatea cretin i n secolul XX. Actele colocviului
internaional, Sighet, 2-5 iunie 2011, Curtea Veche Publishing, Bucureti, 2012, p. 359;
696
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
nou30. Pentru c i ncarceraii care fuseser nevoii (cel mai adesea, chiar n numele
credinei) s i schimbe vetmintele de slujitori ai Domnului n straiele vrgate ale celor cu
identitatea socio-profesional zdrobit, erau chinuii de aceleai nevoi fiziologice dintre cele
mai mrunte i de aceleai presiuni psihice dintre cele mai greu de suportat 31. Cntrindu-i,
altfel spus, suferinele dup aceleai uniti de msur cu cele ale ncarcerailor de rnd. Chiar
i Valeriu Anania a recunoscut, n impresionantele sale Memorii, faptul c uneori, n cursul
chinurilor fizice la care a fost supus n temniele comuniste, i contientiza i striga
slbiciunea: M crezi, iubite cititor, c m-am cltinat?. Interogaie care nu poate avea, din
partea unui cititor obligatoriu simpatetic, dect un singur rspuns...
Parcurgnd, nu fr greutate, paginile despre calvarul carceral prin care a trecut att
naltul prelat, ct i ceilali slujitori ai Bisericii Ortodoxe Romne, ne-am putut, la rndu-ne,
ntreba n mai multe rnduri: cum au reuit puinii lui supravieuitori s reziste, ieind din
infernul terestru nc ntregi, nc vii spiritual? Aceasta, dei acest tip aparte de autor de
literatur confesiv care este preotul ortodox revine el nsui constant la mijloacele spirituale,
de esen profund cretin, ce i-au facilitat dobndirea disciplinei i a libertii interioare.
Singurele care, din punctul su de vedere, i asigur celui ncarcerat supravieuirea. Fcndu-l
s exclame, precum preotul Dimitrie Bejan: A fost crucea bucuriei! Asta vreau s scriu. (...)
Cine primete suferina ca din mna lui Dumnezeu, crucea vieii se transform n bucurie.
Bucuria mntuirii!32 (subl. aut.)
Astfel, dup memorialistul Valeriu Anania, credina mijlocit, la rndul ei, de
rugciunea practicat (dup spusele sale) fr opreliti n nchisoare, i creaia sunt singurele
mijloace eficiente din acest punct de vedere. El i amintete cum, n ntunericul din celul,
disciplina mental i era asigurat n special de rugciunea ardent i de exerciiul creator
propriu-zis, mbinat cu cel al memorrii exacte, al nmagazinrii versurilor inscripionate n
straturile adnci ale memoriei de durat. Aflm, spre exemplu, c numai la Aiud a reuit s
scrie versuri i dou piese de teatru, Steaua Zimbrului i Meterul Manole, nsumnd peste
zece mii de versuri, a cror nmagazinare n memorie i era ameninat de subnutriie i de
boal. Munca aceasta i mai ales contiina creaiei mi-au meninut, de-a lungul acelor
ani, un echilibru moral de care nu muli se bucurau. Acest univers interior al meu ma fcut s
ndur numai cu jumtate de suferin toate privaiunile i promiscuitatea vieii de pucrie:
foamea, frigul, oboseala, murdria, praful, spaima, percheziiile, umilinele de tot felul,
turntoriile, nervii camarazilor de celul. Nu am cuvinte s-i dau mulumit lui Dumnezeu
pentru acel dar33, ne va recunoate memorialistul salvarea deinutului de ctre scriitorul
Valeriu Anania.
Despre rugciunea interioar ca mijloc esenial de conservare a identitii spirituale n
condiiile carcerale gsim mrturii n toate confesiunile preoilor scriitori. Toi i n special
cei arestai i calificai drept legionari de ctre anchetatorii comuniti clugrii, teologii
sau credincioii Bisericii noastre au vzut n rugciune arma de a lupta mpotriva ideologiei
30
Valeriu Anania, op. cit., p. 271;
31
Viitorul mitropolit Valeriu Anania, spre exemplu, se va lupta inclusiv cu tentaia automutilrii prin orbire, prin
care intenioneaz a se autopedepsi, pentru greeala de a fi cedat la drogul adevrului, scopolamina, i de a fi
denunat pe unii dintre cunoscui.
32
Dimitrie Bejan, op. cit., p. 43;
33
Valeriu Anania, op. cit., pp. 322-323;
697
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
comuniste, care a confiscat mai nti viaa adic libertatea oamenilor dar i bunurile
materiale; Biserica rmnnd astfel singura redut ntr-un regim concentraionar, care mai
putea apra pe oameni de dezumanizarea programat a societii, efectuat de ctre
comuniti34. ntrebat fiind dac a practicat rugciunea inimii n nchisoare, preotul Dimitrie
Bejan rspunde simplu (Da, cu mila Domnului. n pucrie am dobndit-o. Acum o fac mai
ales noaptea, cnd sunt singur cu Dumnezeu), apoi o descrie la fel de succint, cu vagi
inflexiuni poetice: Rugciunea noastr n pucrie, ca i viaa de mai trziu, curgea limpede
ca apa unui izvor, n care-i spui lui Dumnezeu, direct, tot ce te doare. Simeai totdeauna c
Dumnezeu aude i te ajut s supori greutatea35. ntr-o alt pagin din Bucuriile credinei.
Viaa unui preot martir, printele revine pentru a confirma c, ntr-adevr, Aceasta era
salvarea noastr: rugciunea i ndejdea n Dumnezeu, c nu era voie s ne rugm n public.
ntre numeroasele referiri la rugciune ale preotului Ioan Brda, selectm un exemplu de
rugciune colectiv a deinuilor aflai n drum spre Midia: Un vab de lng Arad, Demerle,
a zis hotrt: -S ne rugm, printe! Toi am czut n genunchi. Eram singurul preot din vagon
i am rostit o rugciune cu glas tare. Tcerea a rmas ntre noi i parc era un fum de tmie
binemirositor ce ducea rugciunea noastr spre naltul cerului.
De acelai ceremonial intens spiritualizat, chiar mistic, pe care am putea s l numim
ritualul sublimrii suferinei prin credin in, fr nicio ndoial, i formele exterioare,
subsecvente liturgicului. In mediul carceral, desigur, mijloacele liturgice canonice au trebuit
nlocuite de instrumente, obiecte i vetminte improvizate, percepute ns de ncarcerai drept
la fel de pline de har i n consecin la fel de eficiente precum cele din biserici sau mnstiri.
Cazul cel mai cunoscut, din aceast perspectiv, este botezul carceral al lui N. Steinhardt,
desfurat n Celula 18 de la Jilava. Naterea din ap viermnoas i din duh rapid36,
sinonim, practic, cu o transfigurare identitar total i copleitoare, va constitui substana
celei mai emoionante pagini din Jurnalul fericirii. Niciun alt eveniment similar ca finalitate
petrecut n mediul carceral romnesc nu are notorietatea celui care a asigurat schimbarea
decisiv n ordinea vieii viitorului monah Nicolae Delarohia. Dar astfel de ntmplri
miraculoase ale fiinei ncarcerate trebuie s se fi repetat ntr-un spaiu resimit drept
antecamer a morii. n fapt, memorialitii provenii din rndul clerului vor recunoate fr
nicio rezerv importana unor astfel de acte simililiturgice: Fceam toi rugciuni comune,
agheasm mic i spovedanie. De altfel, cu o spovedanie complet, cu formula ei spus
corect, cu punerea minilor pe capul penitentului, credeam c Raiul ne este deschis. Eu cred i
acum acelai lucru. Cci Sfnta mprtanie este coroana harului pe care-l poate primi
cretinul, dac merit s-o primeasc. Acolo n pucrie n-a fost posibil. Iat, eu aveam
mprtanie. O ineam ascuns n gulerul cmii i, cnd m pregteam, m mprteam.
Iar dac cineva dintre deinui era bolnav sau pe moarte, l spovedeam i-l mprteam pe
ascuns i aa pleca la Hristos37.
La fel de semnificative, n ordinea simbolicului, sunt formele de co-participare la cele
mai mari dintre srbtorile religioase. Dup mrturia printelui Dimitrie Bejan, o astfel de co-
participare extrem de intens era intermediat de sunetele clopotelor care se puteau auzi din
34
Pr. Prof. Univ. Dr. Vasile Nechita, Biserica mrturisitoare n zeghe, Editura Vasiliana 98, Iai, 2008, p. 42;
35
Dimitrie Bejan, op. cit., p. 187;
36
N. Steinhardt, op. cit., p. 169;
37
Dimitrie Bejan, op. cit., p. 88;
698
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
deprtare: Eram la o distan de doar 500 de metri i clopotele bteau direct n pucrie.
Toate slujbele le anuna. i Patele l fceam frumos. Imaginai-v cum fceam noi Patele!
Cnd cnta toat pucria Hristos a nviat ! , miliienii ne suduiau, stteau cu parii pe noi,
dar noi tot cntam! Acolo am trit cel mai intens bucuria nvierii! Acolo i la Oranki!38. La
fel, dou dintre cele mai luminoase pagini din Memoriile scrise de Valeriu Anania sunt cele
care descriu Crciunul anului 1943 de la nchisoarea Negru-Vod. n mod straniu, nsui
comandantul nchisorii l oblig s in slujba i o predic specific. Rezultatul nu este greu de
presupus: A fost n anul acela, un Crciun de neuitat, n arcul cel mare al nchisorii de pe
Negru-Vod, pe zpada bttorit de tlpile pucriailor. Chiar i condamnaii la moarte
fuseser scoi din lanuri i pui la rnd, n careu, s asculte slujba, n timp ce santinelele se
ordonaser mprejurul gardului de srm ghimpat, ntrit de patru ostai culcai, cu
mitraliere n poziie de tragere (...) Sunt sigur c o anume bucurie interioar, un anume
sentiment al libertii spiritului, care nfrunta grzile i mitralierele dimprejur, ne copleise pe
toi. Era linite mare pe feele supte ale acelor osndii, ncovoiai sub destine, iar corul a avut
inspiraia de a cnta rspunsurile ncet, dulce, frumos, nuanat, lipite pe mprejurare. Era ger,
iar nou ni se fcuse cald i bine. Prin contrast, Crciunul obinuit n nchisorile comuniste
prin care va mai trece viitorul mitropolit va fi cu att mai greu suportabil: mai trziu am
petrecut alte ase Crciunuri la celul, ntro tcere grea, copleitoare, ntrerupt doar de
intervenia gamelei cu arpaca39.
O alt form de rezisten n mediul carceral este cea cultural. Colocviile sau
conferinele pe diverse teme literare, filosofice, istorice, politice .a.m.d., desfurate fie n
oapt, n celulele supraaglomerate, transformate astfel n nite saloane n care se discut i
n care domnete politeea (Al. Paleologu) sau chiar n aul universitar (Florin Constantin
Pavlovici), fie prin intermediul alfabetului Morse, btut n pereii dintre ele, sunt nregistrate
drept mijloace taumaturgice, dac nu cumva drept soluie esenial de supravieuire, n
majoritatea textelor confesive publicate ncepnd cu anii 90. Chiar i crile de memorii
concepute drept rechizitorii mpotriva torionarilor conin numeroase fragmente dedicate
acestui miraculos mod de supravieuire carceral: Craca nsemna foame, dar i activitate
cultural. Ori de cte ori nceta munca fizic, ncepeau conferinele i nvarea limbilor
strine. Att n Balta Brilei, ct i n Delt, la Periprava, au existat confereniari strlucii.
Mai toate domeniile vieii intelectuale i aveau reprezentani de elit, de parc tiina, arta,
literatura sau filosofia i-ar fi dat anume ntlnire n lagrele de munc forat40, recunoate
cu luciditate dureroas Florin Constantin Pavlovici.
Despre acest transfer miraculos de experiene culturale relateaz, spre exemplu,
Valeriu Anania: Ceasurile noastre de sear, dintre numrtoare i stingere, le umpleam cu
povestiri, prefcndu-ni-le n adevrate eztori culturale. Fiecare spunea, pe rnd, ce tia din
specialitatea sau experiena lui. n cele vreo trei luni ct am stat n Jilava am ascultat
povestindu-se zeci de cri, filme, teorii filosofice, un curs universitar despre structura luminii
i patru-cinci conferine despre operele de art din Florena. Cnd mi-a venit rndul, am
povestit Mioria, ceva din Du-te, vreme, vino, vreme!, apoi, n cursul zilei urmtoare, a venit
vorba de mnstirile romneti i am fost ndemnat s povestesc ceva despre ele. Am nceput
38
Idem, p. 88;
39
Valeriu Anania, op. cit., p. 61;
40
Florin Constantin Pavlovici, op. cit., p. 186 ;
699
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
cu ruinele Vodiei, am continuat cu istoria i legendele Tismanei41. Ideea de schimb
profitabil de cunotine preponderent religioase ntre deinuii de diverse confesiuni, la un
moment dat prizonieri n aceeai celul, apare i n confesiunea dialogat din Bucuriile
suferinei: i n pucrie, la un moment dat, acolo la Aiud ne pusese pe profesiuni. Adic era
o secie unde erau numai preoi... Toi erau cretini. Toi. Era frumos cnd ne-au pus pe
categorii. Eram zece n celul. Fiecare ntr-o zi trebuia s-i ntrein pe ceilali. Nu ne scotea
nici la lucru, nimic, nici la aer, nimic, i atunci fceam conferine. i concluzia, de o
frumusee tulburtoare, care vine s ntreasc ideea c, numai graie comuniunii ntre
credincioi i a credinei totale n Dumnezeu, chiar i suferina atroce se poate sublima n
bucurie epifanic: La noi n celul e raiul lui Dumnezeu42...
Dup cum am vzut, multiplele forme de tortur (fizic i n special moral) pe care
le-au suportat nu numai preoii ncarcerai de comuniti au fost proiectate i puse n practic
de ctre autoritile regimului i torionarii demonizai ai acestora, drept mijloace eficiente de
efasare lent i sigur a identitii ncarcerailor. n fapt, tergerea identitii materiale i a
celei sociale au fost considerate doar treptele premergtoare adevratei eradicri identitare,
cea constituit de anularea identitii spirituale. i totui, exceptnd situaiile celor mori n
urma torturilor, ale sinucigailor sau ale reeducailor care nu au putut suporta suferina,
trdndu-i att semenii, ct i vocaia, pe porile nchisorilor comuniste au putut iei, uluitor,
i oameni ntregi, cci mplinii spiritual, ncretinai sau ntrii n credin. Astfel, preotul
Dimitrie Bejan i va aeza, nc de la nceput, rememorarea sub semnul uluitor al unei fericiri
stranii, determinate de relaia foarte strns cu Dumnezeu cel viu. Titlul uneia dintre crile
sale, Bucuriile credinei. Viaa unui preot martir,, vorbete de la sine despre felul n care, la
fel ca n cazul N. Steinhardt, anii de suferin grea au fost metamorfozai n ani de fericire, de
co-participare la miracolul divin. Iat i una dintre explicaiile acestei transformri, pe care o
regsim n interiorul opului: M-am simit foarte bine n prizonierat. Eu am plutit! Nici mcar
n-am strnutat, n-am fost rcit, n-am contactat nicio boal. Nimic. Am trecut i prin nchisori
i prin pduchi, prin frig, prin geruri, dar am fost perfect sntos, cu mintea limpede. Parc
pluteam; parc nu eram eu! A fost mila lui Dumnezeu cu mine (...) Dumnezeu m-a salvat. Am
simit, frailor, am simit pe umr o mn care m apsa!43
Greu de spus dac nu cumva o astfel de mrturie nu valideaz opinia Ruxandrei
Cesereanu, dup care Exagerarea binecuvntrii nchisorii (chiar ca ipostaz a unei probe de
ncercare a credinei) este un risc al mrturiilor feelor bisericeti44 Cert este doar faptul c
aceste simple, dar ct se poate de vii, de ardente fragmente de confesiune cu o miz
ontologic dintre cele mai nalte, dovedesc cu asupra de msur c, pentru nu puini dintre
preoii ortodoci care au trecut prin infernul nchisorilor comuniste, suferina carceral a avut
cu totul alt efect dect cel scontat de autoriti. n locul distrugerii identitare, prelaii torturai
cu slbticie i, la fel ca ei, numeroi credincioi mireni au resimit o ntrire miraculoas
a identitii lor spirituale, tocmai prin ntrirea relaiei cu alteritatea radical, Dumnezeu cel
viu. ntr-o form lapidar, Valeriu Anania exprim aceast certitudine ntr-o pagin superb
41
Valeriu Anania, op. cit., p. 310;
42
Dimitrie Bejan, op. cit., p. 89;
43
Idem, p. 96;
44
Ruxandra Cesereanu, Gulagul n contiina romneasc. Memorialistica i literatura nchisorilor i lagrelor
comuniste. Eseu de mentalitate, Ediia a II-a revzut i adugit, Polirom, 2005, p. 124;
700
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
din Memorii: Trntitura aceasta a vizetei te umilete de moarte i te arunc ntro singurtate
fr margini. Vai, ce ne-am face fr Dumnezeu?45.
Fr nicio ndoial, crizele identitare trite de preoii scriitori n iadul decolorat
reprezentat de mediul carceral au ca efect de profunzime nu reformularea unei filosofii a
Identitii spiritului i a fiinei (Jacques Le Rider), ci reformularea, n cei mai simpli termeni,
a unei veritabile filosofii a identitii Spiritului i a fiinei.
Bibliografie
Anania, Valeriu, Memorii, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2009.
Bdili, Cristian, Conac, Emanuel (editori), i cerul s-a umplut de sfini... Martiriul n
Antichitatea cretin i n secolul XX. Actele colocviului internaional, Sighet, 2-5 iunie 2011,
Curtea Veche Publishing, Bucureti, 2012.
Brda, Pr. Ioan, Calvarul Aiudului. Din suferinele unui preot ortodox, text ngrijit i not
biografic de Georgeta Pop, cu un cuvnt nainte de Ana Blandiana, Editura Anastasia, 1999.
Bejan, Pr. Dimitrie, Bucuriile suferinei. Viaa unui preot martir, Ediia a II-a, Editura
Mnstirea Sihstria, 2010.
Cesereanu, Ruxandra, Gulagul n contiina romneasc. Memorialistica i literatura
nchisorilor i lagrelor comuniste. Eseu de mentalitate, Ediia a II-a revzut i adugit,
Editura Polirom, 2005.
Din temnie spre Sinaxare, coord. Danion Vasile, ediia I, Editura Egumenia, 2008; ediia a
II-a, Editura Areopag, Bucureti, 2011.
Le Rider, Jacques, Modernitatea vienez i crizele identitii, Postfa de Adriana Babei,
Traducere de Magda Jeanrenaud, Editura Univesitii Al. I. Cuza, Iai, 2003.
Manea, Vasile, Preoi ortodoci n nchisorile comuniste, Editura Patmos, Cluj-Napoca, 2010.
Mrturisitorii din nchisorile comuniste. Minuni. Mrturii. Repere, Editura Areopag i
Editura Meditaii, Bucureti, 2011.
Muchielli, Alex, Lidentit, PUF, Paris, 1986.
Nechita, Pr. Prof. univ. ur. Vasile, Biserica mrturisitoare n zeghe, Editura Vasiliana 98,
Iai, 2008.
Pavlovici, Florin Constantin, Tortura pe nelesul tuturor, Memorii, Ediia a II-a, Editura
Fundaiei Academia Civic, 2011.
Ptz, Manfred, Fabula identitii. Romanul american din anii aizeci, traducere i prefa de
Irina Burlui, Editura Institutul European, Iai, 1995.
Simion, Eugen, Genurile biograficului, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2002.
Steinhardt, N., Jurnalul fericirii, Argument de P. S. Justin Hodea Sigheteanul, ediie ngrijit,
studiu introductiv, repere biobibliografice i indice de Virgil Bulat. Note de Virgil Bulat i
Virgil Ciomo. Cu Un dosar al memoriei arestate de George Ardeleanu, Mnstirea Rohia
i Editura Polirom, Iai, 2008.
45
Valeriu Anania, op. cit., p. 315;
701
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ARGUMENTS EN FAVEUR DUN CURRICULUM
QUI PROMEUVE ET CONSERVE LIDENTITE NATIONALE
Silvia NEGRUIU, Associate Professor, PhD, Universit dArts, Trgu-Mure
Abstract: Starting from the fact that, among the school population, (and, in fact, in the whole
contemporary society) we can detect a state of involution concerning values, the author
suggests, as a solution, the re-spiritualization of the teaching process by including the values
of the folk tradition as teaching aims, expecting that their assimilation by the students might
cause positive changes regarding intention, attitude and behavior. In presenting the basic
arguments for the new curricular model, the author suggests multidimensional approaches:
axiological, pedagogical, psychological, sociological, historical, ethnological and
theological; all these aspects focus on the education of emotion and humanization of
knowledge. The conclusions include suggestions referring to the kind of teacher who could
successfully implement the new curricular paradigm, emphasizing the importance of initial
education and permanent training for the teaching profession.
Keywords: globalization, national identity, arguments, tradition curriculum, education
1. Pourquoi un curriculum fond sur les traditions?
Nous vivons un prsent historique dont la caractristique essentielle est lextrmement
rapide dynamique des changements. Les changements dordre social et culturel, de mme que
linfluence toujours plus forte (et nfaste dans la plupart des cas) des mdias sur le
dveloppement de lindividu, signalent un tat dinvolution, une perte de vue des valeurs
authentiques. Dans ces conditions, la socit rencontre des difficults promouvoir une
ducation de la perspective des valeurs de la jeune gnration, raison pour laquelle le systme
denseignement et lcole se voient obligs multiplier leurs efforts qui mnent modeler et
former ceux quils duquent. Action difficile mais prioritaire car, telles que les choses se
prsentent, le relationnement positif est en danger et agrandit le nombre dtats conflictuels
interindividuels et mme intraindividuels.
On est persuads que la plus grande crise que nous traversions est la crise morale. Et le
plus affect parait en tre le plan thique. Parmi les raisons, signalons que lhumanit ne se
rapporte plus, en gnral, aux valeurs morales. Incluons ici, ct des valeurs gnralement
humaines (la vrit, le bien, le beau), les valeurs chrtiennes (lamour, la foi, lespoir) et
celles modernes (la libert, la justice, la dignit). Au niveau individuel, les choses ne vont pas
mieux non plus, au contraire, il y a des attitudes anonymes qui se manifestent, caractrises
par le manque de repres des valeurs, par la limitation des efforts moraux-spirituels, par
indiffrence, anxit, manque despoir. Ces attitudes sont concrtises en comportements
dviants et antisociaux: paresse, mensonge, violence, criminalit sous des formes diffrentes.
Selon les tudes sociologiques, la crise morale est aussi ressentie au niveau de la
population scolaire du monde entier, qui dveloppe les mmes comportements dviants et
antisociaux. En tant quenseignants, nous nous confrontons des ralits qui diagnostiquent
702
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
un tat de maladie: la plupart des tudiants sont insouciants, ils napprennent pas la
mesure de leurs capacits intellectuelles, ils nestiment pas les objets du milieu o ils
travaillent, ils sont agressifs (physiquement et verbalement), ils naiment pas lire, ils ne savent
pas couter et se faire couter, ils ne sentraident pas, ils sont tents ne voir que les dfauts
de ceux qui les entourent (jamais les qualits), ils ne reconnaissent pas leurs fautes, ils
peuvent mentir avec du sang froid, ils ne discernent pas le bien du mal etc. Cest pourquoi le
phnomne ducationnel en est fortement affect. Dans la plupart des cas on ne reoit ni
lappui de la famille, elle-mme dpourvue dune ducation morale-civique, dune ducation
en vue de lentente et de la paix, dune ducation voue btir et maintenir une famille
saine.
Il existe pourtant des proccupations pour la recherche ducationnelle, trouver des
solutions pour dpasser la crise morale qui, selon notre opinion, se trouve la base de toutes
les formes de crises existentes.
A lavis de Ren Guenon, la cause qui a dclench la crise du monde moderne serait
la perte des traditions et des vrits rvles. Bogdan erbnescu (2000, pp. 23-24) plaide
pour reconsidrer et revigorer les traditions par lducation, en tant que remde de la crise
morale. Il soutient la ncessit de repenser le curriculum scolaire en le compltant et en
lenrichissant par des lments de tradition populaire, ceux derniers tant mme dengendrer
un nouveau type de comportement positif, appropri aux valeurs traditionnelles, archtypales
et une personnalit facilement adaptable un monde en changement continu.
La dimension des traditions est prsente aussi chez Constantin Cuco (2006, p. 97),
qui, en partant des Saintes Ecritures et de la Sainte Tradition, souligne le fait que toute une
sagesse et un large vantail de modles formatifs sont prsents dans les crits patristiques,
dans les vies exemplaires des saints, des martyrs et des grands promoteurs du christianisme.
Puisque la tradition populaire prend ses sources de la Sainte Tradition, laquelle elle
est circonscrite et dont elle a assimil le systme de valeurs, introduire les valeurs de la
tradition populaire dans les contenus de lenseignement signifierait la respiritualisation du
processus denseignement, tel quil tait ses dbuts, quand il fonctionnait dans le cadre des
glises ou auprs delles; ce serait une possible manire de construire de nouvelles valeurs
nationales, solidement bties sur les anciennes, mritantes et valides dans le temps, dont
lassimilation produise chez les tudiants des changements dsirables de nature intentionnelle,
attitudinale, comportementale.
2. Arguments pour un curriculum fond sur les traditions
Dans la tentative de prsenter des arguments en faveur dun curriculum fond sur les
traditions, vou promouvoir et conserver lidentit nationale, nous recourrons des
approches multidimensionnelles: axiologiques, pdagogiques, psychologiques, sociologiques,
historiques, ethnologiques, thologiques, toutes orientes duquer lmotion et humaniser
le savoir. Nous tchons dinventorier les susdits arguments tout en tenant compte des
prescriptions de la Loi de lEducation Nationale (2011), des opportunits que le nouveau
paradigme scolaire ouvrirait en contexte national et europen, des perspectives des nouvelles
ducations que le curriculum fond sur la tradition recommande, des valeurs slectionnes
pour tre transmises ceux qui sduquent, des consquences rpercutes sur lindividu et sur
la socit roumaine en gnral:
703
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Lgifration de la proccupation dassumer, promouvoir et conserver lidentit
nationale et les valeurs culturelles du peuple roumain
Lun des principes qui gouvernent lenseignement de Roumanie (pruniversitaire,
suprieur et la formation continue de toute la vie) est le principe dassumer, promouvoir et
conserver lidentit nationale et les valeurs culturelles du peuple roumain (Loi de
lEducation Nationale 2011, TITRE I, Article 3, lettre h).
Pour tre efficace, un curriculum doit tre bien ancr dans la ralit ducationnelle du
moment, quil transcende pourtant, tout en se mettant en connexion avec le pass et ses
valeurs, ces dernires valides dans le temps.
Ncessit de la compatibilisation europenne du curriculum de Roumanie
Dans la recherche scientifique mondiale on parle la mme langue: celle des standards
de performance, quelles que soient la position gographique, lethnie reprsente, la
spcificit de la recherche, les possibilits de publication etc. Les rsultats obtenus sont
rapports ces standards, si lon veut quils soient reconnus.
Lappartenance lUnion Europenne impose que le standard de performance du
Curriculum de Roumanie soit compatibilis avec celui europen. Il ne sagit point ici de
dmolir le principe national mais de crer une construction qui lie les cultures lune lautre,
en crant un entier assumant tout ce qui est de valeur au niveau europen et mondial, sans
perdre de vue le spcifique national et les valeurs nationales, en ancrant le curriculum dans les
traditions de grande valeur de lenseignement et de lducation de chaque culture appartenant
la construction en cause.
Globalisation et tradition, pluralit et individualit compatibilits ou
incompatibilits?
Lindividualit doit exister car elle est la base de lidentit de la personnalit. De
manire similaire, lindividualit dune culture reprsente la base de lidentit dun peuple. Le
processus de globalisation, duniversalit ne peut pas se produire au-del de la construction
dun rseau de traditions, de particularits, de fragmentations, de localisations etc. Chaque
culture garde son individualit et enrichit sa valeur en se rapportant la pluralit.
Les concepts de globalisation et pluralit ne prendraient pas vie sil ny avait pas
les concepts de tradition, respectivement individualit, tandis que ces derniers nauraient
point de possibilit de se mettre en valeur, sans les premiers.
Assurer les perspectives dapproche intgre des contenus
De multiples domaines, disciplines, problmatiques et thmes interfrent et contribuent,
de manire complmentaire, la cristallisation des traditions populaires, ce qui facilite
lidentification des liens entre les contenus impliqus, leur approche intgre. Cest ainsi que
les tudiants peuvent se former une vision intgrative sur la ralit.
Le paralllisme entre les valeurs traditionnelles et celles chrtiennes, constat au long
de lhistoire et qui a model toute la culture et civilisation europenne, conduit lide
daborder corrlativement les paradigmes ducationnel et chrtien.
Curriculum bas sur les traditions actes de rcupration archtypale
De la perspective pragmatique, un curriculum des traditions se propose de modeler la
personnalit des individus et de leur former des comportements dsirables, en conformit avec
les valeurs archtypales. Le contenu de lenseignement fond sur les traditions consiste dans
un systme de valeurs qui comprend tout dabord des modles attitudinaux et
704
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
comportementaux conformes larchtype, sans pourtant ngliger les autres composants:
connaissances, habilets, capacits, comptences, stratgies.
En mme temps, on tiendra compte du fait que les individus qui sont duqus de nos
jours vont sintgrer dans la vie sociale et professionnelle dun monde dynamique et
provacateur.
Lexprience ducative de la tradition (son rle ducatif au long des sicles), le
bnfice que laction ducative peut engendrer par son utilisation en continu, dans lcole ou
en dehors de celle-ci
En les observant jusqu un certain point, on constate que lducation et la tradition ont
des lments communs des plus importants: finalits (formation et modelage de la personnalit
humaine), fonctions (transmission de valeurs), dimensions, de la perspective processuelle
(information et formation) et de la perspective des contenus vhiculs (technologique,
axiologique, spirituelle, cognitive, psychomotrice etc.), principes ducationnels (par exemple,
lier la thorie la pratique, respectivement lier la pratique la thorie) etc., tout en prcisant qu
une tradition bien comprise peut et doit tre tout autre chose quune reprise du pass Dans ce
cas, la tradition peut tre conue comme tant pour un peuple ce que la mmoire est pour un
individu, cest--dire le contraire de lhabitude mcanique ou de la routine. Elle ne consistera
point en subir passivement laction du pass mais en connatre sa propre histoire, se rendre
compte que lon continue quelque chose, bien savoir ce que lon continue, en chercher les
directions, sacquitter finalement envers le pass, tre en clair avec ses propres expriences
dures et ne plus les reprendre (D. Parodi, apud. Stanciu Stoian et Petre Alexandru, 1978).
Le curriculum fond sur les traditions, solution la crise morale de la socit
(de la matrice sociale)
Les causes principales de la crise morale des socits modernes sont la marginalisation
ou mme la perte du contact avec la tradition populaire. Cest pourquoi, un curriculum des
traditions pourrait contribuer grandement diminuer ou mme remdier la crise morale; les
valeurs traditionnelles et, en complmentarit, celles religieuses constituent le fondement des
comportements thiques et moraux de toute poque historique. Le systme ducatif doit
transmettre des valeurs et dterminer des comportements qui dveloppent des attitudes de
communication et un relationnement interpersonnel et intercommunautaire, afin de percevoir
laltrit comme valeur et point comme obstacle. Il faut stimuler et dvelopper lesprit
critique des tudiants, de manire quils puissent comprendre combien une certaine culture est
ouverte ou bien rticente au dialogue.
Un curriculum des traditions assure la transmission verticale, entre les
gnrations, des propres valeurs culturelles
Lhumanit doit revenir au spcifique culturel reprsent par les traditions afin
dassurer sa survie, son intgrit, son dveloppement, tant bien connu quelle, la culture,
reprsente lessence mme du dveloppement. Dans le processus denseignement, mme au
niveau individuel, des efforts sont ncessaires pour accepter et sapproprier les valeurs
gnralement humaines, les valeurs chrtiennes et celles modernes, mais toutes celles-ci bien
comprises. L o les repres de valeur manquent, des comportements dviants et antisociaux
se font voir.
Le processus dapprentissage de ltudiant parcourt le trajet de la culture universelle.
Mme si le monde en son ensemble va toujours en avant, la jeunesse doit pourtant tout
705
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
reprendre ds le dbut et parcourir individuellement les poques de la culture universelle
(Goethe, apud B. erbnescu, 2000, p. 8).
La possibilit dadapter et de combiner la tradition aux nouvelles ressources,
lactualiser jour, sans en dnaturer le message
Au niveau spirituel, il y a la possibilit de sadapter au nouveau, sans ngation
de lancien: construire une harmonie dans laquelle lancien et le nouveau cohabitent.
Au niveau matriel, il y a la possibilit que la tradition populaire soit recherche,
valorise et valorifie plus facilement, par lentremise ou au concours des nouvelles
ressources. Et lon pense ici aux appareils enregistrer, photographier, filmer, travailler
les donnes, la diversit des moyens de transport, aux possibilits de se dplacer vers les
zones de la recherche, de popularisation, de dissmination des conclusions de la recherche etc.
Un curriculum des traditions offre la possibilit de faire entrer les traditions dans les
salles de cours, dans des leons de divers types et catgories: les nols, par exemple, aux
heures dhistoire, comme documents historiques; les veilles en filanderie aux leons
dhabilets pratiques et dducation musicale; la danse populaire Clueru aux classes de
sport; la turca (masque de Nol reprsentant une tte de cerf) aux jeux de rles ou aux ftes
scolaires etc.
Les expriences ducationnelles de lhumanit, vrifies au niveau de chaque
gnration dindividus, dmontrent que tradition ne veut point dire aller en arrire ou quelque
chose de vieilli mais, au contraire, quelque chose de haute valeur, bien valid
Accepter et valoriser la tradition ne signifie pas daccepter quelque chose de vieilli
mais de sensibiliser et former les tudiants admettre ce qui est de valeur, surtout que chaque
communaut doit tre proactive.
Devient tradition un aspect contemporain valide et mritant; la culture, surtout celle
traditionnelle, a t et restera lessence et le moteur du dveloppement social. Il nous reste
veiller et faire attention au danger de la pntration du kitch, des pseudovaleurs dans la
culture.
Cultiver le sentiment dappartenance une communaut et une nation,
affirmer lidentit culturelle de la nation, tout en respectant le multiculturalisme et lidentit
individuelle et de groupe
Pour la plupart des gens, le sentiment dappartenance est trs important. Dans la
Thorie dAbraham Maslow, Pyramide des besoins humains, le besoin dappartenance est
associ au besoin damour (la ncessit dtre ensemble avec dautres, dappartenir un
groupe ou une catgorie sociale, dtre accept par les autres, doffrir et de recevoir de
laffection). La plupart des tres humains ressentent de lattachement et de lamour envers
leur famille. Beaucoup se ddient de grands groupes, par exemple la compagnie pour
laquelle ils travaillent, lcole o ils enseignent etc. Bon nombre se trouvent profondment
lis lendroit o ils vivent, au lieu o ils ont grandi, au pays o ils sont ns. Tous ces
sentiments dappartenance aident laffirmation de lidentit des individus et des
communauts et lcole est celle qui, tout en respectant la lettre de la loi, a lattribution de
contribuer la conservation de lidentit nationale (Loi de lEducation Nationale de 2011,
TITRE I, Art.3, lettre h).
Un curriculum fond sur les traditions aide cultiver le sentiment dappartenance,
affirmer lidentit nationale, de mme qu comprendre, apprcier et respecter la diversit.
706
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Rhabilitation de la famille
Les enfants acquirent par imitation une grande partie des valeurs et des coutumes de
leur culture par lentremise de leur famille notamment de leurs grands-parents, qui
transmettent volontiers les traditions culturelles, quils connaissent pour les avoir vcues. La
civilisation roumaine met un grand accent sur les valeurs de la vie de famille, tout en
considrant que la famille est le milieu optimum pour lever les enfants et soigner les vieux.
Malheureusement, de nos jours et surtout au milieu urbain, cette pratique nest plus possible,
cause de limplication des parents dans des professions qui occupent toute leur journe,
parfois des jours et des nuits aussi (par exemple quand ils partent en dlgation, en intrt de
service). Beaucoup denfants grandissent auprs de bonnes, en gardant vif le dsir toujours
inassouvi de se retrouver davantage, physiquement et sentimentalement, auprs de leurs
parents et grands-parents. De plus en plus de familles divorcent, les relations extra-conjugales
ou de nature homosexuelle sont toujours plus acceptes, la cohabitation avant le mariage est
devenue une mode.
Une ducation de rhabilitation de la famille simpose, afin de construire le sens
civique, lgal et moral. Un curriculum fond sur les traditions ferait revivre parmi les
tudiants le vieux modle de la famille roumaine toute saine, quils pourraient assimiler et
auquel ils pourraient aspirer dans leur devenir.
En connaissant les valeurs et les traits de son propre peuple, lon arrive se
connatre soi-mme et sautodfinir, sintgrer dans la vie sociale
Les valeurs du peuple roumain sont un cumule des valeurs gnralement humaines,
des valeurs chrtiennes, des valeurs modernes et de celles dveloppes par ses traits propres:
le respect de ses semblables, la joie de travailler, lestime du travail, la sagesse, lingniosit,
lintelligence, lesprit, lintuition, le respect de linstruction, la diligence, le sens thique
pntrant, lhonntet, la dignit, la sincrit, la modestie, la sobrit, la matrise de soi,
lesprit de lentraide et de la solidarit, le patriotisme, le sens de lhumour.
Un curriculum des traditions aiderait ltudiant connatre ses valeurs, sentir ses
racines, pouvoir sintgrer dans la vie sociale et, implicitement, se connatre soi-mme et
sautodfinir.
En connaissant la tradition de son propre peuple, lon constate que certaines
habitudes, empruntes dautres cultures, existent depuis les vieux temps dans sa propre
culture (voir Dragobete versus Valentines day)
Par principe, lhomme nemprunte que les choses dont ils ne dispose pas. Et il sait
prcisment ce qui manque son mnage. On se demande alors, pourquoi tant de ftes
occidentales sont entres dans notre culture, aprs la Rvolution de 1989 et ont t avidement
adoptes. La rponse nen est quune seule: la grande masse des Roumains ne savait pas que
nous avions, nous-mmes, en tant que peuple, les susdites ftes. En voil un seul exemple: si
les Roumains connaissaient tous la fte de Dragobete ( le 24 fvrier), seraient-ils encore
tents demprunter Valentines Day (le 14 fvrier), comme jour des amoureux, vu que leur
signification est similaire? Et les exemples pourraient continuer
Par cela, nous ne dsavouons point les ftes occidentales et leur pratique par les
Roumains non plus mais nous ne pouvons pas tre daccord que lon ne connaisse pas nos
propres traditions, quelles ne soient pas mises jour, que lon ne se rjouisse pas de leur
existence, de la dimension morale du message quelles transmettent.
707
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Lun des arguments les plus solides pour la projection et limplmentation dun
curriculum des traditions dans lenseignement roumain est que, par cela, le peuple roumain
pourra rvigorer et connatre ses traditions nationales.
En mettant en vidence lesprit crateur du peuple roumain, lon contribue au
dveloppement de la crativit des tudiants dans le cadre de lenseignement roumain
En pratiquant lcole les vieilles formes de culture (danses populaires, sculpture en
bois, en cire etc.), les tudiants peuvent exercer lesprit crateur du peuple roumain (en
gardant lhritage des anctres) et peuvent assurer la survie dun style de vie en voie de
disparition, tout en travaillant, en mme temps, dvelopper leur propre crativit.
Un curriculum fond sur les traditions peut aider maintenir la sant mentale
de lindividu
La sant est un problme social, conomique et politique mais aussi un qui concerne
les droits de lhomme. La famille, lcole, la communaut, lglise reprsentent les lieux o
lenfant grandit, se dveloppe, sinitie et sduque pour se former comme vrai homme et
sintgrer dans la socit.
Quest-ce que la sant mentale: cest ce que nous pensons, sentons, la manire dont
nous agissons et dont nous faisons face aux preuves de la vie. Cest la faon dont nous nous
regardons nous-mmes, nos vies et les gens qui y sont lis. Tout comme la sant physique,
notre sant mentale est importante dans chaque tape de la vie. Elle inclut aussi la manire
dont nous faisons face au stress, dont nous entrons en relations avec les autres et dont nous
prenons nos dcisions (A. Cury, 2005, p. 7).
Il y peu denseignants qui se trouvent du temps pour discuter avec leurs lves, pour
connatre leurs troubles et proccupations, pour les comprendre, pour simpliquer rsoudre
leurs problmes motionnels, pour les encourager, pour augmenter leur estime de soi, pour
leur apprendre (en dehors des problmes de maths ou de langue roumaine) comment rsoudre
les problmes de vie. Observer llve par ses qualits et non par ses dfauts reste encore,
pour beaucoup denseignants, un desideratum de la pdagogie moderne et non une ralit. En
change, la dtrioration de la sant mentale (et nous, les enseignants, nous ne le savons que
trop bien) est une ralit et son amlioration reste un desideratum.
Conclusions
Quelque solides que puissent tre les arguments en faveur dun curriculum bas sur les
traditions, il ne saurait tre implment avec succs qu la condition de lexistence
denseignants ayant une formation initiale spciale et spcialise.
Dans notre dsir de contourer le profil dun tel enseignant, on souligne le trait
dfinitoire qui pourrait le recommander: lhumanisme, compris comme disponibilit aider,
volontarisme. Juste au-dessus de lhumanisme, dans ce modle dont nous parlons, on situe
limplication responsable du futur enseignant dans sa prparation initiale spcifique (tout en
soulignant la dpendance de cette qualit de la qualit humaine du futur enseignant) et, lie
cette prparation, limplication minutieuse, attentive dans sa formation continue.
Pour continuer, on prsente aussi notre perspective et vision concernant la prparation
thorique et pratique du modle de professeur pour lequel nous plaidons. On y vient avec des
propositions et des suggestions lies son admission la spcialisation, son instruction
initiale et sa formation continue.
708
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Le processus de formation des professeurs se droule en deux tapes: la prparation
initiale (ralise pendant les tudes universitaires) et la formation continue (accomplie
pendant toute la dure du professorat). La prparation initiale, tel que son nom
mme le montre, reprsente le trajet initiatique de ltudiant dans le monde de la profession
didactique, par des activits thoriques, mthodologiques et pratiques, spcifiques aux deux
segments du processus denseignement. La prparation continue inclut les activits de
formation du professeur, comprenant les actualisations, les compltements et les
spcialisations thoriques, mthodologiques et pratiques de la priode o il pratiquera la
profession didactique.
Ayant en vue la problmatique tellement complexe avec laquelle les enseignants
viennent en contact dans le contexte du curriculum fond sur les traditions (dun ct cause
du profil psychologique de lge auquel il sadresse et dautre ct cause de son spcifique
formatif), il simposerait qu leur admission, prparation et formation lon prenne en
considration, part lexamen organis pour tre reus, de possibles preuves liminatoires
qui vrifient certaines disponibilits personnelles, telles: la disponibilit daider, dduquer
lmotion des lves, celle dhumaniser le savoir (par des histoires lies la vie des savants
qui ont mis au monde la science, lies mme la science quils ont fait natre, lies au
parcours de cette science- cest--dire limplication, aux renoncements, aux difficults par
lesquels on est arrivs aux dcouvertes, aux russites, aux checs etc.), tant bien connu que
derrire chaque information, si facilement prsente dans la salle de cours, il y a les larmes,
les aventures et le courage des hommes de science (A. Cury, 2005, p. 133).
Tel quil ressort des affirmations antrieures, dans notre vision, le curriculum des
traditions nexclut pas une approche scientifique des contenus, au contraire, il les connecte
ltape du refltement du phnomne ducationnel dans la conscience commune et, en gale
mesure, la pdagogie de lavenir. Par la mise lpreuve des disponibilits du matre,
rappeles ci-dessus, les tudiants connatraient des modles, ils pourraient sen choisir, ils
auraient des repres etc. Ils ont besoin de modles qui les aident se construire.
Maintenant, au dbut du troisime millnaire, des syntagmes tels: valeurs populaires,
valeurs nationales, valeurs occidentales, patrimoine culturel, sont de plus en plus
frquemment vhicules. Le processus ducationnel est appel, son tour, contribuer la
promotion des valeurs roumaines traditionnelles parmi les tudiants, partir des ges les plus
tendres. La recherche pdagogique se trouve de nouveaux domaines dintrt. Stimule et
encourage par la pdagogie moderne, exige par le besoin de dmontrer lidentit du peuple
roumain dans cette poque de la globalisation, la recherche pdagogique roumaine largit de
plus en plus son aire de proccupations, par lapproche de thmes circonscrits au domaine de
la culture traditionnelle. Nous ny en rappellerons que quelques-uns, dans lesquels on pourrait
impliquer les tudiants qui choisissent la carrire didactique et que lon pourrait aussi
suggrer aux professeurs qui dirigent la pratique pdagogique des tudiants (et pas seulement
eux). Nous-mmes nous avons pris lhabitude, comme enseignants, daller dans les villages
et rechercher, avec nos tudiants, des lments de tradition ayant un rle formatif dans la
personnalit de ces derniers. On y fait part de quelques-unes de nos modalits dinvestigation,
en suggrant aussi de les introduire parmi les activits dinstruction initiale et de formation
continue des professeurs: les excursions dtudes dans le village roumain (pour prendre
contact sur le vif avec ses gens, avec la position gographique, avec les pratiques de la vie
709
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
villageoise, avec la vie religieuse, avec laspect cologique de lexistence etc.), les
recherches-actions (pour dcouvrir les valeurs nationales devenues traditions, telles les
veilles en filanderie et pour divers travaux faits en commun afin de sentraider, linvitation
la noce, la dsignation du paysan le plus laborieux - Pogniciu, la visite de chaque maison
pour y chanter des nols, lhabitude de la veille de la Saint-Georges o les jeunes hommes du
village crient devant tout le monde les dfauts des jeunes filles marier, le rituel de la turca
un jeune homme masqu en cerf danse et fait des voeux pour le nouvel an ), les ftes scolaires
(qui mettent en valeur exclusivement des lments de tradition, de folklore, mises en scne
par les lves et leur professeur coordonnateur; celles-ci sont des dcoupages rels de la vie
du village, vcus par les lves et transposs dans des jeux de rles devant un public citadin,
une fois revenus en ville), les cours optionnels qui vhiculent des contenus appartenant la
culture et la civilisation de Roumanie.
Ce ne sont l que quelques possibilits de mettre en valeur la tradition en droulant des
activits curriculaires et extracurriculaires mais qui pourraient veiller aussi lintrt dautres
enseignants et tudiants pour ce domaine et qui pourraient galement se constituer en
moments de rflexion pour dcouvrir dautres modalits et dautres thmes, encore inabords.
En tant quenseignants, il nous intresse quel serait le gain des tudiants ayant
parcouru les thmes et les contenus suggrs ci-dessus, condition de trouver des professeurs
censs de situer sur le premier plan lducation de lmotion et lhumanisation du savoir : ils
deviendront entreprenants et cratifs; ils sauront faire leurs choix; ils assumeront des risques
pour raliser les objectifs proposs; ils subiront plus faciliment les rigueurs de la vie; ils
dvelopperont moins de conflits; ils seront plus ralistes, plus optimistes, plus robustes du
point de vue motionnel.
Et quel pourrait alors tre le gain des enseignants? Ils auraient plus de satisfactions
professionnelles qui les motiveraient simpliquer de suite; ils seraient plus relaxs; ils
seraient, eux-mmes, mentalement plus sains; ils auraient une relation plus proche avec leurs
tudiants et avec les parents de ces derniers; ils se sentiraient panouis; ils auraient la joie
davoir ractiv et davoir transmis des valeurs authentiques, de mme que dtre venus en
contact direct avec les effets formatifs et informatifs de ces valeurs, reflts dans les attitudes,
les comportements et le savoir des tudiants.
Bibliographie
Cuco, C., (2000), Educaia. Dimensiuni culturale i interculturale, Editura Polirom, Iai.
Cury, A., (2005), (traduit par Georgiana Brbulescu), Prini strlucii, profesori fascinani,
Editura For You, Bucureti.
Cuzneov, L., (2005), Fundamente teoretice i metodologice ale educaiei pentru familie,
Centrul editorial al USM, Chiinu.
Gray, J., (2006), (traduit par Maria Giugariu), Copiii sunt din rai. Metode de educaie pozitiv
pentru a crete copii cooperani, ncreztori i sufletiti, Editura Vremea, Bucureti.
Hazard, P., (1932), Les livres, les enfants et les hommes, Editura Flamarion, Paris.
Ionescu, M.; Chi, V., (coord.), (2001), Pedagogie Suporturi pentru formarea profesorilor,
Editura Presa Universitar Clujean, Cluj-Napoca.
710
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Ionescu, M., Boco, M., (coord.), (2009), Tratat de didactic modern, Editura Paralela 45,
Piteti.
Mantzaridis, G., I., (2002), (traduit par Vasile Rduc), Globalizare i universalitate himer
i adevr-, Editura Bizantin, Bucureti.
Marga, A., (2004), Religia n era globalizrii, Editura Fundaiei pentru Studii Europene, Cluj-
Napoca.
Negruiu, S., (2011), Pai nspre un curriculum bazat pe tradiii. Posibiliti, argumentare,
proiectare, Editura Presa Universitar Clujean, Cluj-Napoca.
Negruiu, S., (2011), Educaia prin valorile arhetipale. O perspectiv realizabil, Editura
Presa Universitar Clujean, Cluj-Napoca.
Negruiu, S., (2008), Cultur i Civilizaie Romneasc. Curs opional pentru nvmntul
primar, Editura Universitii Petru Maior, Trgu-Mure.
Negruiu, S., (2005), Valorificarea folclorului n nvmntul primar. Scenarii educaionale,
Editura Casa Crii de tiin, Cluj-Napoca.
Nicolescu, B., (1999), Trandisciplinaritatea. Manifest, Editura Polirom, Iai.
Praoveanu, I., (2001), Etnografia poporului romn, Editura Paralela 45, Colecia Cursuri
Universitare, Bucureti.
Soros, G., (2002), Despre globalizare, Editura Polirom, Iai.
Stoian, St., Petre, Al., (1978), Pedagogie i folclor, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic,
Bucureti.
erbnescu, B., (2000), Valorile naionale i educaia (proiect de curriculum), Editura
Universitar Carol Davila, Bucureti.
Tia, T., (2004), Pedagogia pastoral i criza valorilor, Editura Rentregirea, Alba Iulia.
Videanu, G., (1988), Educaia la frontiera dintre milenii, Editura Politic, Bucureti.
***, Biblia sau Sfnta Scriptur, (2001), Ediie Jubiliar a Sfntului Sinod, Editura Istitutului
Biblic i de Misiune al Bisericii Ortodoxe Romne, Bucureti.
***, (2011), Legea Educaiei Naionale, Bucureti.
***, (1998; 1999), Planul-cadru de nvmnt pentru nvmntul preuniversitar,
Bucureti.
711
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
MULTICULTURALISM, DEATH, FAITH AND ITS LIMITS
Rodica GRIGORE, Associate Professor, PhD, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu
Abstract: This essay discusses some topics related to the problems of faith and, above all,
of how people experience the limit(s) of their consciousness and of the world they live in.
The main concern is to show how these issues are expressed in modern literature and
especially within the specific field of modern Japanese literature. Therefore, our
demonstration is stressed upon Shusaku Endos work, taking into consideration his
unusual personal experience within Christianity. The author himself often spoke of
Christianity as an ill-fitted suit for his Japanese frame. In this respect, we may state that
what Endo inherited rightly was his vision of the world, a sacramental worldview that sees
human action within the grand narrative of Gods redeeming activity in the world.
Keywords: faith, Catholicism, limit, death, tragic, modern Japanese literature,
Christianity, multiculturalism.
Japanese novelist Shusaku Endo (1923 1996) had a long career of writing that
toyed with paradoxes that put opposing forces in juxtaposition with one another and the
sought of reconciliation. One of his most persistent themes, also popularized by other
significant contemporary authors such as Salman Rushdie or Kazuo Ishiguro, was to
address the cultural clash between East and West, in his particular case, especially in its
relationship to Christianity, as the perfect example of multiculturalism within the 20 th
century literature. Perhaps this is not a completely new problem in the context of the
Japanese literature, but one which Endo inherited from his predecessors, a long line of
writers and intellectuals of the Meiji epoch begun in 1868.
Still, Shusaku Endo is the first Catholic to discuss it with such force and, to quote
William Johnston, Endos translator into English, to draw the clear-cut conclusion that
Christianity must adapt itself radically if it is to take root in the <<swamp>> of Japan. 1
Somehow a stranger in his own land, a Roman Catholic writer in a country historically
hostile to Christian faith, Endo was often compared throughout his career to writers like
Georges Bernanos, Flannery OConnor or Graham Greene. His concern with the clash of
cultures was the product and manifestation of an alien religion forced upon him in his
youth: I became a Catholic against my will 2, we would say. Therefore he sought to
reconcile this Western faith with the legacy of the East, and in doing so he saw both East
and West bend and sometimes break. Endo emerged from a generation of pre-World War
II Japanese Christian writers who struggled to maintain their faith in light of cultural
identification as Japanese. His is a vision of orthodoxy acculturation 3: in this respect, the
novel Silence will be the main focus, particularly its climactic scene where the protagonist
is confronted both with the option of committing apostasy in order to save the tortured
1
William Johnston, Translators Preface, in Silence by Shusaku Endo (New York, 1980), XV.
2
Ibid., xvi.
3
Brett R. Dewey, op. cit., 2.
712
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
peasants and a mystical vision of a suffering and redeeming Christ. In this scene, as we
will see, Endo appears as having a robustly Catholic sacramental view of the world and, at
the same time, he succeeds in shaping his Catholicism in a way distinctly Japanese.
Therefore, we may agree with Brett R. Dewey: His is a literature of liberation from
Western theological imperialism, and yet radically Catholic. 4
The interesting fact as far as this matter is concerned was that for the Christian
writers in Japan at that particular time, their faith gave way to a kind of humanism, or to a
special mode of thought and style known in Japan as naturalism. 5 Within this context,
Shusaku Endo is given credit for the increased acceptance of Christianity in Japanese
literature. Some critics considered that this happened exactly because Endo offered a sound
rebuttal to the kind of naturalism that plagued the pre-war generation; this rebuttal is not
attempted on a philosophical level, but primarily on the literary one, with a clearly Catholic
core; still, whether in Japan or in the West, the debate about naturalism and its forms in
literature was nothing new to Endo. He was interested in the interstices of religious and
cultural contradiction: a redeemer who does not rise, an all-powerful god who is weak, an
Easterner in the West, as in his work The Samurai, or a Westerner in the East, as in his last
novel The Deep River, or his most famous book, Silence all of these are comparable to
the Hegelian thesis / antithesis pairs from which he seeks to create a synthesis. It is his
well-known novel Silence (1969), treating the first insertions of West into East, the period
in which Portuguese Jesuit missionaries attempted to bring Christianity to Japan that may
serve the reader as an exercise in paradoxical moral choices, a window from East to West
and West to East. The title itself is meaningful on many levels: it is at once the silence of
the East when faced with the onslaughts of the West, the silence of the West as it fails to
fathom the East, the silence of the samurai who seek to rid their islands of Christianity, the
silence of the missionaries as they hide from persecutions and martyrdom and, above all,
the silence of the Western god in the face of suffering of the innocent. The silence is
broken only by the consequences of moral action: the suffering of the tortured, the screams
of the dying, the casuistry of those who recant their faith. And, again, above all, the cry of
the peasant Christians, as they ask Why?
The book deals with the terrible persecutions Christians were subject to during the
th
17 century. All these tortures produced thousands of martyrs and, subsequently, a
fascinating underground hybrid church called Kakuro, which survived hundreds of years
in secret, and an enduring ambiguous relationship between Japanese culture and
Catholicism. The author used these themes in almost all his novels and short stories. Endo,
baptized at the age of eleven because his mother had turned to faith in the wake of personal
difficulties, described his Catholicism as a kind of ready-made suit I had to decide
either to make this ready-made suit fit my body or get rid of it and find another suit that
fittedThere were many times when I felt I wanted to get rid of my Catholicism, but I was
finally unable to do so.6 As a Christian child in Japan, he was taunted by his peers for his
religion. As a student come to France after World War II to study Catholic novelists, his
4
Ibid., 2.
5
David L. Swain, The Anguish of an Alien: Confessions of a Japanese Christian, The Christian Century
112, no. 34 (Chicago, Illinois, November 1995), 1120.
6
William Johnston, op. cit.,. xvi.
713
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
faith was irrelevant to those who may have shared it, but who deplored him nonetheless
because he was Japanese. It seemed, at that point, that it would have to be the suit that
changed it brought him nothing but suffering.
Endo remains one of Japans great 20th century authors, and like Walker Percy or
Graham Greene, he is a Catholic who spent a good portion of his literary career writing
about faith and the struggle with it. For example, in Silence he asks a question people dont
usually want to face: its the same question that Jesus asked as he suffered on the cross,
My God, my God, why have you abandoned me? Therefore, the silence analyzed by
Endo is the silence of God confronted with all these awful events. Still, while the main
character of the novel, the priest Sebastian Rodrigues, struggles with these problems, with
this silence and above all with his own faith, the book as a whole turns to be self-affirming.
Like Miguel de Unamunos San Manuel Bueno, Martir (the story of a priest who does not
believe in the resurrection), the loss of faith equates to a loss of purpose, a loss of strength
and a loss of humanity which paints the power of God silent though he may be much
more powerfully than words could ever do.
While engaged in the struggle, Rodrigues and his brother priests and Christians
have a strength to which the reader really gravitates. When they lose their struggle, they
become (repeatedly Endo uses this word to such powerful effect): servile. How ironic:
when characters place themselves at the service of God, they are pillars of strength;
when they reject faith-driven duty, they become servile Of course, Shusaku Endos
work is not so simply reduced. The specific circumstances of his characters and priests
make us think what we would have done if we were in their place. As one character
comments on a group of Japanese Christians that are being tortured mercilessly, certainly
Christ would have apostatized for them. 7 Some critics found rather blasphemous to think
or write this way, but Endo did so and succeeded in remaining a Catholic. No doubt,
however, one who for better or worse, confronts the historical and philosophical questions
of his religion.
In this exquisite novel, Endo uses the background of persecutions to contemplate all
these problems and many other as well. The novel can be read on many levels, but it is
primarily a book about suffering and redemption, nature and grace, life and death. The
author is fully aware of the intricate debate on grace, nature and death, expressing an
opinion critical of reducing all things to the natural and equally critical of casting the hope
of the Church into an escapist future. Within this context, he writes his book about a young
Portuguese Jesuit, father Sebastian Rodrigues. At the same time, Silence presents an
autobiographically charged assault on what Endo sees as a vision of a triumphant Christ
indicative of Western Christianity. His resolution to what he sees as a cultural and
theological problem, arrived at through a driving, sparse and haunting narrative style, can
only be described as a product of his christocentric imagination 8. The writer presents a
new image of Christ that resolves, however imperfectly, the cultural and theological
tensions of a traditional Catholicism seeking headway in Japan. There is something to
Franois Mauriacs self-description, I am a metaphysician who works in the concrete
7
Shusaku Endo, Silence. Translated by William Johnston (New York, 1980), 123.
8
Brett R. Dewey, op. cit., 4.
714
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
that rings true in Shusaku Endo. In fact, there is little doubt that Endo was shaped, at some
extent, by reflections on the life of Jesus, having followed the steps of his literary
forefather Mauriac in writing an account of the Divine Being.
In the final attempt to convince the captured priest to turn traitor, his former mentor
Ferreira is brought in. The long years of speculation as to Ferreiras fate are answered
when he enters the room. The teacher is now at the behest of the government, performing
scholarly duties, translating Western texts and even writing an anti-Christian apologetic.
He has taken a Japanese name and a Japanese wife and has already given up all hope for
Christianity flourishing in such a country; he protests that he is still, in some diminished
capacity, useful to those whom he originally came to serve. Ferreira now appears
completely and for ever in the employ of the Japanese magistrates and reveals the reason
for his apostasy: Christian peasants had been hung in the pit and Ferreira was told that they
would not be released until he denied his faith. The same choice now faces Rodrigues:
three peasants hang in the pit moaning piteously; unless Rodrigues tramples on the
fumie, on the face of Christ he has loved for so long, they will die a slow and terrible
death. After all, how grand could this Jesus be if priests walk across His face? In this
manner, the representatives of the new Tokugawa shogunate thought they could devalue
the Christian message and cut its roots, hoping it would soon die out completely.
The dilemma itself may be simple, but the questions it raises are not. Can a
Christian let others suffer for his beliefs? One may think of precedents in Christian history
and there are many of them. Still, like the above mentioned Japanese translator, Christovao
Ferreira functions as a mouthpiece for the virtue of apostasy. The Church can perform
societal good, according to Ferreira, only by leaving the Japanese people alone. When
confronted with why he himself apostatized, Ferreira readily admitted that, as peasants
hung in the pit, their moans within hearing distance, he realized he must do something for
them simply because God did nothing: God did not a single thing and I prayed with all
my strength; but God did nothing.9 Having lost faith in God and the Church, Ferreira did
the only thing he thought he could do for the tortured peasants. Does Ferreira convince
Rodrigues and Endo? Does the translator? Do they convince the reader? Do the translators
words ring loud in Rodrigues ears that Japan is a mud-swamp incapable of supporting the
roots of Christianity? Is this why he tramples on the fumie representing Christ? As in an
answer to all these questions, in the most shocking twist of the novel, Jesus himself makes
his appearance. The haunting silence of God is finally broken; the face of Jesus, constantly
on the mind of Rodrigues throughout the whole novel, appears in the end and speaks a
word of permission. But many details are different from what the character expected: Yet
the face was different from that on which the priest has gazed so often in Portugal, in
Rome, in Goa and in Macao. It was not Christ whose face was filled with majesty and
glory; neither was it a face made beautiful by endurance to pain; nor was it a face with
strength of a will that has repelled temptation. The face of the man who then lay at his feet
[in the fumie] was sunken and utterly exhausted The sorrow it had gazed up at him
[Rodrigues] as the eyes spoke appealingly: Trample! Trample! It is to be trampled on by
you that I am here.
9
Shusaku Endo, op. cit., 182.
715
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The triumphant Christ of the West, dominant in the minds eye of Rodrigues until
now, has shifted to a kenotic Christ, somehow emptied and broken. The silence of God,
then, is broken in no triumphant blaring of horns or in a shadow of divine might, but in a
paradox and mystery of divine suffering. God is silent to suffering, but at the same time is
suffering alongside creation. The beautiful vision, this face-to-face encounter with God, is
turned upside down: the suffering Christ who encourages so-called apostasy embodies a
radical image of God. This is a necessary picture within this novel: our natural longing for
God equally matches Gods desire to relate and engage the human. In the end, the soothing
hymnody of the persecuted Japanese Christians: Were on our way to the temple of
Paradise,/ To the great Temple affirms our basic nature to seek the unmoved Mover,
while God has shown himself involved in the affairs of the world. Escapist-future
eschatological and simplistic or naturalistic interpretations of Endo crumble: the writers
vision of a graced nature permeates his entire project. The exclusively future hope of the
peasants and the naturalistic goals of the translator are both equally critiqued.
In trampling the fumie, Rodrigues frees the peasants. It is an action, partaking in
the action of God, which bears fruit among the people. In treading on the image of the
savior, Rodrigues is not committing apostasy after all. On the contrary, he is affirming the
true vocation of Christ; he is partaking in divine mission. The Portuguese priest sacrifices
himself, including his pride and place as an upstanding member of the clergy, in order to
participate with God in a redemptive suffering that seeks the ultimate liberation of the poor
people. So Rodrigues trample, but his trampling hurts; it is not just a formality, as the
translator would hope us to think. The author writes: The priest raises his foot. In it he
feels a dull, heavy pain. This is no mere formality. He will now trample on what he has
considered the most beautiful thing in his life, on what he has believed most pure, on what
is filled with the ideals and the dreams of man. Endo concludes, therefore: How his foot
aches!10 Suffering the victory of God hurts and implies a divine patience and victory that
rests not on societal fixes or divine fiat, but on human participation in the long suffering of
God. Grace and nature are one; our history is participation in salvation history.
Salvation is now, in suffering not political parties, government structures or future-
oriented hopes. The free offering of God is preserved in this rendering: Trample!
meaning, in fact, You may trample, I allow you to trample. So we can say with Flannery
OConnor that there is nothing in our faith that implies a foregone optimism for man so
free that with his last breath he can say No.11 In fact, the deeper issue here, in the novel
of Shusaku Endo, is suffering for the sake of Christ. Jesus makes clear in the Gospels that
his followers must take up their cross; as Jesus says in Luke, They will arrest you and
persecute you; they will hand you over to synagogues and prisons, and you will be brought
before kings and governors because of my name. As perhaps only a great novel can,
Silence probes the strangeness of the Incarnation and death of Christ, the mystery of a God
who does not simply wipe away the worlds suffering, but chooses to share it. This goes to
the heart of Rodrigues questions about Gods silence: why does God not speak in the face
of so much human agony? Endo drops hints that Rodrigues is tempted to apostatize to save
10
Shusaku Endo, op. cit., 197.
11
Flannery OConnor, Mystery and Manners (New York, 2001), 182.
716
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
the peasants, simply because he believes God will not save them. But on the other hand,
the author suggests that Rodrigues does indeed hear God break this silence, in the moment
he was advised to trample on the fumie: Trample! It was to be trampled on by men I
was born into this world. It was to share mens pain that I carried my cross. 12 God has
spoken to the suffering of the world in giving the Word, Jesus Christ, made incarnate to
suffer the pain of humanity. In this respect, Ferreira puts the argument to Rodrigues: A
priest ought to live in imitation of Christ. And certainly Christ would have apostatized for
[these peasants].13 In this novel, Endos character of Ferreira serves as a goad to
Rodrigues pride; it is Rodrigues pride, hidden behind his self-abnegating journey toward
martyrdom that sets up the climactic scene in the book. As he sets his face toward Japan,
Rodrigues writes some letters in dread-filled yet fascinated tones of the perils that await
him. The young priest is haunted and feels himself pulled toward Japan, by a vivid vision
of the face of Christ.
Endo compels us to admire the Jesuits willingness to face up any torture for the
sake of the holy gospel, and we (the readers) have no doubt that he has strength to die for
Christ. But the novelist subtly lets Rodrigues overplay his courage until it touches on pride:
in the end, he risks violating the churchs stern admonition that a Catholic must never seek
martyrdomA deep moral ambiguity suffuses the story and opens a wound that endures
long after the reader puts the book down. In fact, it is the particular God Silence speaks
about the one who refuses to close the wound; he has chosen not to eliminate the suffering,
but to suffer with this poor humanity. It is this Jesus who haunts Father Sebastian
Rodrigues, the main character of Endos novel.
Though Rodrigues turmoil over stepping on the fumie was intensely personal,
Endos vision of the gospel is not at all individualistic, for it ends with the Church in Japan
passing on traditions and forms suitable to the Japanese. It is a gospel with its roots in the
radical nature of God-with-us, and finds social embodiment in the Church, even if
authorities of the West would rather condemn the Church that is represented at the end of
Silence. As the book ends and Rodrigues listens to Kichijiros confession, the priest
affirms that Even now I am the last priest in this land. But Our Lord was not silent. Even
if he had been silent, my life until this day would have spoken of him. 14 Silence is as a
whole a grave book about Church and culture, triumph and suffering. But most of all, the
novel is about presenting a human nature bent towards God and a God towards his people.
In effect, Silence asks if there is only one kind of martyrdom: could one sacrifice not only
ones body, but ones very moral integrity for the sake of others? The author gently inflates
Rodrigues pride precisely to raise this particular question. The Jesuit seeks at one point
physical martyrdom as a prize. He wants to atone for the sin of Ferreira and share a
martyrs glorious triumph over sin and death. But Endo suggests that a deeper martyrdom
may await Rodrigues: the death of his very self as a Christian and as a moral person. This
suggests that the standard concept of heroic virtue is radically effaced by the logic of
Gods kenosis, by Gods self-emptying to take the form of a slave, as Paul puts it in
Philippians. In this novel, Shusaku Endo provocatively pushes basic Christian logic,
12
Shusaku Endo, op. cit., 175
13
Shusaku Endo, op. cit., 170
14
Shusaku Endo, op. cit., 112.
717
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
already paradoxical, to a more extreme conclusion. If it is true, as many Christian martyrs
have affirmed, that for the Christian, the body is as nothing when compared to the eternity
of the soul then is the crucifixion of the soul a martyrdom which makes other martyrdoms
pale in comparison? In any case, those who look for tidy endings should not read Silence.
For after all, Endo is not interested in deciding if Rodrigues did the right thing. His novel is
a meditation on the Incarnation, not a handbook of morals. Christ continuing torment of
human beings is the strange drama of a somehow homeless God who suffers with us. It is
precisely in this apparent silence, in this self-emptying, that salvation unfolds15, as
William Cavanaugh argues.
It is not, however, only the theological questions Endo raises, that interests us here.
Rather, the moral dilemmas that the author places before Rodrigues and the ethical
problems he discusses are some essential points of insertion for the Western reader: Endo
seems to ask that we bracket the question of the property of missionary work or, as he
himself puts it, how to cultivate the seed of Christianity in the swamp of Japan; instead,
Rodrigues options, strictly and narrowly delineated, are the substance of the novel. Of
course, the first dilemma Rodrigues faces is what to do with Kichijiro: in doing so, Endo
creates a complication that adds an acerbic twist to both characters. The apostate Japanese
is aware of his own weakness and need for mercy and yet he is exactly as he was created to
be. Should not that god who created him thus then give him the strength to either persevere
in his faith or break away from it altogether? Conflicting desires create a character which
is, like the rest of us all, human in his frailty and weak in his vice. Eventually, Rodrigues
sees the parallels between his life and the life of Kichijiro: they are both weak. As Peter
Alig put it, Through the course of Rodrigues arrival in Japan, eventual apostasy and loss
of identity, he comes to identify an equality between himself and Kichijiro, an equality
based on the need for love in the midst of failure.16
The climactic moral question Rodrigues faces is to apostatize or hold on to his
faith. But this question, like that of Kichijiro, is not as simple as it appears on the surface:
if he apostatizes, he is told, he may spare other Christians from torture; after all, he has
been sent to Japan as a shepherd to these peasants. But is really his apostasy in their best
interest? Is it in his best interest? In the selfish calculus that is historical Tomistic doctrine,
one must be concerned first and foremost with the salvation of ones soul. Does Rodrigues
publicly renounce his faith, putting his soul in jeopardy, in order to spare others from
death? Or does he turn his back on those whom he has been sent to minister to? This
dilemma cannot be unpacked easily. Can Rodrigues publicly split from the visible church?
And what effect will this have on the Christians he has come to help? Which is worth more
in this triangle: his own public commitment, the lives of these particular Christians or the
existence of small groups of Christians throughout the island? But that is not where Endo
leaves Rodrigues: he throws another weight on the scale. In fact, these Christians before
him are actually peasants who have already renounced their faith and they are suffering
15
William Cavanaugh, An Apocalyptic Reading of Endos <<Silence>>, in Logos 2 (Wayne, Summer
1999), 114.
16
Peter Alig, Power in Disgrace: Shusaku Endo and the Faces of Belonging and Exile, Acton Institute for
the Study of Religion and Liberty Papers (Ottawa, 1996), 98.
718
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
torture anyway; does that change the equation at all? Rodrigues must choose one of these
options: abnegate his responsibility or abnegate his own pride.
In other works, especially in his last novel, The Deep River, Endo argues that the
recognition of weakness and the concomitant denial of ones own place in the world is a
necessary step toward wholeness. Ferreira hints at this conclusion himself, when he
addresses his old pupil. Sitting behind this pressing moral issue is something less
spectacular, but far more grave. Rodrigues may, in the words of James E. Barcus, be at
best loving an illusion or at worst deceiving himself. [] Trampling on the face of Christ,
rather than being an act of apostasy, confirms Ferreiras position that Western Christianity
has no future in Japan and that the Christianity the fumie represents is merely another
pagan religion.17 More than that, Endo here calls into question the project of missionary
work in general: Ferreira himself argues with Rodrigues that Xaviers early success, the
singular motivation for later generations of Jesuits, was illusory. 18 After all, another
message of this powerful and grave novel is that, upon reflection, nothing is as originally
seems: apparent goods may be discovered to be flawed. Apparent evils may be ultimate
goods. Endos view, that all moral decisions are subject to greater and greater scrutiny as
more information is gathered, is certainly foreign to most Westerners. Like David Hume,
the Scottish empiricist, Endo insists that moral decisions are based on fellow-feeling and
on the strength of emotional ties, not on the objective code of ethics that exists somewhere
outside the self. It is Rodrigues concern, finally, for the peasants he has come to minister
to that gives him the strength to trample on the fumie. Ferreiras arguments and
historical speculations may have helped him along, but in the end it is fellow-feeling that
frees him. Of course, in his own turn, Endo leaves us his final paradoxical, tail-chasing
question: which comes first, the individual or the community? In opting for one
community, the peasants who are being tortured, Rodrigues harms another, the other
Christians on the island and perhaps, as his opponents hope, the church throughout the
world. But Endos character is finally able to shut out the demands of the church militant
to focus on these specific individuals and on his own life. He somehow moves outside
himself, at the risk of damning his own soul. Whether or not this personal ethic is
compatible with Western Christianity is not really the authors concern within this novel,
although at certain points he seems to say that it is or may as well be. In fact, the
triumphalist voices of both East and West will not condone Rodrigues moral self-
abnegation and will see his triumph as a complete failure His most powerful image
remains, then, somehow in the middle and somewhere between the individual and the
world, somewhere between Christianity, Shintoism and Buddhism, between East and West,
standing on the face of Christ, a part of his own soul dying at once, as doing this.
While there are many other messages present within Endos words, the most
prevalent being how to believe in a god whose only answer is silence, his novel is a useful
instructional tool when attempting to view into the nature of Japanese religion; it is the
clear window necessary to understand it. From this perspective, Inoue and Ferreira are
17
James E. Barcus, For the Love of God: The Problem of Spiritual Awakening in Endos <<Silence>>, in
Performance for a Lifetime: A Festschrift Honoring Dorothy Harrell Brown: Essays on Women, Religion
and the Renaissance. Barbara C. Ewell and Mary A McCay, eds. (New Orleans, 1997), 65.
18
Shusaku Endo, op. cit., 187.
719
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
correct: the Japanese are willing to assimilate outside influences, but in doing so, they have
a unique quality which allows them to retain their identity while recreating the assimilated
element until it becomes by nature Japanese. Exactly because of all these Christianity was
never able to spread into more than a simple cult in Japan as far as its very nature demands
that its followers neglect their pre-existing beliefs for the belief in God as the one and only
god. Unlike Buddhism, for instance, Christianity does not allow for lesser gods under the
supreme Divine. In this respect, it must be remembered that the plurality of Japanese
thought is common throughout the East; it is only in the West where one finds the
exclusivity so often found in the Greco-Roman preoccupation with logos and the Judeo-
Christian and even Muslim traditions. Japanese culture in general relishes the influx of
other cultures, but it does so with the overriding understanding that once the other has been
accepted, it has also been changed, so that the other becomes the native. Yes, it is true that
Buddhism flourished here, but it was substantially changed into the unique living product
of its diverse origins and their combination with native elements19, as Earhart put it in its
often cited study Japanese Experience. It was no longer what it had been before coming to
Japan; it became Japanese. The well-known strain of Pure Land Buddhism, with its
devotion to Amida Buddha, and the ever popular Zen Buddhism are both Japanese
developments of the religions theology. So the Japanese did not simply convert to an
outside religion; in fact, they developed forms of Buddhism which would fit the Japanese
mindset. For example, in Endos Silence, Rodrigues tells Inoue that according to our way
of thinking, truth is universal. [] It is precisely because truth is common to all countries
and all times that we call it truth.20 This is seemingly true to the Western ear, but for
Inoue and his people, truth must be Japanese to be completely true. Like the already
mentioned image of the swamp, the nature metaphor is used once again: Inoue asks
Father Rodrigues if all trees are able to survive in the same soil. As he himself admits, the
Governor of Chikugo did not believe Christianity was an evil religion; rather, it was more
like a barren woman, who has not the capacity to be a wife because the union will end
there, without propagating and growing, just like Christianity was doomed to fail in Japan
because it was not capable of reproducing within the collective Japanese consciousness.
Rodrigues mentor himself, Christovao Ferreira, had abandoned the cause, believing the
Japanese incapable of conceiving a god like theirs. The very word used for Him in their
Portuguese language, Deus, was pronounced by the Japanese (even by the Christians)
very similar to Dainichi, the name of the central Buddha, the one who is above all others.
Therefore, in this sense, from the very beginning, the Japanese had misinterpreted the
Christian God in terms of their own supreme deity. Or, in Ferreiras words: From the very
beginning, those same Japanese who confused Deus to Dainichi twisted and changed
our God and began to create something different. [] The Japanese believed not in the
Christian God but in their own distortion.21
At the end of the novel we learn that Rodrigues had to change his name and adopt a
Japanese one, of course, after having apostatized. Still, maybe all is not lost: certainly,
19
David L. Swain, The Anguish of an Alien: Confessions of a Japanese Christian, The Christian Century
112, no. 34 (Chicago, Illinois, November 1995), 1120.
20
Shusaku Endo, op. cit., 175.
21
Ibid., 182.
720
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Christianity will never flourish in Japan, Rodriguess experiences and Inoues efforts to
thwart its success hit this very point. But we have to keep in mind that in Japan religion is
primarily a spiritual matter, not a dogmatic one: duality is allowed and so maybe God is
present here alongside the Buddhas and the Shinto kamis. Maybe Gods ways really are
much more complex than the reader may perceive at first opening Endos novel.
Bibliography
Peter Alig, Power in Disgrace: Shusaku Endo and the Faces of Belonging and Exile,
Acton Institute for the Study of Religion and Liberty Papers (Ottawa, 1996).
James E. Barcus, For the Love of God: The Problem of Spiritual Awakening in Endos
<<Silence>>, in Performance for a Lifetime: A Festschrift Honoring Dorothy Harrell
Brown: Essays on Women, Religion and the Renaissance. Barbara C. Ewell and Mary A
McCay, eds. (New Orleans, 1997).
William Cavanaugh, An Apocalyptic Reading of Endos <<Silence>>, in Logos 2
(Wayne, Summer 1999).
Brett R. Dewey, Suffering the Patient Victory of God: Shusaku Endo and the Lessons of a
Japanese Catholic, Quodlibet Journal 6 (Evanston, Illinois, March 2004).
Shusaku Endo, A Life of Jesus. Translation by Richard A. Schuchert (New York, 1978).
Shusaku Endo, Silence. Translated by William Johnston (New York, 1980).
William Johnston, Translators Preface, in Silence by Shusaku Endo (New York, 1980).
Warren McWilliams, The Pain of God in the Theology of Kazoh Kitamori, Perspectives
in Religious Studies 8 (NC, Fall 1981).
David L. Swain, The Anguish of an Alien: Confessions of a Japanese Christian, The
Christian Century 112, no. 34 (Chicago, Illinois, November 1995).
721
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE ARGUMENTATIVE JUDICIAL DISCOURSE LINGUISTIC HIGHLIGHTS
Silvia PITIRICIU, Associate Professor, PhD, University of Craiova
Abstract: In the act of justice, the competence of the speaker, i.e. the lawyer, involves
knowledge, skills and practical abilities, reasoning, the logic of ideas, a certain legal culture.
By verbal and non-verbal language (gestures, facial expression) before the courts, the lawyer
attempts to influence the opinions of the judge and jurymen. His argumentative discourse
follows several stages and contains elements characterizing legal language, as well as
elements belonging to common language. The technicality and accessibility of terms are
fundamental and complementary features. At the level of utterances, argumentation means a
series of simplifications, changes and reformulations, operations bound by thought and
language flexibility, ensuring the lawyers success while pleading.
Keywords: argumentation, legal language, utterance, connector, meaning
1. Introducere
n actul de justiie, procesul de comunicare n cadrul cruia se formuleaz i se
transmite dicursul juridic este complex. El presupune o diversitate de competene, o adecvare
situaional i stilistic. Competenele profesionale includ cunotine de specialitate, dar i de
cultur juridic, de cultur general, deprinderi i abiliti practice profesionale. n oratoria
judiciar, avocatul i discursul su sunt elemente-cheie. n discurs (pledoarie) se observ
competena lingvistic, sociocultural, enciclopedic, 1 a avocatului. Numit generic ars
dicendi2, discursul juridic argumentativ presupune un numr mare de acte de vorbire realizate
la intervale distincte, la care particip completul de judecat i auditoriul.
Ca specie a discursului juridic, pledoaria este un discurs argumentativ, o expunere
oral fcut de avocat n faa instanelor judectoreti, pentru aprarea cauzei uneia dintre
prile implicate n proces (NDULR, 1051). Ca expunere liber 3, pledoaria este un act unic,
un discurs direct (face to face), i persuasiv (urmrete s conving auditoriul, s determine o
convingere4. Avocatul pledeaz, n mod obinuit, pentru client, pentru completul de judecat
i pentru auditoriu. Argumentarea este un act prin care avocatul i pune n valoare
cunotinele juridice, tehnice, logica, raionamentul, demonstraia, precum i oratoria.
Argumentarea presupune talent intelectual, pentru c n demersul su, avocatul face analiza,
sinteza, compararea i interpretarea faptelor, pentru convingerea auditoriului. Argumentarea
vizeaz o luare de poziie, adeziunea la anumite idei considerate adevrate5. Ideile i
raionamentele juridice trebuie s reflecte drumul spre adevrul cauzei i, implicit, spre
1
Cf. Rovena-Frumuani, 2005, p. 65.
2
Cf. Manolescu, 1998, p. 144.
3
Este cunoscut mai mult caracterul oral al pledoariei; poate fi i un tip de discurs scris (concluziile scrise depuse
de avocat instanei).
4
Cf. Manolescu, 1998, p. 115.
5
Cf. Rovena-Frumuani, 2005, p. 77.
722
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
soluionarea litigiului6. Cunoaterea legislaiei i stabilirea obiectului procesual sunt eseniale
n dosarul cauzei, pentru a identifica punctele forte i punctele slabe ale adversarului, faptele
relevante i concludente, mijloacele de probaiune, soluionarea problemelor de drept7. Prin
cele susinute, avocatul trebuie s ofere ceea ce corespunde speei, naturii procesului, n
funcie de particularitile sale individuale.
2. Caracteristici
Discursul juridic argumentativ (prin generalizare, argumentaia) este un proces
complex, care nu se desfoar numai n instan. El implic o ntreag munc n afara slii de
judecat, studiul pe teren pentru adunarea probelor, studiul n bibliotec, valorificarea ntregii
competene juridice, tiinifice i morale, trecute prin filtrul personalitii avocatului. Pornind
de la questio facti i questio iuris (situaia de fapt i expunerea problemelor de drept),
dezbaterile judiciare se desfoar dup un tipic. n structura discursului se identific mai
multe etape desemnate prin termeni consacrai n retorica antic latin i cunoscui n practica
judiciar: exordium, propositio, divisio, narratio, confirmatio, refutatio, digressio, peroratio8.
Fiecare etap, cu caracteristici specifice, are echivaleni termeni comuni n limba romn:
exordiul sau introducerea, prima parte a discursului, este pregtirea de ordin psihologic, care
include prezentarea portretului inculpatului, un expozeu scurt i clar al tezei care va fi
demonstrat, i care are drept scop trezirea interesului pentru cauz, ndreptarea ateniei spre
cel care vorbete; propunerea se identific cu fraza care anun succint faptele i propunerea
avocatului, adic expunerea a ceea ce dorete avocatul s obin de la instan; diviziunea sau
mprirea include prile tratate ntr-o ordine clar, logic; naraiunea presupune subiectul,
expunerea clar, concis i credibil a faptelor; confirmaia este demonstrarea punctului de
vedere propriu, prin care sunt susinute argumentele n favoarea clientului; refutaia sau
respingerea presupune combaterea argumentelor adversarului; digresiunea, cu rol esenial n
contextul general al pledoariei, trebuie s fie concludent, s nu plictiseasc sau s oboseasc
auditoriul; peroraia sau ncheierea presupune sintetizarea rezultatelor demonstraiei i
concluzia. Publicul percepe structura discursului simplificat la patru etape: introducere,
subiect, argumentare, peroraie. Rolul esenial n pledoarie l are argumentarea, bazat pe
raionamente referitoare la situaia concret de comunicare. Argumentarea este un tip de
discurs care trebuie s conving auditoriul sau interlocutorul de adevrul ori falsul faptelor 9.
3. Terminologie
n pledoarie, avocatul utilizeaz indiscutabil termeni tehnici. Pentru a fi neles i de
ctre nespecialiti (n cauz, inculpatul pe care l apr), avocatul trebuie s recurg la o serie
de operaii de transformare i de simplificare a coninutului conceptelor utilizate n discurs. La
nivel terminologic, conceptele vehiculate n pledoarie se identific n general n lucrrile
lexicografice. Dicionarele specializate nregistreaz o definiie tehnic a termenilor, cele de
uz general, o definiie accesibil nespecialitilor. De exemplu: recurs cale de atac prin care
6
Cf. Pune, 1975, p. 32, apud iclea, 2010, p. 195.
7
Cf. Radu-Golea, 2012, p. 33-38.
8
Cf. Manolescu, 1998, p. 160.
9
Cf. Malaurie, 2000; iclea, 2010, p. 190.
723
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
se cere unei instane superioare s verifice legalitatea i temeinicia unei hotrri judectoreti,
nedefinitive, n vederea anulrii i modificrii ei (definiie tehnic)10, cf. cerere n vederea
anulrii unei hotrri judectoreti (definiie simplificat)11; spe pricin concret supus
spre rezolvare unui organ de jurisdicie (definiie tehnic)12, cf. cauz, pricin(definiie
prin sinonimie)13; fptuitor persoan care a svrit nemijlocit o fapt prevzut de legea
penal sub forma tentativei sau a infraciunii consumate i mpotriva creia nu a nceput
urmrirea penal, moment din care acesta devine nvinuit(definiie tehnic) 14, cf. fpta
(definiie prin sinonimie)15. Definiiile termenilor juridici las s se observe caracterul
compozit16 al discursului juridic, n care elemente ale limbajului specializat se mbin cu cele
ale limbii comune.
Limbajul pledoariilor include o varietate de elemente. n limba romn, acetia sunt
termeni neologici, de origine latino-romanic, precum abjudecare, alibi, cauiune, clauz,
curator, tutel (substantive); a abroga, a admite, a contesta, a recuza (verbe); termeni cu
circulaie n limba comun sau provenii din limbajul popular, dar specializai ulterior pentru
domeniul juridic, prin mutaii semantice: circumstan, dobndire, repararea (pagubei).
Terminologia juridic trebuie s fie precis i unitar, dar i accesibil, mai cu seam,
auditoriului. Din perspectiva tehnicii judiciare, tehnicitatea i accesibilitatea termenilor17 sunt
fundamentale i complementare. De aceea, termenii specializai, pot fi nlocuii de avocat n
discuia cu clientul su, prin lexeme sau sintagme sinonime din lexicul general, comun. De
exemplu: dol = viclenie, fraud = nelciune, justiiabil = client, intimat = citat ntr-un proces
n calitate de prt, a exonera = a scuti pe cineva de o datorie sau o obligaie, filiaie =
legtur de rudenie, petent = petiionar, justiiabil = client .a. La fel, i n situaia unitilor
perifrastice, care au intrat n jargonul avocailor: a exercita calea de atac = a reexamina o
hotrre judectoreasc (ce nu satisface una dintre pri), a pari = la fel, actio civilis = aciune
civil, error facti = eroare de fapt, divortium bona gratia = divor prin bun nelegere, fraus
creditorum = nelarea creditorilor, a fortiori = cu att mai mult, actio in rem = aciune cu
privire la un bun, locus delicti commissi = locul comiterii infraciunii etc.18 Avocatul
utilizeaz termeni uzuali, accesibili din perspectiva intereselor practice ale ceteanului.
3. Elemente de pragmalingvistic
Pledoaria presupune susinerea discursului explicativ ori descriptiv al avocatului n
faa instanelor, nu nainte de a reflecta asupra celor spuse, de a ordona datele i mai ales,
argumentele. Avocatul trebuie s aib capacitatea de a construi, de a inventa, de a se adapta
la situaiile create, prin presupoziii, s foloseasc argumentum a fortiori (dintr-un motiv mai
puternic, cu att mai mult), argumentum ad judicium (bazat pe judecata asupra naturii
10
http://www.rubinian.com/dictionar
11
DEXI, 1648.
12
http://www.rubinian.com/dictionar
13
http://www.rubinian.com/dictionar
14
http://www.rubinian.com/dictionar
15
DEXI, 717.
16
Cf. Sourioux, Lerat, 1975, p. 9.
17
Cornu, 2005, p. 59.
18
Pentru expresiile latine, a se vedea Suleanu, Rduleu, 2007.
724
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
lucrurilor), argumente deductive, care presupun implicaia logic, relaia cauz-efect.
Enunurile sunt importante prin mesajul transmis. Ordinea n care frazele se succed trebuie s
corespund succesiunii ideilor 19. n discursul avocatului, se disting mai multe tipuri de
enunuri: verdictive, (recunoscute prin formula apreciez c...), exercitive (solicit audierea...),
comisive (m angajez s...), comportative (ne cerem scuze...)20 i o anumit strategie
argumentativ. Legturile pragmatice de tip argumentativ sunt marcate prin diferii conectori:
cauzali, de susinere a argumentelor ori de respingere a contraargumentelor (conjunciile
ntruct, fiindc, deoarece, adverbul cum devenit conjuncie prin conversiune, locuiunile
conjuncionale pentru c, din cauz c, din pricin c); concesivi, de rezerv sau dezacord
fa de argumentele interlocutorului (conjuncia dei, locuiunile conjuncionale chiar dac,
chiar s, i dac, mcar dac, mcar s); adversativi, care marcheaz contradicia
argumentativ (conjunciile dar, iar, ns, ci, locuiunea conjuncional numai c), explicativi
(adverbul adic, anume), de precizare (adverbele tocmai, chiar, locuiunea adverbial cel
puin), concluzivi (conjunciile deci, aadar, locuiunile conjuncionale prin urmare, n
conclzie) etc. Verbe precum vedei, tii, ateptai sunt specifice pledoariilor.
n fiecare etap a discursului, termenii utilizai trebuie s fie adecvai situaiilor i
evenimentelor, condiiilor de comunicare21.
Expresivitatea n discurs este la fel de important precum claritatea frazelor. Utilizarea
unor figuri de stil, n special metafora in praesentia sau in absentia, metonimia, utilizarea
unor figuri de gndire, nu este strin niciunui avocat. Anadiploza, anafora, brahilogia (prin
maxime i proverbe), butadele, eufemismul, aluzia, ironia, antiteza faptelor, interogaia
retoric condenseaz sentimente puternice i stimuleaz curiozitatea auditoriului, ndeamn la
reflecie; supoziiile, inteniile au rolul de a produce un efect asupra interlocutorului,
contribuie la realizarea unui discurs persuasiv.
4. Concluzii
Avocatul trebuie s respecte rigoarea tiinific n argumentare, s uzeze n faa instanei
de terminologia adecvat situaiei de comunicare: termeni specializai, chiar ultraspecializai
i, n raport cu clientul su, un lexic comun, uzual. Reformulrile sunt necesare pentru a se
face neles de ctre nespecialiti (clientul, publicul). Competena profesional a avocatului
presupune flexibilitate n gndire i n limbaj, prezen de spirit n sesizarea elementelor care
trebuie evideniate, un discurs clar, legat, eficient pentru atingerea scopului, acela de a
convinge completul de judecat de adevrul celor susinute.
Bibliografie
Austin, John, How to Do Things with Words, London, Oxford University Press, 1976.
Cornu, Grard, Linguistique juridique, Paris, Montchrestien, 2005.
19
Pentru sintaxa textului juridic, a se vedea i Topal, 2004.
20
Cf. Austin, 1976, p. 40.
21
A se vedea Stoichioiu Ichim, 2006.
725
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Dima, Eugenia (coord.), Dicionar explicativ ilustrat al limbii romne (DEXI), Chiinu,
Editura Arc, Editura Gunivas, 2007.
Malaurie, Philippe, Anthologie de la pense juridique, dition Cujas, 2000.
Manolescu, Mircea, Arta avocatului. apte prelegeri, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas, 1998.
Oprea, Ioan, Panfil, Carmen Gabriela, Radu, Rodica, Zstroiu, Victoria, Noul dicionar
universal al limbii romne (NDULR), Bucureti, Chiinu, Editura Litera Internaional, 2006.
Radu-Golea, Cristina, The Grammar of argumentation in legal discourse, in vol.
Terminologie: textes, discours et accs aux saviors spcialiss, GLAT, Genova, 2012, p. 33-
38.
Rovena-Frumuani, Daniela, Analiza discursului. Ipoteze i ipostaze, Buicureti, Editura
Tritonic, 2005.
Suleanu, Lucian, Rduleu, Sebastian, Dicionar de expresii juridice latine, Bucureti,
Editura C.H. Beck, 2007.
Sourioux, Jean-Louis, Lerat, Pierre, Le langage du droit, Paris, Presses Universitaires de
France, 1975.
Stoichioiu Ichim, Adriana, Semiotica discursului juridic, Bucureti, Editura Universitii din
Bucureti, 2006.
Topal, Drago Vlad, Sintaxa propoziiilor subordonate din codurile juridice de la 1863-
1865, Craiova, Editura Universitaria, 2004.
iclea, Alexandru, Retorica, Bucureti, Universul Juridic, 2010.
*** Dicionar juridic, http://www.rubinian.com/dictionar
726
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
NATIONAL AND EUROPEAN CULTURAL IDENTITY
Sabina FNARU, Associate Professor, PhD, tefan cel Mare University of Suceava
Abstract: The paper refers to the issue of Romanian cultural identity as integral part of
European culture, focusing on Mircea Eliades interwar journalism; it brings together his
opinions and emphasizes a dynamic perspective upon identity, whereby Eliade reveals a
Romanian vocation for cultural synthesis, both diachronically and in synchrony. As the
historical nationalism represents a path to cultural synchronization, Mircea Eliade adopts a
moderate position with regard to the relationship between autochthonism and
cosmopolitanism and considers that Romania's marginal geographical position can be
capitalized on as a place of mediation. The same view appears in both his works of religious
history and his literature.
Keywords: journalism, dynamic, identity, autochthonism, cosmopolitanism
To define national identity Mircea Eliades journal articles from "Cuvntul",
"Vremea" and "Destin" bring into discussion the Romanian phenomenon in relation to the
historical1 and spiritual2 dimension that generates the consciousness of belonging "to a great
and glorious group of people to whom history reserves a wide range of action and creation"
(Romnismul d-lui Rdulescu Motru / [Mr. Rdulescu Motrus Romanianism]),
contextualizing the ethnic dimension.
Eliade's vision of the evolution of historical consciousness is organic. He outlines the
morphology of Romanian historical identity through several terms that define it
diachronically and synchronically: the people whose defining characteristic is creativity
because of its power of assimilation, the nation with a spiritual function, and the state as
cultural tool that should help every citizen to create.
Happy historical existence should therefore involve a dynamic and coherent relation
between historical and ahistorical planes, cultured and popular, modern and archaic. For in
Eliade's vision, intellectual elites and peasants are the most valuable creative classes of the
Romanian people, vital groups who fulfill a historic creative mission in the ontological plane
of identity: some defend its spiritual values while the others its concrete being. The "history
instinct" of the two categories becomes visible in the struggle to defend freedom, the
ancestors land and its spiritual geography by assimilating world culture, fighting foreign
influences and defending Romanian spirituality.
Apparently, modern creators who were spiritually located in rural intuitions seem to
reflect by repetition the popular spiritual paradigm: although they did not belong to the social
class of the peasantry, but came from all social classes, they did not express the soul of a
1
This type of nationalism is in line with Rdulescu-Motru's balanced position, see the article Romnismul d-
lui Rdulescu Motru / [Mr. Rdulescu Motru's Romanianism]) about which he says that "it is nationalist without
being chauvinistic, and believes in Romanianism, though without accepting the battle line of the far right (...),
placed on the central axis of Koglniceanu's and Eminescu's Romanianism (...), optimistic and confident in the
continued progress of the Romanian people (...), while weighted, lucid, and critical in its nationalist judgment".
2
In his article Cultur sau politic?/ [Culture or Politics? ], Eliade comments on this particular view, specific
to Nae Ionescu, referring to an article written by his Magister in 1928.
727
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
class, but of the nation, characterized by "realism, propensity to experience, concrete detail,
authenticity and drama" (Realiti romneti / [Romanian Realities]).
Eliade configure two alternative instances of human participation in the spiritual
values involved in nationalism. The former represents the aspiration to collective eternity and
involves "commitment to history, geography, and the concrete experience", a fervent living
experience of love for ancestors and the earth (ibid.). The latter belongs to the great creators
and it is individual and transhistorical.
However, both seem to be designed after a cruciform pattern3; they do not presuppose
preservation, sterile imitation and absolutization of its forms of manifestation on the vertical
axis of the past but a continuous relativization4 and transformation by contextualizing forms
horizontally and linking them to historical values of the present.
Historical nationalism and its ideals, the creation of the "new man", with
straightforward creative mind, bears the mark of a personalist conception, with a vitalistic
energetic coloratura. Eliade illustrates it by great personalities like Eminescu, Hadeu and
Heliade Rdulescu. Because the meaning of national and individual existence is creative, the
most glorious nationalists are, in his opinion, the creators of all kinds of thought, art or deed,
not "dime a dozen" politicians since some take part in the "history being made" while the
others serve the history which "is being consumed" (cf. Naionalismul / [Nationalism]).
In keeping with the concept of living in a historical plane, Eliade exalts Eminescu's
national propheticism manifested through an overwhelming thirst for creation, a peerless civic
optimism, courage and spirit of adventure, and considers that great spirits, that should be
representative of Romania and Romanianism abroad, harmonize themselves with the
"optimistic, honest, heroic and loyal soul" of the Romanian people (Roumain, Romanian,
Rumane, Rumeno). They have promoted a messianic, prophetic or revolutionary nationalism,
searching for the Romanians historical and super-historical mission that derives not from a
temporal formula, but from the consciousness of a people who creates spiritual and cultural
values, new forms of life.
In our opinion, Eliades vision as historian of religions leaves its mark on his historical
philosophy in discussing the value of spiritual creations; they are at once in a relationship of
continuity and discontinuity with tradition, renewing it with a "leap" in synchronic spiritual
ontology; Eliade's conception is humanistic and opposes generous and constructive
momentum to Maiorescianism5, critical consciousness and Puritanism, as well as a concern
for revisions, ritual bans and doctrinal issues (Popor fr misiune? / [Missionless People?]).
This type of nationalism that fully exploits "an act of individual experience" through
the "discovery of personal meaning in historical existence" is fertile, organic and becomes
emblematic and universalist. It "shatters geography, overtakes history" and individual
interests, affirming a second type of eternity, beyond history through brilliant spiritual
creations that come to belong to all peoples (Romnia n eternitate / [Romania in eternity]).
3
Related to this pattern of understanding, see Comentarii la Legenda Meterului Manole / [Comments to the
Legend of Master Manole], in Drumul spre centru / [The Road toward the Center], Univers, Bucharest, 1991,
pp. 453-454.
4
Andrei Pleu, Limba psrilor / [The Language of Birds], Humanitas, Bucharest, 1994, p. 100.
5
The term is coined from Titu Maiorescu (1840-1917), an influential critic and political thinker of nineteenth
century Romania.
728
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Eliade disagrees with the radicalization of the two dimensions, national and universal,
which has prevailed since Eminescu; their correlation seems to be done in a reticular,
polycentric system, and involves an ecumenical vision in defining access to universalism by
deepening the specific, the particular and the local. In his opinion, nationalism can not be
achieved by purification of foreign influences and absolutization of autochthonous life forms,
or by "paoptism" 6 which to him is indiscriminate imitation of the forms of foreign culture,
but by imposing a new personal meaning of existence that would result from the right dosage
of autochthonism and cosmopolitanism, as the "struggle against alien life forms" can not stop
with the "establishment of native life forms" (Naionalismul / [Nationalism]).
The state and the political class should ensure the creation and maintenance of this
organic balance. In analyzing how the elements that configure the historical identity of
Romania are articulated, he reveals that between people and nation-state, between historical
and political Romania, there are differences of experience, age, status and quality; he
denounces the crisis of values which radicalizes discontinuity and makes it impossible to
harmonize various forms of constituent diversity.
Thus, historical nationalism has nothing to do with political nationalism which Eliade
rejects; in his opinion, "real", historical Romania has nothing in common with the weaknesses
of political Romania and its leaders who compromised the coherence of Romanian identity.
Although civic life was mistaken for politics, in Romania civility and politics have nothing in
common: while the former is related to the life of the nation as a whole, seeking to harmonize
the interests of all, the political reality is fractured between political parties and their opponents,
while politicians have created destructive national tensions and compromised Romanianism
internationally.
Eliade seeks the legitimacy of national values hierarchy in morality and spiritual
fruitfulness: "True personality can not be confused with the vanity, pride, licentiousness and
irresponsibility of today's leaders of the destiny of a whole nation", and his criticism of the
political class lends itself to the virulence of Eminescu: "To the first row they promoted all
nullity, the unlettered, the chenapans of public life, all cheap consciences, all flexible backs,
all the Levantine henchmen" (Dictatura i personalitatea / ["Dictatorship" and
"Personality"]).
The solution could be the correction of this situation through a revolution of
consciousness, in pursuit of a "Romanian renaissance". A Romanian Renaissance and the
country's dignity could be achieved by replacing political concerns with civic ones. A non-
political attitude would be equivalent to a non-violent revolution in contemporary society,
where there is a gap between the life of the nation and that of the state. On the other hand,
Eliade believes that the Romanians' ''national instinct'' throughout history has been more
powerful than the class instinct, and so social revolutions occurred without bloodshed.
Like Lucian Blaga, he defines man as creator of culture, and man's purpose and
greatness derive from his creative force. Peaceful reform seems to be understood as a
renovation; "renewal" and "growth" in the spiritual plane aim a new ideology, while the
artistic and philosophical creations involve an attitude and a heroic, manly model, derived
6
More exactly, 1848-ism a Romanian noun denoting the spiritual atmosphere that surrounded the
revolutionary year 1848 in the Romanian Principalities.
729
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
from Papini. This position reconfigures organically the national cultural heritage by reference
to orthodoxy and belief, "the only goal of the younger generation". For though a synthesis of
ethnicity, culture does not produce "ethnic fiber" but spiritual germs developed by a religion
(Brahmanism, Buddhism, Christianity) or a didactics (the study of texts, mathematics,
philosophy), forwarding different spiritual positions of a people throughout its civilization
(Cultura / [Culture]).
Confident in the strength of the spirit, in the ability of creative intelligence to
transform historical reality, Eliade believes the restoration of Romanian dignity should take
place primarily in people's consciousness. The duty of "great" people is to create and
organize Romania, the country and its culture, while the duty of common people is to achieve
"little things" related to citizenship in their everyday lives, in less formal circumstances: "At
the moment you are asked to get down the tram at the front, to not spit on the street, to not
receive tips, to not sell yourself to political parties, to not pass your kids through school by
connections, to bring honor to your family first and then to the public gallery, to acquire a
solid culture so that Bulgarians and Australians should not get ahead of us, to not say ''Forget
it!'' whenever it is about a job where work and perseverance are required, and other small
things like this " (Criza romnismului? / [Romanianism in crisis?]).
The spirit of the "younger generation" who flourished during the 1922-1930 period
claimed their difference by affirming the "values of the spirit", the integration of mystical
experience into knowledge, the lived experience of fervent ideas, the spirit of adventure and
desire for complete creative synthesis, by a new valorization of life.
Convinced that history is a cultural product, he believes that historical stages are
"spiritual moments" that do not manifest themselves evolutionarily 7 but have always achieved
new spiritual syntheses. Mobility generates a prerequisite of creation, diversity. The universal
character of the valorization of life lies not so much in the "understanding" and adopting other
cultural forms, as it does in its own original character. The option for moderation in this
transformation process has its origins in the organicity of the constructive momentum of
geniuses. Culture is therefore historically integrated into civilization and the moments of
rupture due to abandonment of some cultural patterns by grafting others should represent the
guidelines and focus of certain new directions that would fully restore in synchrony the
mechanism of the other spiritual positions located in diachrony, configuring itself according
to a dynamic, fascicular pattern on the vertical and a reticular pattern on the horizontal.
Eliade's Romanianism is beyond the shallow rhetoric of national "pride", which
although legitimate, is likely to slip into barren sentimentality and self-sufficiency8; it is not to
be discussed, but affirmed in all aspects of phenomenal existence, it is felt and lived by
creation within Romanian premises, by deepening the national values and by finding the
universal ones that the great creative personalities of the people aspired to assimilate perhaps
without being aware of it. And literature reflects, summarizes and elaborates on criticism or
extolment of a series of recent spiritual experiences and positions. So, for Eliade the problem
of the Romanian soul is ontological before being historical, starting from the problems of
being and of reality and reaching the Romanian being and reality.
7
cf. Sabina Fnaru, Eliade prin Eliade / [Eliade through Eliade], 3rd edition, Univers, Bucharest, 2006, pp. 9-11.
8
Andrei Pleu, op. cit., p. 93.
730
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
In the article Destinul culturii romneti / [The Destiny of Romanian Culture], Mircea
Eliade defines European cultural space from the geographical constant of landscape variety
that would implicitly cause a spiritual dynamics in which also Romania is involved, located
on its eastern borders. On the one hand, although geographical Romania belongs to Europe,
its specificity lies in the quality of being a border area, which would define the "paradox of
belonging"9 due to the fact that there are three different cultural areas meeting here, which
Romania both appropriated and sought to differentiate itself from them.
On the other hand, Romanian cultural space is not unitary, but mosaic-like and polycentric,
due to the difference of spiritual structure and mental models in the three historical provinces:
I have hated Moldova because it is devoid of heroism (...) The sad fact is this: Moldova tempts
the soul while Wallachia and Transylvania can not fight back with books that are the solution.
We do not have heroic books (...) We do not have a book of ours, as Moldavian teenage girls
have theirs (...) Moldavia has never understood, nor will it ever understand the values and
impulses of virility. For a born-and-bred Moldavian - virility means bestiality, or
presumptuousness or Nietzschean mimickry or misdirected cruelty, or pose, cerebral
inferiority or emotional impairment (...) It is a gap between spiritual structures. They call us
"Bucharesters", which means: tactlessness, boldness, interest, absence of ideals, lust for
money, malice. We call them "of Jassy", the meaning of which you know very well.
Fortunately, Moldavia's daughters sometimes go into Wallachian bedchambers (mpotriva
Moldovei / [Against Moldavia]).
From the historical point of view, Romania has caught the attention of Europe late in
the "Aeon of nationalities", in the nineteenth century, having previously been confiscated for
five centuries by adversities created by barbaric invasions after the Aurelian withdrawal and
by the Ottoman Turks; its own goal was no other than resistance and its purpose in the
universal plane was to save the West; its sacrifice, still uncapitalized on in Western
historiographic consciousness was both of blood and wit, for the lack of spiritual tension due
to the religious tolerance exhibited by non-European populations the Romanians came to
grips with caused the closure, the internalization of the people's genius in pre-Roman, Latin
and Byzantine spiritual traditions (Destinul culturii romneti / [The Destiny of Romanian
Culture]). These circumstances have led to several specific features and determined its major
themes. The first would be the delay of Romanian culture, which was crystallized in two
directions: religious and didactic, which should explain its conservative nature in an internal
reference plane and its role as savior of European culture in an external plane. Written
scholarly culture was intermittent due to the "terror of history" and only the creation of
popular spirituality has been continuous and inexhaustible; therefore the two types of cultural
expression coexisted and developed either in parallel or in interference 10, as cultured classical
literature states the steady presence of folk art, hence the accessibility for all Romanians of all
our literature classics in everything linguistic, lexical and thematic. It extended folk creation,
created authentic values, but remained in the realm of cultural provincialism, which generated
9
Sorin Alexandrescu, Paradoxul romn / [The Romanian Paradox], Univers, Bucharest, 1998, p. 32.
10
Sorin Alexandrescu states that "folklore exists in an eternal dimension, while written culture is manifested in
a temporal dimension" and highlights their discontinuous existence in the vertical plane, coupled with a
discontinuity in the horizontal plane, which originates in the break with Balkanic space that occurred in
Romanian culture starting with the nineteenth century through its Western orientation, op. cit., p. 35.
731
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
a double spiritual attitude: one of recovery momentum, for assimilation and synchronization
with the main directions of European literature, and the other full of complexes on account of
its "minor" character11. Developing under inauspicious circumstances, written Romanian
culture prolonged for three centuries the medieval spirit through books designed to
"strengthen the soul of the people and the clergy's teaching" but was also able to provide
creators of encyclopedic stature who helped it to integrate the great stages of European
culture. Eliade is of opinion that the first four decades of the twentieth century made
synchronization possible through the revival of religious thought in Europe and the "entry into
history" of the peoples of Asia and the "culturally archaic" peoples; because of its
substantiated solidarity with the horizon of folk spirituality, Romanian culture can creatively
converse with these new worlds revealed to Europe.
Romanian culture has the ability to achieve, in its moments of grace, a balance between
marginality and center, between Southeast European specificity and major European cultures.
Romanian culture has the role of an (inter)mediation cultural space that helps to create new
national and universal spiritual syntheses because of its very marginal position. The dynamism
of Romanian creativity and its originality lie precisely in the power of assimilation and
synthesis, the core feature of its intimate structure. The archaic character and richness of
local values are derived from the participation in the ancient center of European culture and
ensure their spiritual openness to non-European cultural traditions. Similar to Oriental
cultures, Romanian culture communicates to Europeans an original spiritual universe, almost
unknown, capitalizing on "traditions born from Thracian-Roman spiritual syntheses that were
accomplished over the centuries by the fruitful meeting of Rome, Thrace and archaic
Christianity. In this part of Europe (...) have been preserved treasures of spirituality that were
once part of the very heart of European culture: for Dionysian Thrace and Orphic Greece,
Imperial Rome and Christian Rome, all met in this part of Europe and it was here their most
important values were created" (ibid.).
A space of spiritual synthesis12, present-day Romania contributed to the establishment
of "real Europe, not the geographical, but the spiritual one" (ibid.) and therefore its
reintegration into the European cultural space would help to reconfigure its ontological and
spiritual integrity: "By a miracle, the seed of Rome was not lost after Aurelian's departure
from Dacia - although this leaving spelled catastrophe for the people of this rich province.
But can Europe afford this second departure from Dacia nowadays? As part of Europe,
physically and spiritually, can we be sacrificed again without this sacrifice to endanger the
very existence and spiritual integrity of Europe? By The history's future answer to this
question depends not only our survival as a nation, but also the survival of the West"(ibid.).
11
Eliade jotted in his Jurnal / [Journal]: belonging to a minor culture, where dilettantism and improvisation
are almost fatal, I entered the scientific life full of complexes, constantly terrorized by the fear of not being
informed "up to date", p. 147.
12
In ncercarea labirintului / [Ordeal by Labyrinth], Eliade confesses: "I felt the descendant and heir of an
interesting culture because it is located between two worlds: the purely European Western and the Oriental. I
participated in these two universes. Western by the Latin language, and with the legacy of Rome in morals. But I
also participated in a culture influenced by the Orient and rooted in the Neolithic (...) This creative tension is
perhaps somewhat more complex to us, because we are aux confins des empires morts, as a French writer said",
Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1990, p. 88.
732
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Bibliography
Eliade, Mircea
Volumes
ncercarea labirintului [Ordeal by Labyrinth], Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1990
Jurnal [Journal], I, Humanitas, Bucharest, 1993
Comentarii la Legenda Meterului Manole [Comments to the Legend of Master Manole] in
Drumul spre centru [The Road toward the Center], Univers, Bucharest, 1991
Articles (originally published in Romanian)
Cele dou Romnii [The Two Romanias], in Vremea, October 4, 1936; Criza
romnismului? [Romanianism n Crisis?] , in Vremea, February 10, 1935; Cultur sau
politic? [Culture or Politics?] , n Vremea, February 21, 1935; Cultura [Culture], in
Cuvntul, October 4, 1927; Destinul culturii romneti [The Destiny of Romanian Culture],
in Destin, Review of Romanian Culture, no. 6-7, August, Madrid, 1953; Destinuri
romneti [Romanian Destinies], in Vremea, March 22, 1936; Fiina romneasc [The
Romanian Being], in Vremea, November 15, 1936; Dictatura i personalitatea
['Dictatorship' and 'Personality'], in Vremea, March 28, 1937; Gndire minor i gnditori
parazii [Minor Thinking and Parasitic Thinkers], in Cuvntul, January 8, 1928; mpotriva
Moldovei [Against Moldavia], in Cuvntul, February 19, 1928; Mai multe feluri de
naionaliti [Several Types of Nationalists], in Vremea, July 5, 1936; Naionalismul
[Nationalism], in Vremea, special Easter issue, 1937; Popor fr misiune? [Missionless
People?] , in Vremea, December 1, 1935; Realiti romneti [Romanian Realities], in
Vremea, June 16, 1935; Renatere romneasc [Romanian Rebirth] , in Vremea, April
21, 1935; Restaurarea demnitii romneti [The Restoration of Romanian Dignity], in
Vremea, September 1, 1935; Romni detepi i nemulumii [Smart Discontented
Romanians], in Viaa literar, December 25, 1934 - January 10, 1935; Romnia n
eternitate [Romania n Eternity], in Vremea, October 13, 1935; Romnismul d-lui
Rdulescu Motru [Mr. Radulescu-Motru's Romanianism], in Vremea, July 7, 1935;
Romnismul i complexele de inferioritate [Romanianism and Inferiority Complexes], in
Vremea, May 5, 1935; Roumain, Romanian, Rumane, Rumeno (--//--), in Vremea, June 2,
1935; Teozofie? [Theosphy?], in Cuvntul, October 22, 1927
General bibliography
Alexandrescu, Sorin, Paradoxul roman [The Romanian Paradox], Univers, Bucharest, 1998
Antohi, Sorin, Exerciiul distanei. Discursuri, societi, metode [The Exercise of Distance.
Discourses, Societies, Methods], Nemira, Bucharest, 1998
Fnaru, Sabina, Eliade prin Eliade [Eliade through Eliade], Univers, Bucharest, 2003
Pleu, Andrei, Limba psrilor [The Language of Birds], Humanitas, Bucharest, 1994
733
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
GENDER(ED) DISCOURSE:
IMAGES AND EXPERIENCES IN 19TH CENTURY WOMENS WRITING
Ramona MIHIL, Associate Professor, Ph.D., Spiru Haret University, Bucharest
Abstract: Based on the way society is reflected in nineteenth century novels and short stories,
the doctrine of separate spheres sought to restrict womens rights while simultaneously
glorified women and praised the family in an era of individualism. Although the womens
emancipation movement of the late nineteenth century contributed to the transformation of
womens social roles, it did not reject a separate, unique female identity. Thus the latter half
of the 19th century was a time of remarkable change and emancipation for Romanian women
with regard to political engagement, legal status, access to higher education, and their
entrance into the professions and public life. In addition, their visibility in the professional
world of literature and arts enabled them to start forging a tradition of their own. The present
article focuses not only on the writings of canonical writers (Sofia Ndejde, Veronica Micle)
but also on a number of writers who were neglected by critics, like Eugenia Ianculescu de
Reuss, Constana Hodo, Emilia Lungu, Adela Xenopol, Constana Marino-Moscu, Smaranda
Gheorghiu; those who wrote their work in foreign languages, (Martha Bibescu, Elena
Vcrescu, Dora dIstria), the foreign born writers Maria Rosetti, Otilia Marchi, Bucura
Dumbrav, the queens, Elisabeth (Elisabeta de Neuwied, Queen of Romania) and Marie of
Romania (Marie Alexandra Victoria, previously Princess Marie of Edinburgh).
Keywords: 19th century Romanian womens gender(ed) discourse and writing
The entry of Romanian women into the profession of writing was a slow process that
became clearer at the end of the 19th century. Most of the first Romanian women writers
stepped on the public stage as journalists or translators and their writings were addressed
especially to women. Their first translations covered a wide range of topics and genres:
poetry, drama, prose, and non-fictional works such as speeches, memoires or newspaper
articles. In the Romanian Principalities, the how-to manuals for women, Cminul (The
Home),1 Ecaterina Steriadi Buna menajer (The Good Housekeeper), 1874, or Safta tirbei,
Educaia copiilor (Childrens Education), 1848, were very much in demand and urged young
women to seek fulfillment in marriage and maternity. Maria Rosetti was the editor of the
journal Mama i copilul (Mother and Child): Bucharest, 18651866 while Constana de
Dunca-Schiau (1843-1924?) (pen names E. DAlbon, Constantia Dunca de Sajo, Camille
dAlb) ran the feminist newspaper Amicul familiei (The Friend of the Family) Bucharest,
18631865, both of them drawing the readers attention toward womens emancipation by
presenting a comparative approach to this issue, the Western influence upon the Romanian
Principalities. Other women writers focused their creation and articles on folklore and
Romanian traditions, thus they set up journals in accordance with their preoccupations:
Smaranda Andronescu-Gheorghiu (1857-1944) edited Altie i bibiluri (1893-1894) while
Elena Didia Odorica Sevastos (1864-1929) edited Rndunica (1893-1894). In Bucharest,
Adela Xenopol set up the journal Dochia (18961898) dedicated to feminine writing and
she used to write most of the articles for it. Later she was the editor-in-chief for other three
journals: Romnca (The Romanian Woman), 19051906, Viitorul romncelor (The Future of
734
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Romanian Women), 19121916, and Revista scriitoarei (The Woman Writers Journal), 1926
1928. Emilia Tailler was the editor of Jurnalul femeii (The Womans Journal) and Eliza V.
Cornea edited the journal Rolul femeii (The Womans Role), Bucharest, 1883. Constana
Hodo, published (19051907, 19141916), in Bucharest, Revista noastr (Our Journal), a
literary, artistic and social journal.
The first novel written by a woman was published under the pseudonym Doamna L (Maria
Boucher Movila), Omul muntelui (The Man from the Mountains) (1858) and there is not
much information about the real identity of the writer. In 1960s there were few literary
debates concerning this writer but they concluded by supposing she was a French governess
who lived in Romania for a period of time. She was supported by the writer V. A. Urechia
(some critics believe both of them wrote the novel, in fact) who was running the journals
Zimbrul i Vulturul (The Wisent and the Eagle), Steaua Dunrii (The Danubes Star) where
the novel and a short story, Amelia Stefnescu, were published. Other women writers also
used pen names: Dora dIstria (Princess Elena Ghica), Smara (Smaranda Gheorghiu) or
Carmen Sylva (Elisabeta de Neuwied, Queen of Romania). When Queen Elisabeta wrote
together with Mite Kremnitz (born Marie Charlotte von Bardeleben, pen name George Allan),
both of them used the pseudonyms Dito and Item for novels such as From Two Worlds (1884)
and Astra (1887), as well as for the volume Revenge and other Novels (1888).
Sofia Cocea (1839 -1861) wrote articles for unionist journals Tribuna (The Tribune),
Reforma (The Reform), Gazeta poporului (The Gazette of People), Zimbrul (The Buffalo),
Foiletonul Zimbrului (The Wisents Column), Romnul (The Romanian), Dacia, Steaua
Dunrii (The Danubes Star), Gazeta de Moldavia (The Gazette of Moldavia). In her articles
she approached many aspects of the social life: the situation concerning the education and the
national culture, the role of women in society, female illegitimacy (Kraus, 2011), the hard life
of the peasants or the foreign affairs of the Romanian Principalities.
The French-Hungarian author of Romanian origins Otilia Marchi (1873-1951), born
in Satu Mare, was a famous international writer and artist, who embarked for an Oriental trip,
as Martha Bibescu, to Japan, the Indies and the East and stops in Port-Said, Bombay,
Colombo, Calcutta, Singapore, Hong-Kong, Shanghai, Yokohama and Tokyo. She sent
articles for the journals such as Budapesti Naplo, Uj idk (New Times), Szatmarnemeti
Kzlny (Satu Mare Herald), and Luceafrul (The Morning Star) and sometimes signed with
the pen name Kmeri Sndor.
The first women journalists appeared on the public stage signing their contributions
with pen names a rhetorical mechanism that as Jenny Coleman observes allowed literary
women in the nineteenth century to deal with their socially prescribed subordination was to
write under an instrumental pseudonym that simultaneously embraced their identities as
women while challenging the socially constructed and prescribed nature of what it meant to
be a woman (Coleman, 2011: 2), thus, Ariel (Mrgrita Miller-Verghi), D. erban (Claudia
Millian), Elena A. Tnsescu (Elenea Codreanu), Fatma (Elena Farago), Laura Vampa
(Libertatea Bruteanu), Maura Prigor (Coralia Costescu), others chose more than one
pseudonym: Fulmen, Laura, Lorica (Ecaterina Raicoviceanu). Emilia Lungu Puhallo (1853-
1932) used many pen names, Bneanul, Bneanul Cltor, Bneanul June,
Bneanul Mo, while signing the articles for Familia (The Family), Biserica i coala
(The Church and School), Amicul familiei (The Friend of Family), Drapelul (The Flag).
735
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Thus, towards the end of the nineteenth and the beginning of the twentieth century an
increasing number of educated women involved in the writing business and contributed to
periodicals and newspapers by writing articles, stories, translating womens writing, because
as Lorna Shelley remarks the female journalist was frequently upheld as a positive role model
in journals aimed at young educated middle-class girls who may have been contemplating a
writing or journalistic career. Persuasive periodical accounts of women journalists
emphasized both the rigors and attractions of the profession, often casting the female
journalist as a heroic New Woman figure adaptable to modern and challenging work
environments (Shelley, 2009: 4)
In her journal Femeia romn (The Romanian Woman), a social, literary and
domestic journal (1879-1881), Maria Flehtenmacher wrote many reports on international
conferences concerning womens emancipation and translated into Romanian the keynote
speeches delivered by important feminists from France, England, and United States. For
example, she translated some articleswritten by Eugnie Potoni-Pierre (18441898), a
member of the Congress of Women in Paris and the founder of the Federation of French
Feminist Societies in 1892, Mama (The Mother) (1879), Un rspuns (An Answer)
(1879), Femeia medic (Medicine Woman) (1879), Munca i salariul (Labor and
Salary) (1879).
There are a lot of anonymous translations published in installments that may be
attributed also to Maria Flechtenmacher, like Moartea Rachelei (Rachel et la tragedie) (1878)
by Jules Janin, Florile i artitii (Flowers and Artists), (1878), a short story written by
Madame de Genlis (1878) or Bancherul (The Financier) by M. E. Braddon (1880).
Translations represented for women another way to enter the public space, even if
some of them translated without signing their versions while others used only the initial letters
of their names. In the present article we will try to focus only on the translations from books
written by women authors. In a chronological order, the first Romanian women translators
were: Catica Faca who translated Jeanne Louise Henriette Campans Thoughts on Education
(1834) and Catinca Samboteanu who worked on Alain-Ren Lesages Le diable boiteux
(1835).
In 1839, Ermiona Asachi, (1821, Viena - 1900, Paris), Edgar Quinets wife, translated one
of Emile Deschamps short stories, Rene-Paul and Paul-Rene, and Karoline Pichlers biblical
poem Rut. In 1843 she translated the philosophical work of Silvio Pellico, Despre ndatoririle
oamenilor (Dei doveri degli uomini). In Paris she wrote (signing as Hermione Quinet)
Memoires dexil (1868) and Cinquante ans damitie. Michelet-Quinet (1871).
In the same year, 1839, Adelaida Cristanovschi (?-?), a translator whose biography is
totally unknown, translated Adelade, mmoires dune jeune fille written by the French author
Julie de Qurangal, Madame Augustin Thierry (1802-1844) while, in 1852, Sofia Cocea
translated Madame de Genlis Palmira and Flaminia.
Maria Rosetti (1819-1893), who ran the journal Mama i copilul (Mother and Child)
for which she wrote most of the articles, as a translator she worked on Madame Genlis Zuma
ou la dcouverte du quinquina, suivi de la belle Paule, de Znide, et des roseaux du Tibre
(1866) and Alexandre de Saillets Micii hoinari fricoi (1866).
Mrgarita Miller Verghi (18651953) translated poems of the English writer Elizabeth
Barrett Browning (1912) and the English-born Romanian Queen Marie of Edinburgh, the
736
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
volume Vistorul de vise (The Dream Dreamer) in 1914 and Patru anotimpuri din viata unui
om (Four Seasons from a Mans Life) in 1915. Eufrosina C. Hommoriceanu (1853-?)
submitted to the journal Femeia Romn patriotic poems about the War of Independence
(1877-1878), like Armata Romn n 1877 (Romanian Army in 1877), Romnii au nvins (The
Romanians Were the Winners) and translated Romnia naintea Europei (Romania in front of
Europe) by Enrico Croce, 1879 and Caroline de Barraus Femeea i educaiunea (La Femme
et lEducation).
Carmen Sylva was a prolific writer and all her writings were well received by readers
all around the world and they were translated by women in many languages, besides those
translated into Romanian by Livia Maiorescu, Elena Rosetti, Lia Hrsu or Hlne Ponaro.
The Dutch writers Cornlie Huygens and Marie de Bunsen translated five of the queens
books, Castel Pelesch, Door alle eeuwen, Er wordt geklopt, Gedachten Naar as for Cornlie
and Op lydenspaden for Marie. Dona Faustina Saez de Melgar translated into Spanish Flores
y Perlas. Edith Hopkirk translated into English From memorys shrine and A Beai Queens
Fairy Tales while Helen Zimmern worked on the cycle of tales Pilgrim Sorrow and Helen
Wolff translated Shadows on Loves Dial. Harmath Lujza and Lina B. Bttner translated into
Hungarian Ket vilgbol and respectively Egy ima. Omul et Cetatea Babei and Piatra Ars.
Caraimanul. Vrful cu dor et Furnica were translated into Russian by Madame B. D.
Porozovsky.
At the literary level, the novels and the short stories written by women writers depicted the
end of nineteenth century Romanian society as one controlled by the power of money. A
woman who lives in this society could reach the standards of a good material situation only by
associating with a man. In other words, a woman does not have a direct power and she would
always depend on a male protector. As a consequence, her dependence means the assurance
of the material security and the societys goodwill, as well as an extreme limited life.
Therefore, the woman is caught in a trap of societal rules generated by the material situation
that makes her a simple adornment in the mans life.
The restrictions imposed on women from all social categories influenced the themes that
were debated in womens writings as well as the literary genres chosen by women to express
themselves (Branite, 2006). Due to the fact that most of the women from the middle or high
class spent almost all their time indoors, their fiction tended to concentrate on the private
sphere and brought up many topics considered taboo in the 19 th century: divorce, adoptive
mother, stepmothers, abortion, feminism, prostitution, domestic violence, incest, deficiencies
in girls education, interethnic marriages.
The women writers approaches many subjects concerning marriage and family life
presenting women as mothers, daughters, wives, sisters: Constana Marino-Moscus Ada
Lazu, abortion: Sofia Ndejdes Patimi (Passions), incest (Constana Hodo Din acelai
snge (From the Same Blood) and Smara (The Ice Floe), prostitution: Elena Vcrescus
Vraja (The Spell) or Smaras Fata tatii (Daddys Girl), domestic violence: Constana Hodos
Trei surori (Three Sisters), interethnic marriages, Constana Hodos Evreica (The Jewish
Girl), abusive behavior of an adoptive mother: Sofia Ndejdes Puterea banilor (The Power
of Money), the widow, Constana Hodos In doliu (The Mourning). At the end of the 19th
century women were the first ones who wrote about divorce Constana Hodos Trei surori
(Three Sisters), until then I. A. Bassarabescu was the only representative of the male authors
737
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
who talked about this controversial issue in a short story, Leandrii (The Oleanders), where the
protagonists divorced.
The women writers presented women in the paid workforce and womens unpaid work in
the household economy, financially independent woman: Sofia Ndejdes Robia banului (The
Slave of Money).
In her article Divorul (The Divorce), written for the journal Femeia Romn (The
Romanian Woman), the feminist writer Nelli Cornea pointed at the lack of education for girls
as being one of the main causes that led to the numerous divorces. In this sense, on the 7th of
February 1863, Constana Schiau de Dunca presented to the Legislator Chamber a project
concerning the organization of the Romanian girls education, which stipulates that: I. The
elementary education is compulsory and free of taxes. II. The setting up of primary-
elementary schools for girls, in a sufficient number in order to apply the law that would make
the education compulsory. III. The prioritized admission of Romanian women to the public
directive system, as teachers. IV. The setting up of Normal Schools, in order to train capable
Romanian school-teachers and professors. V. The setting up of superior-primary schools for
girls. The setting up of an education system that corresponds to the gymnasium for boys. VI.
The setting up of schools of arts and feminine professions, namely vocational schools. VII.
The setting up of laws which place the girls education system supervised by women
inspectors and mixed inspection committees. These took effect under the form of the Primary
public instruction Law from 1864.
In two of her short stories, Mnuia (The Little Hand) and Brara (The Bracelet),
Constana Hodo talks about the deficiencies of girls education within the system performed
by nuns in monasteries and she also draws attention to the lack of sexual education.
In her writings, Constana Marino-Moscu talks about liberal issues like womans
emancipation, social injustice, religion and education, marriages based on moral obligations
not on legal contracts. Such an example is depicted in the short story Ada Lazu.
The feminist attitude of some women writers is also reflected in the construction of their
female characters. In her novel Spre emancipare (Toward Emancipation), Eugenia Ianculescu
de Reuss proposes a unique identity model for that time: the main character is a feminist
writer, a missioner. While she is giving lectures in public all around the country, Corina often
stops in villages in order to make the countrywomen aware they need to be educated. She
travels around the country in order to set up asylums for women lacking moral and financial
support, as well as to deliver speeches in which she focused on social activity guidance and
achieving the feminine ideal. The novel Spre emancipare (Towards Emancipation) is a
manifest for women education in all the social and family fields.
Among the women who composed their writings in foreign languages, Martha
Bibescu who represents a reference point in the so-called Romanian Francophony, (Botezat,
2013: 259) conducted a successful literary career of both novels and nonfiction during the
first half of the twentieth century, being a laureate of the French Academy and appointed
member of the Royal Belgian Academy of French Language and Literature. Written in
French, her works, as to mention the most famous ones, Isvor, le pays des saules (1924) and
Le Perroquet Vert (1924), are signed Princess Bibesco and a series of fiction stories are
published under the pseudonym Lucile Decaux.
738
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Dora dIstria (Princess Elena Ghica) traveled a lot through Switzerland, Greece,
France, Belgium, Germany, the United States, and Italy where she settled permanently in
Florence. She wrote on ethnological matters from Balkan folklore (Romanian, Albanian,
Serbian, Bulgarian and Greek) with key topics such as Albanian nationalism, popular songs,
Swiss customs, Greek inheritance (Oktapoda, 2012) but also about the problem of the Balkan
nations (Romanian, Greek, Albanian) under Ottoman occupation. She made her voice while
sustaining all the Romanians should get united in a modern national state.
Besides being more a nationalist or folklorist, Dora dIstria was also a feminist writer
who presented in two important books the life of women both in Occident and Orient spaces,
Femmes en Orient (1859-1860) and another titled Des Femmes par une femme (1865).
Bucura Dumbrav, also known as Frantiky Jozefny Szekuliszovej or Francisca Iosepha
Szeculici or Fany (Fanny) Seculici, born in Bratislava, was one of Queen Carmen Sylvas
ladies in waiting. Being strongly supported by the Queen she started to write in German. Her
two novels depict historical and social events having as main characters Iancu Jianu, Haiducul
(The Outlaw) and Tudor Vladimirescu for Pandurul (The Pandour). In 1905, as a Romanian
folklore promoter, Bucura Dumbrav created the Chindia Society in order to make known
the Romanian dances and folk costumes. She loved hiking and she was one of the first women
in the world who escaladed the Mont Blanc. She wrote Cartea Munilor (The Book of
Mountains) as a guide for people fond of crossing mountains. Later she became interested in
theosophical studies and she translated Jiddu Krishnamurtis book At the Feet of the Master
(1924), and then she met the author at a congress. In 1925, she set up the Romanian
theosophical lodge in Bucharest and she went for a trip to India. On her return she got sick on
the sailing vessel and died in Port Said. The notes taken during this last trip were published
post mortem, in 1927, by Emanoil Bucua bearing the title Pe drumurile Indiei. Cele din urm
pagini. Scrisori (On the Roads of India. The Last Pages. Letters).
At the level of non-literary examples refer to newspapers articles (most of the Romanian
women writers wrote for journals, too), speeches: Constana de Dunca Schiau, Feminismul n
Romnia (Feminism in Romania) (1904), memoirs: Lucia Hossu Longin Amintiri 1880-1930
(Diary of 1880-1930) (1932), letters and critical work Iulia Aricescu, who wrote the
monographic work Opera i viaa Doamnei Sophia Chrisoscoleu, nscut Cocea (The Work
and Life of Mrs. Sophia Chrisoscoleu, born Cocea) (1862), Smaranda Gheorghiu wrote the
study Veronica Micle (1892) while Impresii literare (Literary Impressions) (1908), written by
Izabela Sadoveanu-Evan, is another notable work of literary criticism. Later, in 1935,
Mrgrita Miller-Verghi and Ecaterina Sndulescu compiled an anthology Evoluia scrisului
feminin n Romnia (The Evolution of Womens Writing in Romania). In the case of literature
and arts role-generating areas, for instance, besides women who worked in the field of arts
(the actress Agata Brsescu, the pianist Ana Voileanu-Nicoar), or theatre reviewers (Maria
Flehtenmacher), the literary texts will include short stories and novels in which the main
characters are women artists Eugenia Ianculescu de Reuss, Spre dezrobire (Toward
Emancipation).
The expansion of womens political influence after the War of Independence laid the
foundation for the greatest political mobilization of women in Romanian history through the
setting up of many committees for women. Between the time of its founding in Iassy, in 1877
and the height of its influence even two years later, Comitetul Central al femeilor n frunte cu
739
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Maria Rosetti Roznovanu (The Central Committee Led by Maria Rosetti Roznovanu) became
an umbrella organization for a multitude of social undertakings, including womans
suffrage, in many other towns as Flticeni, Piatra Neam, Roman, Tecuci, and Brlad.
Women founded many feminist societies, the first one Reuniunea femeilor romne (The
Reunion of the Romanian Women) in 1886, in Iassy, when Cornelia Emilian also initiated
actions to support the emancipation movement. Later, in 1895, she founded Liga femeilor
romne (The League of the Romanian Women), the first Romanian society with statutes and
a printed bulletin Buletinul Ligii femeilor (The Bulletin of the Womens League), that urged
women to fight for their political rights and showed how women reformers and gender-
specific issues they championed helped advance class-specific issues during a time of
fundamental social, economic, and political transition.
The writer and the journalist Elena Bacaloglu, an ardent admirer of fascism, set up the
National Italo-Romanian Cultural and Economic Movement in 1921 and wrote a book
Movimento nazionale fascista italo-rumeno in 1923. In 1910, Alexandrina Cantacuzino set up
the Societatea Naional a Femeilor Ortodoxe (National Orthodox Society for Women) while
in 1921, together with Calypso C. Botez, Elena M. Meissner, Cornelia Emilian and other
feminists she initiated Consiliul Naional al Femeilor Romne (National Council of Romanian
Women), and later, in 1929, she founded the first feminine political party Gruparea Naional
a Femeilor Romne (The National Group of Romanian Women). In 1912, Maria Baiulescu set
up Uniunea Femeilor Romne (The Committee of Romanian Women), an organization
intended to represent the women from the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Maria Baiulescu (1860-
1941) was an ardent feminist supporter and a fighter for liberation of Romanians under the
Hapsburg domination. She made her literary debut by publishing translations from French,
English, and German literature (Saltkov-cedrin, L. de Meurville, H. Bernstein, F.
Freiligrath, Fr. Schiller, H. Sudermann, W. Shakespeare, J. W. Goethe) and she signed them
using the pen name Sulfina. Later she submitted articles for: Vatra (The Heath), Familia
(The Family), Gazeta Femeii (Womens Gazette), Tribuna (The Tribune) Universul literar
(The Literary Universe). While she strongly militated for the womens rights she delivered
speeches in France, Belgium, Switzerland, Sweden, and Romania trying to make an
international network of womens movements.
The end of the nineteenth century offered Romanian women both in Transylvania and
in the Romanian Principalities ways to make their names on the public stage due to their
involvement in political and literary issues, thus opening the road to modernization and
emancipation as Romania granted women the right to vote much earlier than many Western
countries and that thing could happened as to share Katherine Hunts opinion while analyzing
J. S. Mill who fought for womens rights and called for a legal basis of equal rights of
opportunity for women as a necessary step toward womens and mens moral regeneration,
this was insufficient. Mill called for individuals in society to recognize women as human
beings whose subjection is detrimental to humanity. The modern and moral progress of
humanity depended, for Mill, upon people substantively altering their attitudes through
reasonable self-reflection and critical assessment of their surroundings (Hunt, 2013: 44).
740
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Notes and references
1. my translation. All the references to the Romanian books or publications are in my
translation.
Botezat, Onorina (2013), (Re)constructing Identity Roots in Martha Bibescus Writing, in
Gender Studies in the Age of Globalization, Ramona Mihaila, Efstratia Oktapoda, Nancy
Honicker (eds.), New York: Addleton Academic Publishers, 258-265.
Branite, Ludmila (2006), Scriitori i cri - studii i articole de teorie, istorie i critic
literar. Iai: Vasiliana 98.
Coleman, Jenny (2011), The Disconcerting Double Bind: Anonymity and Writing as a
Woman in the Nineteenth Century, Nineteenth Century Gender Studies 7(1): 1
Hunt, Katherine (2013), J. S. Mills Feminism and the Third Dimension of Power, Journal
of Research in Gender Studies 1(3): 30-52.
Kraus, Carolyn (2011), A Gentlemans Agreement: Female Illegitimacy in Nineteenth-
Century Male-Authored Fiction, Journal of Research in Gender Studies 2(1): 73-94.
Oktapoda, Efstratia (2012), Les Roumaines Paris. crivaines franaises dorigine roumaine
: Dora dIstria, Anna de Noailles et Marthe Bibesco Ou Comment peut-on tre Roumain dans
lEurope des Nations? Journal of Research in Gender Studies, 2(2): 93-106.
Shelley, Lorna (2009), Female Journalists and Journalism in fin-de-sicle Magazine Stories,
Nineteenth Century Gender Studies 5(2): 4.
741
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
REFLECTIONS ON THE NATURE OF ART IN NOBEL PRIZE FOR LITERATURE
ACCEPTANCE SPEECHES
Eva-Nicoleta BURDUEL, Associate Professor, PhD, Lucian Blaga University of
Sibiu
Abstract: The main goal of the present study is to explore the countless connections between
the real and fictionalized identities of a number of Nobel Prize winners. Their acceptance
speeches enriched in meaning, at times, by literary interviews, letters or essays, provide an
invaluable reflection upon the role of the artist, the citizen and individual in society, and shed
more light on the complex mission of a writer as public intellectual.
Keywords: Nobel Prize speeches, authentic self, fictionalized self, writer as public intellectual
Words may, through the devotion, the skill, the passion, and the luck of writers
prove to be the most powerful thing in the world.1
The main goal of the present study is to explore the countless connections between the
real and fictionalized identities of a number of Nobel Prize winners. Their acceptance
speeches enriched in meaning, at times, by literary interviews, letters or essays, provide an
invaluable reflection upon the role of the artist, the citizen and individual in society, and shed
more light on the complex mission of a writer as public intellectual. Reading and writing are
processes that may change both individual life and the dynamics of society. We need to re-
learn the art of reading as a means of understanding life; through the imagination we are
able to develop our ability to see the full humanness of people and to cultivate the inner
eye.2 Furthermore, just as knowledge and wisdom are not identical, a similar distinction
operates between being informed which requires reading quickly a great number of merely
instructive books and being cultivated for which one must read slowly and with a lingering
appreciation the comparatively few books that have been written by men who lived, thought
and felt with style.3
Thus, the nature of Nobel Prize Acceptance Speeches, let alone the significance of the public
ceremony and distinction, is to reveal the connection between the moral, humanistic and
artistic functions of literature which can illuminate the human condition in the world of
today.4 Aldous Huxley was aware that the need for exposure to good art is particularly
acute, therefore steadiness in a time of change could rest firmly only on unalterable values.
1
William Golding Nobel Prize acceptance speech
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1983/golding-lecture.html
They may move men to speak to each other because some o f those words express not just what the writer is
thinking but what a huge segment of the world is thinking. They may allow man to speak to man, the man in the
street to speak to his fellow until a ripple becomes a tide running through every nation.
2
Martha Nussbaum, Skills for Life, Times Literary Supplement, 30 April 2010, p. 15.
3
Aldous Huxley, Texts and Pretexts, p.2
4
The Nobel Prize in Literature 1983 was awarded to William Golding; prize motivation:
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1983/
742
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The artist is equipped with better tools than those of common men he opens our eyes for
us5 and the same idea is reinforced in another Huxleyan essay: the artist is endowed with
a sensibility and a power of communication, a capacity to put things across which events
and the majority of people to whom events happen do not possess. 6
At a time when the knowledge-based society, the market-driven economy and fierce
competition demand for a more scientific and pragmatic approach to life, there is an acute
need for humanities, for art now more than ever in order to preserve in us the best of
what is human so that we do not retreat into the savagery of isolation and life is not
reduced to the pragmatism of specialists who see things profoundly but ignore what
surrounds, precedes and continues those things. 7 That is why we have to continue dreaming,
reading, and writing, the most effective way we have found to alleviate our mortal condition,
to defeat the corrosion of time, and to transform the impossible into possibility. 8
Furthermore, the problems of the human heart in conflict with itself alone can
make good writing because only that is worth writing about, worth the agony and the sweat
It is the writer`s privilege to help man endure by lifting his heart The poet`s voice need
not merely be the record of man, it can be one of the props, the pillars to help man endure and
prevail.9 Faulkner and Golding shared a similar perspective on the role of literature to
increase the awareness on the importance of humanity, care, love, temperance and tolerance.
The relationship between language and literature has been of great interest and it can
be traced as far back as Antiquity, pointing to the two levels of language usage, i.e. logos
(enabling understanding) and mythos (enabling interpretation); later on, Aristotle coined
and defined two fundamental terms, i.e. poiesis and mimesis.
Literary language may also undertake the function of increasing awareness, exposing
truth, empowering individuals and nations: Literature has words only, surely a tool as
primitive as the soft copper chisel with which man first carved his own likeness in stone.
Perhaps the soft copper chisel is not so poor a tool after all. It may be by books, stories,
poetry, lectures we who have the ear of mankind can move man a little nearer the perilous
safety of a warless and provident world. 10 On the contrary, language in art remains a
highly ambiguous transaction, quicksand, a trampoline, a frozen pool which might give way
under you, the author, at any time.11 (H. Pinter)
Language does not simply serve communication: indeed, the question is to what extent
communication is possible at all through language which was impoverished because it was
used as an instrument. The role of language was sometimes found unreliable and the solution
was a revival of language and a revolution of the word advocated by Modernists. How n
5
Aldous Huxley, Man and Nature in Texts and Pretexts, p.49
6
Aldous Huxley, Tragedy and the Whole Truth: in Music at Night, p.17
7
Mario Vargas Llosa, Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/2010/vargas_llosa-lecture_en.html
Fiction is more than an entertainment, more than an intellectual exercise that sharpens one`s sensibility and
awakens a critical spirit.
8
Mario Vargas Llosa, Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech
9
William Faulkner, Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1949/faulkner-speech.html
10
William Golding, Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech
11
Harold Pinter, Noble Prize Acceptance Speech
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/2005/pinter-lecture-e.html
743
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
meaning be achieved if the language we use can never be a reliable tool? We had the
experience but missed the meaning, / And approach to the meaning restores the experience /
In a different form.12
The function of literature is further enriched by its ability to facilitate a dialogue of
cultures and to bridge the wide gaps between oneness and otherness, between the centre and
the periphery: Good literature erects bridges between different peoples, and by having us
enjoy, suffer, or feel surprise, unites us beneath the languages, beliefs, habits, customs, and
prejudices that separate us Literature creates a fraternity within human diversity and
eclipses the frontiers erected among men and women by ignorance, ideologies, religions,
languages, and stupidity. 13 Moreover, Orhan Pamuk acknowledged that literature is never
just a national concern; the writer must have the artistry to tell his own stories as if they
were other people's stories, and to tell other people's stories as if they were his own, for this is
what literature is 14, a statement fully testified by the significance of a Nobel Prize for
Literature, whose recipient will enjoy worldwide readership, recognition and success and
whose significance transgresses national borders in order to open up new territories of
previously unmapped imagination.
Questions of authenticity and identity, the distinction between real and fictionalized
life also come up in Nobel Prize Acceptance Speeches; e.g. A writer is someone who spends
years patiently trying to discover the second being inside him, and the world that makes him
who he is: when I speak of writing, what comes first to my mind is a person who shuts
himself up in a room, sits down at a table, and alone, turns inward; amid its shadows, he
builds a new world with words.15
Cited Works:
William Faulkner, Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech
<http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1949/faulkner-speech.html>
William Golding, Nobel Prize acceptance Speech
<http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1983/golding-lecture.html>
The Nobel Prize in Literature 1983 was awarded to William Golding; prize motivation:
<http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1983/>
Aldous Huxley, Texts and Pretexts, p.2
Aldous Huxley, Man and Nature in Texts and Pretexts, p.49
Aldous Huxley, Tragedy and the Whole Truth in Music at Night, p.17
Mario Vargas Llosa, Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech
<http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/2010/vargas_llosa-
lecture_en.html>
Martha Nussbaum, Skills for Life, Times Literary Supplement, 30 April 2010, p. 15
Orhan Pamuk, Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech
12
T S Eliot, Four Quarterts in Collected Poems, London: Faber & Faber, 1974, p.198
13
Mario Vargas Llosa, Noble Prize Acceptance Speech
14
Orhan Pamuk, Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech
http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/2006/pamuk-lecture_en.html
15
Orhan Pamuk, Nobel Prize Acceptance Speech
744
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
<http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/2006/pamuk-lecture_en.html>
Harold Pinter, Noble Prize Acceptance Speech
<http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/2005/pinter-lecture-e.html>
T S Eliot, Four Quarterts in Collected Poems, London: Faber & Faber, 1974, p.198
745
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
TRANSLATING WORDS AND (THEIR?) MEANING
Bianca-Oana HAN, Assistant Professor, PhD, Petru Maior University of Trgu-Mure
Abstract: It has been a never-ending debate among scholars concerned with translation
issues whether they should translate the word or rather the meaning it implies. The difficulty
is raised by the idea according to which different languages can never be completely
rendered by translation without losing certain valuable aspects, which might therefore throw
the process of translation under a dark shade. In the same light of human understanding,
scholars dealing with communication issues draw attention upon a different aspect: what is
the situation with the words that do not even mean what they appear in the first place in the
original language? What about the meta-language and reading between words? We will try
to prove that the users of languages need to be able to decode words in a double-folded
instance: i.e., they need to translate the words and their meaning.
Keywords: translation, meta-language, metalinguistic awareness
In their book, Talk Language How to Use Conversation for Profit and Pleasure 1,
Pease and Garner remind us that people tend to hide behind words more often than they are
willing to admit; that, in order to express their feelings, beliefs, opinions they seem to employ
words in meaningful or meaningless combinations, depending on the ability of the
interlocutors to decode the hidden message, the one that lies beyond the initial meaning of
words.
This is a matter of understanding human nature and its need to sometimes polish,
embellish the reality expressed. If people chose to directly state their minds, in plain, clear-cut
ways, than understanding would probably be simplified, clearer, explicit but, conversations
would appear blank, void of substance, missing aesthetic value, and sometimes considered
even offensive. People realised the power and importance of choosing words carefully, in
order to complete social functions of communication, relation, persuading, etc.
Thus, from the Ancient times, people realised that right wording, rightly used was able
to convince, to manipulate people. Being the only species able to utter words and develop a
language, the human being felt the need to indulge into this particular activity. Therefore, they
felt the need to make proper use of the prerogative, i.e. to use language at its most. This
implies expressing human feelings by means of linguistic means like lexical items, but also
non-linguistic, still language-related, means like metalinguistics.
According to an online dictionary definition2, the term refers to that branch of
linguistics that studies language and its relationship to other cultural behaviours. It is the
study of dialogue relationships between units of speech communication as manifestations and
enactments of co-existance. Thus it requires our understanding that language cannot be used
aside from human behaviour.
1
Alan Pease, Alan Garner, Talk Language How to Use Conversation for Profit and Pleasure, Simon and
Schuster Ltd. London, 1989
2
Acc. to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalinguistics
746
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
An interesting concept regarding this theme would be the one referring to
metalinguistic awareness which implies the understanding that language is a system of
communication, bound to rules and forms the basis for the ability to discuss different ways to
use language3. In other words, it is the ability to consciously analyse language and its
subparts, to know how they operate and how they are incorporated into the wider language
system.4 An individual with such ability is aware that linguistic forms and structure can
interact and be manipulated to produce a vast variety of meanings. Words are only arbitrarily
and symbolically associated with their referents and are separable from them. 5
In order to clarify this notion, Douglas R. Hofstadter invites us, in his article
Metamagical Themes6, to analyse the sentence below:
Their is four errors in this sentance. Can you find them?
Hofstadter argues that Three errors announce themselves plainly enough, the
misspellings of there and sentence and the use of is instead of are. () The fourth error
resists detection, until one assesses the truth value of the sentence itself - the fourth error is
that there are not four errors, only three. Such a sentence (referred to as a 'self-referencing
sentence') asks one to look at it in two ways, simultaneously as statement and as linguistic
artefact- in other words, to exercise metalinguistic awareness." 7
We have argued so far that the human is the only one able to use words to express
oneself: what if words are not always enough or necessary to send the intended message?
What if they are just a means to an end but this end is much more meaningful than the
words appear to imply in the first place? It would appear that the speaker needs to be able to
decode the primary message of words, the one implied by the surface meaning of the words
used but also the secondary message of words, the one contained in the deeper surface of
words used.
Peter Trudgill8, an honorary professor of sociolinguistics at the University of East
Anglia, England observes that "none of us can unilaterally decide what a word means.
Meanings of words are shared between people-they are a kind of social contract we all agree
to-otherwise communication would not be possible."
The meaning that words receive in the recipients mind depends on a number of
factors: his ability to decode the words from the linguistic point of view, i.e. if he understands
the language used as a vehicle; the importance the message has to the receiver, i.e. if the
message is of high importance, it will be endowed with different values than for a different
indifferent recipient.
This being the case, one can only imagine how difficult translation of such a
complicated issue as a message, has become; a translator of a text needs to perform multiple
operations in order to render the right message from the original into the target language; the
3
Baten, K., Hofman, F., & Loeys, T. Cross-linguistic activation in bilingual sentence processing: The role of
word class meaning. Bilingualism: language and cognition, 14(3), 351-359., 2011,
doi:10.1017/S1366728910000246
4
Beceren, S. Comparison of metalinguistic development in sequential bilinguals and monolinguals. The
International Journal of Educational Researchers 2010, 1(1), 28-40.
5
Acc. to http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalinguistics
6
Douglas R. Hofstadter, Scientific American, 235, No. 1 [1981], 22-32
7
Patrick Hartwell, Grammar, Grammars and the Teaching of Grammar College English, Feb. 1985
8
Qtd. by Richard Nordquist in There was no Golden Age http://grammar.about.com/od/words/a/langmyths6.htm
747
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
words need to be stripped out of their onion-like layers of meanings in order to be exposed to
the receiver, thus to make sense. This sense prepared for the receiver is actually the result of a
contextual-bound, circumstance-related, culture and psychological specific factors that await
decoding.
In the same article 9 Trudgill recounts the history of the word nice to illustrate his point
that the "English language is full of words which have changed their meanings slightly or
even dramatically over the centuries."
Derived from the Latin adjective nescius (meaning "not knowing" or "ignorant"), nice
arrived in English around 1300 meaning silly, foolish or shy. Over the centuries, its
meaning gradually changed to fussy then refined and then (by the end of the 18 th century)
pleasant and agreeable.
Just as words were proved to have changed their meaning over time, they are also
prone to change every time they are used new, due to the flexibility power they may be
endowed with. This change in meaning is obviously influenced by the exhaustive use of the
words, by the fact that language is a living entity, in a continuous change, thus flexible, never
the same.
Therefore, although humans are the only ones lucky enough to have words at their
service in order to express themselves freely, clearly they also are the ones unlucky enough to
be tricked by words that are not dealt with, managed and mastered appropriately. Words can
become their users best friend or fierce weapon in need, but also their worst enemy if not
handled carefully.
Bibliography
Baten, K., Hofman, F., & Loeys, T. Cross-linguistic activation in bilingual sentence
processing: The role of word class meaning. Bilingualism: language and cognition, 14(3),
351-359., 2011, doi:10.1017/S1366728910000246
Beceren, S. Comparison of metalinguistic development in sequential bilinguals and
monolinguals. The International Journal of Educational Researchers 2010, 1(1)
Hartwell, P., Grammar, Grammars and the Teaching of Grammar College English, Feb. 1985
Hofstadter, D.R. Scientific American, 235, No. 1 [1981], 22-32
Nordquist, R. There was no Golden Age
Pease, A. Garner, A. Talk Language How to Use Conversation for Profit and Pleasure,
Simon and Schuster Ltd. London, 1989
http://grammar.about.com/od/words/a/langmyths6.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalinguistics
9
idem
748
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
NEOLOGY, NEONYMY, NEOSEMY: TERMINOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE
Inga DRU, PhD, The Philology Institute of the Moldavian Science Academy
Abstract: In the paper we can see the analysis of the concepts of neology, neonymy and
neosemy in relation with the terminological theory and practice. It is talked about the
distinction between the primary and the translated neology, emphasyzing the role of the
translation as a strategic zone for the neology. We can examine the notion of feeling of
the neology which is present in the language of the speakers regarding the new created
lexems or those borrowed recently from other languages. We can observe the acceptance
criteria and the formation processes of neonyms and neosemes.
Keywords: neology, neonimy, neosemy, relation, terminological theory
1. Neology. Terminology as a social practice and discipline is inseparable of neology.
The term neology is not yet unanimously recognized with the same meaning. In Dicionarul
de tiine ale limbii (The Dictionary of language sciences), the neology is defined as the sum
of the internal and external processes of enrichment of the vocabulary [] with new words
and meanings (DSL 2005: 343), being circumscribed to the lexicon. In the same source its
mentioned that this term is frequently used in the French linguistics and not very well known
and used in the Romanian linguistics, the term creativity being preffered (a suggestive
reference: Creativitate lexical n romna actual by Adriana Stoichioiu-Ichim).
In the French linguistics, classic lexicologists as Luis Guilbert or Guy Rondeau were
considering neology as a discipline for the relative aspects of the new phenomena which
appear in the languages, aspect which may refer to phonetics, morphology, syntax or lexicon.
The beginnings of neology as a science is associated with the apparition of the reference
monograph La crativit lexicale by Louis Guilbert (Larousse, 1975), one of the most
valuable papers regarding the neologisms of the French language. The Author analyzes the
causes of the lexicon mobility and its relation use creativity norm, getting to the
conclusion that the most important role in the creation of neologisms is taken by the linguistic
system.
The paper in discussion is followed by other semnificative contributions, like La
nologie franaise aujourdhui: observations et rflexions by Andr Goosse (1975), Nologie
et lexicologie by RosineAdda et alia (1979), Le management par les mots. tude
sociolinguistique de la nologie by Fabienne Cusin-Berche (1998), La nologie en franais
contemporain: examen du concept et analyse de productions nologiques rcentes by Jean-
Franois Sablayrolles (2000), Les neologisms by Jean Pruvost and Jean-Franois Sablayrolles
(2003) and the multiple studies signed by Alain Rey, Louis Droy, Jacques Boissy, Danielle
Candel, Bernard Quemada, Jean-Claude Boulanger, Adrien Hermans, Marie-Franoise
Mortureux. With time passing by, the radius of investigation of the neology is narrowed to the
lexical inovations, the activity of neology being defined as a scientific study of new words
and its motivated use (Quemada 2007: 5).
749
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Confronting various definitions and approaches of neology, we can state that it
includes more activities: practical processes of creation of new lexical units and current
mechanisms of lexical creativity of a language; the theoretical and applied study of the lexical
creativity, ways of formation of words, identification criteria, the acceptance and the
distribution of neologisms, their social and cultural aspects; the systematically organized
institutional activity, focused on the recognition, registration, spread, implantation of
neologisms in a concrete context of a linguistic politics; the identification of the specialized
segments where we can find gaps in the terminological field which require interventions; the
analysis in terms of novelty of the dictionaries regarding its use as filters of recognition of
neologisms and the neological comparison of dictionaries (Boulanger 1989; Cabr 1998).
Specialists can make a distinction between general and terminological neology or
neonimy (Kocourek 1982; Rondeau 1984; Quemada 2007). Another observed distinction by
the specialists is the one between the primary and translated neology (Hermans, Vansteelandt
1999: 37): it is considered a primary neology the situation in which a new term is created once
with the apparition of a new concept, while a translated neology is regarded to the situation
when the term and the concept already exist in a language and are equalized in another
language under the form of a term which didnt exist till then in the target language. Most
frequently, we can talk about the primary neology in the cases of scientific discoveries, of
some research laboratories, manufacture of new products etc. (cf. smartphone, iPad,
eReader).
Community terminology is also a case of primary neology, because the foundation of
the European Union has determined the creation of a new conceptual device, for which also
had to be invented new terms: Ombudsman,acquis comunitar, guvernan and so on (Busuioc
2006). However, in the EU states and in their neighbourhood, the primary community
neology (in English and/or in French) generates various forms of translated neology in the
languages of the states involved in this discussion. Actually, the most common and natural
environment of the translated neology is the translation.
The translators are the first ones to face the new terms from the source language and
also the new concepts, for which they create equivalents in the target language. In the process
of transposition, the translators need neologisms in order to assure the translated text the same
functionality as to the text in the source language. However, a disadvantage of the translated
neology is starting the use of multiple denominations for the same concept or of some wrong-
formed terms. An example of a multiple denomination for the same notion, in the Romanian
language, would be the existence of three syntagms-synonyms, which came from the
translation of some European directives: colectare selectiv, colectare difereniat, colectare
separat (a deeurilor) (Bara 2011).
Adrien Hermans and Andre Vansteelandt call the translation a strategic zone for
neology, since the neologisms created by the translators immediately appear in a real context
of communication, especially in an area which encourages the natural distribution of new
terms. The neologisms that are proposed by the linguists are transmitted in a written form
(documents, laws, manuals, instructions, mandates), which is, for the scientific and technical
terms, the main way of distribution of neologisms, with the biggest potential of acceptability
in a linguistic community, assuring all at once legitimacy, valorification and consecration of
new terms. However, almost always being pressured by time, the translators do not have the
750
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
necessary energy to find an adequate equivalent. Also, more frequently then wanted, they
choose to use loans or circumlocutions.
The distinction between the primary and translated neology is very important in the
case of the Romanian language, in which most of the terminological units are coming from
the translation/equivalency of terms from other languages (cultures), phenomenon in which
are trained all the resources of linguistic creativity for obtaining of the most adequate and
transparent terms. However, in relation to the English language, all the languages in the world
are finding themselves in front of pseudosystematic translations (Hermans, Vansteelandt
1999: 42), which they have to handle. On the other hand, professionals admit that in the
international communication, scientists (including the technicians) interrelate in English, a
genuine lingua franca of modern sciences (Gaudin 2003: 198).
1.1. Neologism. The mark new, from the syntagma new word neologism is
interpretable. The discussion on neology and neologisms still remains open in the European
linguistics, as well as in the Romanian one. There are different opinions regarding the
meaning, as well as the term called neologism.
From an etymological point of view, the term neologism (< fr. nologisme, cf. gr. neos
and logos), designates a new word introduced in a language. The result of the comparison of
definitions which exist in Romanian and European lexicographical papers, we can observe
differences at the level of the semantic analysis of notion. Dictionaires such as Le Trsor de la
Langue Franaise informatis, Larousse, Il Vocabolario Treccani (1997), Webster etc.
present the neologism as a polysemantic notion (usually having three meanings: 1. A new
word, loaned from another language; 2. A word that already exists in a language and it is
given a new meaning; 3. Invented word that is understood only by the its speaker, which
appears usually as a symptom of schizophrenia).
In the Romanian dictionaires the concept in discussion is treated as an unique
definition: neologsm n.n. New word, loaned or formed recently in a language from its own
resources and methods (DLR). Dicionarul de neologisme, after a French example, provides
more details to its definition, completing it with a secondary meaning: neologsm n.n. New
word, loaned from a foreign language or formed from its own resources and methods in the
target language; (p. restr.) recent lexical loan. New acceptance of a word. According to the
Robert dictionary, the term neologism was used for the first time in the 18th century with the
following acceptances: 1. Emploi dun mot ou dune expression dont la forme est soit cre
de toutes pices, soit obtenue par dformation, drivation, composition, emprunt etc. Par
ext. Emploi dun mot ou dune expression dont on conserve la forme, mais quon dtourne de
son sens habituel pour lui donner un sens nouveau. 2. Le mot nouveau, lexpression nouvelle
quon forme ou quon dtourne ainsi de son sens.
In the 19th century, the term was accepted in the international terminology (fr.
nologisme, engl. neologism, germ. Neologismus) as a lexical unity which has recently
entered in a particular language (DSL 2005: 343). However, the ambiguity of the feature of
recent term from the definition of the neologism has created fervent philological disputes.
One of the specialists that emphasyzed the difficulty of delimitation of the lexical units which
recently appeared in a language was Gheorghe Adamescu, saying that assuming neologisms
as new is relative (Adamescu 1936-1938: 50), loans being considered new in a language just
751
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
for a period of time. Their frequent use and passing from the cultural and scientifical registre
of the language in the ordinary one determines pe speakers to accomodate them in the current
vocabulary.
Iorgu Iordan also emphasizes the relativity of the feature new term, declaring that
neologisms are the words loaned in the period of time covered by the concept of
contemporan Romanian language and of which speakers are sure they are new words. A word
is a neologism as much time as it is felt as something new. As soon as a word is getting old
and is being used regularly, then it loses its aspect of inovation (Iordan, Robu 1978: 310).
The idea about the relative character of new given to neologisms was also expressed
in the French linguistics, especially by Jean-Franois Sablayrolles (2000) and Jean Pruvost
(Pruvost, Sablayrolles 2003), they also talk about a feeling of neology, characteristic to the
speakers, more fluctuating each day (that means that the duration of distribution and
assimilation of neologism is reduced more and more, and neologists age faster and faster).
This is why, specialists ask themselves: why and when do we know we have a new word?
How long does the neological (nologicit) nature of a new-born or loaned lexeme from
another language last?
According to an opinion, a word is new from the moment of its creation until it is
approved in a general dictionary. Marie-Franoise Mortureux considers that the neologism is
a word recognized as a new and susceptible word ready for the lexicalizaton (Mortureux
1997: 105). Maria Teresa Cabr also believes that a term loses its neological nature as soon as
it is introduced in a dictionary, as it passes through a few steps of adaption in the target
language: at first it appears as an individual act, but then through the help of repeated acts, it
settles in the language and finally it gets lexicalized, becoming a fully approved word in the
receiving language (Cabr 2002: 18). We care to mention that if in some linguistic schools the
neology is considered to be a synchronic concept (it is not longer considered to be a
neologism as soon as the lexeme finds her way into the general dictionaries of that language),
in the Romanian linguistics, as it was noticed by Ioana Vintil-Rdulescu, the label of a
neologism is definitely connected to these particular words (Vintil-Rdulescu 2006: 443).
Actually, the lexicalization is not enough to test a neologicity. The Dictionary,
through the insertion of these new lexical units, attests, in a certain way, that they are new, but
the duration of the neological nature can not be recognized in each case. Usually, the word is
not being added to a dictionary in the same year it got attested, especially if it also got created
that year. On its turn, dating, the objective mark based on recording news, isntalways precise.
It works perfectly only for voluntary neologisms, in the case of terminologies. With the
exception of terminological creations (neonyms), you can not state the exact date of
appearance of a new lexical unit or of a new meaning (Hermans, Vansteelandt 1999: 38). In
this order of ideas, we can mention that Boubakeur Bouzidi, in an excellent study (Nologicit
et temporalit dans le processus nologique, 2010), focuses on the conditions and elements
which determine the neological nature of the new lexemes.
This is why, the author is asking himself: would the recording in the dictionaries be
the beginning or the end of the period of neologicity? However dictionaries do not create
new words and also do not invent unused meanings. They present the neologism, legitimate
it and put it in circulation (Bouzidi 2010: 32). Some neologisms are generalized in a
752
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
language in a very short period of time (cf. clip, webcam, laptop etc.) and start to lose their
feeling of neology which usually comes together with neologisms. Other lexical creations
can remain inactive for a long time, but after all they get to the
common use (after more years from its appearance): this is the case of some terms
which migrate beyond their fields of application and find their way to the general language,
sometimes called repeated neologisms, or of some stylistic creations by some writers, as
Novlangue (registered in Petit Larousse in 2000), word appearing in the novel 1984 by
George Orwell, published in 1949. The Success of a neologism (distribution, attestation in
dictionaries) depends of more elements, such as the deficiency or the lexical void, the
absence of competing forms, the adaptation degree to the linguistic system.
However, the attestation of a new lexeme, at a certain date, is nothing more than just
an occurrence, insufficient to record the appearance of a neologism. A neologism has to
impose itself: the society needs to accept it and the language (the dictionary) to admit and
attest it. Therefore, besides dating, an important criterion in the establishment of the
neological nature of a lexeme is frequency. On the other hand, the use frequency can be as
well as an element of consolidation, one of destruction of the neological nature of a lexical
unit (Bouzidi 2010: 33). In conclusion, Boubakeur Bouzidi states that the duration of the
neological nature remains fluid, and the feeling of neology is relative.
In this context, it is very important what was mentioned in Dicionarul de tiine ale
limbii regarding the status of the neologism: the neologism can be identified only in a certain
synchronic cut and it is operable, especially, in relation with the standard language or with
some special languages (technical), seen from the same synchronic perspective (DSL 2005:
343).
Making a synthesis, we can state that for the establishment of the neological nature of
a lexeme there are considered the following criteria: diachrony, lexicography (the
existence/the absence of some lexical units in the dictionaires of an era); incertitude
(morphological, graphical, phonetic or semantic); psycho-sociology: the perception of the new
word by the speakers and their acceptance of it (Cabr 1998; Pavel, Rucreanu 2001: 52;
Busuioc 2006: 2-3; Clim 2012).
2. Neonymy and neonyms. Neology and the necessity to name things, phenomena,
processes etc. do not over overlap in a precise way. On the other hand, the wordplay, the
intention of inducement or the search for expressiveness can generate neologisms without the
concomitant appearance of new realities which need to be designated. On the other hand, a
denomination isnt necessarily a neologism, a new word: usually states the extension and the
semantic specialization of some existing terms in new contexts, which denote the viability of
linguistic signs for new realities (Sablayrolles 2007: 12). Finally, there are various cases of
renaming and of multiple denominations for the same concept (ibid.).
In the specialty literature we can see the distinction between the common language
neologisms and the neologisms of specialized and terminological languages, called neonyms
(new denominations) and neosemes (new meanings) (Kocourek 1982; Rondeau 1984;
Quemada 2007; Blan Mihailovici 2003: 102). Neonyms appear as a denominative necessity
and have a bigger stability then the common language neologisms (Pavel, Rucreanu 2001:
53). Therefore, neonymy works in the case of the terminological void (Busuioc 2006: 2).
753
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
A big amount of papers show that, from the strictly formal point of view,
neologism and neonyms share a series of characteristics. Despite the variousity of
existing typologies, it is accepted that more or less neologisms and neonyms are formed
almost the same way, throught methods present in any language.
However, Bruno de Bess signals some differencies in the formation of lexical
unites (words), in the French general language, where it is usually used the
morphological creation derivation (prefixation and suffixation), and in the process of
term formation prevale the syntagmatic lexical creations. Bess emphasizes the fact that
the lexical neologism from the general language is born spontaneously, does not cancel
the synonyms and often is referred to a certain social group, to a certain level of the
language. A new term appears in a specialty language in a moment in which, after a
discovery, a new concept is created, designated in a conscious way by its author, in his
language. The new concept passes initially in the scientific environments, and only then
imposes its designation in other languages. From this reason, term creators, most of the
times specialists in the field, aspire to the transparency of the terminological unit.
Therefore, we can state that the term formation is a conscious process (Bess1992: 60-
64).
In the same order of ideas, Adrien Hermans and Andre Vansteelandt claim that
terms need to be created in conformity to the lexical or terminological matrices of the
language in which they appear and with the matrices specific to the field of application.
The notion of lexical/terminological matrix is explainable through the fact that every
language and every field can select certain methods and instruments of formation of the
new lexical/terminological units (Hermans, Vansteelandt 1999: 39). In some
languages, as English and German, we can find preferences for derivation or
composition (most of the terms are composed, unified, with a strict order, different from
that of the romanic languages: determinative determined), for suffixation earlier than
for prefixation; in the case of the fields of application, in the neonyms from certain
disciplines the elements of formation of greek and latin origin (medicine) are
dominating, while in others the modern elements like eco- (environment terminology)
or euro- (community terminology).
Neonyms are formed through various methods like: procedures of morphological
nature (derivation, composition), syntagmatic (abbreviation, ellipse, truncation, contamination
or recomposition, labelling), semantics (metaphor of metonymy), loan (direct and indirect
calque) (Busuioc 2006: 5).
Greek and Latin, called dead languages, are present even today in terminology and
mark in a visible way the European vocabulary either by the terms taken entirely, or by the
fact that they attest methods of formation of neonyms. According to a statistics, these 2
languages supply the modern terminology with over 10.000 elements of formation (with a
different degree of productivity) (Blan-Mihailovici 2003:89). Therefore, the term creation
with the help of the elements of formation of greek and latin origin may be considered one of
the methods of internationalization of terminologies.
754
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Terms, intended in the first place for the use of the specialists, are mostly elaborated
with a lot of care and rigour. There are many terms of which can be said with exactity who
has invented them or when they were created. A famous example is the neonym ordinateur,
created in 1955 at the request of the IBM company by a well known latinist, professor Jacques
Perret. The term ecosistem was proposed in 1935 by the English botanist and ecologist Arthur
Tansley. The above mentioned examples are the happy cases. More frequently, the author of
the terms is unknown, but can be determined, with a more or less precision, the moment of
appearance of a term in a language, by confronting various sources: specialized texts,
manuals, press articles, dictionaries etc.
A special kind of neonyms are product names. The importance of brand terminology
is more and more important nowadays, cf. new terms created by Windows, starting with the
famous window, but also with: (dialogue) room, file, workbook, macro etc.
3. Neosemy. A neologism is not necessary a word or a phrase that is unknown until a
certain moment. A neologism can be an existing word, which is given a new meaning, and
then we observe a semantical neologism or a neosem: virus, pirate or icon in informatics,
personalization in the automotive industry, niche in economy etc.
A living language is a dynamic system. Any word can evolve from a semantic point of
view. A term may exceed a field of application through a more general use, in contexts that
are less specialized. Sometimes the new use can be caused by certain events. Therefore,
before the tragedy in December 2004 from South-East Asia, the usage of the term tsunami
was pretty rare and it was limited exclusively to geology in order to mark a phenomenon or a
natural disaster.
After the tragedy, tsunami is used massively in order to designate major changes. For
example, in the French zone, Coralie Reutenaeur has observed the syntagm tsunami bleu,
referred to the electoral victory of UMP (Union pour un mouvement populaire) at the
parliament elections in 2007, and also tsunami financier, a metaphorical name of the financial
crisis (Reutenaeur 2012). The usage of the term tsunami in the economic field is also
observed in the Romanian language: tsunami financiar, tsunami valutar, tsunami al
creditelor.
The meaning of tsunami in the mentioned contexts is not one of a natural
phenomenon, but that of (financial) crisis or of (devastating) force. So, the semantic
innovation exists if it distinguishes of a well known, traditional meaning.
Semantic neology or neosemy is characterized through the appearance of a new
signified for an existing significant. In linguistics, semantic neology is considered to be a
process, depending of time. In function of the prospects and the objectives of the research,
neosemy can be delimited in a manner which is more or less ample, taking in consideration
the fact that the distribution step which is connected to it varies: from hapax, where the
element of innovation is well marked, but the distribution is not very significant, until a big
number of uses, when the new meaning becomes obvious, but the nature of the innovation is
losing its clarity. Semantic neology is also associated to a feeling of rupture, being perceived
as a gap between an existing meaning and the new significances from the speech (ibid.).
The gap between the known meaning and the new one can be established according to
a linguistic body based on a certain period of time, which, on one hand, will provide data
755
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
regarding the significance before of the semantic evolution , and on the other hand, will allow
the capture of the new meaning given to this new use. Therefore, the news will be described
through the distance between a codified meaning in a source reference, usually a dictionary of
general language, and the uses from the discussional resources stocked in the textual body.
The repeated presence during a period of time and a big amount of uses can confirm the
implantation of a new meaning and can lead to the integration of the semantic change in the
significance of a term.
In terminology, the most frequently used methods of creating neosemes are
specialization or terminologization, semantic transfer, interdisciplinary transfer.
Terminologization is the method through which a word or a phrase from the general
language gets a new specialized meaning, through analogy (report of contiguity) or with the
help of metaphors: mouse (fr. souris), fereastr (fr. fentre, engl. window), bomb logic (fr.
bombe logique, engl. logic bomb), poart (fr. passerelle, engl.gateway), punte (fr. pont, engl.
bridge) in informatics; cma de cilindru (fr. chemise de cylindre, engl. cylinder liner),
piston cu fust despicat (fr. piston a jupe fendue, engl. split-skirt piston), coaj de portocal
(fr. peau d'orange, engl. orange peel), dans al conductoarelor (fr. galop des conducteurs,
engl. conductor galloping) in the technical terminology etc. The process of terminologization
is a generous source of terminology formation.
Semantic transfer is the process through which a term that already exists is used in
order to designate another concept with the help of a logical extension. For example, a term
which designates a concept which is related to a concrete object can be extended to an
abstract object, the name of one part can pe extended, metonymically , naming the whole,
naming one container with the name of its content etc. Thereby, in informatics, engl. screen,
with the concrete meaning of component part of the display where the information is
processed, obtains with the help of metonymy and the abstract meaning of the information
presented of the screen of the computer. In the sports field, metonymy stand at the base of
some meanings that appeared in the language of sports commentators: eleven football team,
three-coloured members of the national team, cap hitting the ball with the help of the
head and so on.
Interdisciplinary loan is regarded to the situation when a term from a field of activity
is assigned to a new concept from another field, these two concepts being connected through
analogy, cf. memory (psychology) capacity of the human brain and memory (informatics)
computers provisional capacity to store information; virus (medicine) pathogen agent that
causes infectious diseases and virus (informatics) an unauthorized program that inserts itself
into a computer system and then propagates itself to other computers via networks or disks;
when activated it interferes with the operation of the computer; segment (geometry) The
portion of a line between any two points on the line and segment (economy) one of the parts
into which something is divided; a division, portion, or section (sales segment, market
segment) etc.
In this context, Theodor Hristea states that words that change their meanings represent
the central theme of the diachronic semantics and one of the fundamental parts of the modern
etymological research (Hristea 1981: 258), but Paul Miclu claims that between the common
language and the specialized languages exist indissoluble relations of complementarity: its
been a very long time since this neverending dispute has started between the specialized and
756
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
the common language; the result is the crystallization of some omonymies or of some
polysemies, this is where we can observe the development of several technical meanings,
along with the current one, thats why the semantic analysis of the specialized languages
will take in consideration every technical and scientific manifestation of a lexeme, leaving
aside the common level, especially the figurative one (Miclu 1981: 68-69).
Bibliography
Adamescu 1938 = Gheorghe Adamescu, Adaptarea la mediu a neologismelor, Bucureti,
Cartea Romneasc, 1938.
Bara 2011 = Mariana Bara, Probleme ale standardizrii terminologiei n limba romn, n:
Colocviul 3T: Terminologie Terminografie Terminotic, Ediia a IX-a, Bucureti, 21-22
septembrie 2010, Bucureti, Editura AGIR, 2011.
Blan Mihailovici 2003 = Aurelia Blan Mihailovici, Noiuni de terminologie: despre viaa
cuvintelor i problemele terminologiei actuale, Bucureti, Oscar Print, 2003.
Bess1992 = Bruno de Bess, Cours de terminologie, Genve, ETI Universit de Genve,
1992.
Boulanger1989 = Jean ClaudeBoulanger, Lvolution du concept de nologie de la
linguistique aux industries de la langue, in: Terminologie diachronique,Paris, CILF, 1989, p.
193-211.
Bouzidi 2010 = Boubakeur Bouzidi, Nologicit et temporalit dans le processus nologique,
in: Synergies Algrie, 2010, n 9,p. 27-36.
Busuioc 2006 = Ileana Busuioc, Despre neologisme i neologie, n: Uniterm, 2006, nr. 4.
http://www.litere.uvt.ro/ vechi/documente_pdf/ aticole/uniterm/uniterm4_2006/ileana_busuioc.pdf
Cabr 1998 = Maria Teresa Cabr, La terminologie. Thorie, mhode et applications, Paris,
Armand Colin, 1998.
Cabr 2002 = Maria Teresa Cabr, La neologia efimera, in: Lxic i neologia, M.T. Cabr, J.
Freixa y E. Sol (eds.), Barcelona, Observatori de Neologia, Institut Universitari de
Lingstica Aplicada, Universitat Pompeu Fabra, 2002, p. 13-28.
Clim 2012 = Marius-Radu Clim, Neologismul n lexicografia romneasc, Iai, Editura
Unversitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza, 2012.
Gaudin 2003 = Franois Gaudin, Socioterminologie. Une approche sociolinguistique de la
terminologie, Bruxelles, De Boeck i Larcier, Editions Duculot, 2003.
Hermans, Vansteelandt 1999 = Adrien Hermans, Andre Vansteelandt, Nologie traductive,
in: Terminologies Nouvelles (Nouveaux outils pour la nologie), 1999, nr. 20, p. 37-43.
Hristea 1981 = Theodor Hristea, Schimbrile semantice i importana lor pentru cercetarea
etimologic, n: Semantic i semiotic (sub redacia acad. I. Coteanu i prof.dr. Lucia Wald),
Bucureti, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1981.
Iordan, Robu 1978 = Iorgu Iordan, Vladimir Robu, Limba romn contemporan, Bucureti,
Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 1978.
Kocourek 1982 = Rostislav Kocourek, La langue franaise de la technique et de la science,
Wiesbaden, Brandsteter, 1982.
757
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Miclu 1981 = Paul Miclu, Dimensiunea semantic a limbajelor de specialitate, n:
Semantic i semiotic (sub redacia acad. I. Coteanu i prof.dr. Lucia Wald), Bucureti,
Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1981.
Mortureux 1997 = Marie-Franoise Mortureux, La lexicologie entre langue et discours, Paris,
Editions Sedes, 1997.
Pavel, Rucreanu 2001 = Eugen Pavel, Costin Rucreanu, Introducere n terminologie,
Bucureti, Editura Academiei Romne & Editura Agir, 2001.
Pruvost, Sablayrolles 2003 = Jean Pruvost, Jean-Franois Sablayrolles, Les neologisms,
Paris, PUF (Que sais-je?), 2003.
Quemada 2007 = Bernard Quemada, Avant-propos, in: Neologica, 2007, nr. 1, p. 6-7.
Reutenaeur 2012 = Coralie Reutenaeur,Vers un traitement automatique de la nosmie:
approche textuelle et statistique. [En ligne], Volume XVII n1 et 2, 2012.
http://www.revue-texto.net/ index.php?id=3046
Rondeau 1984 = Guy Rondeau, Introduction la terminologie (2e dition), Qubec, Gatan
Morin, 1984.
Sablayrolles 2007 = Jean-Franois Sablayrolles, Nomination, dnomination et nologie:
intersection et diffrences symtriques,in: Neologica, 2007, nr. 1, p. 12 (rezumat).
http://www-ldi.univ-paris13.fr/download/ neologica-1.pdf
Vintil-Rdulescu 2006 = Ioana Vintil-Rdulescu, Cuvinte strine n enunuri romneti, n:
Studii de gramatic i de formare a cuvintelor. n memoria Mioarei Avram (coordonator:
acad. M. Sala), Bucureti, Editura Academiei Romne, 2006, p. 442-455.
758
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
SELF-TRANSLATION, COMMUNICATION BRIDGE BETWEEN CULTURES
Irina PETRUC, Assistant Professor, PhD, Apollonia University of Iai
Abstract: When the author of a paper translates his/her own literary work in another
language, he/she might always do some changes of the original work in order to make the
paper better understood in the language translated and to set out a relation, a way of
communication, between the two cultures, through the work of translation. Still, there are
theorists who consider the translated work as a betrayal of the original one, even if the author
is the same and the paper is in the greatest measure the same. We would consider that this is
an aware manner of transforming the text into a way in which two persons from different
cultures would perceive the text and the real intention of the message to be communicated.
Communicating the message of a work in two languages, through translation, the self-
translator would create a bridge between the two cultures.
Keywords: Self-translation, culture, original work, bridge
The Slovak scientist Anton Popovi defined the work of self-translation as being the
translation of an original work into another language by the author himself 1. A self-translated
text is somehow different from a non-authorial translation, as it is the repetition of a process
rather than the reproduction of a product.2 As an author, the self-translator may choose to
make changes to his work throughout the process of translation; he has the opportunity to
review his work and even improve it. On the other hand, as a translator, the self-translator is
most probably attached to the idea of faithfulness to the original. Therefore, the translated text
will usualy be in a great measure faithful to the original, but there will always appear
disparities between the two versions, disparities which can be however seen as a bound of the
two cultures the text is dedicated.
Self-translation has a long history, being a common practice for many centuries.
During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance bi- or multi-lingualism was very common
among scholars, many of them having written in their mother tongue and in Latin and later in
French in order to spread new ideas. The same happens today, when contemporary
researchers use English as a working language, or many scientists write their works in two
languages, the main purpose being the circulation of knowledge. Therefore we can see that
self-translation continues to be widespread.
There are many reasons for which authors can decide to translate their work. Wars or
other conflicts determined some writers to leave their own country and to live in exile where
they acquired a new language, a new different culture and in the end they started to write in
that language. Other writers live in a multi-lingual culture and write in two or even more
different
1
Popovi, Anton (1976), Dictionary for the Analysis of Literary Translation. Edmonton: Department of
Comparative Literature, University of Alberta, p. 19
2
Wilson, Rita (2009), The Writers Double: Translation, Writing, and Autobiography. Romance Studies 7,
p.186
759
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
languages. Others, like the Nobel Prize winning poet Joseph Brodsky, decide to
translate their work because they are not satisfied with the translations done by normal
translators. The self-translator being the author of the work to be translated, unlike a
normal translator, he will not have a different interpretation of this work than his own. Still
others do self-translation simply because they know another language/s, and sometimes this
can become the way in which they write.
Self-translation is associated more with bilingualism and less with literature or
translation. Hokenson and Munson3 consider there are at least two reasons for this: the first is
that translations (being included here self-translations also) have been seen most often as
being inferior to the original texts, because of the try to preserve the linguistic purity of a
particular language. Another reason concerns conceptual problems of applying to self-
translations the usual concepts of author and translator, original and interpretation. Self-
translations complicate notions of authorship, originality and equivalence. Still, self
translation is undoubtedly a form of translation and it is important to translation studies to be
researched as such.
The process of self-translation very often goes hand in hand with the problematization
of identities. We can consider it a dual linguistic identity. In the research of self-translation,
the focus is also on the side of bilingualism and the cultural identity that each language gives
to the author. Usually, the bilingual author will see each language as a different part of
himself, when switching from one language to the other many times presenting the reader a
different point of view. If the self-translation will be done after a first version of the text was
written in the mother tongue, the author will not only be constrained to write the text from
another perspective, but he also has to translate, so to rethink his own thoughts.
Unconsciously, the self-translators work relates simultaneously to two cultures, creating a
communication bridge between them. The author who translates his work in another language
will not only be a bilingual but also a bicultural person, he will translate a culture into
another, not only a text into another, so that, in the end, he would be able to achieve a cross-
cultural understanding. To the reader who knows both languages, of the original and of the
translation, the friction between the two versions of the text makes the self available in a way
that other sorts of translations dont.
There can be differentiated two types of self-translation. The first takes place after the
original was written. The author/self- translator has his work in a language and he decides,
immediately after it is finished or even years later, to translate it into one or more other
languages. The second type of self-translation is when the author/self-translator writes the
both versions in the same time. In this process, one language can influence the other, this way
giving the writer the opportunity to see things from a different point of view and to
reconsiderate aspects which in one language can be significant but in another language not to
have revelance. Considering this type of self-translation, it becomes even more uncertain
which is the original version and which is the translated one. As Wilson 4 underlines, none of
the two versions can be considered as being the original text or both versions can. An example
in this way is Un autre dans le miroir (Traduction et auto-traduction)- Jean-Yves Casanova,
3
Hokenson, Jan, Marcella Munson. 2007. The Bilingual Text. Manchester: St. Jerome, p.12
4
Wilson, Rita (2009), The Writers Double: Translation, Writing, and Autobiography. Romance Studies 7, p.
190
760
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Catalan-French-Occitan self-translator, explains that having written each poem, he has written
also the French version and many times had to go back to the original text and to modify the
content and the form. It was a continuous process of changes so that in the end he wasnt able
to say in which language he had written his poems qualified as self-translated products.5
Comparative studies between self-translation and normal translation that have been
realized so far (Mavrodin 2007: 51-56) or between first texts and self-translated texts
(Ehrlich 2009; Miclu 2007: 41-47 etc.) most often come to the same conclusion: the self-
translator is doubtlessly a translator, using the same translation methods and strategies but in
the same time is an author who is recreating his work. Therefore, the distinction between the
original and its translation is many times unclear.
The works of self-translators and of bilingual authors are most of the time studied in
only one of the two languages and in only one of the two cultures. A consequence of this is
that, a significant dimension of these works is unexplored without considering that the auto-
translation could be seen as a mediation between two cultures. The remark made by Nicola
Doone Danby on this is very significant: Each version of the text is valid, and should be
included in the readers appreciation and interpretation of the work, since they are both
produced by the original author.6
There are theorists who are in favor of self-translation and others who are against it.
The first sustain that the writer is the best translator7, he knowing the best what he wants to
transmit to the readers. Georges Steiner, in his famous work After Babel: Aspects of
Language and Translation states that the best translator will be one who has consciously
gained fluency in his second tongue. The bilingual person does not see the difficulties, the
frontier between the two languages is not sharp enough in his mind. 8 The opponents of self-
translation pretend the opposite. According to Paul Valry, the author has no special
authority (Valry 1971: 93 in Whyte 2002: 68) 9. Whyte, following Valry, claims that the
person least qualified to translate any poem is the person who wrote it and there is,
according to Whyte, no better criticism than translation 10.
In conclusion we can say that translation and self-translation have not many
differences, both of them involving transforming source text into the target text. The translator
has to mediate between the two versions so as to maintain the purpose of the translation
action, he must know and understand not only the two languages but also their cultures. The
mediation and the keeping of the aim of the original work may involve important changes
during translation. But, while the translator may be blamed if the content of the original is not
fully respected, the self-translator may be exemptied of this criticism.
Research on self-translation can bring a better understanding of translation in general.
Self-translation is a form of translation, but there are important and interesting differences.
5
Boyacioglu, Nisan (2009), Auto-traductions franaises dans la littrature armnienne de diaspora (vol. 1).
Paris: INALCO, p. 26
6
Danby, Nicola Doone (2003), The space between: Self-translators Nancy Huston and Samuel Beckett. Masters
thesis, York University, pp. 10-11.
7
Lpez Gay, Patricia, Natalia Novosilzov, Helena Tanqueiro and Francesc Parcerisas Vzquez. 2007.
Lautotraduction litraire comme domaine de recherch. Atier de Traduction 7: 92
8
Steiner, Georges (1998), After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation. Oxford University Press, p. 125.
9
Whyte, Christopher. 2002. Against Self-Translation. Translation and Literature 11: 68
10
Idem, p. 69
761
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Since the late 1990s, researchers have tried to comprise similitudes and differences between
translation and self-translation, but it is still a lot to be learned. Finding out more about self-
translation will bring benefits to other fields of research as well and it may also reveal from
the differences between cultures, hierarchies between a cultures dominant language and
other, less spoken languages and so on. The disparities between the two cultures determine
the author-translator to make changes in the work in order to minimize them. What has been
carefully chosen in one version is in purpose overlooked or altered in the other one.
Bibliography
Danby, Nicola Doone (2003), The space between: Self-translators Nancy Huston and Samuel
Beckett. Masters thesis, York University.
Ehrlich, Shlomit. 2009. Are self-translators like other translators? Perspectives: Studies in
Translatology 17: 243-255. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09076760903404050 Accessed
September 2013.
Grutman, Rainer (1998), Auto-translation. In: M. Baker (Ed.), Routledge Encyclopedia of
Translation Studies. London: Routledge.
Hokenson, Jan, Marcella Munson (2007). The Bilingual Text. Manchester: St. Jerome
Lpez Gay, Patricia, Natalia Novosilzov, Helena Tanqueiro and Francesc Parcerisas Vzquez.
2007. Lautotraduction litraire comme domaine de recherch. Atier de Traduction 7: 91-
100.
http://www.atelierdetraduction.usv.ro/ro/revista/REVISTA%207.pdf Accessed March 2012.
Mavrodin, I (2007). Lautotraduction: une oeuvre nonsimulacre. Atelier de Traduction 7:
51-56.
http://www.atelierdetraduction.usv.ro/ro/revista/REVISTA%207.pdf Accessed July
2013.
Miclu, Paul. 2007. Lautotraduction de lautofiction comme retour ltre. Atelier de
Traduction7: 41-47.
http://www.atelierdetraduction.usv.ro/ro/revista/REVISTA%207.pdf Accessed July 2013.
Popovi, Anton (1976), Dictionary for the Analysis of Literary Translation. Edmonton:
Department of Comparative Literature, University of Alberta.
Steiner, Georges (1998), After Babel: Aspects of Language and Translation. Oxford
University Press.
Wilson, Rita (2009), The Writers Double: Translation, Writing, and Autobiography.
Romance Studies 7
Whyte, Christopher (2002) Against Self-Translation. Translation and Literature 11: 64-71
762
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
COSMOPOLITANISM AND NATIONALISM IN SOVIET DISSIDENCE:
SAKHAROV VERSUS SOLZHENITSYN
Laura CIUBOTARAU PRICOP, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai
Abstract: To what extent, in a totalitarian regime imposed and maintained by terror, torture,
starvation, class hatred, fear can be born and act a free, cosmopolitan consciousness? What
form would these actions have, which would be their level of validity, applicability? Can the
results of these actions be recovered from a current perspective of cosmopolitan theories?
Devious, expired questions lapsed into a world where communism was almost overcome and
detached by every thematization. In this paper, I will try to answer these questions through an
analysis of the context and form actions (dissenting), although their restructuring in order to
understand and justify them.
In this context, the dissident action coincides to some extent with what Jhon Rawls meant by
civil disobedience and conscientious objection as a form of non-violent action on the edge of
fidelity to the law and against the official system. Emerging ideas at the surface that led to
the dissident actions of Andrei D. Sakharov, physicist and Nobel Prize Laureate for Peace
(1975), the type of actions and their results would be an important step within the present
approach by analogy with the dissident work of Alexander Solzhenitsyn, Nobel Prize Laureate
for Literature (1970). Sakharov - Solzhenitsyn parallel plays the role of a differentiator in the
paper economy, unequivocally indicating how the same contexts, performing the same kind of
actions with roughly similar results are founded on diametrically opposed values:
cosmopolitan - nationalist.
Finally I will try to say what elements of cosmopolitan theories of moral origin are to be
found in the writings of Sakharov and Solzhenitsyn intended to be integrated and used. At this
point, I will try to highlight at least two elements defining Sakharovs thought in connection
with the cosmopolitan theories: on the one hand, Sakharov believed that the ideology of
human rights is a solid basis to unite people regardless of nationality, political beliefs,
religion, and social status. On the other hand, at a higher socio-human level, Sakharov sees
the possibility of reconciling the existence of a relationship of convergence between the
developed societies based on different political and economic principles, actually the
convergence between capitalist and communist societies. Both assumptions, as I will argue,
can complete or especially validate some elements of cosmopolitan theories just by their
practicality.
Keywords: dissident action, convergence, cosmopolitan theories, communism, human rights,
Sakharov, Solzhenitsyn
To what extent, in a totalitarian regime imposed and maintained by terror, torture,
starvation, class hatred, fear can be born and act a free, cosmopolitan consciousness? What
form would these actions have, which would be their level of validity, applicability? Can the
results of these actions be recovered from a current perspective of cosmopolitan theories?
Devious, expired questions lapsed into a world where communism was almost overcome and
detached by every thematization. In this section, I will try to answer these questions through
763
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
an analysis of the context and form actions (dissenting), although their restructuring in order
to understand and justify them.
In this context, the dissident action coincides to some extent with what Jhon Rawls
meant by civil disobedience 1 and conscientious objection as a form of non-violent action on
the edge of fidelity to the law and against the official system. The proposed analogy assumes
a certain consistency by simplifying Rawls theory: the civil disobedience meaning public
discourse directed against the communist system, the speech of the Russian intelligentsia 2
both in samizdat 3 and in the international media. The conscientious objection might be seen as
a non-public thinking, manifested by non-involvement, nonparticipation or spontaneous
reactions. The acts of civil disobedience and conscientious objection, as dissident
manifestations in the Communist Russia 4, were given an indirect materiality through
legislation, the famous Article 190 - 1 in 1966 of the RSFSR5 Penal Code, which anticipated
the imprisonment up to three years or corrective labor for a term of one year or a fine in
money: spreading false information knowingly slandering the Soviet state and social system
and, equally, the preparation and dissemination of written, printed or other kind of works with
the same content.6 Sakharov called those sentenced to imprisonment, according to this
article, prisoners of conscience 7, designating by this, according to Amnesty International,
those deprived of liberty for their beliefs, nonconformity, nonviolent actions consistent with
these beliefs, people who do not practice or instigate to violence. Emerging ideas at the
surface that led to the dissident actions of Andrei D. Sakharov, physicist and Nobel Prize
1
John Rawls defines civil disobedience under certain conditions that would give the possibility that these actions
to manifest. From Rawls point of view civil disobedience actions appear in those societies that are mostly well
ordered for the most part but in which some serious violations of justice nevertheless do occur or in a
democratic state for those citizens who recognize and accept the legitimacy of the Constitution. Although
Rawls states that the theory does not apply to other forms of government or other forms of dissent or resistance,
however, it accepts the possibility of contingencies. From this the possible analogy with the performed dissident
actions of Sakharov in a totalitarian regime derives. (John Rawls, A Theory of Justice, The Belknap Press of
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1999, p. 319.)
2
According to Berdyaev, the Russian intelligentsia does not represent the intellectuals, but an entirely different
group; and to it may belong people occupied in no intellectual work, and generally speaking not particularly
intellectual. Many Russian scholars and writers certainly could not be reckoned as belonging to the intelligentsia
in the strict sense of the word. (...) Our intelligentsia were a group formed out of various social classes and held
together by ideas, not by sharing a common profession or economic status. They were derived to begin with
mainly from the more cultured section of the nobility, later from the sons of the clergy, small government
officials, the lower middle class, and after the liberation, from the peasants. That then is the intelligentsia; its
members were of different social classes, and held together solely ideas, and, moreover, by ideas about
sociology. In the second half of the nineteenth century the stratum of society which is simply called cultured is
developed into a new type and is given the name intelligentsia. This type has its characteristic traits which
belong to all its present representatives. Nikolai Berdyaev, The Origin of Russian Communism, translated from
the Russian by R.M.French , Published by G.Bles, London, 1948, pp. 18-19.
3
Independent publication samostoiatelnoe izdanie a way of clandestine movement of the prohibited writings
provided in Soviet censorship.
4
The recent research highlight, especially after the opening of KGB archives (State Security Committee -
Komitet gosudarstvennoe bezopasnosti) two types of dissent on the one hand an intellectual dissent and on
the other hand, a popular criticism of the regime that is manifested by spontaneous reaction to some irritation
or event. Vladi Kozolov, A. Fitzpatrick, Sheila Mironenko, V. Sergei, Everyday Resistance in the Soviet Union
under Khrushchev and Brezhnev, Yale University, 2011, p. 43.
5
RSFSR - short for Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic.
6
RSFSR, Editura Iuridiceskaia, Moskva, 1971, apud., Andrei D. Sakharov, Vospominaniya, Vol.I., Vremya,
Moskva, 2006, p 586.
7
Andrei D. Sakharov, Vospominaniya, Vol.II., p.276.
764
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Laureate for Peace (1975), the type of actions and their results would be an important step
within the present approach by analogy with the dissident work of Alexander Solzhenitsyn,
Nobel Prize Laureate for Literature (1970). Sakharov - Solzhenitsyn parallel plays the role of
a differentiator in the paper economy, unequivocally indicating how the same contexts,
performing the same kind of actions with roughly similar results are founded on diametrically
opposed values: cosmopolitan - nationalist.
Finally I will try to say what elements of cosmopolitan theories of moral origin are to
be found in the writings of Sakharov and Solzhenitsyn intended to be integrated and used. At
this point, I will try to highlight at least two elements defining Sakharovs thought in
connection with the cosmopolitan theories: on the one hand, Sakharov believed that the
ideology of human rights is a solid basis to unite people regardless of nationality, political
beliefs, religion, and social status. On the other hand, at a higher socio-human level, Sakharov
sees the possibility of reconciling the existence of a relationship of convergence between the
developed societies based on different political and economic principles, actually the
convergence between capitalist and communist societies 8. Both assumptions, as I will argue,
can complete or especially validate some elements of cosmopolitan theories just by their
practicality.
Memory as Dissent Action
The recomposition of a social, cultural, ideologic, political context and of the general
actions generated by the individuals, communities, based only on Sakharov - Solzhenitsyn
parallel would seem, at first glance, a fall in sophistry - hasty generalization9. But looking
from the perspective of cosmopolitan theories, this exercise becomes legal as long as each
person acting in ways that have an impact on other10 and the result of this enterprise would
make visible, as a fabric, two distinct points generated by the same common place memory
that sometimes interacts, sometimes distances or even disappears. Places of memory were
formed in case of Sakharov from different reasons: the memoirs seen as an important part of
the mankind memory, writing the truth about itself as memories free of any constraints of the
world of science, from the objective world11 from the dissidents life and simply from life12.
8
Ideas developed by Sakharov in, Progress, Coexistence, And Intellectual Freedom, The New York Times
Company, 1968.
9
S. Moris Engel, With Good Reason: An Introduction to Informal Fallacies, St. Martins Press, New Work,
1976, p.69.
10
David Miller, Cosmopolitanism: A Critique, CRISPP, Vol.3, Nr.3 (Autumn 2002), p. 83.
11
What Sakharov calls objective in this context is nothing more than an industrial structure / research /
intellectual labor camps where the Russian scientist was isolated, along with other researchers from 1950 to
1968, the period in which he worked on nuclear fusion bomb project and then test it. Sakharov devotes an
objective chapter 6 in , Vospominaniya, p.56. Sakharov describes it as a prison: Suddenly the car suddenly
hindered. In front of us was the area two rows of barbed wire on tall pillars, each a strip of plowed earth. For
his part, but from the perspective of a convict labor camp, Gulag Archipelago Solzhenitsyn describes, the
charachki - intellectual labor camps: Il est lgende, de temps autre, on entend conter dans les camps, rumeur
sourde qui ne mrite acune crance et que personne na jamais confirme: quelque part dans lArchipel, il
existerait de minuscules les du Paradis. Nul ne les a vues, nul ny a s journ ou qui la fait se tait, bouche
couse. Ces les, ce quon dit, sont arrosss de fleuves de lait coulant entre deux rives de confiture, la nourriture
ny descend jamais plus bas que la crme et les ufs; elles sont, dit-on, tout ce quil y a de propre, il y fait
toujours chaud, le travail y est de nature intellectuelle et archisecret. Et ce fut prcisment dans ces les
paradisiaques (dans la langue des camps des bahuts, des charachki) que je me retrouvai, mi-temps de ma
peine. Cest elle que je dois d tre rest en vie: dans les camps, je naurais jamais dur jusquau bout.
765
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
In case of Solzhenitsyn, memoirs is seen as a secondary literature 13 placed definitely lower
than literature - literature14 and the act of writing as a form of personal memory preservation
is essential to the whole community and it is directed against secrecy: I write only not to
forget anything, so as the followers to take note of all that was. (...) I hasten to write as
smaller and when several sheets were gathering, I was rolling them and the tubules thus
obtained I was stuffing them in a glass of champagne, it has a wider neck. I buried the bottle
in my garden and during the New Years Eve of 1954, I left to die in Tashkent. But I did not
die. (...) Ever since, I live my life as a returned good 15. This primary, common and discursive
basis, provides the necessary tools for referral moments of evolution, stagnation, regression of
speeches, performances dissenting shares the same political context through the same means
of two greats Russian dissidents: Andrei Sakharov and Alexander Solzhenitsyn.
Solzhenitsyn Against the Communist Society
That Alexandr Solzhenitsyn attaches a special importance to its opposition movement
(not only to the books that he writes, or to their indisputable anticommunist meaning) proves
that he writes The Calf and the Oak, to which he returns several times, completing each time,
taking care not to expose those who helped him, conspirative episodes related to his work
as an illegal writer. The title, The Calf and the Oak sends to a Russian proverb, the calf thinks
to move the oak from its place; following this burden a problem occurs with the bulls horns.
The authors hope is, however, undoubtly, that this opposition completely uneven, will
ultimately, have an effect...
In what concerns his work, Solzhenitsyn is not only aware that it is illegal, opposing
the official state policy of Communist Russia, but he develops from his opposition a rigorous
program, he establishes rules, techniques, strategies of conspiracy. He sees himself like an
activist with an important mission that must take his action to the end. He really does his job
as a conspirator, gingerly, coupled with perfect conscientiousness.
It can be said that, in his case, the writer fulfills his mission as a novelist which
pursues as a writer clear anti-totalitarian and anticommunist objectives on the one hand, to
which on the other hand, being added a conspiracy pro in a good Russian tradition, working
systematically against the state structure that he is forced to live, which would have never left,
because, by his action, he wanted to destroy it. Of course, in another distant and confusing
background, there is also a future project, a structure recognized, in everything he does, as
utopian and unlikely. Its action focuses on the phase destruction of the society amidst he
exactly lives on this purpose.
Alexandre Soljenitsyne, Larchipel du Goulag, Tome 4 des uvres compltes. Edition nouvelle revue et
augmente par lauteur, Traduction entirement rvise par Genevive Johannet, Fayard, 1973, p. 636.
12
Andrei Sakharov, Vospominaniya, Vol. I, p.3. (In his Memoirs Sakharov recalls that during his exile in
Gorky, whenever he had to leave the house, the theme that KGB would take the manuscript memoirs, which
actually came true for three times, each time he carried them with him. They had come to weigh in around 10
kg., more than a metaphysical burden.)
13
Alexandr Solzhenitsyn, Bodalsya telyonok s dubon. Ocherki literaturnoy zhizni /The Calf and The Oak. Notes
of the literary life, Novy Mir, 1991, Nr. 6, p.6.
14
Ibidem.
15
Ibidem, p.8.
766
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The Calf and the Oak is therefore dedicated to the side of the Russian conspirator,
when he operated against the communist society which he was included. The trajectory of his
life, how he arrived at that position are known. Let us just stop to a few significant
details. Solzhenitsyn was born in December 1918 in Russia so his life is fully framed during
the communist era, he is a product of the communist society, a society systematically
violated basic political right like the freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, and freedom of
religion16. Like so many other Russians of his age he is enrolled in the army and fights in the
Second World War. Since his twenty years, his education and life experience are due to the
Red Army community. At the age of 27, he is arrested in 1945 because he would have
criticized Stalin17 in a letter. He is sent to the camp for eight years, followed by three years of
exile. From 1956 he sets at Ryazan, where he teaches Maths. In 1956 the publication with the
help of Tvardovski in Novi Mirof A Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich brings his celebrity
and, from that moment, his career as a writer started that opposes to the communist regime,
which is in conflict with the authorities, who sends his writings to samizdat and then to
foreign publishers, in a word, his career as an anti-communist militant. In 1970 he is awarded
the Nobel Prize for literature he does not go to Stockholm to be awarded, for fear that he
will not be received again in the USSR when he returns. When in 1973 the first volume of The
Gulag Archipelago is released he begins to be heavily contested in his country. On February
12, 1974 he is immediately arrested and expelled from the USSR. From these biographical
data it appears that Solzhenitsyn never occupied any important place in the Soviet society, he
was never a privileged of it, and much less that he would have any role in the party that
oppressed the Soviets. He did not turn, for some reason, against social mechanisms that he
was part of. He constantly felt as an opponent, a representative of those among whom was a
part of the oppressed, former prisoners, persecuted by the regime and others. In front of him
stands the social power that suppresses, and the destiny of his life is to fight against this
power, to beware of its actions and to express as a writer so as to strike.
His main instrument is the word art. Solzhenitsyn makes no overarching aesthetic
fiction. He surely hopes that among the lines he writes to have a literary value but
somewhere he meditates on the writers condition that prepares his book in private. Although
he is a writer he will use the power of words to strike the social structure that seeks to
destroy. Writing ten to twelve years in an absolute isolation, you unnoticed lose, the sense of
proportion, you start to be too lenient with yourself and simply not to notice that such tirade is
16
Bolton, Jonathan, Worlds of Dissent: Charter 77, The Plastic People of the Universe, and Czech Culture under
Communism, Harvard University Press, 2012, p. 30.
17
The episode of his own arresting is sparingly sketched in Larchipel du Goulag, Tome 4 p.31. "Le
commandand de brigade mavait convoqu son PC. Il me demanda, je ne sais plus sous quel prtexte, mon
pistolet, et je lui remis sans souponner la moindre perfidie, soudain, de la suite dofficiers qui, tendue,
immobile, se tenait dans un coin, se dtachrent rapidemant deux agents du contre-espionnage qui traversrent
en quelques bond la pice et, magrippant du mme geste de leurs quatre mains par ltoile de ma chapka, par
mes paulettes, mon ceinturon et ma sacoche, scrirent dun ton dramatique: vous tes arrt ! Brule,
transperc de la tte aux pieds je ne trouvai rien de plus intelligent dire que: Moi ? Pourquoi ?
The control station volunteer called me, he asked me the gun, I do not know why, and I gave him, without
suspecting any treachery, and suddenly from the tense suite of the officers who had stood still in a corner, two
counterintelligence agents were drawing; as they would have jumped, they crossed the room, grabbing me with
their four hands by the stars from the hat, the epaulettes, belt, the porhart, they cried in a dramatic tone: You are
under arrest! And scorched, and pierced from head to foot, I did not find something more intelligent to say than:
Me? For what?...
767
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
too shrill, that a certain exclamation is grandiloquent that, finding no other fair point in that
passage you put a platitude.18
Whatever the problems of the illegal writer would be, his work is not in vain, its in a
community. ... and then I lived all those years of practicing writing in the underground with
the conviction that I was not the only one who is restrained and resort to tricks; that we were a
few tens of that kind, solitary natures, stubborn and closed, widespread throughout Russia,
writing each as his soul and conscience dictate about what he knows about our time and what
is the capital truth.19 Their idea is to expose the truth as is at risk to remain
undisclosed. And there is still hope. But the day will come (...) and thus our great literature
will revive that we have shoved it into the abyss. I still did not think that literature can
initiate and provoke the overthrow of a society (though, wasnt what the Russian history
proved us?!). I thought that the society will have, of different reasons, a shock and it will even
renew, that a fault will occur, a gap of freedom, and soon our underground literature will
come in action to express to the troubled and bewildered minds why everything was fatal so
as to happened as it was, and how does that beginning with 1917 everything constantly twists
and twists.20
The covert activity, inevitably waged about this literary aspect thus becomes an
important component of its overall activity. In The Calf and the Oak the clandestine issues
move to the forefront. The disclosures that he makes must protect those in danger. Moreover,
ultimately these two volumes are largely a manual of illegal / dissent activity. Each person in
the Russian part of the employees is judged from this point of view. Each has strengths and
weaknesses for the clandestine specific. Who has too much knowledge is not necessarily
recommended for this kind of activity. Solzhenitsyn accurately describes a sequence of illegal
camouflage actions21, with hours at which the action can take place, with the seat in the bus,
with the technique of detecting the queues and others. Elsewhere he tells us the lesson he
had received from another former prisoner, who was in deportation, who teaches the art of
concealing the manuscripts in the walls of some cardboard boxes. Everything is made with
such mastery that the hideout resists after several years.
Certainly, not everything always comes out great. Sometimes people considered to be
trustworthy are not at all to be trusted and are in turn imprudent. This is really what happened
to the one of whom he assigned the entire archive. In his turn, he lends a volume to a dubious
person and as a card game, the entire archive falls into the hands of the KGB. Solzhenitsyn
himself is not free of surprises. One of his most dependable collaborators in Petersburg falls
into the hands of the secret police and immediately afterwards she dies. Killed? Suicidal
death?
Much of the writers collaborators are women that help him with typing after which
the volumes are assigned to the samizdat, he puts manuscripts where needed or fail to remove
them abroad. But sometimes the closest collaborators have opinions, sometimes even
contradictory opinions. Liusa, one of the most faithful women to the novelist and one of the
18
Alexandr Solzhenitsyn, Bodalsya telyonok s dubon. Ocherki literaturnoy zhizni/ The Calf and the Oak, Notes
from literary life, Nr. 6, p. 12.
19
Ibidem, p. 11.
20
Ibidem.
21
Idem, Nr. 11, p. 139.
768
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
most trusted without personal reactions, reveals her political choices when she asks him, in
February 1972, to type the letter to the Patriarch. In that letter (before Solzhenitsyn addressed
other letters of effect to the Writers Union leadership or the leadership of the Communist
Party) the author invites the orthodoxy to participate in real life with all its religious
system.22 Even the writer acknowledges the betrayed supporters reasoning: This really was
ironically, that the educated people could not accept so much Orthodoxy.23 With the
approach of Orthodoxy Solzhenitsyn notes that he lost much of his supporters - who kindly
saw the Orthodox Church. in my favor there was still a slim consistent minority across
new social strata and the new generation. 24 Therefore, around Solzhenitsyn a strong
opposition raises to the intention to involve the church in fighting against the power 25. His
collaborator was ...my monologue against my unimaginably shameful orthodox patriotic
orientation, from the depths 26. It is an important point during Solzhenitsyns resistance
movement, one in which he thinks he can lead the resistance movement to the Russian
Orthodox Church. At this point it appears that the anti-totalitarian movement that he was very
involved in was one secular, unrelated to orthodox ideas. With that letter to Patriarch Pimen
and the way he was approaching the national issue in the description of the World War I, on
August 14, a restructuring among Solzhenitsyns supporters occur, a situation that is fully
conscious. With this letter, nay, even in August, a process of division among my readers
begins, I begin to perish some of the followers and those that remain with me are less than
those who left me. They were praising me as long as the appearances reinforced the belief that
I was only against Stalins abuses; in that moment the whole society was with me. And the
author explains why the public had been deceived by his behavior, leaving him when he
leaked the options. In my early writings I masked against police censorship, but through it,
against the public, too. The actions that were following to be taken by me, I must necessarily
discover myself: it was time to speak more loudly and to go to an increasingly higher
depth. And to do so, it was inevitable to lose my readership, to lose my contemporaries,
putting my hope in their offspring. 27
It is a moment that was, apparently, less emphasized, although decisive to define the
dissident Solzhenitsyn. Is the fact that it proves that his supporters were in the opposition
movement against the communist not for the aesthetic value his writings, nor for a patriotic
and Orthodox line. Those who supported him were the communist regime opponents from a
civic position of direct political opposition; the author hopes that his reveals orthodox and
nationalist position to have an impact over ... the next generation.
22
Idem, Nr.12, p. 18.
23
Ibidem.
24
Ibidem.
25
The communist morality in Lenins version, as Philip Boobbyer noticed, (Conscience, Dissent and Reform in
Soviet Russia, Routledge, 2005, pp. 26-27.) although it is derived from the struggle for the consolidation of
communism, defends religious freedom, at a certain level, by the Constitution of 1918, although religion is a
traditionally Marxist tool by which the exploiting class kept the proletariat in a passive state in which they
could continue to be exploited.
26
Alexandr Solzhenitsyn, Bodalsya telyonok s dubon. Ocherki literaturnoy zhizni/ The Calf and the Oak, Notes
from literary life, Nr.12, p.20.
27
Idem, Nr.8, p.27.
769
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Solzhenitsyn Against The Shattered World
Is tracking how this eminently Russian position acts after the expulsion of
Solzhenitsyn. This may be the explanation for the writers attitude on the West. Two years
after he settled in Vermont, United States, he is invited to take the floor at the end of year
meeting of Harvard University. The invitation coincided with the desire to manifest, to
publicly and direct act, on his contemporaries. He prepares his speech, which will be
mentioned after June 8, 1978, when it will support, as Solzhenitsyns speech at Harvard
(although the author had given the title of The Shattered World).
This speech aroused much controversy and it positioned Solzhenitsyn among the most
obstinate anti-Western. The Western media was directly attacked in speech. Later there were
also voices that sustained the Russian outlaws submissions. The commentators of this speech
were polarized to extremes, either opposing to that one who exhibited the defects of the
Western world or accepting certain Western defects reported in his speech. In reality this
manifestation of the Soviet opponent is directly related to what Solzhenitsyn began to reveal
the last part of his opposition in Russia. Some of the authors observations reveal facts and
putting them out would not have aroused such indignation. The speech is a mixture of
empirical observations about the Western way of life and the theoretical hints of completely
different importance. It could be an incidental comment on finding the decline of Westerners
statesmens courage in each country and the UN. That one who consistently reviews the
international political events may notice this without problems. In general, important
decisions, especially those concerning other countries are taken cautiously by the Western
leaders leading, when these decisions are taken, however, to large and very large
delays. This was the also the case in what concerns the UN, not once criticized for
inertia. This is not necessarily courage, but of those, often limited possibilities that lead to
involve the state they represent. The initiative and at the same time the ability to convince at
the level of such great institutional bodies such modern states is generally poor. In change,
courageous attitudes toward the weak, the small, economically dependent states, with the
powerful ones afford gestures of arrogance are known. Another observation is related to
social psychology. People living in the West live in certainty and this leads to an increase
ambition, to want to accumulate more. Consumerism is ultimately a sign of social success,
hence some emulation. But Solzhenitsyn was witnessing an episode of wellbeing. Nowadays,
Westerners anxieties go mainly to job security, finding a job, pensions and so on. Another
limitation would be a spirit of the laws, of the whole dominating social attitude. The
observations in this regard are meaningless. The compliance with laws cannot only be a
boon. Discussions held in these companies look the wrong way in which the laws are applied,
and in recent democracies (but not only) the issue regarding the laws is corruption.
Rational Cosmopolitanism in Sakharov Dissenting Actions
Andrei Sakharov recognize that at the basis of its cosmopolitan thought, seen rather as
a free conscience, social, economic, ideological and moral elements that have been developed
in the area of family relationships and upbringing are interwoven: living in another era than
my parents, in other circumstances, with a different philosophy and financial situation, with a
new biography, I became more cosmopolitan, more global, more active in the social life than
770
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
my parents. But I am deeply grateful to them that they gave me the necessary starting point to
become so.28 As for Solzhenitsyn, the individual conscience seems to be sealed in a limited
space and communist ideology, this idea seems to outline through the main character (Nerjin)
from the novel Love Revolution!, which was lucky to live ...in the best country. A country
that had passed all the crises in history, and it was already held by the basic principles of the
scientific thinking and social justice. This fact was exempting his mind and consciousness of
the need to defend the miserable and humiliated because they were not unhappy and
humiliated. It was the best country to be born in it for a man thirsty for knowledge. (...) All
their generation was born to lead the revolution of the Earths sixth part to that of the whole
earth.29 Although this book was first published in 1999, Solzhenitsyn began to write more in
1940, while he was in the concentration camp, the shadow of nationalism; in this early stage it
is easily felt. What appears at the surface is that conscience reassured by the ideology of the
party, channeled in one direction: the theoretical research, ripped, separated from the social
dimension. This fragment, in case of Sakharov Solzhenitsyns analogy becomes
symptomatic. Sakharov, in turn goes through a period of nearly 20 years (1948 -1968) in
which he only dedicates to his research and sees in the Soviet state that kind of prototype
(though imperfect) for all countries (even in so strong is the ideology of mass). 30 From this
unemployed peaceful social conscience, Sakharov reaches the consciousness able to judge
them from a broader, more balanced perspectives backed by what he calls in this context, the
theory of symmetry: I started later to watch our state on an equal footing with the other -
they all just have shortcomings (...). It is what the theory of symmetry may be called. All
governments and regimes are in first approximation bad, all the people are oppressed, all are
threatened by the same dangers 31. This step, in terms of Rawls, conscientious objection can
be considered as a preparatory one for the actual dissenting actions. Sakharov will overcome
this stage and will reject the delicate but plausible balance that seemed to exist between states:
...during my dissent I came to the conclusion that the theory of symmetry must be
clarified. We cannot speak of symmetry between the cancer cell and the normal one. And our
state is like a cancer cell with the annihilation of the totalitarian and unorthodox opinions with
an authoritarian power structure, which lacks full control of the most important decisions on
the adoption of domestic and foreign policy; a closed state without informing citizens on
key issues closed to the outside world, without the freedom of movement and exchange of
information.32 The year 1964 becomes for Sakharov that moment of openness to the world,
extremely important, it is the year in which he starts his dissident shares appointed by
Sakharov in his memoirs as the first time that I took a stand outside the specialization 33. In
fact it is about editing, signing a letter to Khrushchev 34 in which the author defends the song
28
Sakharov, Vespominanyai/Memoirs, Vol. I, p. 64.
29
Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Iubete revoluia/Love Revolution, Editura Art, 2012, p.39.
30
Sakharov, Vospominanya/Memoirs, Vol.I, p. 363.
31
Ibidem, pp. 363 - 364.
32
Ibidem, p. 364.
33
Ibidem, p. 440.
34
Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (1894 -1971). Since 1953 till 1964 First Secretary of the Communist Party of
the Soviet Union in the period 1958 -1964 the function of prime minister of the USSR. During the Twentieth
Congress of the CPSU, Khrushchev denounces the secret report by the cult of personality of Stalin and accuses
him of crimes during the Great Purges of 36-39. In 1964 he was dismissed by conservatives in DC.
771
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Guests - Zosin being found in a full media scandal. The result of the intervention is null, he
receives from Khrushchev an official elusive reply35 It should be noted that in his memoirs,
Sakharov makes the difference between his contesting attitudes as a scientist, nuclear
physicist and his dissident, supportive attitudes in front of the oppressive apparatus of
individuals or groups. Attitudes of appeal within the specialization began after 1953, i.e.
after the time of the hydrogen bomb invention, with tests carried out on the ground or in the
air. The effects arising from testing put Sakharov in front of some moral realities that he could
not ignore them, the more so as these effects derived from a purely mathematical calculation:
The number of injury cases is determined by the product of the irradiation dose and the
number of persons subjected to the radiation. If the radiation dose is reduced by a hundred
times, but simultaneously increases a hundred times the number of irradiated persons, the
number of those affected will not change. This is precisely the situation of the non-threshold
effect if genetic injury, similar to the other cases.36 Considering the nuclear tests a direct
crime against humanity37 Sakharov will be involved and actively participate in the
conclusion of the Moscow Treaty prohibiting nuclear experiments in water, air and space.
These contesting actions are rationally based, which is why their applicability becomes
ubiquitous and Sakharovs dissenting actions may be associated with a rational
cosmopolitanism. This objector episode to halt nuclear tests with nuclear products is
conjugated by Sakharov through public attitude against N.J. Nujdin to enter the
Academy. These two moments, acknowledges the Russian scientist, will seal the fate of Why
I stepped so alien from my way of being, like that of taking a public action against the
candidacy of a man who I did not know him personally? Probably because I put very much at
heart the issue of freedom of science, the scientific honesty science seemed (and seems to be
now) the most important part of civilization and therefore any attack against it is
inadmissible (...).38 Sakharovs dissidence, although it was part of some association or he
signed petitions and letters of protest, appeal along with other dissidents, that of
Solzhenitsyns remains as an individual dissidence 39. Against this kind of dissidence
Sakharov structures all his actions in relation to that type of general or specific event
following different levels: public and non-public. Sakharov believed that intervening
discursively in a general problem allows the formulation of an alternative viewpoint to the
official, stresses the importance of the issue and draws attention to them. In case of common
issues, the dissenting action aimed at defending individuals or groups, thus preventing
amplification of human rights violations. Solzhenitsyn criticized this form of individual
dissenting action and labeled it as waste of energy, and seemed to be the one who actually
gave to Sakharov complete freedom in terms of both the content and means of expression, it
35
Sakharov, Vospominanya /Memoirs, pp. 439 - 440.
36
Ibidem, pp. 435 436. There is here an excerpt taken from the article Nuclear explosions and radioactive
carbon in non-biological effects thresholds Atomnaia Energhia, September, 1958 published in several
international languages with Khrushchevs acceptance.
37
Ibidem, p. 497.
38
Ibidem, p.522.
39
Guy Scarpetta, Eloge du cosmopolitisme, Bernard Grasset, Paris, 1979, p.199. Scarpetta brings into question
that in the case of the dissidence from east, the case of Russia, it would be difficult to speak of a dissident group,
both Solzhenitsyn and Sakharov distancing from the totalizing discourse.
772
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
was the most appropriate taking into account my very special situation 40. In line with this
clear structure of action Sakharov will be involved in the struggle for freedom of religion and
the rights of believers in the USSR., human rights, the right to freedom of belief and the
exchange of information, the problem of using psychiatry for political purposes, the death
penalty, environmental issues. On the other hand, in case of the specific problems Sakharov
gave a tremendous job, wrote petitions, open and closed letters to the party leaders, he wrote
articles to press conferences, attended trials, as a supporter of the judged, and he unfairly
entered three times in a hunger strike. He was one of the few dissidents who went on hunger
strike for two young men that loved to be together, to initiate calls for humanitarian release
although useful in its policies and visit labor camps. Despite the failures, of his personal not
only physically suffering, Sakharov said: I think that taking my position contributes to
promoting a pluralistic approach of these cardinal issues, and thus they do not jeopardize, but
rather support the safeguarding peace clause. 41
Conclusion
Although Sakharov and Solzhenitsyn defended themselves against attacks each
regime, they were trying to sustain and to work together, their meetings were few, they saw
each other face to face only three times 42, and their views on certain actions, motivations and
justifications for dissenting shares distanced themselves up to incompatibility. Sakharov wrote
about Solzhenitsyn: I find that he underestimates the overall approach, general human of the
essential, cardinal, contemporary problems, that he manifests certain anti-
Occidentalism. That is why the principled isolationism, the insufficient attention to
problems and the destiny of other people, apart from the Russian, Ukrainian, and other
countries are related; sometimes the presence of some elements of Russian nationalism, the
idealization of religious and Russian lifestyle, from which is only one step to disregard and
hostility to other people.43 Solzhenitsyns dissidence manifested through by writing, which
has turned into a weapon against silence, and this form of dissent to manifest need a
cosmopolitan dimension otherwise the words become silent and start flowing like water,
tasteless, colorless, odorless, without a trace.44
The dissident actions, both in case of Sakharov and Solzhenitsyn could, ultimately, be
seen as active democratic memory exercises 45, as democratic memory of the past, the memory
being filtered through a present critical thinking, but directed toward future.
40
Sakharov, Vospominanya/Memoirs, Vol.II, p. 299.
41
Ibidem, p. 118.
42
Gennady Gorelik with Antonia W. Bouis, The World of Andrei Sakharov. A Russian Physicists Path to
Freedom, Oxford, University Press, 2005, p. 296.
43
Sakharov, Vospominanya /Memoirs, vol. II, p.165.
44
Alexander Solzhenitsyn, Banquet Speech, www.nobelprize.org/litearature/laureates/1970/Solzhenitsyn-
speech74-e.html.
45
An active democratic memory, in Keanes terms, recognizes that the development of fresh and stimulating
perspectives on the present depends upon the criticisms that break up habitual ways of thinking, in part through
types of criticism which remember what is in danger of being forgotten. Hence, the democratic remembrance of
things past is neither nostalgic nor atavistic. It turns to the past not for the sake of the past as if the secrets of
present miseries were hidden there but for the purpose of securing more democracy in the present and future.
An active democratic memory knows that past traditions of political discourse can furnish us with more than a
few surprises and provoke us into enlightening disagreements. They can remind us of some of the perennial
problems of social and political life. And thereby, they can help us understand who we are, where we stand, what
773
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Bibliography
Berdyaev, Nikolai (1948) The Origin of Russian Communism, translated from the Russian by
R.M.French , Published by G. Bles, London.
Bolton, Jonathan (2012) Worlds of Dissent: Charter 77, The Plastic People of the Universe,
and Czech Culture under Communism, Harvard University Press.
Boobbyer, Philip ( 2005) Conscience, Dissent and Reform in Soviet Russia, Routledge.
Engel, S. Moris (1976) With Good Reason: An Introduction to Informal Fallacies, St.
Martins Press, New Work.
Falk, Barbara J. (2003) The Dilemmas of Dissidence in Est Central Europe, Central
European University Press.
Gorelik, Gennady, Bouis, Antonia W. (2005) The World of Andrei Sakharov. A Russian
Physicists Path to Freedom, Oxford, University Press.
Kozolov, Vladi, Fitzpatrick, A., Mironenko, Sheila, Sergei, V. (2011) Everyday Resistance in
the Soviet Union under Khrushchev and Brezhnev, Yale University.
Kulavig, E. (2002) Dissent in the Years of Khrushchev: Nine Stories About Disobedient
Russians, New York,Palgrave Macmillan.
Miller, David (2002) Cosmopolitanism: A Critique, CRISPP, Vol.3, Nr.3, pp. 80 85.
Rawls, John (1999) A Theory of Justice, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press,
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
Robertson,G. (2011) The Politics of Protest in Hybrid Regimes: Managing Dissent in Post-
Communist Russia, New York, Cambridge University Press.
Sakharov, Andrei, D. (1975) My Country and the World, New York, Vintage Books.
Sakharov, Andrei, D. (1968) Progress, Coexistence, And Intellectual Freedom, The New
York Times Company.
Sakharov, Andrei, D. (2006) Vospominaniya/Memoirs Vol. I., Vol. II., Moskva ,Vremya.
Scarpetta, Guy (1979) Eloge du cosmopolitisme, Paris, Bernard Grasset.
Shatz, M. (1980) Soviet Dissent in Historical Perspective, New York, Cambridge University
Press.
Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr (2012) Iubete revoluia/Love Revolution, Editura Art.
Soljenitsyne, Alexandre (1973) Larchipel du Goulag, Tome 4 des uvres compltes. Edition
nouvelle revue et augmente par lauteur, Traduction entirement rvise par Genevive
Johannet, Fayard.
Solzhenitsyn, Alexandr (1991) Bodalsya telyonok s dubon. Ocherki literaturnoy zhizni /The
Calf and The Oak. Notes of the literary life, Novy Mir, Nr. 6, pp. 6 -116; Nr. 7, pp. 65 158;
Nr. 8, pp. 5 124; Nr. 11, pp. 119 146; Nr. 12, pp. 5 76.
we might hope for, apud. Barbara J. Falk, The Dilemmas of Dissidence in Est Central Europe, Central
European University Press, 2003, p. 322.
774
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
GOD IS A DJ A CORPUS-BASED APPROACH TO CONTEMPORARY ENGLISH
SONG LYRICS
Mihaela DUMA, Assistant Lecturer, Petroleum-Gas University of Ploieti
Abstract: Music is widely assumed as being Gods universal language. Similarly to language,
music is then not only defined by sounds, but also by its linguistic content, namely by lyrics.
Thus, besides its aesthetic attributes, music also displays culturally significant meanings to
the messages it foregrounds. Since religion acts as a moral and ethical benchmark in almost
all areas of life, and people constantly relate their political, social and cultural behaviour to
religious beliefs, it should be challenging to find out how these beliefs are disclosed in song
lyrics. The aim of this study is hence to explore several popular English song lyrics and find
out how they relate to religious beliefs by focusing on the structure and content of such
discourse. Special attention shall be given to recurrent religious lexical items and their
collocative patterns in order to illustrate more subtle aspects of meaning, such as semantic
preference and semantic prosody.
Keywords: religious lexical items, contextual meaning, collocative patterns, semantic
prosody, song lyrics
We are by nature spiritual human beings. Moreover, spirituality, as part of our
nonmaterial legacy, could be considered the invisible backbone of life itself. However, in a
society that is evermore dominated and defined by consumerism, where bread and circus
apparently set the scene for the so much craved social validations, there seems to be little time
and interest for peeling off the superficial layers of such values and getting to the core of the
genuine and fundamental spiritual values which practically validate us as human beings. The
question is whether this modern commercial-corporate mentality has really washed off all traces
of spirituality within humans. Or, could we even discuss the non-existence of spirituality
without validating first its very existence? After all, we cannot debate over either material,
palpable things or abstract, intangible concepts that do not exist. What we can do nonetheless is
measure and evaluate their impact on daily narratives. Narrative here is understood as a social
form of linguistic manifestation of peoples attitudes, beliefs, values and ideas. In this reading,
song lyrics can also be regarded as narratives as long as one of their main raisons dtre is to
depict and bring into the foreground peoples ideological points of view on most various and
complex socio-cultural matters.
Considering spirituality a subtle, but constant benchmark in shaping the socio-cultural
character of people, the aim of this paper is to explore the narrative of song lyrics focusing
primarily on the religious lexical items featured within. Having this purpose in mind, a random
selection of 50 popular English songs has been downloaded from the Web
(http://www.azlyrics.com/). All songs belong to well-known musicians, or music bands of both
English as well as American origin, such as Sting, The Doors, Madonna, Faithless, Pink,
Nirvana, Christina Aguilera, Depeche Mode, Eric Clapton, Pink Floyd, Bob Dylan, U2, Robbie
Williams, Jay-Z and Queen just to name a few. The only criterion that all songs were supposed
to meet has been to contain the lexical item God. After converting each song to an individual
775
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
plain text file and after deleting all phrases and choruses that were repeated three times or more
within the same song, a computerized text analysis provided by AntConc software has been
applied in order to give us a full and proper quantitative account on the frequency of occurrence
and the collocational patterns featured by these particular lexical items. Besides the valuable
linguistic input that such analyses usually reveal, it shall be challenging to see whether the
observed lexical concordances have an echo in larger corpora, such as the British national
Corpus (BNC) and the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA). This technique of
matching texts against large and representative language corpora is most valued among corpus
linguists as it supplies the bottom up textual evidence for what has until now been regarded
as top down prior knowledge in the act of reading. (Louw 1993:161)
Textual evidence has been playing a fundamental role in recent linguistic research
promoted within the field of corpus linguistics. The most remarkable contribution put forward
by this school of thought could be encapsulated in Sinclairs dictum trust the text. (Sinclair
2004) Trusting the text has given rise to a radical shift of perspective in linguistic meaning
interpretation challenging and ultimately compromising the traditional and even cognitive
approaches to meaning which advocate the independent word meaning. Research on empirical
data obtained from naturally occurring language instances gathered in corpora has highlighted
that words do not possess meaning in themselves, but rather in combination with other words
around them. Meaning becomes hence a joint contribution of words in combinations,
reinforcing the postulate according to which meanings have words and not the other way
around. Moreover, as empirical research has revealed, most words seem to attract almost
exclusively only a certain category of words, preferring thus the vicinity of either positive or
negative words and building up eventually some so-called good and bad prosodies. (Louw
1993: 171) When outlining semantic prosody, Louw envisages it as a consistent aura of
meaning with which a form is imbued by its collocates. (idem: 157) Therefore, semantic
prosodies can only become visible through direct observation on samples of genuine language
instantiations and they cannot thereby be observed, or accessed through human intuition or
introspection. All the more reason to trust the text.
Even though corpus linguists foster the idea that meaning is to be found in the text
(Sinclair 2004), in each unique linguistic instantiation (Firth 1957), we believe that meaning
should also be explored beyond the texts linguistic surface (Halliday 1978, 1985; Kramsch
2009). Observing merely song lyrics, as in our case, going beyond the textual surface could
bring in valuable information about the socio-cultural and even political circumstances within
which this particular linguistic event is nested, contributing thus to a more accurate and
complex meaning interpretation. Hence, text considered in the larger socio-cultural setting in
which it is embedded could add further valuable layers to its aura of meaning. Such an
exhaustive socio-cultural approach to meaning would be of particular value for any language-
centered study, it is nevertheless exceeding our aims in this present paper.
Before starting our proper song lyrics analysis and, while considering all the previously
mentioned aspects, we would like to highlight that the meaning we are seeking for in this
research is to be found beyond the physical boundaries of the proposed lexical items, more
precisely within their extended units of meaning. (Sinclair 2004) According to the Sinclairian
lexical framework and as suggested previously in this paper, words are by nature contextual
entities, they are not independent or isolated, on the contrary, they are interconnected.
776
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Therefore, besides the evident contribution of the core lexical item itself to meaning
construction and interpretation, subtler meaning potential should be observed through the lenses
provided by the other units of meaning: collocation co-occurrence of two or more words,
colligation co-occurrence of grammatical choices, semantic prosody positive or negative
aura of meaning and semantic preference or association semantically related words which
tend to attract each other. (idem) Considering all these aspects, no theoretical hypotheses shall
be outlined and proposed in advance as the text itself shall guide us towards a linguistically
reliable outcome.
The first stage in our analysis is to build a collocational network for the lexical item we
are interested in observing. We shall however discuss only those collocations which occur more
than two times. Any other instantiations, because of their low frequency, could suggest
singularity of style rather than representativeness, or reliability of linguistic evidence and shall
therefore be omitted.
Hence, within the selected song lyrics the lexical item God amounts to a number of 85
concordance hits. The following table shows an overview of the most frequent extended
collocational patterns built around the core or central node of God:
Fre- N2, N3, - N1 Central N1 N2, N3, position to
quen position to the left position to node position to the right
-cy the left the right
10 God is a DJ
love
great
good
warning the nations
warning them
9 if God is a DJ
could talk
had a name
was one of us
s on our side
5 oh my God
can I be as
you must be sleeping
5 oh God where d you go?
3 God gave me the sunshine
you style
Noah the rainbow
3 dear God I was terribly lost
you re the only North Star
how have you been then?
3 do you believe in God
nothing is perfect in God s perfect plan
3 with God on our side
its side
my side
Table 1. Extended collocational patterns in the song lyrics corpus
777
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Listing these collocations is nevertheless not sufficient unless we put them into a larger
textual environment and observe how they are employed. In the following section of this
paper we shall give special attention to each of the above mentioned collocations. An overall
acknowledgement however emerges from a quick scanning of the table. By observing these
most frequent concordances listed in the table, it becomes obvious that there is a clear
patterning tendency to the left of the node rather than to the right. We shall further see
whether this fact plays a role or not in the meaning construction and interpretation of the
extended collocational string.
God is
The most frequent collocation is realized to the right of the central node God, where
the first position (N1 to the right) is occupied by the word is. In terms of semantic preference,
the noun + verb collocation God is is followed by a description, surfacing in our example
twice as a noun (a DJ/ love) and twice as an adjective (great/ good). Only once the verbal
component of the collocation is part of a complex tense form, namely of a present tense
continuous form. While in most of the instances God is passively described, mostly in a
positive manner, the last concordance reveals a dynamic God, who is actively involved in
some sort of present action.
Nevertheless, one of the mentioned instantiations deserves some further
considerations. Unlike the other descriptions, the one which occurs most frequently, God is a
DJ, seems intuitively to deviate from an expected pattern. Should we observe Louws
definition of irony, then, this concordance is an evident case of intended irony: [i]rony relies
for its effect on a collocative clash which is perceived, albeit subliminally, by the reader.
(1993: 157) Louw goes on and argues that in order for a potential collocative clash to be well
grounded and credible there must be a sufficiently consistent background of expected
collocation against which the instantiation of irony becomes possible. (idem) Such consistent
background can only be found in large corpora, such as the BNC, which is a 100 million of
word collection of written and spoken language samples, or the COCA, which comprises 450
million words. After consulting both corpora, we could infer that while the BNC does not list
this concordance at all, the COCA lists it twice, both entries referring however to the same
matter, more precisely to the name of a single belonging to a famous contemporary American
artist called Pink. It could also be interesting to mention that the concordance God is a has
31 entries in the BNC and 246 entries in the COCA corpus. As displayed in the reference
corpora, most entries are of the God is a + noun (spirit, mystery, person, woman, gift, source)
or God is a + adjective + noun (loving father, mighty weapon, spiritual being) type. Most
instantiations reveal a positive attitude, albeit there enough are cases where negative feelings
are fostered.
If God
Moving forward to the next collocation ranked in terms of frequency, if God, we can
notice that most of the times when this collocation is followed by the verb to be, the latter is
employed in the present tense form, conveying thus the idea advanced by the conditional
sentence type 1 which predicates that the expressed condition is possible and also very likely
to be fulfilled. In such a reading, God seems very likely to be a DJ and also to be on our side.
778
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Once again, the former instantiation if God is a DJ can be interpreted as ironic, while the
latter if Gods on our side seems more commonplace.
The other patterns which complete the if God collocation consist of several verbs (can,
to have, and to be) used in the subjunctive mood as required by rules of the conditional
sentence type 2 which predicates that the expressed condition is possible, but very unlikely to
happen. Considering these colligational aspects, the semantic prosody featured by all of these
instances is a negative one, the intended meaning expressing therefore regret, doubt and
disbelief: if God could talk, but he cannot, if God had a name, but he does not and if God was
one of us, but he is not.
In the reference corpora, the collocation if God reveals 797 occurrences in the COCA
and 116 in the BNC corpus. In terms of frequency, when comparing patterns like if God is
with if God was it becomes evident that the former type is preferred to the latter one. While
the former records 16 entries in the BNC and 119 entries in the COCA, the latter only shows
up 5 times in the BNC and 46 times in the COCA. Beyond statistics, this means that language
users tend to entrust Gods potential of being what or how they expect him to be.
My God
Collocations of this type are very often encountered in real life language instantiations.
Most of the times however, they are used in contexts with no religious meaning or reference
whatsoever. The patterns displayed by our analysis reinforce this statement. Only one out of 5
concordances makes clear reference to God as a spiritual entity: can I be as my God?. The use
of the modal verb can conveys the idea of insecurity and doubt, exposing thus a reticent and
therefore negative attitude.
The other use of the collocation my God reveals an apparently unexpected
interpretation as it can express both positive and negative attitudes in the form of surprise,
disgust, outrage or protest. Skimming through the 1,136 examples provided by the BNC
corpus and other 7,715 examples provided by the COCA corpus, we can reason out that such
instantiations prove nothing else but the great receptiveness and fluid character of lexical
items in general and religious lexical items in particular.
Just to briefly exemplify the fluidity of language the oh my God collocation has
recently become omigod which surprisingly enough has 79 entries in the COCA corpus, but
none in the BNC. Could this mean that Americans are more open to linguistic and
consequently to socio-cultural change than the English? Such examples nevertheless stand for
the speakers openness to coin new words, disregarding thus the sometimes-rigid cultural
tradition revealed through language.
Another aspect worth mentioning when referring to this particular collocation is that
in most western European languages the word God collocates with the first person singular
possessive adjective: my God (English), mein Gott (German), mio Dio (Italian), mi Dios
(Spanish), mon Dieu (French), Istenem (Hungarian) and, moreover, such expressions can be
used and are frequently used just as in English, with no religious reference. In Romanian
however, there is no such equivalent expression like Dumnezeul meu. This issue could reveal
cultural and social aspects worth to be approached in a future detailed linguistic investigation.
779
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Oh God
In the examples featured by our analysis, this type of collocation is followed by a
question or request. Oh God whered you go? for example is a question that reveals some
sense of abandonment inducing hence a negative attitude. The interjection oh softens
somewhat the direct approach towards God which otherwise would have been more abrupt
and would have possibly sounded more aggressive.
Surprisingly or not, this collocation has 1,241 entries in the BNC and only 1,136 in the
COCA corpus. While obviously Americans prefer the oh my God variant in order to articulate
their surprise or horror, the English are more comfortable with using the oh God collocation.
God gave
The collocation God gave is in our analysis followed by either a pronoun (me, you) or
a proper name (Noah). The idea of God giving someone (an animate human being- me, you,
Noah) something (abstract, nonmaterial such as the sunshine, style and the rainbow) is not a
very unfamiliar one. Out of the 24 entries displayed by the BNC and 378 by the COCA more
than 90% are observing this pattern. What is interesting however is that most of the abstract
things God gives away are disclosing a positive, optimistic and pleasing attitude.
Dear God
Similarly to the (oh) my God and oh God collocations, this collocation is used in our
small corpus as an opening stance for a request or a rhetorical question. Such statements can
reveal both positive attitudes, like surprise or astonishment, and negative ones, like
consternation and stupefaction.
Nonetheless, patterns like dear + proper name are considered to be quite familiar in
everyday language use and, as corpus research has revealed, they are mostly employed in
written discourse. Browsing through the 8,411 concordances displayed in the COCA and the
8,493 ones displayed in the BNC we can reason out that the great majority of dear + proper
name patterns are foregrounded within written discourse. Dear God, on the other side, seems
to be exclusively used in oral discourse in both consulted corpora. While the BNC displays
151 entries for this collocation, the COCA displays 430. In most of the uses, the general sense
is that of an unpleasant and undesired surprise, fostering thus a negative attitude.
In God
This collocation patterns both to the left as well as to the right in our small corpus,
showing no particular features different from the ones uncovered in larger representative
corpora. Hence, when patterned to its left, this collocation is usually preceded by a verb such
as believe, (dis)trust, delight and more rarely by a noun such as faith, brother. The 555 BNC
concordance hits and the 3,046 COCA ones show a clear manifestation tendency of verb + in
God like patterns. Most verbs within such linguistic structures display a positive attitude.
When patterned to its right however, there is a pervasive trend specific for possessive
sequences such as in Gods + noun. Most nouns employed plan, will, (good) grace,
providence are revealing positive attitudes towards God. There are, however, nouns like name
which when employed after this collocation confer the sense of a negative surprise.
780
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
With God
The last collocation discussed in this paper seems to be a very pervasive one in
language. The reference corpora display 2,357 entries in the COCA corpus and, respectively,
409 in the BNC corpus. In our corpus however, with God is patterned to its right being
followed by the preposition on which, at its turn, is part of a quite restricted collocational
pattern, namely on + someones side. Surprisingly enough, the reference corpora display only
20 entries in the COCA and 2 entries in the BNC that feature patterns like with God on.
Moreover, while in the BNC neither of the two examples furnished (with God on his island,
with God on the beach) match the pattern encountered in our corpus, at least 50% of the
COCA featured examples are similar to the one in our corpus.
To conclude, our analysis has revealed that the narrative specific to song lyrics is not
essentially different from the everyday linguistic discourse. With only one exception, God is a
DJ, all the other collocational patterns displayed in our corpus have a faithful match in the
larger and more representative corpora. Hence, the lexical item God seems to preserve its
linguistic behaviour even in types of narratives which because of their artistic character are
somehow intuitively expected to be more colourful and rare. God is probably a too powerful
and overwhelming symbol in peoples perception and is therefore less prone to more frequent
variations albeit, as corpus data has revealed, it is extremely often used in expressions which
do not qualify for the religious register.
A noteworthy hypothesis emerges however from our analysis and this can be
epitomized in the judgment according to which the more extensions we add to a collocation,
the more refined and nuanced the overall meaning seems to become. In this reading, the
boundaries of meaning are fluid and therefore constantly shifting, revealing thus a vivid and
innovative language.
Bibliography
Firth, J.R. 1957. Papers in Linguistics 1934-1951. London: Oxford University Press
Halliday, M.A.K. 1978. Language as Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language and
Meaning. London: Edward Arnold
Halliday, M.A.K.; Hassan, R. 1985. Language, Context and Text: a Social Semiotic Perspective.
Victoria, Australia: Deakin University Press
Kramsch, Claire. 2009. Language and Culture. Oxford/ New York: Oxford University Press
Louw, Bill. 1993. Irony in the Text or Insincerity in the Writer? The Diagnostic Potential of
Semantic Prosodies. Text and Technology. In Honour of John Sinclair. Ed by Mona Baker.
157-176. Philadelphia/ Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company
Sinclair, John McH. (edited with Ronald Carter). 2004. Trust the Text. Language, Corpus and
Discourse. London: Routledge
http://www.azlyrics.com/ (last accessed on November 22, 2013)
http://www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/ (last accessed on November 22, 2013)
http://corpus2.byu.edu/coca/ (last accessed on November 22, 2013)
781
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
QUALITY MANAGEMENT IN TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION
AND TRAINING
FARKAS Zoltn-Bla, PhD Candidate, Politehnica University, Timioara
Abstract: In this work I discuss the general topic of educational management and particulary
about Technical and Vocational Education and Training which is often seen as "last choice
education" because of a lack of quality. High-quality Technical and Vocational Education
and Training, on the other hand, leads to a higher status and improved attractiveness of
Technical and Vocational Education and Training. Therefore the standards of Quality
Assurance and Quality Control should be applied to Technical and Vocational Education and
Training. That can be done by seeking a certification from a standardization organisation or
by adopting quality assurance management mechanism to ensure quality of training.
Keywords: quality, management, standardization, training, assurance
Implementarea sistemului de management al calitii n nvmntul profesional i
tehnic este o necesitate obiectiv i de urgen n scopul asigurrii compatibilitii cu
tendinele nvmntului preuniversitar din rile dezvoltate, crend bazele cooperrii cu
acestea n domeniul educaiei i cercetrii tiinifice, precum i pentru realizarea primului pas
prioritar al integrrii internaionale.
Aceast tem, a managementului n nvmntul professional i tehnic se nscrie pe
linia preocuprilor pe plan naional i internaional pe tema calitii care a devenit important
n condiiile globalizrii, n care competitivitatea pe piaa produselor este condiionat nu de
cantitate ci de calitate. Teza definete cteva concepte i termeni specifici utilizai n
asigurarea calitii, n nvmntul profesional si tehnic. n acest context, aceast lucrare i
propune urmtoarele obiective: managementul calitii, n nvmntul profesional si tehnic,
calitatea procesului educaional i cercetri experimentale privind sistemul de management n
nvmntul profesional si tehnic.
Pentru atingerea acestor obiective lucrarea a fost structurat n mail multe pri ce
cuprind cercetri i studii teoretice privind sistemul de management al calitii n
nvmntul profesional si tehnic, studii i contribuii teoretice privind calitatea procesului
educaional, studii i cercetri experimentale privind sistemul de management al calitii n
nvmntul profesional si tehnic.
Managementul calitii educaiei, descrie aspecte ale calitii educaiei, care
reprezint ansamblul de caracteristici ale unui program de studiu i ale furnizorului acestuia,
prin care sunt satisfcute ateptrile beneficiarilor i standardele de calitate.
Problema asigurrii i meninerii calitii serviciilor educaionale este una deosebit
de important cu un impact inedit, dar i pe termen lung asupra beneficiarilor direci ai
acestora elevii, ct i asupra beneficiarilor indireci comunitatea, societatea.
782
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Asigurarea calitii educaiei se poate realiza printr-un ansamblu de aciuni de
dezvoltare a capacitii unitii de nvmnt, de a elabora, de a planifica i de a implementa
programe educaionale, prin care se formeaz ncrederea beneficiarilor c organizaia
furnizoare de educaie satisface standardele de calitate. Asigurarea calitii exprim, de
asemenea, capacitatea unei uniti de nvmnt de a oferi programe de educaie, n
conformitate cu standardele anunate. Aceasta se poate realiza prin planificarea i realizarea
rezultatelor dorite ale invrii, prin monitorizarea acestora, prin evaluarea intern i extern a
rezultatelor invrii.
Asigurarea calitii n fiecare coal sau mai bine zis calitatea seviciilor educaionale
oferite are o prioritate fundamental pentru orice instituie de nvmnt i o condiie
necesar pentru dezvoltarea acesteia. Calitatea actului educaional este demonstrat de
eficiena educaional, care const n mobilizarea de resurse interne i externe cu scopul de a
determina elevii s obin rezultate ct mai bune n nvare, relevante pentru lumea
viitoarelor lor ocupaii i compatibile cu lumea valorilor unei societi democratice bazate pe
cunoatere. Daca se va reui acest lucru, atunci coala va exista i va prospera, iar dac nu, se
va elimina de la sine din cauza slabei caliti a procesului educaional.
Educaia i formarea profesional, sunt prezentate aspect teoretice ale educaiei, care a
avut dintotdeauna o influen formativ puternic asupra societii, i totui instrumentele sale
au luat noi dimensiuni ca rezultat al globalizrii i al revoluiei cunoaterii. Fiecare strategie
pe termen lung pentru creterea competitivitii economice, prosperitii i coeziuni sociale n
UE are ca baz educaia i pregtirea.
Structura actual naional a populaiei ocupate dup nivelul de instruire reflect un
deficit de persoane cu studii superioare, n aceste condiii, chiar i puinele sectoare cu valoare
adugat ridicat din economia romneasc confruntndu-se cu probleme n satisfacerea
cererii de for de munc calificat. Aceasta justific necesitatea mutrii accentului ctre
investiia n nvmntul profesional i, mai ales, n formarea profesional continu.
Strategia Dezvoltrii nvmntului Preuniversitar definete urmtoarele prioriti
pentru politicile Ministerului Educatiei Cercetarii si Tineretului pentru nvmntul
profesional i tehnic:
1. Realizarea echitii n educaie;
2. Asigurarea educaiei de baz pentru toi cetenii; formarea competenelor cheie;
3. Fundamentarea actului educaional pe baza nevoilor de dezvoltare personal i profesional
a elevilor, din perspectiva dezvoltrii durabile i a asigurrii coeziunii economice i sociale;
4. Deschiderea sistemului educaional i de formare profesional ctre societate, ctre
mediul social, economic i cultural;
5. Asigurarea complementaritii educaiei formale, nonformale i informale; nvarea
permanent ca dimensiune major a politicii educaionale; creterea calitii proceselor de
predare-nvare, precum i a serviciilor educaionale.
Durata de colarizare obligatorie este de 10 clase. nvmntul profesional i tehnic a fost
restructurat ca urmare a unei noi viziuni asupra finalitilor educaiei i formrii profesionale,
n perspectiva creterii contribuiei la dezvoltarea societii i economiei bazate pe cunoatere,
n condiiile asigurrii unui grad ridicat al coeziunii economice i sociale
Intervenia statului n domeniul educaional poate fi explicat n mod obiectiv i
raional prin faptul c nsi aciunea de a nva n sine a unui individ impune altor indivizi
783
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
efectuarea unor costuri semnificative sau poate, dimpotriv, s aduc foloase substaniale
pentru ali indivizi, neexistnd posibilitatea compensrii directe nici ntre cel care suport
efectiv costurile educaionale i cel care beneficiaz de educaie, nici ntre cel care, graie
educaiei de care beneficiaz, poate aduce altora beneficii semnificative.
Planificarea ofertei educaionale n nvmntul profesional i tehnic, relev aspecte
ale formrii profesionale iniiale prin nvmntul profesional i tehnic, care se identific
printr-un tip de nvmnt bazat pe competene i nu pe durata pregtirii. Pentru fiecare nivel
educaional pentru care pregtirea se asigur prin nvmnt preuniversitar sunt elaborate i
puse n aplicare Standardele de pregtire profesional (SPP). Ele se afl la baza elaborrii
curriculumului pentru calificrile de nivelul 1,2,3 care se pot dobndi prin invmnt
profesional i tehnic, precum i la baza procesului de examinare, evaluare i certificare.
Standardele de pregtire profesional cuprind urmtoarele uniti de competen:
1. uniti de competen cheie comune tuturor domeniilor de calificare
2. uniti de competen tehnice generale specifice unui domeniu de calificare
3. uniti de competen tehnice specializate specifice unei calificri
nvmntul profesional i tehnic din Romnia asigur, n prezent, (conform Deciziei
Consiliului European 85-368-EEC) 3 niveluri de calificare:
a) nivelul I de calificare: asigur certificat de calificare profesional nivel 1 prin coala
de Arte i Meserii
b) nivelul II de calificare: asigur certificat de calificare profesional nivel 2 prin anul de
completare
c) nivelul III de calificare: asigur certificat de calificare profesional nivel 3 prin ciclul
superior al liceului (ruta liceu tehnologic sau ruta progresiv) i prin nvmnt
postliceal
Resursele umane n nvmntul profesional si tehnic, sunt evideniate schimbrile
accelerate introduse de reformele din nvmntul profesional i tehnic (PT), pe de o parte,
i cele din mediul economic i social, pe de alt parte, ele impunnd un efort susinut de
adaptare din partea profesorilor. Msurile privind dezvoltarea profesional a personalului
didactic din PT trebuie s vizeze att competenele metodice ct i actualizare a
competentelor de specialitate cu accent pe noile tehnologii i schimbrile organizaionale din
mediul economic.
Rolul reelelor colare vizeaz schimbul de bune practici ntre colile implicate,
diseminarea activitilor privind asigurarea calitii, nvarea centrat pe elev, dezvoltarea
parteneriatului social, si planificarea ofertei educaionale.
Indicatorii pentru educatie reprezinta analiza ratei nete de cuprindere in invatamant, a
ratei de abandon scolar, a ratei de absolvire, a ratei de success, evolutia cheltuielilor pe elev,
si numarul de elevi care revin pe cadru didactic.
Oferta colilor din nvmntul profesional i tehnic pentru formarea adulilor, subliniaz
aspecte teoretice ale sistemului formrii profesionale iniiale, denumit i nvmnt
profesional i tehnic (PT), se bazeaz n Romnia pe urmtoarele orientri strategice:
1. nevoia de a asigura un cadru naional coerent
2. PT bazat pe competene i nu pe durata pregtirii
3. PT fundamentat prioritar pe cerere i nu numai pe ofert
4. PT oferit prin contexte de nvare multiple i flexibile
784
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
5. PT bazat pe rute educaionale i forme multiple de organizare, ntr-un sistem deschis
care permite intrri i ieiri bazate pe validarea achiziiilor anterioare i certificarea
competenelor dobndite n perspectiva facilitrii nvrii de-a lungul ntregii viei;
6. susinerea ferm i aplicarea consecvent a principiilor accesului i echitii;
7. asigurarea calitii ofertei nvmntului profesional i tehnic
Raportrile anuale ale Ageniei Nationale de Ocupare a Forei de Munc demonstreaz
dificultile ntmpinate de absolvenii nvmntului preuniversitar n a se integra pe piaa
muncii, absolvenii de licee fr atestat profesional deinnd ponderea cea mai mare a celor
intrai n omaj. Insuficienta cunoatere de ctre elevii de clasa a VIII-a i a prinilor acestora
a tendinelor de pe piaa muncii se reflecta n mod negativ asupra opiunilor fcute la
admitere, specialitile teoretice fiind n continuare mai cutate, n detrimentul unor
specializri oferite de nvmntul profesional prin coala de arte i meserii, chiar dac
cererea de locuri de munc n domeniu depete cu mult oferta actuala.
Analiza ofertei de locuri de munc, n paralel cu evoluia omajului n general i
evoluia
omajului absolvenilor n diferite domenii de activitate permite formularea unor concluzii
pentru stabilirea mai judicioas a ofertei de calificare a unitilor IPT care colarizeaz prin
ruta progresiv.
Marketingul educational, definete marketingul educational ca fiind un nou sistem de
gndire i abordare a activitii manageriale, orientarea spre coordonarea tuturor activitilor
ctre o unic finalitate, de satisfacere a necesitilor actuale i de perspectiv a comunitii i
societii. Acesteia i revine sarcina armonizrii cererii cu oferta, a doleanelor individuale cu
cele comunitare, de a fundamenta pe baza acestora politica educaional a instituiei colare,
rspunznd la ntrebrile: ce, cum, pentru ce i unde se nva.
Fundamentarea politicii de marketing este un process complex, n care trebuie s se
regseasc interesele beneficiarului forei de munc, secondate de cele ale posesorilor forei
de munc, concordant dintre nivelele macro i micro ale activitii educaionale, autonomia
decizional a diferitelor nivele ale procesului educaional.
Desfurarea unei activiti de marketing educaional nu poate fi fcut dac nu exist
o structur organizatoric corespunzatoare la toate nivelele procesului educaional.
Evaluarea nvmntului profesional i tehnic la mai multe grupuri scolare, respectiv
Stabilirea succesului colar din perspectiva calitatii mele de expert in evaluare si acreditare
cu ocazia vizitelor intreprinse am realizat studiul de caz al lucrrii, studiu realizat la Colegiul
Tehnic Batthyany Ignac si licee similar din tara, pe un eantion de 1065 de elevi i prezint
fundamentarea, structura, scopul, obiectivele, ipotezele, analiza i concluziile cercetrii
tiinifice privind orientarea colar i profesional a elevilor si cuprinde cuprinde cercetarea
experimentala asupra evalurii activitii didactice si rezultatele scolare la Educaie
tehnologic, activitatea de evaluare a interaciunii elev-profesor, i prezint concluziile
privitoare asupra acestei cercetri.
mbuntirea managementului i dezvoltarea instituional a nvmntului
profesional i tehnic descrie o serie de recomandri i propuneri pentru mbuntirea
nvmntului profesional i tehnic. Extinderea dimensional n cadrul instituiei de
nvmnt ca urmare a promovrii unei strategii de cretere are importante efecte pe plan
managerial, n special pe planul structurii organizatorice. Creterea volumului i diversificarea
785
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
activitilor cu profil didactic provoac multiplicarea i diversificarea fluxurilor
informaionale i ale deciziilor manageriale. Meninerea formelor organizatorice simple,
ierarhic-piramidal i centralizat pe funciuni, proprii sistemelor de nvmnt clasice,
afecteaz de cele mai multe ori eficiena sistemului managerial al instituiilor de nvmnt,
fenomen concretizat n creterea costurilor de funcionare a managementului, apariia unor
zone de incertitudine slab controlate de managerii colari, decizii greite i ntrziate, rivaliti
interdepartamentale, expansiunea birocraiei interne, insensibilitatea la semnalele pieei
colare.
Diversificarea ofertei pedagogice n funcie de nevoile i evoluia economiei, vieii
sociale i culturale n condiiile unor planuri i programe manuale alternative i al dezvoltrii
unor forme alternative de nvmnt se va putea realiza prin democratizarea modului de a
face nvmnt care ar presupune deplasarea din sfera accesului la educaie n sfera
succesului n educaie. De asemenea este necesar flexibilitatea n pregtire pe timpul
colarizrii prin modularizarea standardelor profesionale, n scopul adaptrii rapide i
eficiente la oferta universitar adresat absolvenilor i cererea existent pe piaa muncii.
Bibliografie
Atanasiu, G., Calitatea n nvmntul superior n contextul globalizrii, Managementul
calitii n nvmntul superior, Editura V. Goldi, Arad, 2000.
Atanasiu, G., Managementul internaional i asigurarea calitii n nvmntul superior,
QMedia, Anul 3, nr. 1-2, 2001.
Brzea, C. , Bdescu, M. Finanarea sistemului public de educaie n Romnia, Editura
Alternative, Bucureti, 1998
Brtianu, C., Paradigmele managementului universitar, Editura Economic, Bucureti, 2006.
Brtianu, C., Managementul strategic,Editura Universitaria, Craiova, 2008.
Buzrnescu, ., Practica managerial n nvmntul superior, Editura Univers Enciclopedic,
Bucureti, 2004.
Certo S, -Managementul modern, Ed. Teora, Bucureti, 2002
Clement, K., Mantra or Meaning - Quality in Education and Research, Norwegian Minister of
Education and Research, October 2003
Dijmrescu I - Bazele managementului - Editura Didactica i Pedagogica , Bucureti , 2005
Dinc, G. , Damian, R. - Finanarea unui nvmnt de calitate n Romnia, Editura
Alternative, Bucureti, 1999
Duse Carmen Sonia , Management educational , Editura Universitatii Lucian Blaga
din Sibiu , 2006.
Dumitrache I., Curaj, A., Marcus, C.,Evaluarea capitalului intelectual n instituiile de
nvmnt preuniversitar i cercetare premis a ndeplinirii rolului central al acestora ntr-o
societate bazat pe cunoatere , Revista de Politica tiinei i Scientometrie, Nr.1,2003.
Gafieanu, M., Rusu, C. (eds.), Asigurarea calitii n nvmntul superior tehnic din
Romnia, Ed. Gh. Asachi, Iai, 1997.
Hainaut,D Programe de nvmnt i educaie permanent Editura Didactic i pedagogic,
Bucureti, 1977
786
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
MEDIA AND VIRTUAL MEDIUM IN SECOND LIFE
Claudia TALASMAN CHIOREAN, Research Assistant, Babe-Bolyai University of
Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: New media includes dynamic field of Romanian internet sites, publications old and
new, with a rich online content, updated in real-time web applications, servers, etc.
Electronic publications are cheap and relatively easy to do. The most common areas of
communication are the blogosphere or social networks: Facebook, Twitter, MySpace,
LinkedIn, Hi5, Flickr, Youtube, Second Life.
It is believed that Second Life (SL) is an Internet game. On the official website, Second Life is
described as "a virtual world imagined and created by its residents." Second Life is a varied
world, which substitutes the immediate reality. In this context, the media in the virtual Second
Life takes on a new personality.
Keywords: New media, Internet, Romanian sites, online content, web page, web applications,
servers, electronic publications, areas of communication, blogosphere, social networks,
Facebook, Twitter, My Space, LinkedIn, Hi5, Flickr, Youtube, Second Life, Internet game,
website, virtual world, varied world, immediate reality, the media in Second Life.
New media - site-uri, pagini ale publicaiilor mai vechi sau mai noi, sporite calitativ i
cantitativ prin investirea unor sume importante de bani pentru relansarea lor, pentru creterea
coninutului on-line, printr-o actualizare n timp real a paginii de Internet i prin infrastructura
referitoare la aplicaii pentru web, servere, blogurile, podcasturile, jocurile video, lumile
virtuale, enciclopediile de tip wiki, televiziunile interactive, site-urile, emailul, reelele sociale
sau de socializare etc. - este domeniul cel mai dinamic al Internetului actual.
De exemplu, clasamentul din Trafic.ro1 la categoria tiri/mass-media indic faptul c
interesul consumatorilor de media este distribuit dup urmtoarea scal: site-urile ziarelor
romneti, ale ageniilor, site-urile televiziunilor, radio-urilor.
Publicaiile electronice sunt mai ieftine i relativ uor de fcut. Alimentarea lor cu un
coninut interesant cere perseveren, contiin profesional i susinere financiar din alte
surse pn cnd presa va aduce iar venituri.
Cele mai folosite spaii de comunicare sunt blogosfera sau reelele de socializare:
Facebook, Twitter, MySpace, LinkedIn, Flickr, Youtube , Second Life.
Totalitatea blog-urilor i a autorilor de blog-uri, denumit blogosfer, se constituie
in raport cu realitatea virtuala numita blog2 (cuvnt provenit de la expresia englez web log =
jurnal pe Internet), care este o publicaie web (un text scris) cu articole periodice, actualizate,
cu caracter personal, accesibile publicului larg. Exist mai multe platforme pentru blog-uri, de
exemplu Wordpress (cea mai cunoscut i folosit platform de blogging), Blogger .a.
1
http://www.trafic.ro/vizitatori/top-siteuri-stiri-massmedia/saptamana (Anexa 1)
2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blog
787
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Scopul blog-urilor variaza de la jurnale personale, pana la armele publicitare ale
campaniilor politice, ale programelor media sau ale diverselor companii comerciale. Blogurile
pot constitui i o surs important de venituri pentru cei care le administreaz.
Reele de socializare vs. reea social
ntre cele dou sintagme analitii media, fie ei sociologi sau psihologi, nu pun semnul
de echivalen. Jurnalitii folosesc ambii termeni pentru acealeai contexte.
Ambele sintagme se refer la grupuri de persoane care interacioneaz sub aspect
comunicaional. Diferena dintre ele se nregistreaz la nivelul efectelor asupra grupului
constituient al reelei.
n cazul reelei de socializare efectul asupra membrilor reelei este de coeziune social,
comuniune prin comunicare sau prin alte aciuni/activiti comune. Memebrii reelei sunt
integrai n acea colectivitate.
In timp ce reeaua social este o reea de persoane cu scopuri comune i mijloace
similare de comunicaie, cum ar fi Internet-ul sau Web-ul. O reea (informaional) de
utilizatori Internet, bazat pe anumite situri web la care utilizatorii se pot nscrie i
interaciona cu ali utilizatori, deja nscrii. Aceste reele sociale fac din ceea ce se cheama
Web 2.0, adica o utilizare complex a Webului. 3
Membrii unei reele sociale sunt legai ntre ei n mod informal, fr obligaii, dar de
obicei contribuie activ la colectarea i rspndirea informaiilor pe ntregul glob prin
intermediul webului. Reelele sociale ajut la crearea de comuniti online n cadrul crora
persoanele care au interese comune se ntlnesc pentru a vorbi, pentru a socializa cu oameni
prezeni acolo. Reelele sociale nu au frontiere, singura condiie fiind o conexiune bun i
permanent la Internet. Exist multe site-uri cu tema principal de discuii n urmtoarele
domenii: fotografie, muzic, filme, video, jocuri online, facerea de noi cunotine, prieteni etc.
i multe altele.
Reelele sociale ajut la formarea reelelor de socializare. Cele mai cunoscute reele
web sociale sunt: facebook- 1 miliard in septembrie 2011 n toat lumea, FeteBaieti.com - 1
mil. n Romnia, Flickr- reea mondial pentru informaii de tip imagine i fotografie,
LinkedIn - pentru managementul carierei i relaii profesionale, Lokalisten- 2,8 mil. n
Germania, myspace, schlerVZ + studiVZ+ meinVZ- peste 13,1 mil. elevi i studeni - n
german (VZ este o prescurtare de la Verzeichnis = catalog, index), StayFriends, twitter-
pentru rspndirea rapid, n mase, a unor tiri textuale scurte, wer-kennt-wen (traducere: cine
cunoate pe cine), YouTube - pentru informaii de tip clip video, Second Life un joc devenit
reea de socializare.
Avantaje
Printre avantajele funcionarii acestor reele, la nivel comunicaional, ar fi de remarcat
cteva aspecte: acces imediat, necostisitor, variat, extins, nelimitat, permite interaciunea cu
ceilali (cunoscui sau strini), participarea la viaa unor comuniti online, de aici sau de peste
tot din lume. Divertismentul online n 3D este foarte apreciat. Modele promovate n reelele
sociale au un mare impact din punct de vedere psihologic, cultural i social. Reelele
3
http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/retele
788
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
influenteaza judecata/modul de gndire, exerseaz memoria, cultiv creativitatea, crete
abilitatea de alfabetizare vizual.
Reeaua social, privit ca afacere, ofer posibilitatea tinerilor s-i gseasc mai uor
un loc de munc, iar angajatorilor le creeaz cadrul pentru a-i prezenta ofertele. Tot aici se
pot face cadouri, se pot promova produse, se pot face cumprrturile online, se poate comanda
mncare pe net i astfel se ctig teren prin publicitate. Reelele sociale de tipul Facebook ar
putea ajuta n descoperirea infractorilor (Deutsche Welle), regsirea personelor pierdute,
salvarea de viei.
n cadrul protestelor din Egipt reelele de socializare au contribuit decisiv la demisia
lui Hosni Mubarak, preedintele statului. Au dus la rsturnarea preedintelui Zine El Abidine
Ben Ali prin revolta populara din Tunisia. Au influenat Alegerile din Serbia din 5 mai 2012,
au contribuit semnificativ la dovedirea de plagiate, ca de exemplu, lucrarea de doctorat a
fostului ministru al aprrii din Germania, graful Karl-Theodor zu Guttenberg.
Convocarea publicului la diverse ntruniri sau chiar demonstraii a fost uurat, n mod
evident. De exemplu, s-au nmulit aa-numitele facebook parties (singular: facebook party).
Protestele publice i micarea cetenilor mpotriva proiectului de cale ferat Stuttgart 21
(Germania) pot costitui un bun exemplu la categoria efecte pozitive. Mai pot fi amintite:
recentele evenimente din Marea Britanie n care reelele de socializare au fost folosite cu
succes de tinerii ieiti n strad s protesteze fa de un abuz poliienesc. Influena reelelor
YouTube, facebook i twitter a schimbat deja radical industria divertismentului (showbizul
sau entertainment industry). Un exemplu tipic este artista american Lady Gaga, care atrage
milioane de fani i cumprtori pe baza acestor reele.
Dezavantaje
Printre dezavantaje nu ar putea trece neobservate cteva aspecte: sursa informaiilor
nedeclarat i neasumat. Efectele negative asupra formrii i dezvoltrii personalitii umane
pot fi analizate din mai multe puncte de vedere.
Aspectul cognitiv inregistreaza imposibilitatea prelucrrii suprainformaiilor, deficitul
de atenie, limbajul redus, deficitar, crearea unui sistem de valori distorsionat, de cele mai
multe ori care anihileaza gandirea critica prin oferirea unor judecati de valoare
comprehensibile si persuasive, directionarea imaginatia spre zona virtuala sau impunerea unui
vacabularul abstract si destul de limitat.
Aspectul emoional implica imposibilitatea de a simi empatie, lipsa reaciilor
emoionale fireti, invidia, scderea satifaciei de via, narcisismul, necesitatea unui feedback
continuu, scaderea stimei de sine, fric, violen, intoleran. Sunt sentimente pe care,
utilizarea in exces a retelelor de socializare, le stimuleaza in mod frecvent.
La nivel comportamental apar dificulti n a interaciona din punct de vedere social
din cauza schimbrii perspectivei asupra identitatii online i asupra relaiilor sociale, swe
inregistreaza lipsa autocontrolului, limbajul corporal isi reduce reactiile, asa cum intreaga
veteza de reactie este diminuata.
Acestea sunt cateva constatari generale asupra utilizatorilor excesivi ai retelelor de
socializare, inregistrate prin cercetari succesive. Dar cele mai ingrijoratoare efecte asupra
personalitatii umane sunt: dezvoltarea unei personalitai obsesive, anxioase, dependenta si
violenta verbala/vizuala.
789
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
In era 2.0, dependenta de internet este o chestie reala. Are chiar si un nume. Se
numeste Internet Addiction Disorder (IAD) si, din 2012, a fost recunoscuta oficial ca boala
mentala. Practic, cele mai mari temeri ale celor care sufera de acesta maladie sunt lipsa unui
incarcator, imposibilitatea de a-si verifica e-mailul, un ecran albastru si No Internet
Connection Found.
Violena verbal sau vizual este o realitate cu care s econfrunta toti utiliozatorii de
retele sociale.
Second Life
Se crede, n general, c Second Life (SL) ar fi un joc pe Internet. Nu este ns un joc
organizat, cu reguli impuse i un scop imediat. Pe situl web oficial, Second Life este descris
ca fiind o lume virtual imaginat i creat de rezidenii ei. Second Life este o lume
diversificat, n care poi ntlni oameni din toate colurile lumii reale. Este o lume, o societate
virtual, care tinde sa substituie ct mai bine i convenabil realitatea imediat.
Lumea virtual a Second Life-ului a fost lansata pe 23 Iunie 2003, fiind creat de
compania american Linden Lab. Acetia pun la dispoziie pentru accesare aplicaia cu acelai
nume, Second Life, care se poate descrca din Internet de pe situl oficial n mod gratuit. Prima
i cea mai important condiie de participare pus de Linden Lab (LL) este cea a vrstei, care
trebuie s fie de cel puin 18 ani mplinii, avnd n vedere coninuturi mature. Pentru
persoanele sub 18 ani, Linden Lab a creat versiunea Teen Second Life.
n august 2007 s-a introdus serviciul "Second Life voice" i posibilitatea de a-i auzi pe
ceilali. 2007 a fost anul de revoluie al Second Life-ului. Atunci a atins un maxim de cretere
n popularitate, odat cu introducerea serviciilor "voice" i "sculpted prims", care au extins
nelimitat posibilitile de creaie.4
Odata intrat in second life, optiunile pentru a-ti crea universul visat sunt nelimitate.
Primul pas este sa-ti creezi cont si un avatar care sa te reprezinte in lumea virtuala. Poti alege
sa fii om, animal, robot, vampir sau orice ti-a trecut vreodata prin cap ai putea fi. Iti creezi un
profil convingator si un avatar competitiv si pornesti in aventura vietii tale. Trebuie tinut cont
de un aspect. Ca i n viaa real primul impact este cel fizic. Utilizatorii pltesc zeci de dolari
americani pentru inute i atitudini ct mai sofisticate care te pot scoate din anonimat. Debutul
de succes n Second Life poate fi fcut printr-o prezen plcut care atrage atenia i i
nlesnete posibilitatea de a-i face prieteni numeroi i foarte interesani. Aici chiar poi s
gseti marea dragoste, pentru c te poi modela, echipa i dota la standardele impuse de
societate. Exist unii rezideni care triesc n Second Life peste o jumatate de zi pentru c
dintr-un motiv sau altul doar n acel mediu au reuit s-i pun n valoare calitile.
Descoperi apoi ca Second Life are o economie proprie i chiar moned proprie
linden dollar (L$), care la rndul ei are valoare n viaa real 1 USD nseamn aproximativ
250 L$. Se pot converti bani reali n bani virtuali sau invers, linden dolari n bani reali.
Aceasta deoarece n Second Life tranzaciile sunt la fel de rapide i numeroase ca i n Real
Life.
Exist persoane care s-au mbogit din Second Life. Cel mai des ntlnit exemplu este
al avatarului Anshe Chung, care a dezvoltat o afacere cu terenuri n lumea virtual, ajungnd
4
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DhrgbRugmTA&NR=1&feature=endscreen, 6 noiembrie 2013.
790
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
primul milionar al Second Life-ului5. Afacerile nseamn, pe lng imobiliare, n principal
creativitate. Se cumpr mult, n special pantofi, haine, accesorii pentru avatare. Toate acestea
sunt create de persoane talentate, care devin autoriti n materie, la fel cum se ntmpl n
Real life.
Ca i n viaa real, pentru a ajunge la performane n Second Life trebuie mult
munc, mult dedicare i, bineneles, o strategie de marketing bun. Avatarele care fac bani
reali n Second Life lucreaz la fel de mult (poate chiar mai mult) dect o persoan din Real
Life.
La nivelul informatiei, al comunicarii si al afilierii la retele sociale, Second Life-ul
este conectat foarte bine si weficient si la tot ce exista in viata reala: Facebook, motoare de
cautare, site-uri de stiri, mailuri, chat-uri, etc. Dac un rezident simte c drepturile i-au fost
nclcate, acesta poate reclama la Linden Lab, iar agresorul ar putea fi exclus. VIP-urile sunt
efemere. Bruce Willis i-a ntlnit fanii n Second Life, iar Joan Osborne a susinut un
concert. Au fost construite chiar i biserici romano -catolice, temple budiste i moschee n
Second Life.
Mass media din virtual
Mass media se simte bine n virtual. New Media Center for the Study of Journalism
and Mass Communication este unul dintre cele 268 de centre media pe care le are in 2013
din Second Life. Centrul de New Media este creat n campusul universitar al regiunii
Dotoorak din Second Life. A fost conceput s funcioneze ca o coal de media, unde noile
tehnologii de comunicare sunt mult mai uor, mai performant i mai eficient de folosit. n
acest centru termenul de obiectivitate ncepe s prind contur. La cursuri pot participa cei ce
vor s devin jurnaliti, s lucreze n relaiile publice sau publicitate, n educatie, n afaceri,
n cercetare, n comunicare, n domeniul realiilor sociale. New Media din virtual nu exclude
folosirea vechilor mijloace de informare i de comunicare: cari, ziare, magazine, radio,
televiziune. Studenii facultilor se ntlnesc, lucreaz i tudiaz n Centru de Media Virtual
de oriunde s-ar gasi n lumea real.
The New Media Center ofer cursuri de: utilizare Twitter, Real Life news feeds and
tickers, link-uri social media, player media, utilizare echipamente media, instrumente
specific reporterului, asigur spaii pentru desfurarea conferinelor, pun la dispoziie
computere cu legatur Internet, ecrane TV pentru fluxurile de programe care intr n Second
Life, n alte tipuri de media, ultimele tehnologii n materie de prezentare, un chat audio de
calitate superioar, documentare cu valoare informativ, texte jurnalistice, ale comunicrii de
mas i din new media, demonstreaz o mare flexibilitate n dotarea slilor necesare
diferitelor activiti i pun la dispoziie gratuit modaliti de procurare a hainelor cu stil si a
altor necesiti pentru existena din Second Life. La nivel communicaional, n lumea virtual
poi ntlni i agenii de pres.
Reuters din viaa real este tot Reuters n Second Life. eful ageniei din virtual este
avatarul Adam Reuters. El se numete n viaa real Adam Pasick i este un jurnalist foarte
apreciat, un bun specialist n IT. Alt reporter virtual este Eric Reuters pe numele real Eric
5
Articol din Gandul (Anexa 2)
791
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Krangel. Adam i Eric triesc i fac adevrate afaceri n Second Life. Au chiar un program cu
publicul n Second Life.
Sky News din Second Life a recreat studiourile din lumea real ca o replic exact a
lumii reale, folosind chiar arhitectura original. Rezidenii din Second Life pot vizita i
explora studiourile virtuale. New York Times garanteaz prezentarea tutror tirilor din Second
Life.
CNN a creat I-Report din Second Life pentru tiri, foto i video din realitatea virtual.
CNN propune s ne jucm de-a reporterii n lumea virtual. Proiectul coaguleaz o echip de
rezideni/jurnaliti amatori, echipai pentru a transmite tirile n timp real. Vizitatorii afl
noutile prin intermediul chiocurilor amplasate n diverse locaii din Second Life. Reeaua
de reporteri amatori funcioneaz ca o coal de jurnalism unde se organizeaz ntlniri
sptmnale conduse de reprezentani ai CNN i unde jurnaliti de top, cum ar fi Larry King,
in sesiuni de training pentru reporterii cu potenial.
Alte Media create n spaiul Second Life: de ex. Wired Magazine - Big Media Gets a
Second Life sau Google - virtual journalism second life, Google - newspapers in second life,
Google - news media in second life.
Bucureti-ul virtual din Second Life
Prezena romneasc n Second Life s-a manifestat prin crearea Bucureti-ului virtual
la sfaritul lui noiembrie 2008, de ctre Aura Tatu, adic LaraCroft Akula n Second Life.
Bucuretiul Virtual din Second Life este replica virtuala a centrului Bucuretiului real i
ocup poziia a asea n seciunea Arts & Culture i a douzeci i opta global, n lista celor
mai bune locaii din Second Life. Este un proiect colaborativ al crui scop urmrete
promovarea Romniei i a brandurilor locale prin intermediul uneltelor web 3D i crearea
unui spaiu familiar ca peisaj i dinamizat prin evenimente virtuale, dedicat comunitii de
romni din Second Life. Utilizatorii pot face plimbari virtuale pe langa Ateneu, pot participa
la evenimente i pot face shopping n mall.
n Second Life, Bucuretiul este o insula de 65.000 metri ptrai n care sunt
reprezentate cteva cldiri importante din zona Piata Revoluiei, Muzeul National de Arta n
care a fost recreat o colecie de picturi romneti pn la Ateneu. Bucuretiul "plutitor" din
Second Life, spune Aura Tatu, e gndit ca un spaiu pentru socializare, pentru distracie,
fiindc numai dac se ntmpl mereu ceva poate fi crescut numrul de vizitatori.
Actualmente se lucreaz la proiectul Romnia Virtual.
Virtual Bucharest a devenit i o pia de deschidere pentru companii. Avnd un trafic
mediu de 35.000 de utilizatori pe zi, firmele romneti se "lupt" s aib loc n oraul virtual.
La doar patru luni de la lansare, aproximativ 20% din utilizatorii care intr n Virtual
Bucharest sunt strini venii la cumprturi, att n magazinele unor branduri fictive, dar i a
unora adevrate.
Second Life a fost lansat n 2003, dar a devenit popular la nivel mondial n 2006. n
prezent, platforma are 15 milioane de utilizatori nregistrai, iar valorea total a tranzaciilor se
ridic la 1,5 milioane de dolari americani.
792
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Pe cine poi ntlni n Second Life? Dar n Bucuretiul Virtual? IBM, Cisco, Microsoft, CNN,
Reuters, Wired, Playboy, Peugeot, Mercedes, Vodafone, Orange, ABN, ING, Coca Cola,
L'Oreal, Philips, UNCP (New Media Center for the Study of Journalism and Mass
Communication) sunt doar cteva dintre brandurile mari, internaionale, pe care le poi vedea
sau utiliza. Electrolux, BCR, Farmacii, Gndul primul ziar romnesc din SL (2008-2009)
sunt deja n Bucureti-ul virtual.
O privire comparativ ntre Gndul i I-Report (CNN) n Second Life6
Gndul
Pagina ziarului din Second Life se deschide ntr-un stil narativ, specific romnilor:
ncepnd de astzi, suntem i acolo. Sediul nostru este deschis permanent n New City,
coordonatele 229.159.22., un ora modern i elegant, construit de Clement Rosher
(Nicolaescu) i destinat afacerilor, comerului i evenimentelor de toate felurile. Dac-l
survolai, orientai-v dup fascicolul rou care nete chiar din cldirea nchiriat de noi pe
malul oceanului. Nu fii timizi i intrai. S-ar putea s gsii un redactor aezat la biroul din
col, gata s fac puin conversaie (ar sta el la taclale, dar are de lucru i n RL) ori s-i ajute
pe nou-venii s se descurce prin A doua via. Dac nu e nimeni, tot nu v vei plictisi.
ncercai canapeaua animat, vedei ct de confortabil e locul ziaristului cu touch luai i
pix, dai drumul la muzic radio romnesc cu tiri din rioar sau citii ziarul Gndul cu un
click pe panoul de pe perete. Cutia rotitoare din stnga e pentru mesaje. Click pe ea, apoi
apsai Yes n fereastra albastr i scriei n chat ce avei de spus. Ajunge urgent la adresa
noastr email.
n fine, dac suntei stui de SL hoinareal i vrei s v odihnii undeva, creai-v aici un LM.
Pentru nceptori: mergei la World n susul ecranului i selectai Create landmark here. n
felul acesta, nu pierdei locaia i v putei oricnd teleporta. V ateptm i v promitem SL
surprize. (Adela Tripsa)
Publicat n 14.06.2007 n Second Life.
6
https://my.secondlife.com/, 11 octombrie 2012. (Anexele 3, 4)
793
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
IReport
Prezentarea la IReport este total diferita: SL iReporters, Members: 474, Founder:
Rhonda Ireport, Open Enrollment.
This group is for resident reporters who want to contribute to CNN SL iReport.
Join us for special events and occasional announcements about CNN iReport in Second Life.
CNN, iReport, news, journalism, citizen, reporter. View Full Profile in Second Life View
Full Profile, More Sharing ServicesShare| Share on facebook Share on twitterShare on email,
Link to this page: http://world.secondlife.com/group/3cab6cad-9b29-689c-7716-
66991a547597, This page was last generated at 2012-10-16T03:10:35-00:00
Diferenele sunt evidente. n timp ce Gndul invit n stilul specific romnesc la colaborare,
varianta on-line a ziarului I-Report noteaz doar informaiile strict necesare pentru a-i putea
contacta. Ziarul romnesc public subiectele din varianta on-line, n timp ce I-Report dezvolt
subiecte din spaiul Second Life. Jurnalitii pot fi aici avatarurile din virtual, n timp ce ziarul
Gndul are aceleai semnturi ca n varianta on-line sau print (variant din anul 2007).
Pentru a face totul mai atractiv, jurnaliti din Real Life (de ex. Larry King) susin cursuri de
jurnalism n Second Life pentru rezidentii spatiului virtual.
Second Life i importana lui pentru pres
Second Life a fost identificat drept locul ideal pentru existena unei prese obiective
(ideale).
Soluia utilizrii unei prese noi, idealizate i obiective, ntr-o alt forma de via, ntr-o alt
existen, a fost mbratiat cu succes de multe instituii de pres din mediul real. Second Life
ar putea fi soluia gsit pentru a substitui realitatea anost, pe alocuri imposibil de suportat i
de surmontat. Ceea ce iniial a fost conceput drept un joc, s-a transformat treptat ntr-o reea
de socializare de anvergur planetar, care a captat i capteaz tot mai muli utilizatori.
Cei ce rezist financiar pot chiar s dezvolte redacii. Publicaiile electronice sunt ieftine i
relativ uor de fcut, ns alimentarea lor cu coninut cere rezisten nervoas, contiin
profesional i asimilarea faptului c, n acest timp, trebuie s faci altceva, s supravietuieti
financiar, pn cnd presa i va aduce veniturile scontate.
Ar exista totusi un risc: lumea virtual a Second Life-ului ar putea reconstitui pana la
identificare lumea real, pe care o reneaga. In acest spaiu - imaginat ca fiind ideal- tarele
realitii imediate ar putea ptrunde subversiv i ar distruge iluzia perfeciunii locului.
794
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Conceputa i susinuta de aceeai oameni, cu obiceiuri, tabieturi, formaii i informaii din
viata reala, media virtuala a Second Life-ului ar putea esua in tentativa de a se autoinventa.
Experiena attor generaii de oameni care au ncercat schimbri radicale pentru a atinge
absolutul i au sfrit prin a accepta dezamgii sau nu contingentul, ne face s credem c
Second Life rmne doar o varianta a existenei care tinde spre perfeciune, ideal, absolut, fr
a avea pretenia c l-ar atinge.
Bibliografie
http://www.trafic.ro/vizitatori/top-siteuri-stiri-massmedia/saptamana
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blog
http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/retele
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DhrgbRugmTA&NR=1&feature=endscreen, 6 noiembrie
2013.
https://my.secondlife.com/, 11 octombrie 2012.
795
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Anexa 1
Top siteuri stiri/massmedia
Net Index
Stiri/Massmedi
a: 2.372,65 ( - Vizitatori
Website Vizite Afisari
0,65%) unici
11.11.2013
17.11.2013
www.realitatea.net
? ? ?
www.rol.ro
? ? ?
www.libertatea.ro
? ? ?
www.adevarul.ro 1.229.080 2.098.926 4.670.324
Adevarul.ro - Faptele asa cum sunt!
Locul 5 In Clasamentul General | -13.347 -21.898 -177.359
www.adevarul.ro 22,28%
www.gandul.info
? ? ?
www.ziare.com
Stirile de ultima ora, 24 de ore din 24, orice 751.244 1.306.308 4.526.793
stire importanta in cel mult 10 minute. Toate
ziarel... 21.276 37.338 187.508
Locul 15 In Clasamentul General | 13,62%
www.ziare.com
www.bzi.ro
722.703 1.328.328 3.660.411
Buna Ziua Iasi - afla ultimele informatii
despre: evenimente, investigatii, anchete,
-13.641 -23.326 -76.612
video, nationa...
13,10%
Locul 17 In Clasamentul General | www.bzi.ro
evz.ro
687.897 1.409.362 4.049.214
Evenimentul Zilei. Cel mai bun portal de tiri
din Romnia. Informaii fierbini,
-69.365 -115.111 -735.861
exclusivit...
12,47%
Locul 19 In Clasamentul General | evz.ro
www.antena3.ro
Stiri din toate domeniile, imediat ce 671.857 1.406.877 4.698.848
evenimentele se produc. Si altceva decat vezi
la televizor. 51.752 105.303 358.866
Locul 21 In Clasamentul General | 12,18%
www.antena3.ro
www.click.ro
Click.ro - Cele mai tari exclusivitati si 596.917 1.219.861 4.567.631
evenimente. Vedete, sport, divertisment la doar
un Click!... 22.490 51.568 192.147
Locul 26 In Clasamentul General | 10,82%
www.click.ro
796
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Anexa 2.
8. Galerie foto - Cum s faci bani n Second Life. Baron
http://www.gandul.info/magazin/cum-sa-faci-bani-in-second-life-baronii-
6586117/galerie?p=1#galerie
n timp ce UE scufund insulele europenilor, milionarii din terenuri cresc peste oceane
Neiniiailor, pmntul din Second Life li se poate prea la fel de lipsit de valoare ca i cel de
pe Lun. Lucrurile nu stau deloc aa. El se tranzacioneaz pe bani adevrai i aduce zeci de
milioane de dolari companiei Linden Lab (LL), proprietara jocului, i rezidenilor care-l
cumpr de la aceasta, pentru a-l nchiria i revinde altora, care i aaz acolo magazinele,
oraele, casele, ntemeind comuniti. Terenurile nu s-au ieftinit nc, dei economia SL a
intrat n a treia lun de scdere, iar Linden Lab l d cel mai scump. O regiune (sim)
performant cumprat de la LL cost 1.000 de dolari americani, n care intr i taxa (fees sau
tier) pentru prima lun. Aceasta se ridic la 295 USD, se pltete obligatoriu i la dat fix, iar
dac proprietarul nu are suma n contul su din SL, compania l execut, lundu-i banii de pe
cardul de credit. Cine nu ctig destul din chirii sau alte afaceri ca s-i acopere drile are
dou opiuni: fie i vinde sim-ul pe pia la un pre ce poate cobor i la 150-200 de dolari, n
funcie de cerere i de ct de aproape este scadena, fie l abandoneaz, el revenind n posesia
Guvernatorului Linden, stpnul a dou continente, demiurgul care scoate insule din
nesfritul ocean de pixeli. Pare o afacere riscant, dar pentru unii este exact contrariul.
Anshe Chung, privilegiat de Linden Lab
Avatarul Anshe Chung (Ailin Graef n viaa real) a devenit deja faimoas n 2006, fiind
prima persoan care a fcut un milion de dolari n SL. De-atunci, Anshe, care triete n
China, s-a ntrecut pe sine, ajungnd rsfata Linden Lab, care-i vinde en gros sim-uri, nu
numai cu pre, ci i cu taxa lunar redus. Acest lucru i-a revoltat pe ali proprietari de terenuri
- nevoii s plteasc taxele integral i s nchirieze altora la preuri mai mari dect Anshe -
care au acuzat LL de politici anticoncureniale. Pe chaturile grupurilor specializate n
797
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
imobiliare se spune c ar fi cumprat recent, de la Linden, 450 de HS sim-uri (regiuni light, cu
destinaie exclusiv rezidenial), special ieftinite, ceea ce a ridicat un val de antipatie peste
"the beach". Hotrt lucru, Anshe n-a reuit, de la incidentul din 2006, s devin i popular.
Atunci, n timp ce ddea un interviu pentru un post tv real, a fost atacat n SL, de un grup de
"grieferi", cu imense penisuri zburtoare, care au blocat-o la declaraii 15 minute, dup care
au postat filmuleul pe Youtube. Soul baronesei s-a simit ofensat i a cerut interzicerea lui.
Anshe nu este singura latifundiar. Kandee Herrey (Ariel Gonzales) explica pentru CNN cum,
de la un sim, a adunat sute, soul ei prsindu-i slujba de la Merryll Linch ca s se dedice
exclusiv imobiliarelor din SL. "i ne merge destul de bine", concluziona ea. Socotelile sunt
simple: profitul mediu pe sim este n jur de 100 USD. nmulii-l cu dou-trei sute sau cteva
mii (cte ar avea Anshe) i vei vedea ce nseamn "destul de bine" pentru baroni.
Sfaturi pentru europeni
1. Asociai-v cu un rezident de ncredere dintr-o ar care nu pltete TVA (VAT) pe
pmntul din SL (SUA, Australia, China etc). Altfel, la taxa de 295 USD se adaug TVA-ul
rii de origine (56 de dolari pentru romni, pn la 1 iulie), pmntul devine prea scump, nu
v aduce profit i riscai s-l pierdei. Europenii au abandonat competiia imobiliar ncepnd
cu 2007, cnd CE a hotrt s-i taxeze pentru terenurile din SL, scufundndu-le practic
insulele i scondu-i din joc. Astfel, n timp ce guvernele altor state prefer s impoziteze
venituri de milioane, btrna birocrat se bucur la mruni.
2. Cumprai sim-uri direct de la rezideni, fiindc sunt la jumtate de pre fa de cele de la
Linden Lab.
3. Facei-le peisaje frumoase, evocatoare, cu atmosfer, pentru a fi superiori concurenei de
peste oceane, care nchiriaz la preuri mici.
4. Facei sim-uri tematice: gotice, victoriene, medievale etc, multe persoane prefernd s
triasc n SL ca n vremurile demult apuse, dar sunt puine regiuni pentru ele.
5. Punei accentul pe calitatea regiunii i a serviciilor, stabilii reguli de conduit puine i
clare, facei discount pentru nchirierile pe termen lung, nu v bgai nasul n treburile
locatarilor. Dac asociatul de peste mri i ri nu dispare ntr-o zi, lsndu-v fr nimic, s-ar
putea s v vd la televiziunea naional.
798
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Anexa 3.
799
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Anexa 4.
Exemplu de pagina din SL1
Your Account: CASINUCA
There is a problem with your account
Account Summary
Your current plan:
Basic Membership
Upgrade to Premium today!
Your billing rate:
FREE*
Your current status:
Active
Next bill date:
Country of Residence:
romania Change
Avatarul Casinuca
Subject to VAT:
Yes
Linden Dollar Summary
Linden Dollar balance:
L$ 0
US Dollar balance:
USD 0.00
Land Holdings
Allowed holdings:
0.00 square meters Upgrade to Premium to get land!
Current holdings:
0.00 square meters
Available for purchase:
0.00 square meters
Peak square meter usage:
0.00 square meters
Total monthly cost:
USD 0.00*
*
Includes Value Added Tax (VAT). If you wish to provide a VAT Registration Number, you
may enter it on this page.
1
https://my.secondlife.com/, 14 octombrie 2012.
800
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE THERAPEUTIC METAPHOR - AN INTERDICIPLINARY PERSPECTIVE
Irina CRUMPEI, Assistant, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai
Abstract: The empirical research on the use of metaphor in clinical settings has progressively
developed in recent decades. Methodological limitations involved in researching this
particular area caused some controversy in the reported results. Multiple functions of
metaphor have been revealed over time: clarifying ideas, strengthening therapeutic gains,
discovering clinical difficulties. In this article we will focus on the persuasive function of
metaphor. The persuasive function has been less explored in psychotherapy, though enjoyed
increased interest in other areas: marketing, political discourse analysis and social
psychology. Research in neighboring fields helped defining conditions that increase the value
of the persuasive message. Moreover, they clarified some of the mechanisms that activate
attitudinal change mediated by metaphors. Affective, cognitive and motivational processes
could explain the persuasive power of metaphors. Finally we discuss what implications these
results have on the use of metaphor in clinical context.
Keywords: therapeutic metaphor, persuasive function, psychotherapy
In 1985 Philip Barker observed in his work on the use of metaphors in psychotherapy
the small number of scientific studies on the subject. He explained this deficiency by the
difficulties raised by the controlled study of the healing function of metaphors. The decades
that followed have partially refuted his hypothesis. The role of metaphor in the therapeutic
change became a favorite subject in the literature (Barker, 1996; Long & Lepper, 2008). The
multiple functions of the metaphor were revealed one by one over time. Clarifying the
delivered messages (Clarke, 1989), strengthening the therapeutic insights (Donnelly &
Dumas, 1997), uncovering hidden symptoms (Rasmussen & Angus, 1996) are just some of
the functions described.
In this article we will focus on the persuasive function of metaphor. The persuasive
function of metaphor has been less explored in psychotherapy, although it has enjoyed
increased interest in other areas: marketing ( Roehm & Sternthal, 2001), political discourse
analysis (Voss et al., 1992) and social psychology (Ottati et al., 1999).
Empirical studies of the therapeutic metaphor
The empirical study on the use of metaphors in clinical settings has progressively
developed in recent decades. Methodological limitations raised by researching this particular
area determined a number of controversies in the reported results (McMullen, 1996).
McMullen (1996) observes that one idea constantly discussed is the lack of a direct
relationship between the number of metaphors used and the therapeutic outcomes. The
metaphor is useful for reaching certain clinical endpoints and should be used for its precise
purpose (McCurry & Hayes, 1992).
801
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The first studies on the therapeutic metaphor analyzed metaphor usage patterns in the
therapeutic interaction in relation to therapeutic outcomes (Pollio & Barlow, 1975; Barlow et
al., 1977). It was found that figurative language and metaphors appeared sporadically, in
regular, repetitive structures associated to problem solving and developing main themes.
Figurative phases were interlaced with large spaces of literally speech which described and
deepened the metaphor facilitated insight. After the therapeutic session, metaphors are stored
in an associated meaning context together with evoked memories, thoughts and emotions
(Angus & Rennie, 1989).
Only a few studies researched the use of metaphors in psychotherapy. Results usually
support metaphors effectiveness. Clients would remember easier sessions when metaphors
were used and considered them more useful (Martin et al, 1992). The reported arguments for
these assessments included increasing emotional awareness, clarifying objectives, establishing
relationships between ideas and an optimal relationship with the therapist. Advice containing
metaphors was assessed as more persuasive and useful than those expressed literally
(Donnelly & Dumas, 1997). Subjects valued figurative advice as superior to literal advice for
multiple reasons: they put the matter in a new light, suggesting new solutions, offering a
different perspective on the problem and clarifying the problem by making it easier to
understand. When participants were asked to write down all details they remembered about
each session, it was found that participants in the metaphor condition remembered more
about the advice while participants in the literal condition remembered more about the
stressor. Suit & Paradise (1985) investigated the impact of metaphors on the clients
assessment of the therapist. Participants were divided into four different conditions according
to the therapists response: non-metaphorical, complex metaphor, narrative metaphor and
clich. Participants in control and narrative metaphor conditions evaluated the therapist
significantly more positively in terms of empathy, competence and overall impression
compared to those in the clich condition. These results indicate the negative impact of using
clichs and the ineffectiveness of complex metaphors. The authors also noted the similar
results in the conditions control and narrative metaphor. Weak defined results that
support the lack of impact of the metaphor on clients perception of the therapist are reported
in Reitenbachs study (2000) which used a similar design.
Studies cited above support metaphors organizing role, the function of clarifying
goals and suggesting strategies to solve problems. Metaphors reframing function, its power
to shed a new light on old problems, has been repeatedly reported. Also, interventions using
metaphors are easier to remember and understand. However, the actual change in attitudes
mediated by the use of metaphors was insufficiently studied in the clinical and therapeutic
context. The persuasive function of the metaphor was, however, empirically studied in
adjacent fields.
What makes a persuasive metaphor?
Bringing together the results of 29 studies on the subject of the influence of metaphor,
regardless of their theoretical perspective, with a total of nearly 4,000 subjects, Sopory and
Dillard (2002 ) analyzed the persuasive impact of metaphors in a meta - analysis. Beyond the
main effect analysis, the authors considered some moderating variables: number of metaphors
802
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
used, length, position, target familiarity, novelty, the presentation and the credibility of the
source. Considering all these factors, the authors synthesized several important conclusions.
They found that metaphorical expression was significantly more persuasive compared
to literal language. Despite significant differences, the effect size was modest at less than 1%.
The authors point out that this percentage is comparable to those reported for other variables
investigated in persuasion literature. The same effect size is reported for the superior efficacy
of bilateral messages containing rejection of counterarguments compared to unilateral
messages (Allen, 1998 cit. The Pfau & Dillard, 2002). Moreover, the predictive power of
metaphorical language increases when it meets certain rules of use. In these circumstances the
use of metaphors explains up to 17% of the variance in attitudinal change (Sopory & Dillard,
2002). Through the analysis of moderator variables, Sopory and Dillard facilitated the
synthesis of several conditions that increase the persuasive value of the message:
- Using a single metaphor has a greater impact on changing attitudes than using
multiple metaphors. The more crowded the message, the less efficient it is.
- Complex metaphors that describe, repeat and detail as much as possible
characteristics of its elements, always keeping the same target and source, are more effective
than simple metaphors, mentioning the comparison elements once.
- Metaphors are associated with a significant change in attitude when located at the
beginning of the message than when situated inside the message or at the end.
- Metaphors are most effective when the public is familiar with the source, the
figurative term. Metaphors must be customized to the recipients knowledge and
characteristics. This is especially true in psychotherapy.
- Metaphors using new, surprising, unusual associations of terms are more
persuasive than those using known, common associations. Well known, widely used
metaphors have a minimal impact on individuals attitudes.
- Metaphors are more efficient heard than read.
- Metaphors are associated with higher attitude change when used by people with
low credibility, than when used by people with high credibility.
- Metaphors enhance transmitters credibility. However, of the three components of
credibility: competence, character and dynamism, metaphors mostly enhance positive
assessment of dynamism.
Frey and Eagly (1993) reached similar conclusions even if they expressed them in a
different manner. They reported that the intensity and the complexity of a message undermine
its persuasive power. Providing ready-made information and images limits cognitive
processing and message ownership for the audience. Summarizing the features of an
elaborated message, they come to contradict the principles for an efficient metaphorical
message as described by Sopory and Dillard (2002). Elaborated messages use many
metaphors to support a point of view, up to six in a paragraph. Almost all metaphors are
clichs and are not conceptually related to the defended argument. These findings are
supported by Sopory and Dillards results describing efficient metaphors as singular,
repetitive, with surprising associations of terms, unknown to the listener.
803
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Mechanisms of metaphors persuasive function
The power of metaphors has been reported since the time of ancient rhetoric when
figures of speech were used for their ability to sneak into the judges minds (DeRosa, 2007).
Metaphors mechanisms act at multiple levels: cognitive, affective and motivational.
From a cognitive point of view, metaphors facilitate structuring and organizing
information (Mio, 1996; Read et al., 1990). The link found between the metaphors two terms
evokes a wide range of connections in the listeners semantic memory (Whaley, 1991 cit. in
Sopory & Dillard, 2002). Well-chosen metaphors provide a base for structuring subsequent
arguments, connecting the information in a coherent and meaningful manner. This optimal
organization ensures a better understanding and retention of the message. Individuals have a
more favorable attitude on messages containing metaphors and their tendency to counter
decreases (McQuarie & Mick, 1992). Processing the metaphors requires a superior cognitive
effort, which facilitates its persuasive power. The multitude of connections generated by
joining together the metaphors two terms, limits the cognitive space for formulating
counterarguments.
Metaphors also persuade by stimulating affective reactions (Sopory, 2005; DeRosia,
2007). Studies show metaphors generate a positive attitude towards the message due to the
tension release process (Reinsch, 1971). The positive emotions mediate the metaphors
persuasive impact. Metaphors are literally false and deviate from the logical, concrete reality.
The newer and the more unusual, the higher the initial tension they arouse. The perception of
the literal error and the ambiguous context, require cognitive effort. The tension will be
released when the metaphors meaning is elucidated. Solving the metaphor provides intrinsic
satisfaction generating positive emotions that are transferred on the message strengthening its
acceptance (McQuarrie & Mick , 1992; Sopory & Dillard , 2002).
The motivational perspective on the persuasive function of the metaphor is based on
the idea that it increases the speakers credibility. Studies from the 60s reported a positive
assessment of the speakers creativity, reflected on his/hers credibility (McCroskey & Combs,
1969). Speakers credibility would lead to easier acceptance of the message. However,
Sopory and Dillard (2002) showed in their meta-analysis that individuals dont appreciate
more favorable the speakers competence and character, but only his/hers dynamism. Besides
the results reported by Frey and Eagly (1993) indicate frequent use of metaphors in common
speech. They often are clichs without intrinsic creative and intellectual value. Their mere use
would not justify an increase in the credibility of the transmitter.
Implications for the use of metaphor in psychotherapy
The results presented above suggest that the effectiveness of metaphors in
psychotherapy depends more on the content and quality of the message delivered, than the
credibility of the therapist who delivers it. When the relationship is not yet well-established
and the client seems to be reluctant to self-disclosure, the metaphor could be the solution to
deepen the relationship.
To increase the impact of the therapeutic metaphor, it is recommended to choose a
single association of terms to illustrate the idea to be delivered and to repeat it in different
forms. Overcrowding the speech with metaphors that vary the compared terms can have the
opposite effect. The metaphor should be used to introduce the intervention it represents. Thus,
804
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
further ideas will be structured around the cognitive support provided by the connections
evoked by the metaphor. The ideas will be easier to organize and to remember over time. This
argument is also supported by other research showing that the use of metaphors in therapy
increases retention of therapeutic events and insights (Martin et al., 1992). The therapist
should use surprising metaphors that encourage new cognitive connections. Thus the
reframing function is also fulfilled, providing the client with a new perspective on the
problem (Donnely & Dumas, 1997). The novelty of the metaphor is useful in facilitating two
of the persuasive mechanisms mentioned above. Firstly solving it will require cognitive effort,
limiting the clients possibility to develop counterarguments. Secondly, the unusual
association of terms will build an ambiguous context associated with tension. Finding the
solution to the metaphor will generate positive emotions reflected on the delivered message
and on the clients wellbeing. Although the association between the two parts of the metaphor
should be new to the client, the terms itself should be familiar and relevant to his/hers
problem. The metaphor should be customized to the clients socio-cultural background.
Bibliography
Angus, L.E., & Rennie, D.L. (1989). Envisioning the representational world: The clients
experience of metaphoric expression in psychotherapy. Psychotherapy, 26, 372-379.
Barker, P. (1985). Using metaphors in psychotherapy. New York: Brunner/Mazel.
Barker, P. (1996). Psychotherapeutic metaphors: A guide to theory and practice. New
York: Brunner/Mazel.
Barlow, J.M., Polio, H.R., & Fine, H.J. (1977). Insight and figurative language in
psychotherapy. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, and Practice, 14, 212-222.
Clarke, K.M. (1989). Creation of meaning: An emotional processing task in
psychotherapy. Psychotherapy, 26, 139-148.
DeRosia, E. D. (2007). Rediscovering theory: Integrating ancient hypotheses and modern
empirical evidence of the audience-response effects of rhetorical figures. In E. McQuarrie
& B. J. Phillips (Eds.), Go figure! New directions in advertising rhetoric (pp. 23-50).
Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe.
Dillard, J. P., & Pfau, M. (Eds.). (2002). The persuasion handbook: Developments in theory
and practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Donnelly, C.M., & Dumas, J.E. (1997). Use of analogies in therapeutic situations: An
analogue study. Psychotherapy, 34, 124-132.
Frey, K.P., & Eagly, A.H. (1993). Vividness can undermine the persuasiveness of messages.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 32-44.
Long, P.S., & Lepper, G. (2008). Metaphor in psychoanalytic psychotherapy: A comparative
study of four cases by a practitioner-researcher. British Journal of Psychotherapy, 24, 343-
364.
Martin, J., Cummings, A.L., & Hallberg, E.T. (1992). Therapists intentional use of metaphor:
Memorability, clinical impact, and possible epistemic/motivational functions. Journal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 60, 143-145.
McCroskey, J. C. & Combs, W. H. (1969) The effects of the use of analogy on attitude
change and source credibility, Journal of Communication, 19(4), pp. 333339.
805
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
McCurry, S.M., & Hayes, S.C. (1992). Clinical and experimental perspectives on
metaphorical talk. Clinical Psychology Review, 12, 763-785.
McMullen, L.M. (1996). Studying the use of figurative language in psychotherapy: The
search for researchable questions. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity, 11, 241-255.
McQuarrie, E. F. & Mick, D. G. (1999) Visual rhetoric in advertising: text interpretive,
experimental, and reader-response analyses, Journal of Consumer Research, 26(1), pp. 3754.
Mio, J. S. (1996) Metaphor, politics, and persuasion, in: J. S. Mio & A. N. Katz (Eds),
Metaphor: Implications and applications, pp. 127146 (Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum).
Ottati, V., Rhoads, S., & Graesser, A.C. (1999). The effect of metaphor on processing style in
a persuasion task: A motivational resonance model. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 77, 688-697.
Pollio, H.R., & Barlow, J.M. (1975). A behavioral analysis of figurative language in
psychotherapy: One session in a single case study. Language and Speech, 18, 236-254.
Rasmussen, B.R., & Angus, L. (1996). Metaphor in psychodynamic psychotherapy with
borderline and non-borderline clients: A qualitative analysis. Psychotherapy, 33, 521-530.
Read, S.J., Cesa, I.L., Jones, D.K., & Collins, N.L. (1990). When is the federal budget like a
baby? Metaphor in political rhetoric. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity, 5, 125-149.
Reinsch, L.N. (1971). An investigation of the effects of the metaphor and simile in persuasive
discourse. Speech Monographs, 38, 142-145.
Reitenbach, D.M. (2000). The effect of metaphor and psychological reactance on the
counseling relationship. Dissertation Abstracts International, 60, 3577.
Roehm, M.L., & Sternthal, B. (2001). The moderating effect of knowledge and resources
on the persuasive impact of analogies. Journal of Consumer Research, 28, 257-272.
Sopory, P., & Dillard, J.P. (2002). The persuasive effects of metaphor: A meta-analysis.
Human Communication Research, 28, 382-419.
Sopory, P. (2005). Metaphor and affect. Poetic Today. 26(3), 432-458.
Suit, J.L., & Paradise, L.V. (1985). Effects of metaphors and cognitive complexity on
perceived counselor characteristics. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 32, 23-28.
Voss, J., Kennet, J., Wiley, J., & Engstler-Schooler, T. (1992). Experts at debates: The use of
a metaphor in the U.S. Senate debate on the Gulf crisis. Metaphor and Symbolic Activity, 7,
197-214.
806
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
NUEVOS CONTACTOS RUMANO-ROMANCE:
ALGUNOS FENMENOS DE INTERFERENCIA
Iulia NICA, Assistant Professor, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai /
Universidad de Sevilla
Abstract. The large migratory movement from Romania to Western Europe in the past two
decades has led to new contacts between Romanian and other Romances languages. The
paper focuses on the Romanian used by its native speakers in the ethnic communities that
have arisen in Italy, France, Spain and Portugal and provides data from computer-mediated
communication. The study is structured as follows: a presentation of these language contact
situations, the state of the art in research on the Romanian communities in Romance
language speaking countries, methodological issues related to the exploitation of computer-
mediated communication as data source, a sampling of contact phenomena, and conclusions.
Keywords: intra-Romance language contact, extraterritorial Romanian, interference, contact
linguistics, computer-mediated communication
1. La emigracin rumana de fecha reciente y las situaciones de contacto derivadas
Los ltimos veinte aos han registrado un amplio fenmeno migratorio desde
Rumana hacia el Occidente de Europa, con destino predilecto a los pases de habla romance,
Italia y Espaa principalmente, pero tambin Francia y Portugal. Los datos demogrficos son
muy desiguales para los cuatro pases: cerca de dos millones de rumanos en Italia y Espaa el
1 de enero de 2011, 968600 en Italia y 864300 en Espaa, frente a unas decenas de miles de
personas en Francia y Portugal en 2010, 66500 y 32.500 respectivamente. 1.
El perfil de los inmigrantes rumanos en los pases de nuestro inters es tambin
desigual. En Italia y Espaa la migracin rumana es mayoritariamente de origen rural y de
regiones determinadas de Rumana; en estas circunstancias se han creado agrupaciones por
procedencia, compactas y antiguas familias, amigos, compaeros, aldeas y prevalecen los
migrantes con educacin ms baja. En Francia la comunidad rumana es dispersa y
representada por individuos o ncleos familiares y sus miembros suelen tener educacin ms
extensa (Olariu, 2010). La migracin es en su mayora de tipo laboral, si bien el
establecimiento o el estudio son otras motivaciones importantes del traslado. La migracin
rumana sigue la tendencias observables a nivel mundial, como el incremento de la movilidad,
de la interconectividad y de la complexidad de las redes sociales y de comunicacin
(Blommaert, 2010). Los estudios sociolgicos y sociolingsticos (Chini, 2004, 2009, 2011;
Olariu, 2010, 2011; Viruela, 2006; La inmigracin rumana en Espaa, 2007; Tamames,
2008; Marcu, 2009; Jieanu, 2012) reflejan la evolucin hacia un nuevo tipo de migrante
rumano en la actualidad. ste no es necesariamente estable, de sentamiento definitivo, sino se
traslada a plazo indefinido. Ya no es de escasas relaciones con el pas de origen, sino
1
Datos procedentes de: Istituto Nazionale di Statistica de Italia (http://www.istat.it), Instituto Nacional de
Estadstica de Espaa (http://www.ine.es), Institut National de la Statistique et des tudes conomiques de
Francia (www.insee.fr) y Eurostat (http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu).
807
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
mantiene con ste un contacto continuo, fortalecido por los vnculos familiares y favorecido
por los avances tecnolgicos, particularmente la tecnologa de la informacin y comunicacin.
El regreso a casa, para eventos familiares o vacaciones, genera un movimiento migratorio en
varios grados circulatorio. Muchos migrantes rumanos desarrollan actividades econmicas
entre el pas de salida y el de acogida. La vuelta frecuente al punto de salida y la dimensin de
algunos enclaves tnicos rumanos contribuyen decisivamente al mantenimiento de la
identidad cultural, puesto que en el mbito de estos grupos numerosos, hay una intensa vida
comunitaria, con redes sociales estrechas y servicios especficos variados: comercios, lugares
de ocio, iglesias (Viruela, 2006; Schulte, 2012). La comunicacin digital es cada vez ms
importante en la construccin de la identidad diasprica (Hall, 2005) tambin en el caso de la
migracin rumana. Podemos, por consiguiente, en trminos de Ambrosini (2008), estimar que
la dispora rumana actual se caracteriza por un transnacionalismo no solo simblico y
mercantil, sino igualmente circulatorio y conectivo.
En el plano lingstico, el rumano tiene una larga tradicin de contacto con los dems
romances, especialmente con el francs y el italiano, que han contribuido decisivamente a su
perfil actual (Avram, 1982; ora, 2006). Sin embargo, los contactos recientes ocurren en un
nuevo escenario, extraterritorial, con un estatuto inferior del rumano, de lengua minoritaria. El
aprendizaje espontneo del otro romance por parte de los migrantes rumanos y sobre todo el
uso constante de esta segunda lengua tiene un inevitable impacto sobre su idioma nativo,
especialmente en contacto con una lengua muy similar. Extrapolando las consideraciones de
Munteanu Coln (2008, 2009, 2011), se desarrollan as nueva[s] modalidad[es] romnica[s]
de contacto, y la evolucin a medio y largo plazo depende de la conciencia lingstica de los
migrantes: el empeo a preservar el rumano como smbolo de su identidad contribuir a que
el rumaol, el rotaliano, la ronceza sigan como lengua de uso a travs de las generaciones, en
paralelo con el rumano intraterritorial como lengua de prestigio; en caso contrario, puede
aparecer una nueva variedad del rumano e incluso una nueva lengua. La posicin de
Munteanu Coln es compartida por Schulte (2010, 2012), que tambin habla del rumano en
Espaa. El posible resultado del encuentro entre rumano y romance seran dos tipos de
variedades del rumano: un rumano estndar con algunos pocos rasgos debidos al contacto
lingstico, en la primera y quiz en la segunda generacin, y una variedad ms mezclada y
con ms caractersticas locales, en la segunda generacin, respectivamente, como el rumaol
o el rotaliano.
Desde la sociologa, Viruela (2006) identifica unas condiciones sociales favorables a
la aparicin del bilingismo en el seno de los enclaves rumanos: por una parte, el afn de
integracin en la comunidad de acogida con un alto grado de inclusin de los hijos en el
sistema educativo local y por otra, la existencia de redes estrechas entre los connacionales,
que fomentan el mantenimiento de la propia cultura y lengua. A estas se aaden las
similitudes lxicas y estructurales entre la lengua nativa y la lengua de la mayora, favorables
para una muy buena competencia en la lengua de contacto, pero tambin para la interferencia
lingstica.
De momento, se pueden plantear tales evoluciones tan solo para las comunidades
rumanas muy numerosas de Italia y Espaa. La simple circulacin y frecuencia de nombres
para semejantes variedades en las respectivas atestiguan la dimensin del fenmeno y la
conciencia que de se se tiene: rumaniol y rumaol en Espaa, rotalian y rotaliano en Italia,
808
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
frente al ms raro roncez en Francia y al parecer ninguna etiqueta para las interferencias
entre rumano y portugus.
2. La investigacin de las comunidades lingsticas rumanas en los pases de habla
romance
Los contactos recientes rumano-romance son todava poco estudiados. La
investigacin se ha desarrollado por pases o a nivel local. As, Stan (2003), Olariu (2010,
2011), Cohal (2007a, 2007b, 2011) exploran la lengua de los inmigrantes rumanos de Italia,
Olariu en la zona de Turn, y Chircu (2010) la de los inmigrantes rumanos de Francia.
Munteanu Coln (2008, 2009, 2011), Jieanu (2012) y U Burcea (2010) miran el contacto
rumano-castellano en Espaa en general, mientras Muoz Carrobles (2011, 2013) se centra en
la Comunidad de Madrid y Schulte (2010, 2012) trata el contacto complejo rumano-
castellano-cataln en Castelln de la Plana, dentro de la Comunidad Valenciana. No
conocemos hasta la fecha estudios sobre el encuentro entre el rumano y el portugus, ni
anlisis comparativos entre las distintas situaciones de contacto.
En cuanto a las perspectivas adoptadas, Chircu (2010) ofrece una aproximacin
genrica al problema. Munteanu Coln (2008, 2009, 2011) y Schulte (2010, 2012) analizan el
estatuto de los fenmenos de contacto. Munteanu Coln (1996, 2002, 2008, 2009, 2011),
Jieanu (2012) y U Burcea (2010) comparan la lengua hablada y la lengua escrita, el registro
informal y el registro formal. Los fenmenos de transferencia son el centro de inters para
Stan (2003), Olariu (2010) y Cohal (2007a, 2007b, 2011) acerca del contacto rumano-italiano;
para Munteanu Coln (1996, 2002, 2008, 2009, 2011), Jieanu (2012), U Burcea (2010),
Muoz Carrobles (2013) en cuanto al contacto rumano-castellano, y para Schulte (2010,
2012) en referencia al contacto del rumano con el castellano y el cataln a la vez. Las
investigaciones de Schulte (2010, 2012), Jieanu (2012), Muoz Carrobles (2011, 2013),
Olariu (2010, 2011) se desarrollan en el marco de la sociolingstica de la migracin, con
encuestas y anlisis de actitudes lingsticas. Schulte (2010, 2012) trata la tipologa de los
cambios estructurales generados por el contacto entre lenguas genticamente relacionadas.
En su gran mayora, estos estudios son de dimensin reducida y se han basado en
datos lingsticos recogidos mediante trabajo de campo en entrevistas o encuestas. Solo
aisladamente han explotado fuentes escritas o en lnea (Stan, 2003; U Burcea, 2010; Jieanu,
2012). En el presente trabajo, preliminar y de carcter exploratorio, aportamos informacin
relacionada con los contactos lingstico rumano-romance desde la comunicacin mediada
por ordenador, en forma escrita.
3. La comunicacin mediada por ordenador como fuente de datos
La comunicacin mediada por ordenador (computer-mediated communication), en
breve CMO, fue definida como comunicacin interpersonal por medio de los ordenadores y
sus redes (Herring, 1996) o bien como un tipo de lengua con rasgos propios y nicos
determinados por el uso del medio espacio electrnico, global e interactivo llamado Internet
(Crystal, 2001:18). Dentro de su tipologa, es importante la distincin entre CMO sincrnica
(online) y asincrnica (offline).
La comunicacin digital tiene una serie de peculiaridades que la distinguen de la
comunicacin cara a cara: ortografa indita; palabras informales, regionalismos, expresiones
809
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
coloquiales y jergales, interjecciones, abreviaturas; estilo telegrfico, con elipsis y abuso de
conjunciones; comentarios, hipertexto y elementos de interactividad; sustitutos del lenguaje
paraverbal, como emoticones, smbolos especiales, repeticiones de letras para imitar la
prosodia; anglicismos en lenguas distintas del ingls (Crystal, 2001: 18 y sigs; Beiwenger y
Storrer, 2008). Se considera generalmente que la CMO es un mixto entre escrito y hablado:
habla transcrita, escritura hablada o conversacin visible (Herring, 1996) o que ocupa
un continuum en el eje diamsico oral-escrito, con las formas sincrnicas (chat) ms prximas
a la lengua oral y las formas asincrnicas (foros, blogs) ms parecidas a la lengua escrita
(Cerruti y Onesti, 2009). A pesar de sus rasgos distintos, CMO es solo un tipo de uso
lingstico, con caractersticas de varios estilos y registros (Ibidem), y no una variedad
lingstica (Crystal, 2001: 271). La comunicacin digital mantiene, por lo tanto, relacin
estrecha con la interaccin verbal cara a cara.
En el mbito de la comunicacin electrnica, es de nuestro inters la relacionada con
las comunidades virtuales, particularmente con las disporas digitales y sus sitios diaspricos
o tnicos. Los sitios diaspricos se identifican por una temtica y un propsito bien
determinados -la representacin o la recreacin del pas de origen y la representacin de los
migrantes-, y suelen albergar dos componentes principales: una zona informativa y un foro.
La explotacin de la comunicacin mediada por ordenador como fuente de
informacin para el estudio del contacto lingstico plantea una serie de problemas
metodolgicos. Como habla transcrita y modalidad informal, espontnea, falta de autocontrol
o de respecto de las convenciones y al amparo del anonimato que ofrecen los foros en
Internet, la CMO es prxima a la lengua verncula, todava ms cuando los intercambios
verbales se desarrollan en el mbito de la comunidad tnica, sobre problemas reales. Los
datos son de primera mano, proceden de informantes que viven efectivamente en la
situacin de contacto. A diferencia de las entrevistas y encuestas tradicionales, los sitos
diaspricos renen una multitud de informantes, de varios puntos geogrficos, y cubren un
amplio abanico de aspectos relacionados con la situacin de contacto, ofreciendo una imagen
ms amplia de la misma. En cuanto a la obtencin de los datos lingsticos y no lingsticos,
la CMO disponible en lnea es una alternativa fcil y barata al trabajo de campo, y favorece la
comparacin entre distintas situaciones de contacto. Beiwenger y Storrer (2008) ofrecen una
compleja presentacin del problema de la adquisicin de corpus de CMO.
Sin embargo, la explotacin de la comunicacin mediada por ordenador para el
estudio del contacto lingstico requiere el filtrado de los rasgos tpicos de la CMO y de los
errores debidos a causas tcnicas, como los correctores automticos (ruido). En particular, la
comunicacin en los foros diaspricos, a la que prestamos particular atencin en el presente
estudio, se desarrolla offline, es asincrnica y pblica, con una lengua algo ms controlada, no
demasiado espontnea, ms cuidadosa, pero tambin del registro coloquial. Por supuesto, los
foros de los sitos tnicos reflejan solo parcialmente el uso lingstico en los enclaves rumanas
y es necesario explorar otros tipos de comunicacin electrnica para una descripcin ms
completa y ms fiel del mismo. En sntesis, la explotacin de la comunicacin mediada por
ordenador presenta igualmente ventajas y limitaciones. Por estas razones, debera usarse
como fuente complementaria a los medios sociolingsticos clsicos de informacin para el
estudio de los fenmenos de contacto.
810
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
La bsqueda en Internet indica que la disponibilidad de CMO es variable para las
situaciones de contacto que analizamos: abundante en Italia y Espaa, mucho ms reducida en
Francia y Portugal. El nmero y la diversidad de interacciones digitales para cada una de las
comunidades de inmigrantes rumanos son indicativos para su dimensin y complejidad.
Dentro del presente estudio de carcter exploratorio hemos analizado varios foros tnicos
rumanos y solo tangencialmente otras fuentes2. De tales sitios hemos extrado un micro
corpus de unos 1000 postings: aproximadamente 400 logs de Italia, 50 de Francia, 500 de
Espaa y 40 de Portugal.
4. Fenmenos de contacto en el rumano de Italia, Francia, Espaa y Portugal
Presentamos a continuacin algunas observaciones derivadas de la investigacin
preliminar para los cuatro enclaves lingsticos rumanos. Adems de las abreviaciones
tradicionales para el nombre de los romances, hacemos uso de las siguientes notaciones para
las distintas situaciones de contacto rumano-romance: rum.-it. para Italia; rum.-esp. para
Espaa y rum.-esp./cat. para las comunidades de Catalua o Valencia; rum.-fr. para Francia;
rum.-port. para Portugal.
La comunicacin digital proporciona una variedad de testimonios relacionados con los
enclaves rumanos, pero el presente trabajo se centra en el plano propiamente lingstico, en
los fenmenos de interferencia. Empleamos el trmino interferencia como desviacin de la
norma en una lengua debido a la influencia de otra de contacto (Weinreich, 1953: 1), o sea en
una concepcin neutra, no negativa y no orientada entre L1 y L2 (Payrat, 1985: 58).
El anlisis lingstico sigue las pautas de Sala (1998: 11-59). Se ha mirado la
influencia del idioma de contacto especialmente en los puntos dbiles o de desequilibrio de la
estructura del rumano, pero teniendo presentes sus tendencias internas. En la periferia de un
dominio lingstico suelen ocurrir simplificaciones de la estructura y pueden acentuarse las
tendencias propias de la lengua como consecuencia del contacto. Es prudente por lo tanto
preferir una causalidad mltiple de los fenmenos de contacto, en que la influencia extranjera
se junte a una evolucin interna. Hemos tenido en cuenta la distincin entre hechos de
inventario y hechos de distribucin que puedan resultar del contacto lingstico. En paralelo,
partiendo de las observaciones empricas de Stan (2003) y Schulte (2010, 2012) de que la
interferencia se ve favorecida por la proximidad acentuada entre rumano y el romance de
contacto, hemos mirado tambin casos con estas caractersticas.
Presentamos los hechos lingsticos conjuntamente para las cuatro situaciones de
contacto, a pesar de los datos desiguales y todava limitados. No contrastamos explcitamente
los contactos, el propsito principal es el de comprobar la posibilidad de operar
generalizaciones y comparaciones.
Fontica, fonologa y ortografa. La ausencia de los diacrticos en la comunicacin
electrnica complica el anlisis a nivel fontico-fonolgico, haciendo difcil la distincin
entre errores de ortografa y errores de pronunciacin. Un aspecto notable en la CMO de la
2 Ejemplos: <http://www.romania-italia.info/forum>, <http://www.adevarul.it>, <http://www.hotnews.ro>,
<http://www.gazetaromaneasca.com>, <http://www.adevarul.es>, <http://www.romanul.eu/romani-in-spania>,
<http://www.romaniadinspania.com>, <http://forum.spaniaromaneasca.com/>, <http://www.filiera.fr/forum>,
<http://air-micaromanie.webs.com/apps/blog/>,<http://forum.romanian-portal.com>,
<http://www.instrainatate.ro/anunturi>.
811
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
emigracin rumana es el cambio o la hesitacin en la grafa de las palabras. El uso escrito
limitado, junto con las reformas ortogrficas recientes del rumano, pueden llevar a una
competencia ortogrfica debilitada, proclive a recibir influencias desde la norma ortogrfica
de contacto. El fenmeno es patente cuando existen en el otro romance equivalentes similares.
Son generalmente problemticos los puntos en que el rumano difiere del romance de
contacto en la representacin grfica, como por ejemplo la de [z] y [s] intervoclicas:
rum.-it. result (rum. rezult)
rum.-fr. assumandu-si toate riscurile (rum. asumndu-i).
Aparecen errores en casos de divergencia en la correspondencia rumana sonido-
grafema no solo en comparacin con los otros romances sino incluso en su interior. Las
desviaciones con respecto a la norma existen en el rumano intraterritorial, pero el contacto las
intensifica. Es el caso de la -i final:
rum.-it. Deveniti membrii la [] (rum. membri ai []); poate fii formulata (rum.
poate fi)
rum.-sp. sti sa citesti (rum. tii)
rum.-port. Copii nscui dup 15 septembrie (rum. copiii),
como el de los pronombres y las formas del verbo a fi, con e- inicio de palabra (/je/).
La confusin aumenta si existen pares homfonos, por ejemplo el pronombre personal ea vs.
la forma verbal ia:
rum.-fr. sa ma insor cu ia (rum. ea); datorita iei (rum. ei); o plateste ia pt mine (rum.
ea).
Algunas veces, los errores sugieren posibles cambios o hesitacin en la pronunciacin
de las palabras, por la influencia de formas muy prximas en la lengua de contacto:
rum.-it. Pentru a potea comunica intre dvs (rum. a putea)
rum.-fr. e manific (rum. magnific)
Morfosintaxis. Un fenmeno de primera importancia a nivel morfosintctico es el
debilitamiento de la declinacin. Los calcos de los otros romances acentan esta tendencia
interna del rumano hacia la eliminacin de las formas casuales flexionales:
rum.-it. puteti acum deveni membri la forumul [] (rum. membri ai forumului)
rum.-esp. Multumesc la nu stiu la cine (rum. nu tiu cui); acu in asteptare de raspuns
(rum. n ateptarea unui rspuns)
rum.-port. Oficiu de Stare Civil (rum. Oficiul Strii Civile); Ministerul de
Administratie Interna (rum. Ministerul Administraiei i Internelor, Ministerul Afacerilor
Interne).
La prdida del genitivo va acompaada por el uso en declino del artculo genitival, de
nuevo una tendencia interna muy marcada y difusa del rumano actual. El artculo genitival
est reducido a la forma invariable a o bien en su seleccin se confunden el posesor y el
objeto posedo:
rum.-fr. tanara a carui text ii apartine (rum. careia ii apartine textul)
rum.-port. Contribuiile angajatorilor [] i a angajailor (rum. ale angajailor).
El uso alterado de los relativos es otra tendencia interna del rumano que se ve
reforzada en las situaciones de contacto estudiados, bajo mltiples aspectos: ausencia de la
marca para el acusativo, cambio de distribucin en el par de relativos care - ce o bien la no
812
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
replicacin de los pronombres tnicos por las formas tonas en contacto con el francs o el
italiano:
rum.-fr. Invit [] pe cei care i-am jignit (rum. cei pe care i-am jignit); cei ce jigniti pe
mine (rum. cei ce m jignii; cei ce m jignii pe mine)
rum.-esp. mala limba ce o utilizez eu (rum. ms frecuente pe care o utilizez).
No sealada hasta la fecha es la sustitucin del relativo care por la conjuncin c
debido a la proximidad formal entre sus equivalentes romances (fr. que, qui pronombres vs. fr.
que conjuncin):
rum.-fr. un om ca isi recunoaste greselile (rum. un om care).
Hay alteraciones o vacilaciones en el uso del artculo definido, como la omisin
constante en el rumano hablado del masculino o neutro singular -l:
rum.-fr. registru national (rum. registrul naional)
rum.-esp. tot liceu (rum. tot liceul); salaru minim (rum. salariul minim),
y, a la inversa, la aparicin del artculo en sintagmas preposicionales en que debera
faltar:
rum.-port. se asigur gratuitate [] pentru pensionari sau invalizi precum si pentru
[] femei gravide sau luze, [] omerii etc. (rum. pentru omeri).
En ambos casos se da un cambio en la distribucin del artculo definido. Si bien la
primera tendencia es altamente frecuente en el rumano intraterritorial hablado, el artculo
encltico puede debilitarse an ms en contacto con las formas nominales siempre sin fusin
del artculo en el otro romance. El segundo fenmeno se debe a que en rumano frente a los
dems romances suele faltar el artculo definido en sintagmas preposicionales con un nombre
en acusativo sin especificador.
Para los grados de intensidad se pueden usar formas menos comunes, parecidas al otro
romance:
rum.-esp. sint bine surprinsa ca (rum. comn foarte surprins, raramente surprins
bine).
En el verbo se dan una frecuencia ms alta de la voz pasiva y cambios de valencia:
rum.-it. la noi in judet accepta si facute la notar Italian (rum. se accept); este
acceptata si o imputernicire (rum. se accept); sa fie specificat corect scopul (rum. s se
precizeze)
rum.-esp. buletinu se expira (rum. expir); am scrisoarea facuta (rum. am fcut
scrisoarea); m-am trecut la astia ca era internetul mai ieftin (rum. am trecut la).
El contacto con otras lenguas romnicas multiplica los adverbios en mente, escasos
en rumano:
rum.-esp. directamente implicat (rum. direct implicat)
y cambia las preposiciones o reanaliza las formas contradas tpicas del rumano:
rum.-esp. munceai in camp (rum. la camp); n un (rum. ntr-un < ntre + un)
rum.-port. se afla n teritoriul portughez (rum. pe teritoriul portughez).
La tpica se ve ligeramente modificada en los pocos puntos de divergencia con los
otros romances:
rum.-it. puteti acum deveni membri (rum. putei deveni acum; acum putei deveni).
Lxico y fraseologa. Como suele ocurrir, las nuevas realidades del pas de llegada se
reflejan en el idioma nativo de los inmigrantes rumanos, como prstamos o calcos:
813
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
rum.-it. carta (de) identita'; scheda; badante
rum.-fr. numarul de securitate sociala; Carte Vitale (cartea "vitale")
rum.-esp. empresa; seguridad social; oposiciones; convalidacin
rum.-port. matricula; Loja do Cidado,
si bien a menudo innecesarios:
rum.-it. ma duc sa fac spesa (rum. m duc la cumprturi)
rum.-fr. Noel (rum. Crciun); portier (rum. portar)
rum.-port. Festa de Natal (rum. Crciun); limpeza (rum. curenie).
Los prstamos pueden ser no adaptados:
rum.-it. patente (examenul medical pt patente; posibilitatea de a lua il patente)
rum.-sp. paella (maninca o pallela); cenar (mergi la cenar)
rum.-port. limpeza (limpeza in case scari birouri); Loja do Cidado,
parcialmente adaptados:
rum.-esp. Defensor (del Pueblo) (am trimis aseara carta defensorului del pueblo)
o adaptados:
rum.-it. badante (toate badantele care sunt in Piemonte)
rum.-sp. locutorii (cartele de mobil [] pot fi si la locutorii); a limpia (limpiai buze);
a reenvia (le-am reenviat mailul); sangrie (bea [] o sangrie).
El proceso implica a veces familias lxicas:
rum.-it. trebuie sa faci traducere si apostilare; tradusa + apostilata
rum.-esp. sa astepte [] pt omologare; sa-ti omologhezi tot liceu; diploma []
omologata.
La importacin de formas extranjeras tiene xito incluso por razones de economa
lingstica:
rum.-it. patente (vs. rum. carnet de ofer)
rum.-sp. empresa (vs. rum. ntreprindere, companie).
Los falsos amigos entre rumano y el otro romance producen otros usos indebidos o
vacilaciones:
it. scaduto vs. rum. sczut: rum.-it. pasaport scazut (rum. paaport expirat); it. girare
vs. rum. a gira: rum.-it. gireaza la dreapta (rum. vireaz la dreapta)
esp. renovar vs. rum. a rennoi: rum.-esp. sa-ti renovezi pasaportul (rum. s-i
rennoieti); esp. animado vs. rum. animat: rum.-esp. sunt mai animata (rum. mai nsufleit).
La proximidad entre lexemas rumanos y romances dinamiza los cambios en la
frecuencia:
rom.-it. dar sa fie specificat corect scopul (rum. comn s fie precizat)
rum.-port. un mare procentaj din finanare (rum. comn procent)
o favorece formas nuevas de palabras existentes, con la posible alteracin en la
productividad de ciertos sufijos derivativos, por ejemplo os frente a ot:
rum.-fr. o fi mafiosa (rum. mafiot).
Los pares paronmicos son fuente de otros errores cuando tienen un nico equivalente
romance:
rum.-esp. reintregire familiara (rum. familial); rezerva la hotel (rum. rezervare).
814
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
5. Conclusiones
Hemos explorado en el presente trabajo la posibilidad de estudiar las situaciones
recientes de contacto lingstico rumano-romance en Italia, Francia, Espaa y Portugal a base
de datos procedentes de la comunicacin mediada por ordenador.
En el plano metodolgico, hemos resaltado algunas dificultades y limitaciones
derivadas de las caractersticas de la comunicacin digital, y la necesidad de tomar una serie
de precauciones en su explotacin. Con todo, la CMO ofrece incontestables ventajas, como la
adquisicin barata y cmoda de los datos lingsticos. El papel creciente de la comunicacin
en lnea permitir la investigacin a gran escala, en clave comparativa y generalizadora.
Para cada una de las cuatro comunidades rumanas investigadas, hemos adquirido de
Internet un corpus de interacciones verbales. El anlisis lingstico preliminar de los datos nos
ha puesto de manifiesto una serie de fenmenos a los distintos niveles de la lengua, de los que
hemos presentado algunos conjuntamente para los cuatro enclaves. Se ha ampliado el registro
de los hechos lingsticos previamente sealados, incluyendo los relacionados, por ejemplo,
con la ortografa o la voz y la subcategorizacin verbal. Por primera vez se ha tratado el
rumano en contacto con el portugus y se han ilustrado simultneamente fenmenos de
interferencia para las distintas situaciones de contacto rumano-romance, dando paso a la
perspectiva comparativa. Si bien las fuentes consultadas correspondientes son desiguales en
cuanto a tipologa y volumen de datos, dejan entrever fenmenos comunes al contacto con los
distintos romances y fenmenos dependientes de las peculiaridades del otro idioma y de la
proximidad de ste con el rumano.
El anlisis emprico preliminar confirma, para los cuatro enclaves, los estudios previos
sobre los fenmenos de contacto. La influencia ajena es intensa en los puntos dbiles o de
asimetra del sistema lingstico rumano, como los distintos valores fonticos de la e- inicial y
de la -i final, o bien en los aspectos distantes respecto de otros romances, como la
representacin grfica de [z] y [s] intervoclicas. Inversamente, hay interferencias en casos de
proximidad acentuada con el idioma de contacto, falsos amigos incluidos. La existencia en el
otro romance de equivalentes econmicos es una situacin adicional favorable a la
interferencia. El contacto acenta ciertas evoluciones internas del rumano, particularmente las
que significan una convergencia estructural con los dems romances, atenuando los rasgos
desemejantes: la declinacin casual, el artculo genitival, etc. A estas evoluciones internas
aade otras ms tendencias convergentes: la imposicin del relativo ce frente a care, el
reanlisis de las formas contradas (ntr-un > n un), cambios en la distribucin del artculo
determinado y de las voces verbales o en la productividad de los sufijos derivativos, etc.
Como resulta de los casos presentados, el contacto con romances altera generalmente la
distribucin de elementos del sistema rumano, aunque algunos hechos sugieren posibles
cambios futuros de inventario.
Bibliografa
Ambrosini, Maurizio, 2008. Unaltra globalizzazione. La sfida delle migrazioni
transnazionali, Bologna, Il Mulino.
Avram, Mioara, 1982. Contacte ntre limba romn i alte limbi romanice, SCL 33, 253
259.
815
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Blommaert, Jan, 2010. The sociolinguistics of globalization, Cambridge University Press.
Beisswenger, Michael / Storrer, Angelika, 2008. Corpora of Computer Mediated
Comunication, en Ldeling, Anke / Kyt, Merja (ed.), Corpus Linguistics. An International
Handbook, vol. I, Berlin / New York, Walter de Gruyter, 292-308.
Cerruti, Massimo / Onesti, Cristina, 2011. Netspeak - a language variety? Some remarks
from an Italian sociolinguistic perspective, Variet Alte di Lingue Europee in Rete, Regione
Piemonte.
Chini, Marina (ed.), 2004. Plurilinguismo e immigrazione in Italia - Un'indagine
sociolinguistica, Milano, Franco Angeli.
Chini, Marina (ed.), 2009. Plurilinguismo e immigrazione nella societ italiana. Repertori,
usi linguistici e fenomeni di contatto, SILTA, XXXVIII, 1.
Chini, Marina, 2011. New linguistic minorities: repertoires, language maintenance and
shift, International Journal of the Sociology of Language 210, 47-69.
Chircu, Adrian, 2008. Un mediu extern de ntrebuinare a limbii romne: Frana, Workshop
Limba romn n lume , Bucarest, Academia Romn.
Cohal, Alexandru Laureniu, 2007a. Limba romn aloglot din Laio (Italia), Analele
tiinifice ale Universitii Alexandru Ioan Cuza Iai, vol. LIII.
Cohal, Alexandru Laureniu, 2007b. O nou limb: romno-italiana (entrevista),
Evenimentul zilei, 4 de julio.
Cohal, Alexandru Laureniu, 2011. Ct de romnete mai vorbim n Italia? (entrevista);
Starea limbii romne din Italia, Gazeta romneasc, 10 de mayo.
Crystal, David, 2001. Language and the Internet, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Hall, Stuart, 2005. Old and new identities, en Rothenberg, Paula S. (ed.), Beyond borders:
Thinking critically about global issues, New York, Worth, 220-224.
Herring, Susan, 1996. Introduction, en Id. (ed.), Computer-Mediated Communication:
Linguistic, Social and Cross-Cultural Perspectives, Benjamins, Amsterdam, 1-10.
Jieanu, Ioana, 2012. Interferene lingvistice romno-spaniole, Iai, Lumen.
Marcu, Silvia, 2009. Del este al oeste. La migracin de rumanos en la Unin Europea:
evolucin y caractersticas, Migraciones Internacionales, 5 (1), El Colegio de la Frontera
Norte Mxico.
Munteanu, Dan, 1996, Casos de interferencias espaolas en el habla de los rumanos
residentes en Espaa, Lingstica Espaola Actual 18, 1, 137-151.
Munteanu Coln, Dan, 2002. Vectores en el contacto lingstico, RFE LXXXII l-2, 63-85.
Munteanu Colan, Dan, 2008. Romna vorbit n Spania poate deveni o nou modalitate
lingvistic?, Workshop Limba romn n lume , Bucarest, Academia Romn.
Munteanu Coln, Dan, 2009. Hacia una nueva modalidad romnica de contacto?: Cmo
hablan los rumanos residentes en Espaa, en Kahl, Thede (ed.), Das Rumnische und Seine
Nachbarn, Berlin, Frank & Timme Verlag.
Munteanu Coln, Dan, 2011. Despre cum vorbesc romnii din Spania i n ce limb
(entrevista), Romnul din Spania.
Muoz Carrobles, Diego, 2011. La lengua rumana en Madrid: observaciones sobre usos y
actitudes lingsticas, Revista de Filologa Romnica 28, 191-208.
816
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Muoz Carrobles, Diego, 2013. Lenguas y culturas en contacto en contexto urbano: el caso de
la comunidad rumana de Madrid, tesis doctoral, Madrid, Universidad Complutense de
Madrid.
Olariu, Florin-Teodor, 2010. Romnii din Torino comportament i atitudini
(socio)lingvistice n mediu aloglot, Philologica Jassyensia VI, 2 (12), 219-229.
Olariu, Florin-Teodor, 2011. Migraia ca naraiune rolul biografiilor lingvistice n analiza
fenomenului migraionist, Philologica Jassyensia VII, 1 (13), 205214.
Payrat, Llus, 1985. La interferncia lingstica. Comentaris i exemples catal-castell,
Barcelona, Curial Edicions Catalanes Publicacions de l'Abadia de Montserrat.
Sala, Marius, 19982. Lenguas en contacto, Madrid, Gredos (Mxico, UNAM, 1988).
Schulte, Kim, 2010. Transferencias estructurales entre lenguas romnicas: El rumaol como
producto del castellano, rumano y cataln/valenciano en Castelln de la Plana
(comunicacin), XXVI Congreso Internacional de Lingstica y Filologa Romnica,
Valencia.
Schulte, Kim, 2012. Daco- and ibero-romance in contact: on the origin of structural
similarities between related languages, Bucarest, RRL LVII, 4, 331354.
Stan, Camelia, 2003. Observaii asupra utilizrii limbii romne n presa romneasc actual
aprut n Italia, en Pan Dindelegan, Gabriela (ed.), Actele Colocviului Catedrei de limba
romn, 27-28 noiembrie 2002: Aspecte ale dinamicii limbii romne actuale, II, Bucarest,
Editura Universitii din Bucureti, 201-207.
ora, Sanda, 2006. Contacts linguistiques intraromans: roman et roumain, en Gerhard Ernst
et al. (eds.), Romanische Sprachgeschichte / Histoire linguistique de la Romania, Berlin/New
York, Walter de Gruyter, vol. II, 1726-1736.
Tamames, Ramn (dir.), 2008. Estudio sobre la inmigracin rumana en Espaa. Informe,
Madrid, Castellana Cien.
U Burcea, Ofelia Mariana, 2010. El Rumano escrito de Espaa. Un Anlisis de Habla,
Philologica Jassyensia 1, 237-254.
Valentini, Ada, 2005. Lingue e interlingue dell'immigrazione in Italia, Linguistica e
Filologia 21, 195-208.
Viruela, Rafaela, 2006, Inmigrantes rumanos en Espaa: Aspectos territoriales y procesos de
sustitucin laboral, Scripta Nova, 10, 222.
Weinreich, Uriel, 1953. Languages in Contact: Findings and Problems, New York.
***, 2007. La inmigracin rumana en Espaa, Migraciones, 21, Madrid, Universidad
Pontificia Comillas.
817
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ON THE FIRST WOMAN TRANSLATOR OF DANTE'S
THE DIVINE COMEDY INTO ROMANIAN
Nicoleta CLINA, Assistant Professor, PhD, University of Craiova
Abstract: This paper is concerned with the first Romanian translation of Dante Alighieri's Inferno
and Purgatory, published in 1883 and, respectively 1888, at the Samitca Printing House in Craiova -
after Ion Heliade Rdulescu and Aron Densuianu translated only some fragments from this world
literature great masterpiece. The translations were made by a woman writer, Maria P. Chiu, from
Craiova, (1846-1930), who was a good expert in Italian language and literature. Also, there is
written evidence that she made a translation of the Paradise, but because of the illness of her
daughter, Lucilla, it remained unpublished. When we speak of Maria Chiu, we have in mind a strong
human personality, endowed with a vast culture, an encyclopaedic spirit, a person who had an
enormous desire to know the Italian life in all its aspects: political, cultural, social, literary, artistic.
Being for years the initiator of important local cultural events, Maria P. Chiu also organized
exhibitions, theater and music evenings. In addition, she was a member of the Society for the
university students assistance from Dolj, she supported the local literary movement and
collaborated to the literary publications of Craiova.
Keywords: Maria Chiu, Divina Comedie, Dante, translation, Craiova
After Ion Heliade Rdulescu and Aron Densuianu translated only fragments of The
Divine Comedy, the monumental masterpiece of world literature, the first complete
translations of Dante Alighieri's Inferno and Purgatory into Romanian were published in 1883
and 1888. They belong to the woman writer Maria P. Chiu (1846-1930), an expert in Italian
language and literature the lawyer Peter Chiu's wife and mother of the poetess Lucilla
Chiu.
The name of this family is linked to the development of some institutions and forms of
culture: the creation of publications, printing houses, schools. Petre Chiu, Maria P. Chius
husband and brother of George Chiu (former mayor and minister, a leading figure in the city
of Craiova in the latter part of the nineteenth century), was himself a great admirer of Italian
culture and civilization. He invited the sculptor Ettore Ferrari to Romania, to propose him the
execution of a statue of Ovid. As a tribute to the Chiu family, Ferrari would also sculpt the
busts of both spouses.
A whole variety of translators made full use of their skill and talent to accomplish the
noble task of translating Dantes text, in order to render this masterpiece of world literature
into Romanian; Romanian is one of the languages in which The Divine Comedy was
represented at its best in terms of translation1. Romanian culture was enriched with a series of
versions of The Divine Comedy, translated by cultural personalities or poets who strove to
make their versions as close as possible to the artistry and meaning of the original; this
exercise meant a different approach for each literary generation2. The merit of the first
1
Alexandru Laszlo, Ovidiu Pecican, Dialoguri despre Dante (Al doilea dialog), n Acolada, An I, nr. 3, Cluj
Napoca, 2007, p.8
2
Raluca Tomi, Una traduttrice meno conosciuta di Dante: Maria Chitu e gli echi europei delle sue traduzioni
della Divina Commedia, in Historical yearbook, Bucarest, vol. VII, 2010, p. 78
818
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
generation is, undoubtedly, the familiarization of the Romanian reader with the Dantesque
poetic world.
Referring to the translators from Craiova, we mention the fact that, between 1932 and
1934, there were published Alexandru Marcus three illustrated volumes of prose translation,
followed immediately after the Second World War, by the verse translation of the Inferno by
Ion A. undrea -a medical doctor in the interwar period- at the Ramuri Publishing House.
Giuseppe Cifarellis version appeared at Craiova, too, 35 years after the death of the
translator.
When we speak of Maria Chiu, we have in mind a strong human personality,
endowed with a vast culture, an encyclopaedic spirit, a person who had an enormous desire to
know the Italian life in all its aspects: political, cultural, social, literary, artistic 3. Being for
years the initiator of important local cultural events, Maria P. Chiu also organized
exhibitions, theater and music evenings. In addition, she was a member of the Society for the
university students assistance from Dolj 4, she supported the local literary movement and
collaborated to the literary publications of Craiova.
As we stated in the introductory part of our paper, Maria P. Chiu got the translation of
the Inferno5 published in 1883 and that of the Purgatory6 in 1888, by the Samitca Printing
House in Craiova7. The Purgatory will be richer in notes and, at the same time, we can feel a
better presence of the dantesque criticism, which is contemporary to Maria Chiu8. The two
works will enter the libraries of Vatican9, where there were accepted only the works of the
prominent scholars, and, also, in the following libraries: Biblioteca comunale Luciano
Benincasa Ancona, Biblioteca di Casa Carducci Bologna, Biblioteca Umanistica - Lettere
- Universit degli Studi di Firenze, Biblioteca civica Berio Genova, Biblioteca nazionale
Vittorio Emanuele III Napoli, Biblioteca del Centro interdipartimentale di servizi di Palazzo
Maldura dellUniversit degli studi di Padova, Biblioteca del Centro dantesco Ravenna,
Biblioteca comunale Classense Ravenna, Biblioteca romana dellArchivio storico capitolino
Roma, Biblioteca Angelica Roma, Biblioteca del Ministero delle infrastrutture e dei
trasporti - Settore infrastrutture Roma, Biblioteca storica del Ministero delleconomia e
delle finanze Roma, Biblioteca Centrale Giuridica Roma, Biblioteca dellAccademia delle
scienze Torino.
These early translation versions of the divine poem are related to the specificity of our
cultural history10. According to Umberto Eco11, it is difficult or even impossible to establish a
hierarchy among the multiple versions of the same literary work, as each version has its own
qualities: one is more accurate, another has its own beauty, another one is more earnest or
3
Despina Teodorescu, Femei din trecutul Olteniei, in Oltenia, Craiova, 1943, p. 367
4
Ion Ptracu, Divina Comedie n romnete, in Ramuri, Craiova, 1965, nr. 5
5
Dante Alighieri, Divina Comedie. [I.] Infernul, translation by Maria P. Chitiu, Samitca Printing House,
Craiova, 1883 (traducere nerimat prose translation)
6
Dante Alighieri, Divina Comedie. II. Purgatoriul, translation by Maria P. Chitiu, Samitca Printing House,
Craiova, 1888 (traducere nerimat prose translation)
7
Rosa del Conte, Maria Chiu, in Enciclopedia Dantesca, Treccani, Roma, 1970, p.396
8
Raluca Tomi, op. cit., p. 79
9
Alexandru Firescu, Ion Ptracu, Proeminene oltene. Familia Chiu, Editura AIUS, Craiova, 2001, p. 106
10
Alexandru Laszlo, Ovidiu Pecican, Prin pdurea ntunecat. Dialoguri despre Dante. Al doilea dialog,
Editura Vinea, Bucarest, 2011, p.21
11
Umberto Eco, A spune cam acelai lucru. Experiene de traducere, Polirom, Iai, 2008
819
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
more necessary at a particular historical moment and so on. A hierarchical assessment cannot
be imposed and, anyway, such a thing would be useless in this field.
Paradoxically, the translation into Romanian of this thext belonging to the great
heritage of world literature did not have a notable echo in the Romanian cultural space at the
time. The great philologist Bogdan Petriceicu Hadeu is the one who mentioned the
translation for the first time, considering that it was better known and more appreciated in
Italy than at home.
Rosa del Conte also praises Maria Chius translation. She refers to the fact that Maria
Chiu published an elegant edition, ennobled with ornaments and vignettes, containing the
complete prose translation with notes of the first cantica of The Divine Comedy (Infernul,
Craiova, 1883), which was followed, five years later, by the Purgatory (Purgatoriul,
Craiova, 1888). Her Romanian version of the Paradise, although announced, was never
published, because of the health problems of Maria Chius daughter, Lucilla. A temerarious
action, ventured by this woman with strong intellect, from the intellectual bourgeoisie of a
provincial town. Due to her, a unified vision of the poem only fragments of which were
known in Romania at the time - became possible12. Those are Rosa del Contes words. She
also points out the advantage of this edition that also included the original Italian text at the
bottom of the page, so that the poet addressed the reader directly by means of its authenticity,
allowing the comparison with the prose version. This prose she said, which releases the
lyrical tension that supports Dante 's verse has the merit of a highly accurate comprehension
of the text, both in terms of syntactic and of lexical structure: from the faithful appproach of
the text by using neologisms, to the adoption of some authentic Italian forms that Romanian
had refused to assimilate.13
This translation, Rosa del Conte observes, has provided the vital supply with the
dantesque ideals of the young generations. It served as a stimulus for other translators, who
sometimes adopted - and certainly improved the implicit interpretative proposals of this
version14. Although Maria Chiu also translated The Paradise, she didnt publish it, because in
the meantime the poet's daughter, Lucilla, died.
Some critics, such as Mihail Strajan15, consider Maria Chiu's translation as being
influenced by I. H. Rdulescu, since she allegedly had an intermediary translation, apparently
a French one, that of F. R. De Lamennais. The notes were believed to have had as main
source of information Iacopo Ferrazis Manuale Dantesco, to whom the translation is
dedicated. Following the example of some foreign editions, each canto was preceded by a
brief summary.
Carpaii, a newspaper from the Craiova of that time, considered this beautiful
interpretation of the verse of Dante as a uniqueness16. Anghel Demetrescu 17 in Voina
12
R. del Conte, Dante in Romania, in Dante nel mondo, Firenze, 1965, p. 373
13
R. del Conte, op. cit., p.374
14
idem, p. 375
15
Mihail Strajan, Despre Dante, in Convorbiri literare, XXIV (1890), iulie, p.29
16
Florea Firan, De la Macedonski la Arghezi, Editura Scrisul Romnesc, 1975, p.114
17
Anghel Demetrescu, La Divina Commedia. Inferno, traducerea de doamna Maria P. Chiu, in Voina
Naional: ne simim fericii a ceti Divina Comedie n traducerea doamnei Maria P. Chiu. () Prin forma
traducerii, a tlmcirii, Maria P. Chiu depete alte lucrri de acelai gen aprute la noi sau chiar n
strintate.
820
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
naional, a publication from Craiova, noted, we are happy to read The Divine Comedy
translated by Mrs. Maria P. Chiu. (...) The form of the translation, that of the interpretation
make Maria P. Chiu surpass other works of the same kind published here or abroad.18
The less flattering remarks of Titus Prvulescu and Dumitru D. Panaitescu did not
miss. They minimized the pioneering merit and the other qualities of the translated text,
especially its didactical dimension (about which, in fact, the translator herself spoke). Maria
Chius integral translation of the two cantiche introduced the Romanian reader into the
world of the 14-th century culture of the Peninsula and into the world of Dantes wonderful
masterpieces, more than half a millennium after they had been written. In Titus Prvulescu
and Dumitru D. Panaitescus view, Maria Chiu was not a poet and her translation, though
surprisingly accurate, was far from rendering the magic of Dante's poetry19.
Nevertheless, the translator herself mentions: With this concern, more didactical than
literary, I translated the Inferno and Purgatorio, for whose printing the Samitca Publishing
House showed an extraordinary solicitude and preoccupation. 20 Due to the bilingual text,
The Divine Comedy translated by Maria Chiu would be introduced in the school curricula. 21
It has the undeniable merit of facilitating the first echoes of the Italian poetry in the Romanian
consciousness. It isnt a simple translation, it is accompanied by an impressive metatext,
complemented by notes and adnotations of various commentators, as we can notice on the
first page of the volume from a very useful preface written by the translator and entitled
Notes upon Dante. At the bottom of each page the reader can find Dantes terzinas, so that
he can have information about the source text. Each canto is accompanied by a summary and
by detailed, extensive notes.
Generally speaking, the version of the translator from Craiova received favorable
reviews from the contemporaries and not only from them. Critics have pointed out that no
prose translation could render exactly the delicacy, the genius, the charm and the savour of the
Florentine poet, but at the same time, it was appreciated for its accuracy, for its faithfulness to
the original text22. It is true that its language is full of Italianisms, but this does not diminish
the value of its presence in our culture. From our point of view, the greatest qualities of Mrs.
Maria Chius translation are its faithfulness to the text, and especially its huge necessary
contribution to the progress of the cultural and didactical dimensions of the Romanian
education system.
On the other hand, we cannot say that the translation meets the requirements observed
by translators such as George Cobuc23 and Eta Boeriu they preserved the hendecasyllabic
terza rima in their translation: this means complying with the original metre and structure,
requirements that might discourage any translator in the field of poetry, who is supposed to
18
Cristinela Lavinia Cmpeanu, Maria P. Chiu, in Curierul Primriei Municipiului Craiova, An 3, 134 (10 iulie
2000), p.2
19
Titus Prvulescu, Dumitru D. Panaitescu, Dante n Romnia, in Studii despre Dante, E.P.L.U., Bucureti,
1965, p. 365
20
C.S. Fgeel, Figuri discrete din viaa cultural a Craiovei, in Ramuri, XXXI, Craiova, 1939, nr.3-4, p. 57:
Cu aceast preocupare, mai mult didactic dect literar, am tradus Infernul i Purgatoriul, n a cror tiprire
tipografia Samitca a pus o grij i un el fr pereche.
21
Raluca Tomi, op. cit., p. 81
22
idem, p. 89
23
Raluca Tomi, op. cit., p. 84
821
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
have literary talent. In 1895, in Craiova, George Cobuc would see Marias Chiu translation
and that text would help him when working on his own translation.
As for the partial translations preceding Maria Chius, Cobuc24 wrote: In a report on
the first edition of this work (Viaa Nou, December 1924), Mr. Ovid Densuianu states
that Dante cannot be integrally translated and an edition limited to the most popular cantos,
connected among them by the summary of the poem, would have been proper and had,
moreover, the advantage to ease my burden. Allow me to have a different opinion from that of
my illustrious colleague. No! The Romanian public deserves to be given Dantes work
entirely, Dante, which cannot be reduced to a few cantos, as Bettinelli and, generally, the
eighteenth century literary critics thought; his greatness comes out entirely only from the
whole content of this immortal poem25.
The translation of Dantes poem into Romanian had an ample echo in Europe. The
text of the translation was primarily appreciated in the Italian cultural environment, one of the
supporters of this translation being the Dantologist G. A. Scartazzini. Iacopo Ferrazzi was
another scholar who would eulogize its appearance. We will discussed on the latter below.
From the letters kept at the Manuscripts section of the Romanian Academy, namely
the correspondence of Mrs. Maria P. Chiu with the Italian cultural personalities of the world
and not only, one can see that the she had known great cultural and political Italian
personalities: the sculptor Ettore Ferrari, G. A. Scartazzini. Iacopo Ferrazzi, Mario Mandalari,
with whom she will write the paper Il concetto dellunit politica in Dante Alighieri
published in 1895 in Giornale Dantesco and many others, which will be further mentioned.
Her correspondence includes the exchange of letters with the publisher Bruto Amante,
who wrote Maria Chiu after learning from Bogdan Petriceicu Hadeu of the Romanian
translation of the first part of the Italian masterpiece, and who asked her a volume. He
expressed his desire to visit Craiova and to meet her personally. The same publisher invited
her to a conference in Rome, expressing his interest regarding the publishing of the translation
of the third part of the Divine Comedy, the Paradise26. Through him, she will get in touch
with Giuseppe Jacopo Ferrazzi, a well-known critic who writes to her in eulogistic terms,
calling her my daughter in Dante.27
Since during the translation process Maria Chiu had been guided by Ferrazzi,
especially in terms of bibliographical indications, she dedicated the translation of the
Purgatory to him: The translator dedicates this work to the memory of my illustrious and
24
ntr-o dare de seam asupra primei ediii a acestei opere, domnul Ovid Densuianu afirm (Viaa Nou,
dec. 1924) c Dante nu poate fi tradus n ntregime i c o ediie limitat la cnturile mai cunoscute, legate ntre
ele printr-un rezumat al poemului, ar fi fost mai nimerit i ar fi avut, pe deasupra, avantajul de a-mi uura
sarcina. S-mi fie ngduit a nu fi de prerea ilustrului meu coleg. Nu! Publicul romn merita s i se dea Dante n
ntregime, Dante, care nu se poate reduce la cteva cnturi, cum socotea Bettinelli i n genere critica secolului al
XVIII-lea, dar care iese n ntregime n mreia lui, numai din ntregul coninut al poemului nemuritor.
25
George Cobuc, Dante i epoca sa, apud Dante Alighieri, Divina Comedie, in traducerea lui George Cobuc,
Polirom, Iai, 2000, p. 60
26
Raluca Tomi, op. cit., p. 90
27
idem, p. 91
822
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
good friend Abbot G. Jacopo Ferrazzi, the author of the Dantesque textbook as a sign of
profound admiration28.
Later the same Ferrazzi would write to Professor Gaetano Valenziano Vidal from the
University of Barcelona, mentioning the name of the Romanian translator, and to Adolfo
Mussafia, professor at the University of Vienna. On receiving the books, Professor Mussafia
thanked Maria Chiu, admiring the beauty and the faithfulness of the verses and mentioning
that both nations owe thanks to her29. The news of Dantes verses translation into Romanian
brings her another great honor from Italy: to be included in 1905 in Dictionnaire
international des crivains du monde latin by Angelo de Gubernatis.
Another personality of the Italian literary world, with whom Maria Chiu collaborated
on an article on Dante's political ideas, is Mario Mandalari, Professor at the University of
Catania. She knew him from Bruto Amante. Mario Mandalari had sent the translation of the
Purgatory - made by the Romanian translator - to one of the best scholars and commentators
of Dante, the author of the Dantesque Encyclopedia, Giovanni Andrea Scartazzini. The same
Mandalari would send a copy of Maria Chius translation to Paolo Boselli, the Italian
Minister of Education at the end of the nineteenth century. He expressed his excitement over
the appearance of the translation: Professor Mandalari has mailed me your translations from
Dante. As Minister of Education and as an Italian I applaud your work.30
Other proofs of Maria Chius activity can be found out from Pasquale
Buonincontro31, from Francesco Macry Correale, director of Rivista Contemporanea, from
the famous Leo S. Olschki, the owner of the prestigious Florentine publishing house and from
the Sicilian poet Tomasso Canizzaro.
Guido Mazzoni, Professor at the University of Padova, wrote to her, too, confessing
that he is pleased with the book32. Pio Rajna, professor in Florence and Dantologist, was also
overwhelmed by a translation into another language of Latin origin and thanked the translator
for the volume sent to him.
Giuseppe Lando Passerini, an important Dantologist of the previous century asked
Maria Chiu information on her literary work, so that her name could be included both in the
volume he coordinated and edited with other collaborators and which was entitled Dantisti e
dantofili dei secoli XVIII e XIX33 and in the work Un decennio di bibliografia dantesca34.
It was only natural for the translation to be best known in Italy, but the news about it
spread in Austria and Portugal, too. The letters from various scholars from these countries
testify it. In Austria, the translation is known thanks to Antonio Lubin, Professor at the
28
Dante Alighieri, Divina Comedie. II. Purgatoriul, traductiune de Maria P. Chitiu, Samitca, Craiova, 1888:
Memoriei bunului i illustrului seu amic abatelui G. Jacopo Ferrazzi, autorulu manualelui dantescu n semnu de
veneraiune traductorea dedic acsta lucrare.
29
Raluca Tomi, op. cit., p. 86
30
Raluca Tomi, op. cit., p. 87: Il professor Mandalari mi ha inviato le vostre traduzioni da Dante. Come
ministro della Pubblica Istruzione e come italiano applaudo la vostra opera.
31
Pasquale Buonincontro, Beatrice in Romania, I.U.O., Napoli, pp. 451-461
32
Raluca Tomi, op. cit., p. 90
33
Giuseppe Lando Passerini, Dantisti e dantofili dei secoli XVIII e XIX. Contribuzione alla storia della fortuna
di Dante, Firenze, presso la Direzione del Giornale dantesco, Citt di Castello, stab. tipo-lito-grafico di S.
Lapi, 1901-1902
34
G. L. Passerini, C. Mazzi, Un decennio di bibliografia dantesca (1891-1900), Ulrico Hoepli Editore, Milano,
1905
823
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
University of Graz, connoisseur and critic of the work of the great Florentine. Lubin
expressed his enthusiasm for the erudition found in both volumes. In Portugal, Maria Chiu
was appreciated by Joaquin Arango, to whom she sends the two-volume translation.
Within the French cultural space, Elena Vcrescu expresses her sincere admiration
for the work of the translator from Craiova. From the same cultural space would emerge the
expression of the sincere admiration from Lecomte de Nouy, Eugene Boisel and Charles
Henry35. Anna Barbieri was referring both to the historical value of the translation, as a
starting point for the followings, and to its literary value worth mentioning 36.
All this correspondence is the testimony of the professionalism and responsability
proven by Maria Chiu in the process of translating the wonderful text into Romanian. These
letters reflect her interest in the opinions of the experts in Dantesque literary critique.
The translation of Dantes text was a good opportunity for Maria Chiu to collaborate
in other directions, too. Pietro Bonettio had expressed his intention to publish Romanian
poems translated into Italian or studies on Romanian modern poetry.
We end with the extremely warm presentation made by Traian Demetrescu, a
personality from Craiova, who describes her evolution as a translator with admiration and
subtlety:
At large intervals, Mrs. Maria P. Chiu published two parts of the Divine Comedy: the
Inferno and the Purgatory. Her friends, and those who have observed with interest her elaborate
efforts, are now waiting: [they are waiting] for the Paradise. The publishing of the above mentioned
volumes could be fully considered a literary event, free of noise and advertisements, not accompanied
by the critical fanfares - but quiet, almost modest, but that modesty had its greatness. Needless to
mention the admiration that the translator aroused in Italy, among Dantes fanatics, the gratitude
shown or the honors expressed in relation to her - as her name, not very known here, was already
illustrious there!
But of course, it was not glory - always independent of our will that had enticed Mrs. Chiu
to use her talent and work for such a long and difficult enterprise.
And then, to dream about glory in a country where Bolintineanu and Eminescu died in
hospitals, it's a bitterly crazy thing that would make a wise woman smile sadly.
But the patience and passion shown by Mrs. Chiu for years for Dantes immortal epic have
a delicate and profound psychological expression. Mrs. Chiu has an infinite admiration for the great
poet, which seems to take the form of an intellectual cult.
In literature and art, admiration has various and complicated forms of manifestation.
Generally, it is the expression of a deep amazement of the soul that a book, a painting, a statue, a
piece of music, etc might produce. In some cases, however, it does not have the character of a mere
sensation; then, admiration becomes a deep feeling, a passion. The artist admired to such an extent
becomes an almost divine being, and your soul becomes its altar; and his work is a world in which you
live with its creator in adoration and sharing an intimate understanding and it seems surrounded by a
strange voluptuous mysticism. (...)
Mrs. Chiu embodied her admiration for Dante in a literary form: translating his work. Her
translation is not just a beautiful product of her talent. Her particular form of admiration as
mentioned above has its charm. There are various ways of enjoying literary works: the translation, -
when the author is foreign - is one of those ways. From this point of view, a translation is a delicate
35
Raluca Tomi, op. cit., p. 91
36
idem, p. 85
824
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
pleasure, a long series of emotions experienced sitting at ones writing desk, in an intimate and lonely
chamber, protected by the friendly calmness of the night hours.
It is by means of such intellectual voluptuousness that we often sweeten and ennoble our life
dream.
It protect us from many of the trivialities and vanities of our existence.37
Bibliography
***, Maria P. Chiu, n Anuarul ziarului Patria, Craiova, an I, 1906
***, Maria P. Chiu, n Profile literare, Editura Benvenisti, Craiova, 1891
AAVV, Enciclopedia Dantesca, di Rosa Del Conte, Maria Chiu, 1970
Barbieri, Anna, Traduttori romeni di Dante nei secoli XIX e XX, Milano, 1957
Buonincontro, Pasquale, Beatrice in Romania, I.U.O., Napoli
Crcleanu, Eleonora, Divina Comedie n echivalri romneti, n Convorbiri literare,
ianuarie 2008
Chitiu, Maria P., Mandalari, Mario, Il concetto dellunit politica in Dante Alighieri, n
Giornale Dantesco, anno 2, 1895
Cmpeanu, Cristinela Lavinia, Personaliti craiovene. Maria P. Chiu, n Dicionarul
personalitilor doljene. Restituito
Cmpeanu, Lavinia-Cristinela, Maria Chiu, n Curierul Primriei Craiova, Craiova, an III,
nr. 134, 10 iulie 2000
Dante Alighieri, Divina Comedie, n traducerea lui George Cobuc, Polirom, Iai, 2000
Dante Alighieri, Divina Comedie. [I.] Infernul, traductiune de Maria P. Chitiu, Tipografia
Samitca, Craiova, 1883 (traducere nerimat).
37
Traian Demetrescu, Maria P. Chiu, n Profile literare, Editura Tipografiei D. I. Benvenisti, Craiova, 1891,
pp. 143-147: La intervale deprtate, D-na Maria P. Chiu a publicat dou pri din Divina Comedie:
Infernul i Purgatoriul. - Amicii, ct i cei cari au urmrit cu interes aceste lucrri ndelungi, ateapt acum:
Paradisul. Apariia volumelor sus numite au avut caracterul deplin al unor evenimente literare, lipsite de
zgomot i reclame, nentmpinate de fanfarele critice, - ci linitite, aproape modeste, dar de o modestie cei
avea mreia ei. Este de prisos s mai amintesc ce admiraii a deteptat, traductoarea n Italia, printre fanaticii
lui Dante, i cte omagii, cte onoruri i sau adus, - nct numele su, puin cunoscut aici, se ilustrase deja
acolo! Dar desigur, nu gloria, - independent tot dauna de voina noastr, - a ispitit talentul i munca D-nei
Chiu pentru aa de ndelung i grea lucrare. i apoi, a visa gloria ntro ar unde Bolintineanu i Eminescu
au murit n spitale, e o nebunie amar - n faa creia o femeie neleapt ar zmbi trist. Rbdarea i pasiunea
ns cu cari D-na Chiu urmrete de ani ntregi nemuritoarea epopeie a lui Dante, au o delicat i profund
expresie psihologic. D-na Chiu are pentru marele poet o nesfrit admiraie, ce pare a se concretiza n forma
unui cult intelectual. Admiraia, n literatur i art, are felurite i complicate manifestri. Ea este n general
expresiunea unei adnci uimiri sufleteti, pe care i-o produce o carte, un tablou, o statuie, o bucat muzical
etc. n unele cazuri ns, ea nu are numai caracterul unei simple senzaii; atunci admiraia devine un sentiment
profund, o pasiune. Artistul pe care l admiri n acest fel ia aspectul unei fiine aproape divin, i din sufletul tu
i faci un altar; iar opera lui e o lume n care tu trieti cu creatorul ei ntro adoraiune i nelegere intim, i
parc nvluit de nu tiu ce misticism voluptos. () D-na Chiu a ntrupat admiraiunea sa pentru Dante ntro
form literar: traducndul. Traducerea d-sale nu se mrginete a se arta ca o frumoas lucrare de talent.
Felul de-a admira dupe cum am artat mai sus i are farmecul su. Sunt diferite maniere de-a gusta operile
literare: traducerea, - cnd autorul este strin, - este una din acele manieri. Din acest punct de vedere judecat,
traducerea este o plcere delicat, un lung ir de emoiuni simite, lng o mas de lucru, ntrun cabinet intim
i singuratic, sub linitea prietenoas a orelor de noapte. Prin aceste volupti intelectuale, adeseori, ne
ndulcim si ne facem mai aristocratic visul vieei. Ele ne feresc de multe din trivialitile i deertciunile
egzistenei.
825
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Dante Alighieri, Divina Comedie. II. Purgatoriul, traductiune de Maria P. Chitiu, Craiova,
1888 (traducere nerimat).
De Gubernatis, Angelo, Dictionnaire international des crivains du monde latin, Florence,
Rome, 1905
del Conte, Rosa, Dante in Romania, n Dante nel mondo, a cura di Vittore Bianca e Ettore
Coccia, Firenze, 1965
Demetrescu, Traian, Maria P. Chiu, n Profile literare, Editura Tipografiei D. I. Benvenisti,
Craiova, 1894
Fgeel, S., Figuri discrete din viaa cultural a Craiovei, n Ramuri, XXXI, Craiova, 1939,
nr.3-4
Firan, Florea, De la Macedonski la Arghezi, Editura Scrisul Romnesc, 1975
Firescu, Alexandru, Ptracu, Ion, Proeminene oltene. Familia Chiu, AIUS, Craiova, 2001
Isopescu, Claudio, Sconosciute traduzioni romene della Divina Commedia, Roma, 1935
Laszlo, Alexandru, Pecican, Ovidiu, Prin pdurea ntunecat. Dialoguri despre Dante,
Bucureti, Editura Vinea, 2011
Laszlo, Alexandru, Pecican, Ovidiu, Dialoguri despre Dante (Al doilea dialog), n Acolada,
An I, nr. 3, Cluj Napoca, 2007
Mazzoni, Francesco, La societ dantesca italiana e la formazione delle societ dantesche
straniere, n Atti del I Congresso nazionale di studi danteschi, Firenze, 1962
Passerini, G. L., Mazzi, C., Un decennio di bibliografia dantesca (1891-1900), Ulrico Hoepli
Editore, Milano, 1905
Ptracu, Ion, Divina Comedie n romnete, n Ramuri, Craiova, 1965, nr. 5
Ptracu, Ion, Prezene culturale italiene la Craiova n epoca modern, Craiova, 1969
Rdulescu, I. H., Curs ntregu de poesie general, Tipografia Lucrtorilor Associati,
Bucuresci, 1870
Scartazzini, G. A., Viaa i opera lui Dante Alighieri, apud. Alexandru Balaci, Contribuii
romneti la o exegez dantesc, n Studii de literatur universal, VII, 1965
chiopu, Mihaela, Aspecte ale recepiei operei lui Dante n Romania, n Revista de istorie i
teorie literar, nr. 1, 1965
Strajan, Mihail, Despre Dante, n Convorbiri literare, XXIV, iulie, 1890
Teodorescu, Despina, Femei din trecutul Olteniei, n Oltenia, Craiova, 1943
Tomi, Raluca, Una traduttrice meno conosciuta di Dante: Maria Chitu e gli echi europei
delle sue traduzioni della Divina Commedia, n Historical yearbook, vol. VII, Bucureti,
2010
http://www.tititudorancea.ro/z/traian_demetrescu_profile_literare.htm, consulted on 02 nov.
2013
826
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
PERSPECTIVES ON DEFINING EUPHEMISMS
Oxana CHIRA, Assistant Professor, Alecu Russo State University of Bli
Abstract: This paper aims at analyzing how euphemism is explained in general linguistics.
The problem of defining euphemisms was not systematically touched upon by the Romanian
linguists and we believe it is necessary to classify such definitions from a social, rhetorical
and pragmatic viewpoints. Most of the explanations were arrived at due to some partial
studies that focused on euphemisms either as a figure of speech or as an element of slang.
Keywords: Euphemisms; Defining; positive politeness; negative politeness
It is well-known that human language, due to its existence, has one single purpose: to
convey the human thoughts and feelings in the most appropriate way. The achievement of this
goal is only possible through the use of all the possible means of human language, given the
fact that these means or possibilities are infinite [Coeriu 1966: 64]. The use of euphemisms is
unquestionably a part of all these multiple possibilities.
As paradoxical as it may seem, but prohibitions had a strong influence of a different
nature. Thus, taboo enabled the movement of thought, challenged to actions and designed
different perspectives by "polishing" the human reason, discovering antiworlds and
antibodies, creating antimetaphors etc. Taboo is not only a ban concerning certain actions or
certain words, it does not only mean a metathesis, alothesis, tmesis, an anagram or an
acronym, etc., but it also means "a whole range of formal rituals and beliefs, which
contributed greatly to the creation of human language, music, art, and also to the creation of
writing as an expression of pagan ritual of symbolic representations" [, 5]. In
general, language functioning is based on the existence of certain antinomies, that is, it is
provided by the dialectic between "plus" and "minus", "correct" and "incorrect", "pass" and
"fail" and "compulsory" and " optional "etc. Every word of the language, as the Russian
linguist outlines below, is presented as a dialectical combination of "yes" and "no": "yes" can
occur only because of the existence of" no "and" no "is a necessary condition for the existence
of 'yes'" [ibid]. What is important to note here is that language provides enough opportunities
for combining prohibitions against lifting the ban.
This paper aims at describing one essential element of the antinomy which concerns
the prohibition/non-prohibition relationship, and namely, the euphemism. I have chosen this
topic for research because euphemisms are the most frequently applied verbal devices in
current language use that tend to change together with the evolution of the society, mitigating,
avoiding or camouflaging "those negative issues" within it.
However, euphemism is one of the linguistic devices used in communication, pursuing
one single goal: to mitigate the impact a message can have on the receiver. Being "the product
of a constraint" [Seiciuc 2008: 22], euphemistic expressions help the speaker to select the
terms in accordance with addressee group, avoiding in such a way, all the taboos of this target
group.
827
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Generally, although euphemisms differ from language to language and from one
society to another, they must be conceived in terms of individual functional features, and
namely, of the role they play in communicative acts. Undoubtedly, euphemisms should be
characterized, first of all, by ambiguity, distance, politeness, manipulation, political
correctness that would create premises for an insufficient understanding of a conflict, a
motivated avoidance of the direct term, a camouflage of the harsh reality etc. In other words,
euphemisms do not fully satisfy the needs of oral and written communication, such as
precision, rationality, opportunity etc.
The fact that the content structure of a euphemism is a symbiosis of various aspects
(political, social, cultural, ideological, ethnic, etc.) increases the possibility of issuing
vulnerable and hard to verify ideas. There is nothing shocking in this statement, if we consider
that there is "nothing more social than language, which is the strongest knot, if not the
foundation of the society". Therefore, this important detail allows the danger of emotional
considerations instead of the rational ones" [Hasdeu, 1].
On the whole, though the phenomenon we are interested in has been known since
ancient times, the term euphemism occurs quite late in specialized literature. Thus, in Italian,
the form eufemismo is recorded (a fact certified by DELI, GE, GRADIT dictionaries); for the
first time the term euphemism appears in English in Th. Blounts work Glossographia in 1656
[Burchfield 1985: 13] and in French, the term euphmisme is recorded in 1730 [TLF, PR].
The definitions of euphemisms are different because euphemistic expressions
encompass all the social and linguistic aspects. If we want to have a better picture of the
concept of euphemism, we have to consider it as an overall cultural phenomenon and not to
limit ourselves only to the examination of language, because euphemisms are conditioned by
language, society, the situation and the logic of the structure and of the use of euphemisms.
As is seen, most definitions of euphemism tend to fall into one of the three basic approaches
to this concept: the social, linguistic and pragmatic ones. The researcher Lavinia Seiciuc adds
the fourth type of definition that refers to 'the relationship between language and thought"
[Seiciuc, 24].
According to Dumarsais, euphemism is "a figure of speech which conceals unpleasant,
bad or sad ideas under some names that are not typical of those ideas: they are a veil and have
a seemingly more enjoyable, less shocking or honest expressions as required" [Charaudeau et
alii, 241-242]. In more recent works, euphemisms are defined as "a word or phrase that is
substituted in speech or writing by another word or phrase which means something
unpleasant, ugly, offensive or obscene" [Constantinescu Dobridor, 137].
The definitions which examine euphemisms from a linguistic perspective do not
consider the cultural and the extralinguistic factors, emphasizing instead their functioning as a
process in language. Such definitions describe euphemisms from a semantic perspective: it is
explained as "a word or phrase in speech or in writing that substitutes an unpleasant,
offensive, indecent or obscene word or phrase, respecting the parallelism of meaning"
(http://dexonline.ro/definition/euphemism) "a language element that substitutes in speech or
in writing an unpleasant, vulgar, offensive word or phrase, respecting the parallelism of
meaning" [NODEX, 2002]; "a word or a phrase which substitutes in speech or writing a word
or a phrase that denotes something bad, offensive or obscene. [<fr. euphemism, cf gr. eu -
well, phemi - talking]" [DN, 1986]). Chamizo Dominguez and Sanchez Benedito view
828
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
euphemism as a transfer process or as a semantic shift: "a euphemism is nothing else than
using a term with a figurative sense, that is, giving a term that has a lexicalized literal
meaning a different one. Therefore, in linguistic terms, a euphemism is a change of the
meaning of a term or an extension of the meaning of a term" [Domnguez et alii, 37].
From the above definitions it might be concluded that a euphemism functions as
follows: X and Y where X = a substitute and Y = a substituted term. Thus, X is a word or
phrase and Y is also a term, word or a phrase with certain characteristics such as: "unpleasant,
offensive, obscene, indecent, offensive, vulgar, ugly, coarse, cruel". In linguistic terms, it is
defined as "a lexical device consisting in the mitigation of ideas through substitution or
periphrasis, in rhetoric, it is the figure of speech based on this device" [DSL, 2005].
Allan & Burrigde examine the term euphemism from a pragmatic point of view 1. The
researchers emphasize that euphemism is "a means of mitigating a potentially face-
threatening act and dysphemism is a face-threatening act" [Allan et alii, 11]. As a
consequence, euphemisms will have to deal with linguistic politeness, while dysphemisms
will be referred to as impolite language. In such a way, the authors suggest two terms
dysphemistic euphemism and euphemistic dysphemism which will later be covered in the
classification chapter. The types of positive politeness and negative politeness were defined
by P. Brown & S. Levinson. Thus, linguistic politeness means to maintain the delicate balance
between two antagonistic human desires. E. Benveniste argues that euphemisms depend on
the context; the researcher holds the idea that "the situation alone determines the euphemism" 2
[Benveniste, 310]. In a similar vein, R. Zafiu states from the same pragmatic viewpoint that
"euphemism is concerned with both making the listener feel good and self-protecting the
speaker" [Zafiu, 35].
L. Seiciuc added to those three approaches the fourth type of definitions "which
considers the euphemism as a manifestation of thought in language, without ignoring the
social and linguistic coordinates" [Seiciuc, 26]. Finally, the newest and the shortest definition
of this kind is proposed by A. Horak "euphemism is a device which mitigates the negativity of
a taboo entity" [Horak, 60]. Jean-Jacques Robrieux regards euphemism as "an important
mitigation device; it is different from extenuation in that it essentially denotes shocking, rude
or ridiculous elements of an idea" [Robrieux, 41]. Euphemisms might be ranked among the
figures of speech and the figures of thought, thus raising the theory tropes. The Dictionary of
Linguistics written by G. Mounineste offers a more precise definition of euphemism and of its
role in rhetoric: "a euphemism is the mitigation of thought. A euphemism uses multiple
devices beginning with litotes, hyperbole, through to periphrasis, allusion, metaplasmic
figures etc. When a euphemism attempts to express the opposite meaning, only then we can
speak of antiphrasis" [Mounin, 130]. In other words, although a euphemism has the function
to substitute a word for another, it is not always seen as a fully "automatic" function device.
Unlike metaphor, periphrasis or litotes, the euphemism does not only rely on its own
techniques. Thus, euphemisms, using other means of expression to perform their roles, are
based, in fact, on various types of devices, especially, on those from the immediate proximity.
1
"A euphemism is used as an alternative to a dispreferred expression, in order to avoid possible loss of face:
either ones own face or, through giving offence, that of the audience, or some third party" [Allan, 11].
2
il faut, pour apprcier un euphmisme, restituer autant que possible les conditions demploi dans le discours
[]. La situation seule dtermine leuphmisme.
829
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
A figure of thought is based on the speaker's relationship with his discourse and affects
broader structures of the text and not only a single word, a phrase or a sentence, therefore, a
euphemism is defined as "a manifestation of the processes of thought in language [Seiciuc
24].
Our own definition of the term is the following: a euphemism is an indirect, figurative
or mitigating word or phrase, which substitutes an inappropriate, obnoxious, obscene, vulgar
or offensive term that might shock the listener, might cause disgust, embarrassment, fear or
might lead to a social conflict, taking at the same time into account the parallelism of meaning
both in written and oral forms.
It is noteworthy that the terms that we associate with the term euphemism and which
derive from the cited above definitions are: avoidance, camouflage, adjustment, lies,
concealment, mitigation, substitution, prohibition etc. In most studies, euphemisms, alongside
with taboos, are included in the list of vocabulary ban. We believe that this word combination
does not meet the requirements set for this term, especially, for a linguistic term
(transparency, brevity, etc.). The terminological instability of this word combination is
determined by the fact that there are "forbidden" and "allowed" words in a language3.
In other words, a euphemism is a gate, a bridge between language and society which
combats vulgar words, rudeness, obscenity etc. The purpose of a euphemistic substitution is
"to avoid communication failures and conflicts and make the listener feel good" [,
391].
From many perspectives, the suggested definitions show that euphemisms are closely
related to the functioning of language and to the social relationships that unite or separate
individuals.
Bibliography
Allan K., Burridge K., Euphemism and Dysphemism: Language Used as Shield and Weapon,
Oxford University Press, USA, 1991.
Bidu-Vrnceanu A., Clrau C., Ionescu-Ruxndoiu L., Manca M., Pan-Dindelegan G.
Dicionar de tiine ale Limbii, Bucureti, Editura Nemira, 2005.
Burchfield R., An Outline History of Euphemisms in English . In Enright, D. J. (ed.) Fair of
Speech: The Uses of Euphemism. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985, PP. 13-31.
Constantinescu-Dobridor Gh., Dicionar de termeni lingvistici, Bucureti, Editura Teora,
1998.
Coseriu E., El lenguaje y la comprensin de la existencia del hombre actual, n El hombre y
su lenguaje, 1966, p. 34-65.
Charaudeau P., Maingueneau D. Dictionnaire d'Analyse du discours, Paris, Seuil, 2002.
Dominguez P. J. Chamizo, Benedito F. Sanchez, Lo que nunca se aprendio en clase:
eufemismos y disfemismos en el lenguaje erotico ingles, Comares, Granada, 2000.
Hasdeu B. P., Scrieri, vol. 9. Studii de lingvistic i filologie. Text ngrijit, studiu introductiv,
note i comentarii de Grigore Brncu, Chiinu, Editura tiina, 2012.
3
It is interesting to note that all the dictionary entries that register the term language ban (vocabulary ban) refer
exclusively to taboo words and expressions, yet, euphemisms are not mentioned at all.
830
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Horak A., L' euphmisme, Entre tradition rhtorique et perspectives nouvelles, Mnchen,
Lincom GmbH, 2010.
Mounin G., Dictionnaire de la linguistique, Paris, P.U.F., 1974.
Robrieux J-J., lments de Rhtoriqueet dArgumentation, Paris, DUNOD 1993.
Seiciuc L., Eufemismul n romn i n alte limbi romanice (tez de doctorat - manuscris),
Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza, Iai, 2008.
Seiciuc L., Un alt fel de a nu spune: Eufemism i disfemism n limbile romanice, Suceava,
Editura Universitii Stefan cel Mare", 2011.
Zafiu R., Limbaj i politic, Bucureti, Editura Universitii, 2007.
JI. ., // XX
(1985-1995). , 1996.
. . , . .
. , . 3- ., , : , 2008.
Abbreviations
DELI Dizionario della lingua etimologico Italian Cortelazzo M., P. Zolli, Bologna:
Zanichelli, 1999.
DN Dicionar de neologisme (http://www.webdex.ro/online/dictionar_de_neologisme/)
DSL Dicionar de tiine ale Limbii
GE Guards etimologico di Tullio De Mauro's Marco Mancini, Mailand, Garza, 2000.
GRADIT Grandedizionario italiano dell 'uso, Tullio De Mauro, Turin, Utete, 1999.
NEDRL New Explanatory Dictionary of the Romanian Language
PR Nouveau Petit Robert: alphabtique et analogique Dictionnaire de la langue franaise,
Paul Robert, Paris, Le Robert, 2006.
TLF Le Trsor de la langue franaise: Dictionnaire de la langue du XIXe XXE et du sicle
(1789-1960), Paul IMB, Bernard Quemada, Paris, Gallimard, 1971-1994.
831
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE LEGIONARY DISCOURSE: CONTENT ANALYSIS
Paula MUREAN, PhD, Babe-Boyai University of Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: The herein paper is an analysis of legionary discourse content focusing especially
on the main personalities of the Movement. (Corneliu Zelea Codreanu and Vasile Marin).We
have approached this subject due to the fact that the discourse, in general, and legionary
discourse, in particular, offers important information concerning right-wing ideology. We
have tried to identity and better understand the features of ideological, nationalist, political
and xenophobic discourse of the leaders of Iron Guard.
Keywords: discourse, discourse analysis, legionary discourse, political class, democracy
Not only the charisma of the Right Wing leaders was important but also the
intellectual conception of their discourse led to the transformation of the Iron Guard in a
political force ready to destabilize the state order and to compete with the liberalism assumed
by the Romanian political class.
The choice of this subject comes from a personal motivation but also from the wish to
realize a quality research. Due to the fact that we shall deal in the herein paper with the
discourse analysis, we consider that the definition of the terms is essential.
The discourse, in general, is the use of words to exchange thoughts and ideas.
1 :archaic: the capacity of orderly thought or procedure: rationality
2: verbal interchange of ideas; especially: conversation
3a: formal and orderly and usually extended expression of thought on a subject
b: connected speech or writing
c: a linguistic unit (as a conversation or a story) larger than a sentence
4obsolete: social familiarity
5: a mode of organizing knowledge, ideas, or experience that is rooted in language and its
concrete contexts (as history or institutions) <critical discourse>.1
We shall try to give the most relevant definitions of discourse in order to show the
complexity that involves this term.
For Frances Henry and Carol Tator2 "Discourse is the way in which language is used
socially to convey broad historical meanings. It is language identified by the social conditions
of its use, by who is using it and under what conditions. Language can never be 'neutral'
because it bridges our personal and social worlds."
John Flowerdew3 considers that There are various usages of the term discourse, but
we will begin here by defining it broadly as language in the contexts if use.More restricted
in sense, the term discourse can also be used to refer to a particular set of ideas and how they
1
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/discourse, 13.11.2013.
2
Frances Henry and Carol Tator, Discourses of Domination. University of Toronto Press, 2002, p.25.
3
John Flowerdew, Discourse in English Language Education, Routledge, 2013, p.1.
832
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
are articulated, such as the discourse of environmentalism, the discourse of neoliberalism or
the discourse of feminism.
Jane Ogden4 believes that "The term discourse is also used to refer to meanings at the
more macro level. This approach does not study the individual words spoken by people but
the language used to describe aspects of the world, and has tended to be taken by those using
a sociological perspective."
As concerns the discourse analysis it is essential to mention that the approach of this
subject has changed during times since its first mention by Zelling Harris in 1952. For Gillian
Brown and George Yule5 the term discourse analysis has come to be used with a wide range
of meanings which cover a wide range of activities. It is also used to describe activities at the
intersection of disciplines as diverse as sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, philosophical
linguistics and computational linguistics.
Brian Paltridge 6 was also concerned by this subject. In his opinion discourse analysis
focuses on knowledge about language beyond the word, clause, phrase and sentence that is
needed for successful communicationDiscourse analysis also considers the ways that the
use of language presents different views of the world and different understanding. It examines
how the use of language is influenced by relationships between participants as well as the
effects the use of language has upon social identities and relations.
We shall also present the third definition given by Michael McCarty7 for whom
discourse analysis is concerned with the study of relationship between language and the
contexts in which it is used.
Starting from these assumptions, we consider that it is extremely important to discuss
some aspects linked to the legionary discourse due to the fact that an analysis of their
discourse reveals more information rather than a first reading.
We shall analyse the discourse of the leaders of the Iron Guard from content
perspective. As it is known in the specialized literature, the content represents the information
through the discourse. Here we deal with two types of the content: latent content (has to be
sought beyond the words) and manifest content (opinions, believes). Each of them will offer
important data concerning the vocabulary, the semantics and the cohesion of the text.
Consequently, we shall focus our research on analysing the discourse of Corneliu Zelea
Codreanu, known as the Leader of the Movement, and Vasile Marin, one of the outstanding
personalities of the Legion, especially on the following patterns: the political class,
democracy and the political system. It is important to mention that the discourses that we deal
with were published in books (Pentru Legionari, Corneliu Zelea Codreanu and Crez de
generaie, Vasile Marin).
From the methodological point of view we shall use the qualitative method
materialized in the text analysis, meaning primary sources. Other sources that we used
referred to general books on discourse, specialized studies and dictionaries. Another
important aspect that we want to emphasis is the fact that we have made the translation from
4
Jane Ogden, Health and the Construction of the Individual. Psychology Press, 2002, p.5.
5
Gillian Brown and George Yule, Discourse Analysis, Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics, Cambridge
University Press, 1983, p. viii.
6
Brian Paltridge, Discourse Analysis, Godmin Cornwall, 2006, p.2.
7
Michael McCarty, Discourse Analysis for Language Teacher, Cambridge University Press, 1991, p. 5.
833
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Romanian into English, trying to make a word by word translation, so that the text in English
should be similar to the Romanian one.
We have to mention that the discourse of these two political leaders is a political discourse. It
is impossible to speak about a political battle without having a political discourse.
The first item that is it to be analysed is the political class of the epoch. Wishing to
reach power, (this is the main objective of each party) it is important to see how the opponents
refer or relate to the in charge leaders. Their opinion on the leaders, especially on their
modality to run a country is essential in understanding also the political system.
The Political Class
The whole nation, in all that it had better, from peasants to intellectuals received
with great sorrow he sad news of the amendment to Article7, but could do nothing because it
woke up sold and betrayed by its leaders. What kind of curse on our head and what sins
condemned us, the Romanians, to have such rascal leaders?8
As concerns the vocabulary the nouns and adjectives are the dominant elements. The
association of the adjective whole with the noun nation creates from the very beginning a
powerful effect, offering to the sentence a value of absolute truth, even if we have real doubts
that this was the truth. Another important aspect is that he used a collective noun nation in
order to create the sensation of unity and solidarity, Although the adjectives are not used in
comparative or superlative degree, they are strong adjectives offering to the text a pessimistic
value. Moreover, Codreanu realizes a comparison between the nation, made up peasants and
intellectuals (the good part of the nation) and the leaders identified as the Evil part. By this
antithesis, the guilty persons acted in the detriment of the nation. It is to mention that he used
the metaphor in order to characterize the leaders by using a strong word: rascal, consequently
realizing the labelling in order to distract the attention from the important issues. Following
the decisions taken by the leaders of the country, the Romanian peasantry and the working
class are the ones to suffer because all these decisions are in favour of the Jews.
As the synthetic analysis is concerned the verbs are used in past tense meaning that the
action took place, and there is no possibility to correct the situation. Moreover, he used the
passive voice, meaning that the action is made by them (the leaders) having direct
repercussion on us (the nation). The situation is seen only in terms of goods and evil. There
cannot be negotiations with the others. The Romanian politician is corrupted, uninterested in
his nation, preoccupied by his own person and by his relatives. For him, politics means
business and not the well-fare of a nation.
The use of rhetoric interrogation also emphasizes the emotional effect on the audience and
automatically induces the answer in finding the guilty persons.
He adds The Romanian, abandoned by his political leaders, remained alone in front
of the Jewish well organized coalition, of the fraudulent manoeuvres and of unfair
competition and fell defeated. It will come the time when these leaders must pay. 9 From the
very beginning of the sentence, he announces us that the Romanian was abandoned by the
political class. This has a psychological effect tending to manipulate the receptors.
8
Corneliu Zelea Codreanu, Pentru Legionari, Colecia Omul Nou, 1990, p. 131.
9
Ibidem, p.152.
834
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
By the enumeration that he used, he speaks about a complot between two unequal
forces: the sole Romanian, on one hand and the coalition, on the other hand, made against
him. The final sentence denotes a strong conclusion by the use of the modal verb must. It is
something that is guaranteed; moreover he projects his desires in future as a truth. It is a sort
of foresight that he undertakes. Emotional feelings need to be activated in order to create a
connection between him and his audience.
According to Vasile Marin the political chaff, once reached power is on robbery.
And for this, it does not spare anything: it corrupts justice, soils the army, infamies the
administration, denigrates the church and degrades the school.10
In order to emphasis the critical situation in which the country is, Marin makes appeal
to the verbs. The use of present tense is essential to indicate that the action is repeated or
usual. It also denotes todays problems. From this perspective, the emotional impact is huge.
Moreover, the verbs have negative meaning and associated with the main institutions of the
state create a gloomy present and future. It incites to action, creating in receptors minds a
mood of despair. Having a pessimistic tone, created by the use of pessimistic verbs, the main
purpose of his statement is to blame and criticizes the actual government.
Maris also uses the labelling the political chaff in order to emphasis the bad character
of the leading elite. Another feature of his discourse is his tendency to generalize.
What he really wants to emphasis is that the incapacity of the leaders is in every field
of activity: politics, economy and even cultural life.
Democracy and political parties
Democracy and political parties are two related subjects on which both Codreanu and
Marin expressed their points of view.
Codreanu considers that democracy transforms millions of Jews in Romanian citizens
and it serves the great finances.11The negative aspects are materialized by the Jews and
great finances. Again, the evil is known and those who do not belong to the Romanian culture
are seen as a danger. The mixture of races is unconceived: moreover, the danger is expressed
by the noun millions used with a negative connotation. Consequently, the anti-Semitism is
uttered and expressed in a loud voice.
Democracy crushes the unity of the Romanian people dividing it into parties, feuding
it, exposing it to the block unity of Jewish power in a difficult moment in its history.12
Codreanu puts into discussion the form of organization and leading a society (the form
of government). In order to show the incapacity of democracy in maintaining the order and
peace, he makes appeal to the verbs in present tense and present continuous. The use of this
tense is to emphasise that something is happening now, at this very moment. The verbs have
also a negative meaning: to crush, to divide, to feud, creating the impression of war. It is
interesting the use of noun unity in antithesis (Romanian unity and Jewish unity). It gives the
impression of two blocks, two irreconcilable actors that are not able to create a dialogue. It is
again us, in contradiction with them.
10
Vasile Marin, Crez de generaie, Tipografia Bucovina, Bucharest, 1937, ediia a IV a, Colecia Munchen, 1977,
p. 109.
11
Codreanu, op. cit., p.414.
12
Ibidem, p.412.
835
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Continuing the same assertion, Codreanu considers that Democracy is incapable of
continuity in effort or it puts the political man in the impossibility to do its duty to the people
or it is incapable of authority.13 What he is really saying it is that he denies democracy, he
fights for another form of government. He wanted an authoritarian form of governance.
Codreanu was convinced that Romanian people are at crossroads. All state institutions: the
monarchy, the church, the army, the judiciary and the administration system were questioned.
According to him, they were all poisoned by the Jews. The Jews embody everything he
rejected: democracy, communism, and in particular, the Romanian political system.
More than that Money, press and the votes decide the life or the death in democracy.
The Jews have all these, and the Romanian political parties become simple tools in the hands
of Jewish power. Since we, who have started the fight against the Jews, we see ourselves
fighting against the government, parties, authorities, army, and the Jews stay still. 14
He used the enumeration twice and it is interesting the modality in which he used it.
We speak again about an antithesis between Romanian and Jews: the evil is represented by
the Jews, more than that they bought the political class. Therefore, the Romanians are fighting
between them.
Politicianism infects our national life ... the descent of this infection towards the
Romanian youth means our annihilation and the victory of Israel.15 His anti-Semitic reaction
is uttered and at the same time assumed. The word with a strong emotional meaning is the
noun infection, twice used to create the sensation of an imminent death. This is also a pattern
used in the totalitarian speech when those who belong to other nations have to remain in a
total silence. Another emotional element brought into discussion is the Romanian Youth, the
only force in his opinion to fight against both the corrupted system and the Jews. Beyond the
words, the purpose of Codreanu was to attire the new generation toward his ideology.
Subsequently, the main aim was to incite to action. He comes with another strong sentence
politicianism is killing us 16with the intention of manipulating the receptor. Again the use of
present continuous tense creates in this particular situation a pressure on the audience and the
emotional relation between Codreanu and his supporters is already made.
Marin continues the idea of the Leader concerning the failure of democracy to defend
its citizens against the danger of Jews and rich ones and asserts the following phrase
democracy pushes to the surface and installs in command posts the golden mediocrity,
bookworm, half-blind paper-phile and mandarin of university parchment.17
He uses the metaphor, hyperbola and enumeration with the intention of over
exaggerating the deficiency of democracy. Democracy promotes non-value. Beyond the
words, the idea of using these figures of speech is to manipulate and excite the audience. In
order to defend the nation and to offer its dignity it is necessary to have a strong state. Whom
is to be blamed for? The answer is a simple one: of course, the politicians, the Jews and the
form of government. Marin believes that the promotion in the society is not made on merits.
13
Ibidem, pp.413-414.
14
Ibidem, p.156.
15
Ibidem, p.189.
16
Ibidem, p.384.
17
Vasile Marin,op.cit.,p.189.
836
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Accordingly, democracy is not able to educate the nation, to make it respect and
cherish the values, awaken up in the minds of citizens the national sentiment and prepare the
true elite of the country.
Moreover, he continues his idea declaring that Here we have the balance after 15
years of democratic leading! In pursuit of votes and cartels that give them ridiculous and deaf
majorities, the governments of political parties abdicated from their prior duty: the assertion
at any price of the prestige of national state.18 The exclamation point is used to express a
strong feeling and also to attire the attention of the receptor of the message.
The leaders have lost all Romanian feelings and they are not interested at all in
affirming the Romanian nation. Thus, the nation has lost its models, benchmarks which will
lead to its collapse. Here we can talk about a form of nationalist discourse.
He becomes even more virulent to the political class, declaring that The Romanian
political parties are the result of a mating between Masonry and the democracy which was
foreign to our realities.19
Again, the political class sold the interest of the nation, in the interest of its own. What
is the meaning behind his words? That the people should follow them, should offer them the
power in order to reach power and to change the form of government.
Conclusion
From the content analysis of Codreanu and Marin there are some conclusions to be
drawn.
The discourse and content analysis of the discourse are two notions that changed their
meaning over time. To give a precise definition of each of them is quiet difficult due to the
complexity of the terms.
As concerns the discourses that we have analysed in the herein paper, the first
assumption to make it is that the discourse of the Legionary leaders is a political one, due to
the fact that through it they want to reach power. We can consider it a tool, among many
others in obtaining power.
In general, the political discourses are structured within two themes: a negative and a
positive one. There is a predominance of the negative aspect reflected especially when they
refer to the leaders and political class. Consequently, the antithesis between us and them is a
permanent aspect in each discourse. The purpose of this negative meaning is to create a bad
image of the opponents. From the quotes we have remarked that there are some negative
aspects that are frequently used: poverty, moral degradation, sabotage of the political state,
complicity between the leaders and the Jews, dissatisfaction with regard to the form of
government.
Another important aspect revealed by the content analysis is that they use a large
variety of figures of speech (metaphor, hyperbola, enumeration and rhetoric question) in order
to impress the electorate and at the same time to create an emotional relation. The verbs are
used in present tense simple or continuous (when they want to transmit a negative aspect) to
18
Ibidem, p.121.
19
Ibidem, p.108.
837
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
emphasis the critical situation of a decision taken by the authorities and in past tense when the
negative aspect has repercussions on present.
The labelling of the leaders and the tendency to generalize each negative aspect are
other two important features of their discourse. Furthermore they tend to see their opponents
as the embodiment of the evil and guilty for the precarious state of the nation. The scapegoat
is always the other.
Bibliography
Brown, Gillian, Yule, George, Discourse Analysis, Cambridge Textbooks in Linguistics,
Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Codreanu, CorneliuZelea, PentruLegionari, Colecia Omul Nou, 1990.
Flowerdew, John, Discourse in English Language Education, Routledge, 2013.
Henry, Frances, Tator, Carol, Discourses of Domination, University of Toronto Press, 2002.
Marin, Vasile, Crez de generaie, Tipografia Bucovina, Bucharest, 1937, ediia a IV a,
Colecia Munchen, 1977.
McCarty, Michael, Discourse Analysis for Language Teacher, Cambridge University Press,
1991.
Ogden, Jane, Health and the Construction of the Individual, Psychology Press, 2002.
Paltridge, Brian, Discourse Analysis, Godmin Cornwall, 2006.
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/discourse
838
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
MONSTRUOUS IDIOMS - SCARY IDIOMS IN ROMANIAN TRANSLATION
PUSKS-BAJK Albina, PhD Candidate, Petru Maior University of Trgu-Mure
Abstract: An idiom is usually a group of words whose meaning will be peculiar and cannot be
predicted from the meanings of the constituent words.From the translator's point of view,
collocations and idioms belong to rather demanding text units, which often require a high
level of linguistic, communicative, cultural and translational competence. In most cases when
an idiom is translated, either its meaning is changed or it is meaningless.
Keywords: English- Romanian translation,metaphors in translation, phraseological value,
collocations, idioms, formulas, traps, mot-a-mot, mother tongue, culture, local, teacher,
student
There are estimated to be at least 25,000 idiomatic expressions in English, therefore
the English- Romanian translator needs to be aware, and appreciative of their semantics (the
difficulty with idioms being that their meaning is not deducible from that of the individual
elements), their syntax (non-free and sometimes puzzling), their pragmatics (related to a
variety of linguistic and textual circumstances, more specific of which can stem from
conscious breach of the frozen syntax, the metaphorical quality of their meaning or culture-
specific usage patterns) on both the source and the target languages of the English-to-
Romanian translation process. In addition, a successful choice of an appropriate equivalent
requires a well-founded translational decision as to the most relevant aspect(s) of the value of
the phrase in question i.e. the aspect which should be matched in the translation, as well as an
awareness of the various procedures that can be employed. The paper discusses translation
equivalents of English collocations and idioms present in Romanian translations at the
English class.
Examples would be:
Bookworm= oarece de bibliotec;
Copycat= imitator,
To have a sweet tooth= a se da n vnt dup dulciuri;
A pain in the neck= o persoan agasant;
To be on cloud nine- a fi n al noulea cer
These were translated by my students (from school) as:
Bookworm= vierme de carte
Copycat= pisic de copiat
To have a sweet tooth= a avea carii din cauza dulciurilor
A pain in the neck= o durere de gt
To be on cloud nine= Aladin pe norul numrul 9.
(Collocations taken from Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary)
839
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
I asked myself the question: Are there any patterns in the treatment of collocations and
idioms in translation?
First of all, I found the following patterns :l students have the tendency of keeping
grammatical collocations (noun/adjective/verb + preposition, or grammatical structure ) the
same in their translations (a kiss on the cheek will be translated as pupic pe obrajii cuiva), as
well as lexical collocations will be translated keepig the original structure as much as
possible:
Adjective+noun, a promising beginning= un nceput promitor, Noun+noun,Slave labour=
munc pentru sclavi, Noun+characteristic action, Bees buzz= albinele bzie, Verb
+characteristic object of its action, To change gears= a schimba vitezele
However, students, as well as teachers, show a growing tendency of irresponsible
translations in what the moment we introduce idioms into the classroom, based on their
instincts more than on their well founded research. This fact might not surprise us, instead we
could laugh at it, as it presents itself as source of ridiculous incidents.
Idiom Literal translation in Meaning
Romanian
A bee in my bonnet O albin in plrie A problem on my mind
Have a bone to pick Am de ros un os cu tine Have a discussion with you/ have a
with you complaint against you
Open up a whole new A deschide o Expose a lot of serious problems
can of worms ntreag nou cutie cu
viermi
An arm and a leg O mn i un picior Very expensive
Bakers dozen Duzina brutarului Thirteen
Finding your feet A-i gsi picioarele To become more comfortable in
whatever you are doing
Funny farm Ferma de glumei A mental institutional facility
Graveyard shift Schimbul groparului Working hours from about 12:00 am
to 8:00 am
Lend me your ear mprumut-mi urechea ta To politely ask for someones full
attention
No room to swing a Nu e loc nici sa nvri o An unsually small or confined space
cat pisic
Let us imagine what a so calledinstinctive translator would visualize when they
meet the following idioms:
840
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Hand in glove
Hangover
To rub elbows
To have skeletons in the closet
To dig somebody
Eager beaver
Like something the cat dragged it
To chicken out of something
A dogs breakfast
An elephant in the room
To drink like a fish
Snail mail
Paper tiger
Cold turkey
My students gave me an approximate translation in pictures for these idioms. They
transposed the literal translations into visuals, making them extremely alluring and funny. I
must tell you, I laughed in tears.
It is difficult for Romanian native speakers to master English idioms,because the
figurative meanings of English idioms cannot be predicted through an analysis of their
individual word meanings. It is not surprising, The trouble (...) is that they take everything
Americans say literally (Buchwald, 2000, p. 104). However, idioms are common in
American daily life and provide a rich source of American culture (Cooper, 1999). Nippold
and Martin (1989) stressed, Failure to grasp the meanings of idioms can impinge upon an
individuals understanding of language in social, academic, and vocational settings (p. 59).
The same happens in cases when one doesnt understand idioms in their mother tongue, only
this time, it might constitute a huge hurdle in grasping the sophistication of different social
situations.
Consider for a second what one can visualize coming across Romanian idioms as the
following:
Las-o balt= forget about it
e fumat= it's worn out (about an expression, a reaction)
d-i din baschei= step on it/ move faster
nu m aburi= don't try to fool me
sunt cotoi btrn= I'm a deep-rooted man(i.e. old and wise)
Valea=go away
eti un pmplu=you're a wimp (funny word)
a-i trage eap= to trick/to cheat smb.
A se cafti=to fight (funny)
Eti marf! =you're hot! (old slang)
car-te=get lost
a hali=to eat (funny)
841
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Students made a compilation of the best ones, and we realized why it is so difficult to
learn and use these phrases- they simply dont make sense to us, struggling to grasp any
meaning attached to them.
Strassman and OConnell (2007) found that students are often able to discuss content,
take notes, or create semantic maps for writing; however, they often do not use the new words
or concepts taught in class. Thus, I use various effective activities for teaching English idioms
to college, highschool or adult students in order that they can not only learn them effectively
but also apply them practically.
Teaching Idioms in Contexts
Context in Learning Language
The role of context is central in language learning. Its common that students dont
really understand the various meanings of new words in different contexts. Thats why EFL
students dont know how to apply the words they have learned practically in various contexts.
Its fundamental for teachers to provide a rich context for students language learning and
practice. For instance, linguistic contextual information enhances adolescents interpretation
of idioms (Nippold & Martin, 1989). The contextual cues surrounding a particular word can
help readers get thats meaning. In contrast, context-reduced language will be hard for readers
to tolerate (Brown, 2001). Consequently, its more effective for EFL students to learn
language in meaningful contexts than learn isolated words through memorization and drilling.
Introducing English Idioms in Story Contexts
Stories have been popularly used to teach and entertain students in language learning.
Interesting stories usually draw students attention and easily make students absorbed in them.
Since contextual information is significantly effective for aiding students understanding
English idioms, it is essential for EFL teachers to provide students with rich context. Thus,
introducing English idioms within interesting stories can possibly help EFL students to
understand and remember them better.
Teaching Idioms with Rich Illustrations
The Role of Illustrations in Reading
Although there is lingering debate regarding the effect of visuals on reading
comprehension, some researchers claim that reading materials accompanied by visuals will be
more comprehensible. For example, Scarcella and Oxford (1992) stressed that teachers need
to illustrate key vocabulary effectively by showing pictures and diagrams so as to improve the
ESL students reading comprehension . Mayer (1999) found that words and pictures presented
together helped students recall better than alone. It is efficient to provide interesting pictures
to foster and reinforce vocabulary development. Consequently, visuals must be stimulating,
interesting and motivating to students comprehension and retention of reading.
Presenting English Idioms with Rich Illustrations
According to the effect of illustrations on reading, I collected English idioms in one
sentence context. English idioms were presented with pictures to one class of 30 students
while without pictures to the other class of 30 students. They were told that those phrases
842
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
were English idioms first and then they were asked to translate them into Hungarian. I found
that English idioms with illustrations could increase college students idiom understanding
better. Thus, it is effective to present English idioms accompanied by visual stimuli that
clearly illustrates the idioms being taught.
Teaching Idioms with Group Discussion
Group Discussion in Reading Comprehension
Students discussing what they read is a helpful strategy to increase their
comprehension. Group talk can provide learners with rich opportunities to acquire social and
linguistic knowledge necessary for understanding new texts they encounter (Freeman &
Freeman, 1994). Klingner & Vaughn (2000) stressed that ESL students engaging in
collaborative talk during content reading, they assisted one another in understanding the
meaning of challenging words, getting the main ideas, and answering questions about what
they read. As a result, group discussion appears to be an effective technique to enhance
students reading comprehension.
Applying Group Discussion in Understanding English Idioms
Students are likely to be passive learners when they receive lectures only in
classrooms. On the contrary, small group discussion could stimulate students to be involved
in the active process of constructing knowledge. Furthermore, during group discussions,
students will learn from each other, whether consciously or unconsciously. Accordingly, I
applied group discussion in students active learning of English idioms before explaining the
meaning of idioms to them. Students in group discussion could understand English idioms
better than when they were introduced to English idioms within a story only. This
demonstrated the significant effect of group talk on students understanding of English
idioms.
Teaching Idioms with Readers Theater
Readers Theater in Reading
Readers Theater has been viewed as an interesting and motivating strategy that can
provide readers with a legitimate reason to reread text and further improve their word
recognition, reading fluency and reading comprehension. Researchers claim that Readers
Theater offers a way to improve fluency and enhance comprehension (Bafile, 2003) as well as
to create interest in and enthusiasm for learning (Ruddell, 1999). Even slow learners can
benefit from Readers Theater because there is no memorization required and there is no risk
for them at all. Apparently, Readers Theater provides enough opportunity for practice--
repeated reading in language learning. This activity also enhances interaction opportunities
with peers and makes the reading task more appealing than learning alone.
Applying Readers Theater to Practice English Idioms
I used Readers Theater to help students practice English idioms in order to enhance
students retaining them. Class observation and students interviews further revealed their
positive attitudes, such as excitement toward the implementation of Readers Theater in
reading classes. Moreover, students retained English idioms better by applying Readers
843
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Theater because it provided students with opportunities for idiom oral practice because of
rereading scripts. Consequently, it is obvious to see that Readers Theater has a significant
effect on students learning and retaining English idioms.
Teach Idioms with Retelling and Rewriting
Retelling in Reading
Retelling has been a good strategy to know how much students have learned and to
increase their comprehension. Retelling activities can facilitate students reading retrieval
because the activities can encourage students to try to recall. Their recalling help teachers
understand how much information their students have obtained. Older students can benefit
from retelling stories because it allows students to learn to organize and describe events,
which enhances reading comprehension.
Applying Retelling and Rewriting to Practice English Idioms
Since retelling activities are good techniques to facilitate students reading retrieval,
this motivates me to apply the activities in teaching English idioms. After I introduced the
meanings of English idioms to my students, I asked my students in pairs to retell the content
in their own words instead of the English idioms and to rewrite sentences provided in class by
using English idioms. The retelling and rewriting activities provided students with more
chances to be aware of the meanings of English idioms and be familiar with the English
idioms they have just learned.
Teach English Idioms with Dialogue Writing and Role-Play
Dialogue Writing and Role-play in Reading
Dialogues can provide situations for students to practice ordinary conversation and
offer students ample practice with basic speaking skills in context. Firstly, dialogues can be
viewed as short plays and used for students to act out rather than simply read aloud.
Moreover, the dialogues the students write function as basic communication at all levels
(Scott & Ytreberg, 2000). In addition, putting pupils into pairs for the role-play in the daily
dialogues is an effective way of oral practice for various ages and levels (Scott & Ytreberg,
2000). Nunan (2003) stressed that role-plays are also excellent activities for learners
speaking in the relatively safe environment of the classroom before they must do so in a real
environment. Therefore, dialogues offer students opportunities to act out and practice oral
skill before encountering the real world.
Applying English Idioms through Dialogue Writing and Role-play
Dialogues and role-play are useful written and oral activities so that I assigned my
students in pairs to write one dialogue by using the English idioms introduced in class and
then act out the dialogue out in the following class. Dialogue writing could motivate students
to write without burden because of pair collaboration and role-play activity could help them
remember the dialogue they wrote through repetitive practices. It was easier and more fun for
them to remember English idioms because they shared and enjoyed learning English idioms
with friends. Thus, dialogue writing and role-play are useful and interesting activities for
students meaningful and efficient drills.
844
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Conclusion
All in all, the use of idioms is an essential feature of a high level of proficiency in the
English language, enabling non-native English speakers to convey a great deal of meaning
while using very few words, adding colour to the language and increasing chances of
academic success.
Since it is vital for EFL learners to learn English idioms in order to master English, it
is important for EFL teachers to design various activities for students to use with English
idioms and subsequently acquire them efficiently. Moreover, students learn better when they
are provided with collaborative activities because they can interact with peers and share fun in
learning. Finally, when teachers integrate listening, speaking, reading and writing activities
together in teaching English idioms, students can be involved in the application of English
idioms in four skills. Thus, it is effective to teach EFL learners English idiom when they are
provided with various activities to practice and use English idioms in different contexts.
Bibliography
ALLEN, V. G. (1989). Literature as a support to language acquisition. In P. RIGG & V. G.
ALLEN (Eds.), When they dont all speak English: Integrating the ESL student into the
regular classroom (pp.55-64). Urbana: NCTE.
BAFILE, C. (2003). Readers Theater: A reason to read aloud. Education World.
BROWN, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language
pedagogy. New York: Longman.
BUCHWALD, A. (2000). Dont say Lets Get Together to a foreigner. In S. K. Cohen
FREEMAN, D. E., & FREEMAN, Y. S. (1994). Between worlds: Access to second language
acquisition. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
KINNUNCHAN-WELSCH, K, ROSEMARY, C. A., & GROGAN, P. R. (2007).
Accountability by design in literacy professional development. The Reading Teacher, 59 (5),
426-435.
KLINGER, J. K., & VAUGHN, S. (2000). The helping behaviors of fifth graders while
MAYER, R. E. (1999). Research-based principles for the design of instructional messages:
The case of multimedia explanations. Document Design, 1, 7-20.
NIPPOLD, M. A., & MARTIN, S. T. (1989). Idiom interpretation in isolation versus
NUNAN, D. (2003). Practical English language teaching. New York: McGraw Hill.
RUDDER, R. B. (1999). Teaching children to read and write: Becoming an influential
teacher. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Backon.
SCARCELLA, R. C., & Oxford, R. L. (1992). The tapestry of language learning: The
SCOTT, W. A., & Ytreberg, L. H. (2000). Teaching English to children. New York:
Longman.
845
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
POSSIBLE STRUCTURAL AMBIGUITIES IN ENGLISH PROVERBS
AND THEIR ROMANIAN CORRESPONDING VERSIONS
Anca-Mariana PEGULESCU, PhD, Ministry of National Education
Abstract: Starting from the concept of proverbiality which includes the particular pattern,
proverbs (as small texts) display, I oriented my research towards the way(s) a speaker intends
to derive the sense and reference from the range of possible senses and reference a sentence
can have within a saying format.
Combining the syntactic and the pragmatic perspectives, I have explored a potential sentence-
level ambiguity, searching for the differences and the similarities of the proverbs versions in
English, as a source language (SL) and Romanian as a target language (TL). I was interested
in the speakers meaning and at the same time in the contextual/ utterance meaning.
Among the various methods regarding the sampling, I decided on the ethnofields of TRUTH
and ADEVR, applying the descriptive and contrastive methods to examples of proverbs
extracted from V. Lefters Dicionar de proverbe, 2007, Teora.
Keywords: context, equivalent, level, position, structure.
I.1. The concept of proverbiality obliges paremiologists, on one hand, and proverbs
users, on the other hand, to give a special attention to the analysis of proverbial markers.
These markers are not the only elements that can define the proverbial style. Internal and
external devices contribute to an overall understanding of proverbs. Still we can wonder
ourselves if in varying degrees poetic devices like parallelism, ellipsis, alliteration or rhyme,
combined with semantic devices like metaphor, personification or paradox, do influence the
way the speaker wants to convince his/her interlocutor the hearer, who may have his/her
own interpretation of the message.
Whether the proverbs originated more in an oral tradition than in a written one is not
unanimously admitted. What is nevertheless agreed on is the fact that the proverb has been a
teaching method for those who wanted to convey examples of what is good vs what is bad.
When referring to the difficulties of defining a proverb, everybody (paremiologists as
well as people who are not inclined towards the study of proverbs but use them quite often)
admits some of the qualities a proverb should have: brevity, symmetry, intelligibility,
intuitively, convincing formulations, a clear message. I searched all these characteristics
within the corpus I am going to describe in the following pages.
II. Designed approach
II.1. The aim of this research has been the comparison of the proverbs structure in
English and Romanian and it envisaged both the specificity of the source language (SL)
pattern and the possible poetic devices that could influence the message. I have to underline
the fact that the concept of SL is variable because the starting point within the article is, in
turn, represented by English and Romanian versions of the same proverb. The common
846
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
denominator is the ethnofield TRUTH/ADEVR to which I added (as there are no strict
boundaries) the ethnofields WORD/CUVNT and LIE/MINCIUN.
The sample size went to the option I mentioned above, as I consider ethnofields
representative samples. Using ethnofields means to extend a certain theme or topic to a level
where we can reach conclusions relating to proverbs structure in general.
II.2. I extracted 59 proverbs as dictionary entries, in the ethnofields I referred at in
II.1., from the corpus structured by Virgil Lefters Dicionar de proverb englez- romn,
romn-englez, published at Teora in 2007, changing, in turn, the SL and the TL. As Virgil
Lefter explained I dealt only with proverbial patterns, not sayings, adages or aphorisms. The
author has not given explicit details of the sources he used. We can presuppose that the
proverbs Lefter selected were gleaned from oral tradition, having unknown authors who
showed, however, having mastered language skills and a comprehensive knowledge of the
world.
The relatively small size of the extracted corpus was used in order to produce a
comparable image of the similarities and differences that may appear in the two languages at
the level of proverb pattern and structures.
III. Syntactical proverb markers analysis
III.1.The Romanian paremiologist C. Negreanu [1983,p.48] underlined the fact that
proverbs (he referred to the Romanian proverb pattern, analyzed in collections coming from
Zanne and Hinescu) have some obvious advantages: their lexical concise form, (most of the
time) a precise message, bearing a huge essential capacity of rearranging different parts of the
proverbial structure.
The proverb creator, belonging to the rural areas or towns middle class, managed to
reshape the specificity of the human nature. The stylistic devices, used in proverbs, are:
metaphor:
E: Craft must have clothes but truth likes to go naked.
R: Vicleugul i minciuna au nevoie de vemnt bogat, dar adevrul umbl gol-golu.
comparison:
R: i minciuna e vorb, dar vremea descoper adevrul.
E: Though a lie be well dressed, it is ever overcome.
The devices are very diverse: repetition, metonymy and irony are among the most
frequently met:
R: Cnd adevrul lipsete, aa mi se pare se apropie de adevr.
E: Almost and very (well) nigh saves many a lie.
All these literary devices make possible the interrelation between different ethofields.
TRUTH and WORD can appear together, even if the source language (SL) this time
Romanian does not display the same idea the Romanian term vorbrie implies many
words but it may also imply lack of substance or waste of time, poor quality of a
discourse:
847
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
E: In many words, the truth goes by.
R: Cnd e prea mult vorbrie, adevrul se pierde.
Following the same path, we can extend the ethnofields relationship: the boundary
between TRUTH, WORD and LIE is almost invisible. LIE as the antonym of TRUTH seems
to be more explored in English than in Romanian (8 English proverbial units vs 4 Romanian
ones in Lefters Dicionar).
III. 1.2. In the English proverb:
E: They may so is half a lie.
(otherwise a sentence in a sentence construction, where the Subject is in fact another
small sentence formed of S+V+ dir.Obj)
the construction, similar to a Russian doll pattern, ensures the symmetrical balance.
The Romanian version to the above English proverb:
R: Zvonurile sunt pe jumtate minciun. (translation)
renders the idea of confusion and vagueness that can become LIES. Romanian makes
use of a noun in the plural zvonurile- which stands for a whole sentence in English, They
say so.
The fact that proverbs are, in general, short sentences [Mieder, 1985] cannot be
denied. The sentence status has been questioned and analysed for long periods of time: it has
been defined through a minimum sense of unity and completeness (Greenbaum and Quirk,
1990:12).Still, it is not easy to decide what qualifies a short proverb and when a short
proverb becomes a long proverb.
The English proverb:
E: The devil sometimes speaks the truth.
is rendered by the Romanian translation:
R: Uneori i dracul spune adevrul.
(which is almost a word by word translation, the only change being the word order)
and in such a case the transfer from the SL(English) to the TL(Romanian) is complete.
The same situation can be viewed in:
E: All truths are not to be told.
R: Orice adevr nu e bun de spus.
Such a structure which contains one single independent clause is very much met in the
whole corpus and it usually contains a declarative, non-oppositional pattern.
III.1.3. The opposition, however, can appear within the pattern itself, like in the following
units:
truth vs lie:
E: Better speak truth rudely than lie.
848
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
R: Mai bine s spui adevrul pe fa dect s mini cu meteug.
(a word by word translation where the Romanian version introduces the nuance cu
meteug , which does not exist in the English version)
truth vs the ones who speak it:
E: Fools and madmen speak the truth.
R: Copiii i nebunii spun adevrul.
(the Romanian version introduces this time the noun copiii instead of the equivalent
prost/idiot//tmpit, conveying, in fact, the innocence value and attitude as a matter of
cultural choice)
the singular vs the plural of the same term:
E: Lies have short legs.
R: Minciuna are picioarele scurte.
III. 1.4. The normal sentence pattern in English proverbs is S (nouns in the nominative)+V+
accusative. The Romanian versions can have the same pattern:
E: Tell a lie and find a (the) truth.
R: Spune o minciun i vei afla adevrul.
or can display a different pattern to S+V*Adv Modifier/(relative clause)
E: A blister will rise upon ones tongue that tell a lie.
R: Mincinosului i crete pr pe limb.
(Dative +V+ Dir. Object+ Adv. Modifer)
Complex sentences, containing one main clause and at least one sub-clause are found
in very many examples:
E: He [that trusts in a lie] shall perish in truth.
R: Cine crede ntr-o minciun, va pieri din cauza adevrului.
.III.3.2Parallelism
Syntactic parallelism has the highest frequency value of all the formal devices. It is
present in the structural symmetricitye between the .parts of the proverbial unit and the
sentences that form the unit (either by syntactic coordination the conjunction and, or,
but):
R: Puine cuvinte i isprav mult.
E: Few words and many deeds.
or asyndetic coordination conjunctic absent:
E: More matter, less art
as the corresponding version to the above Romanian proverb to the above Romanian
proverb:
R: Puine cuvinte i isprav mai mult.
III. 3.3.1 Different other proverbs sequential linkage are achieved through logical,
temporal, causal or manner means. The sender of the message can challenge the addressee to
connect and interpret the semantic relationshios between different constituents in order to
infer and an overall unified meaning:
849
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
E: Face to face, the truth comes out.
R: Priveste-l pe om n ochi i vei afla adevrul.
Between the two above paremic units the term TRUTH/ADEVR is definitely the
common denominator. While the English proverb uses a simple sentence, displaying a
fronting adverbial modifier, the Romanian version uses the verb to look/a privy that can be
only presupposed in the English proverb.
Distinct semantic relationships can be identified in the 59 proverb entries I retained:
equality between the two parts of the proverbial unit:
E: A bird is known by note, the man by his words.
R:Omul dup grai, ca clopotul dup sunet ndat se cunoate.
The equality is seen within the same paremic unit, otherwise the comparison between
the bird (in the English proverb) and the man(in the Romanian version) is enriched through
the term clopot/bell (which appears only in the Romanian version) sending back to the term
note(of the English version), including it in the same lexical family with the term
sunet/sound.
cause and effect:
E: He who gives fair words, feeds you with an empty spoon.
R: Cine te mbie cu vorbe frumoase, te hrnete cu lingura goal.
The above pair of proverbs a translation version shows a causal linkage containing
the cause-consequence relationship between the first and the second sentence. In both cases,
if the actions of the first sentences are achieved, people being addressed only fine words,
then they are not properly fed, their spoons being empty, having no food but words.
contrast and antonymy:
E: Fine words dress ill deeds.
R: Vorbele frumoase acoper faptele urte.(translation)
The proverbial pattern focuses in the above paremic pair on the two parts of the same
idea, the contrast between good and bad, between fine and bad words. The pillar is the
verb conveying the same idea and displaying nuances. The verb to dress in English implies
not only covering, it adds sometimes the idea of adorning, embellishing. The Romanian
verb a acoperi is conveying a more negative context.
In most of the cases the verb makes possible the ballance between the subject and the
direst object. For the same English proverb Fine words dress ill deeds, another Romanian
version is eluding the verb and displays only the contrast between miere/honey and
otrav/poison:
R: Din gur miere, iar din inim otrav.
The antonymy may appear between two words of the same sentence
R: Mincinosul cu de-a sila face musca ct cmila.
850
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
E: He changes a fly into an elephant. Making mountains of molehills.
What is really interesting in the above pair of proverbs (conveying the same message
the fact that a liar can transform and change almost everything through the words he uttered
the contrast between a fly and an elephant is very well placed, being similar and accepted in
the two languages, even if Romanian favours the camel and English uses the elephant. The
English pattern has even another solution the structure using an ing form: Making
mountains and molehills.
III.3.3.2 Word order can b eone of the most salient grammatical differentiation when
discussing the proverb pattern and comparing it with other lingustic utterances.
When referring to word order in proverbs, there are at least two situations that are
illustrated by the selected corpus:
emphatic word order:
NP as Adv. Modifier+ V+ Adv.+ Dir. Obj
R: De la un copil i un nebun afli ntotdeauna adevrul.
inverted word order:
VSO
E: Follow not truth too near the heels, lest it dash out thy teeth.
(the Romanian version to this English proverb has a regular word order S+V+ Adv.
Modifier but replaces the term truth with justice, using in fact a metaphor)
R: Dreptatea umbl cu capul spart.
A particular kind of construction is the structure he who. It appears both in English
proverbs and in the Romanian corresponding versions:
E: He that trusts in a lie, shall perish in truth.
R: Cine crede intr-o minciun, va pieri din cauza adevrului.
(the difference in meaning between the two verbs to trust and a crede is balanced
by the way they combine with the noun that explains each of them, the noun lie/minciun
as opposed to truth/minciun.
In very many proverbial units there is an element of the NP of the SL that can suggest
a synonymous term of the TL:
E: The sting of reproach is the truth of it.
R: n orice repro adevrul ustur.
Conclusions
The above analysis - situated at the level of sentence structure allows some general
ideas that are specific both to English and Romanian proverbs.
The simple sentence altenates with the compound structures. We cannot consider, on
the other hand, the analysed structures short or long, counting the number of terms
included in a sentence/ structure. The structures length (either English or Romanian
proverbs) can vary from one sentence pattern to a developed pattern.
851
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
E: All truths are not to be told.
R: Orice adevr nu e bun de spus.
vs
E : When an ass climbs a ladder, we may find wisdom in women.
R: Cnd mrcinii vor scoate rodii, atunci i muierile cuvinte de isprav.
Structural parallelism is usually accompanied by semantic parallelism in which both
synonymous and antonymous relationships are underlined.
Many of the English proverbs belonging to the analyzed ethnofield of TRUTH, LIE
and WORD displayed repetitions, relational classifications (cause-effect, contrast and
antonymy, word order).
In very many situations the message from the SL is only suggested as the key word
is not present:
R: Mincinosul cu de-a sila face musca ct cmila.
E: He changes a fly into an elephant. Making mountains of molehills.
(the pronoun he suggests the liar while the version Making mountains of
molehills does not have a subject).
Even if the analyzed corpus represents a small fragment of the huge thesaurus that
gives the image of the conceptualized proverbial pattern, through which the world displays its
originality, it shows, in general, a paradoxical manner of thinking, favouring declarative
sentences, sometimes imperative structures (positive or negative), parallel paremic units.
The direct message is not always the solution. Comparisons and metaphors are also
present.
Still, the proverbial pattern imposes itself through simplicity, powerful synthetic
suggestions and a very rich linguistic diversity, specific to both English and Romanian.
Bibliography
Greenbaum, S and Quirk, G, 1990, A Students Grammar of the English Language, Essex:
Longman Group
Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, B, 1973, Toward a Theory of Proverb Meaning in Proverbium
22/1987 821 -827 in Frank A. De Caro Talk is Ceap Proverbium: Yearbook of International
Proverb Scholarship 4/1987
Mieder, W, 1985, Popular Views of the Proverbs in : Proverbium:
Yearbook of International Proverb Scholarship
Negreanu, C 1983, 1983, Structura Proverbelor Romneti,
852
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
TOWARDS A NEW ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK:
JEANETTE WINTERSON AND THE DESPERADO PROJECT
Alina PREDA, Assistant Professor, PhD, Babe-Boyai University of Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: Starting from the Desperado project, a theoretical framework designed by Lidia
Vianu to replace the overused term Postmodern literature, this paper aims to demonstrate that
Jeanette Winterson and her work, as well as her readership and critics, could be
accommodated under this newly developed felicitous concept. The systematic analysis
performed on the fundamental features viewed by Vianu as characteristic of Desperado
writing clearly shows that Winterson is a Desperado writer and that her work consists of
Desperado texts fully enjoyed by an international Desperado readership.
Keywords: Desperado writing, Wintersonian style, fiction, readership, literary criticism
We live in the Desperado Age, argues Lidia Vianu, the initiator of the Desperado
project, which started in 1999 with her work entitled British Literary Desperadoes at the Turn
of the Millennium, continued in 2003 with a monograph of Alan Brownjohn, the British poet,
critic and novelist, followed in 2004 not only by an impressive anthology of contemporary
British verse, Desperado Poetry, but also by The Desperado Age: British Literature at the
Start of the Third Millennium, a comprehensive book of literary criticism, and, in 2006, by the
collection Desperado Interviews. Vianu offers a detailed description of the fundamental
features displayed by writers, texts, readers and critics in the Desperado age, description
skillfully divided into nine sections: plot, character, style, relationship with the critic,
relationship with the reader, the author and his/her work, displacement, dystopia and the
hybridization of literary genres. Then she presents a choice of writers, employing an
exquisitely worded title for each individual novelist:
Brave New Novel Aldous Huxley (1894-1963)
A Handbook of Despair George Orwell (1903-1950)
The Self-Indulgent Novelist Evelyn Waugh (1903-1966)
The Rescuer of the Story Graham Greene (1904-1991)
The Clockwork Novel Anthony Burgess (1917-1993)
The Uncomfortable Novelist Doris Lessing (born 1919)
Fowles Outbids Fowles John Fowles (1926-2005)
At the Gates of Commonsense Malcolm Bradbury (1932-2000)
The Self-Consuming Dystopia of Age Alasdair Gray (born 1934)
A Desperado of Simplicity David Lodge (born 1935)
The Down Syndrome of Emotional Fiction Julian Barnes (born 1946)
The Desperado of Sensibility Laid Bare Peter Ackroyd (born 1949)
The Novel to Rent Martin Amis (born 1949)
The Disappointed and Disappointing Memory-Land Reclaimer Graham Swift (born 1949)
Irony and the Compulsion of Reading Morally Kazuo Ishiguro (born 1954)
853
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Apart from the authors mentioned above, there are, of course, others that might
deserve the Desperado title. Therefore, in an attempt to add one more name to the list, here is
a systematic analysis of Jeanette Wintersons literary writing as mirrored in this writers
interviews about her work, analysis which covers issues pertaining not only to the author, but
also to the authors relationship with her work, her readers and her critics. A synthesis of
Vianus rather lengthy presentation of the Desperado literary age, combined with the analysis
of an extensive array of carefully chosen Wintersonian quotations, shall, in what follows, be
used to ascertain if, and to what extent, Jeanette Winterson and her work, as well as her
readership and critics, could be accommodated under this felicitous newly developed concept.
According to Vianu (8), the Desperado age is a period of utmost literary solitude and
bravery, so it is not surprising that Desperado authors aim to establish and follow their very
own trend. This kind of auctorial individualism often results in a rebelliousness mirrored by
the use of four-letter words and by the rendering of aspects until then viewed as taboo in a
manner so direct as to border on vulgarity. This shameless style, concludes Vianu (13),
clearly shows that Desperado writers are in love with inciting, intriguing abnormality.
Whereas any definition of abnormality is, in my opinion, bound to be highly subjective, one
thing is, indeed, obvious: namely that the Desperado author, endowed with vivid imagination,
is endlessly in search of new tricks to use in the creation of an ever more challenging text.
The challenge, however, is meant not only to lure the reader into entering the realm of active
reading, but also to make the intelligent critic surrender, exhaust his attack strategies (Vianu
15). The characteristic features of the Desperado author will be discussed on the basis of the
relationship that the writer under analysis, namely Jeanette Winterson, has established with
her work, her readers and her critics.
Several quotations from Jeanette Wintersons interviews will clearly show that this
author displays most of the features which, according to Vianu, define the Desperado author
(7-22, 78-95). Thus, Jeanette Winterson manifests auctorial individualism, displays an
aesthetically motivated shamelessness, exhibits a denial of group psychology, dislikes being
found at fault, proclaims herself her own trend, feels oppressed by the constant struggle for
survival, tries to find herself by escaping all preconceived patterns, favours the hybridization
of literary genres, wishes to differ from others and even from herself, uses innovative textual
structures, aims at writing the perfect work, refuses to conform to old canons, is desperate to
complicate, is rebellious, and breaks all interdictions.
When Mark Hogarth set up a website after buying a number of extremely well-known
literary authors names, among which Jeannette Wintersons name, she stated that she became
angry because
I [] felt that one has a right to ones own name. And I do in particular. I have
made my name, from nothing at all, and it belongs to me. Very little in this life
belongs to you. But your name should. Especially if thats what youre known by
throughout the world, and for your work. (Reynolds and Noakes 29)
And this is only one of the many instances when Winterson manifested auctorial
individualism. Often referred to as Englands Literary Outlaw (Miller), Jeanette Winterson
seems to be a rather eccentric character on the usually reserved English literary stage; a
854
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
controversial author admired by some and criticised by many, not only for her alternative
lifestyle that she neither keeps secret, nor advertises openly, but also for her frankness and
lack of modesty often perceived as blatant arrogance. Displaying an aesthetically motivated
shamelessness, Jeanette Winterson, while acting as the chair of a literary award committee,
dared nominate one of her own novels, namely Written on the Body, as Best of the Year.
Moreover, when she was invited by the Sunday Times, as part of a newspaper questionnaire,
to name her favourite prose stylist in English, Winterson selected herself: No one working in
the English language now comes close to my exuberance, my passion, my fidelity to words
(Aldrich and Wotherspoon 145).
Winterson exhibits a denial of group psychology, arguing that she is not bothered by
people who disagree with her because any public figure is going to be controversial in some
way. When they resent her views, people sometimes say: Well, now we know you think
like this, well never read your books again. But, Winterson points out, if people actually
thought the way that she does before reading her books, there would be absolutely no point in
reading them anymore (Reynolds and Noakes 27).
That Winterson dislikes being found at fault is obvious not only when one analyses
her reactions to negative criticism, but also upon consideration of other writers reactions to
publicly discussing her work. At a London literary dinner in the summer of 1995, Salman
Rushdie, for instance, called her an ayatollah, and, when asked by a journalist from The
Sunday Times to comment on Art and Lies, almost unanimously considered her least inspired
novel, Rushdie is rumoured to have replied: Ive got enough trouble. I dont need any more.
What do you think? That I want another fatwa? (Pressler).
Deeply conscious of the special public responsibility that well-known thinkers and
authors inevitably have to bear, Winterson proclaims herself her own trend and explains
why she feels compelled to express herself in writing:
Being brought up by Pentecostal Evangelists meant that there was tremendous
drive to go out there and make a difference, and [] for me its a natural
progression which seems bizarre perhaps from those days of preaching the
Word to these days of trying to make people see things imaginatively,
transformatively. (Reynolds and Noakes 11)
Winterson feels oppressed by the constant struggle for survival and tries to find
herself by escaping all preconceived patterns. Here is how Winterson explains the creative
endeavour behind her first novel: I was trying to make sense of a bizarre childhood and an
unusual personal history. Reinventing herself in her fiction is, for Winterson, part and parcel
of the self-discovery process, so she openly makes use of her own biography, but claims to
completely deface it in the process of finishing a novel: Being able to write a story around
the chaos of your own narrative allows you to see yourself as a fiction which is, the author
points out, quite comforting due to the fact that fictions can change (Reynolds and
Noakes 12). For Winterson the act of writing has a double functionality, as it not only
discloses the truth about her inner self, but also reveals the real image of the outer world: I
write [] so that I can explain the world to myself, because writing [] explains you to
yourself and it explains the world (Reynolds and Noakes 11-12).
855
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
When Margaret Reynolds described her as a writer of poetry who happens to work in
prose, Winterson, showing that she favours the hybridization of literary genres, was quick
to reply: Well, I dont think of myself as a poet. I think of myself as somebody who tries to
use poetic disciplines and align them in a narrative stretch (Reynolds and Noakes 22).
Wishing to differ from others and even from herself, Winterson is constantly searching for
variation, even when it comes to choosing names for her characters. Asked by Reynolds to
explain why naming constitutes so important a topic for her, Winterson said that names are
places where you pause. They are places where you recognise, [] Theyre not accidental.
Winterson admits that playing with names is something she truly enjoys: Sometimes I dont
use any names at all. Or the names change for the character. For instance, in Written on the
Body, she wanted the narrator to be a kind of Everyman, so that narrator has no name, while
in Oranges, where she meant to reinvent herself as a fictional character, the narrator has her
own name (Reynolds and Noakes 16-18). Winterson always uses innovative textual
structures:
I [] wanted to play with a double narrative. Having had a single voice in
Oranges, I wanted to use two voices again both in the first person but
contrasting and playing one off against the other. So it was a formal challenge
for me, [] because I wanted to have two people in there who were of very
different sensibilities whom we could get to know through their, initially
separate, journeys which would then come together. (Reynolds and Noakes 18)
Winterson aims at writing the perfect work, not only in as far as the structure of her novels
is concerned, but especially with respect to the choice of words:
Im not happy for words simply to convey meaning [] because fiction itself
demands a vividness and a transparency which is only possible through an
exactness of language. [] It has to be muscular. It has to be agile and quick, it
cant be sloppy. [] Fiction isnt approximate, its precise. (Reynolds and Noakes
22-23)
And, indeed, in all of her novels Winterson displays an utterly surprising combination
of elegance and clarity of exposition that allows her to swiftly move from lyrical description
to witty dialogue, thus avoiding the dangers of monolithic narrative.
Wintersons refusal to conform to old cannons makes her seem, at times, desperate
to complicate; but she has got her reasons, as she clearly explains: I continually break my
narratives. Nothing depresses me more than seeing a page with no breaks in it. According to
Winterson, contemporary authors should avoid writing nineteenth century fiction, even if they
love reading it:
The third person to me always seems rather omnipotent and remote and better left
in the nineteenth century where it was done rather well. Some writers use it, but I
prefer not to. And if I do use it I usually do so for the purposes of distance, to get
away from the kind of intimacy Im usually aiming for. (Reynolds and Noakes 15)
856
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Winterson is rebellious; she attempts to break all interdictions, refuses to conform to
societys norms regarding the ban placed on certain topics, and embarks on the challenging
endeavour of investigating taboo issues pertaining to gender and sexuality. She disregards
censorship both in her life and in her work, be it fictional or not: you have to be able to speak
carefully and honestly and well about the issues of your own time, however controversial
[] (Reynolds and Noakes 26).
Jeanette Wintersons works clearly point to some other features that Vianu assigns to
Desperado authors and to their creations: thus, Winterson is an extremely resourceful writer,
who believes that truth is just another convention, claims to be creating not merely literature,
but the very essence of life and takes shelter behind a strong imagination; she hunts the
unusual and rejects formal conventions, uses life as a pretext, views fiction as a game, creates
a puzzle from bits of reality and constantly leaves one space for another; Winterson
defamiliarises the familiar, uses exasperating narrative patterns to avoid closure, imagines a
wealth of details and employs a merry-go-round of techniques; she writes with both her soul
and her memory, especially her literary memory, rewriting all literature and freely employing
intertextuality (Vianu 20, 29-35, 42).
Thus, when asked to comment on the leitmotif used in The Passion (5, 13, 69, 160),
Im telling you stories. Trust me, Winterson declared that the readers give their trust to
writers because, although they make no claim to absolute certainty and thorough knowledge,
they do claim to have a map, passed down from hand to hand, redrawn, uncertain, a map
whose existence guarantees, however, that the buried treasure is really there (Reynolds and
Noakes 21). Winterson pertinently argues that imagination is the first and foremost
requirement when writing fiction:
You cant do it well if youre trying to lock yourself slavishly into your notion of
the past which will not be true anyway. Or if youre making the past into the
present, but in a silly wig and a different costume. (Reynolds and Noakes 22)
That Winterson hunts the unusual is clearly proven, for instance, by her rejection of
the formal conventions employed by most writers of historical fiction. Thus, in order to
recreate the 17th century atmosphere in Sexing the Cherry, she makes up a language which is
neither the real language of seventeenth-century England nor the language of today:
Its very annoying when you read what we might call a conventional historical
novel and either everybodys going around saying Zounds! and Aye, sir, and
their cloaks are fluttering in the wind or which is the American way they
sound exactly like we do. Which is irritating, because neither will do. (Reynolds
and Noakes 21-22)
Given that she views history as nothing more than a collection of found objects
washed up through time, some of which, at certain moments, we pay attention to, while at
other times we fail to take into consideration at all, Winterson argues that as the pattern
changes, the meaning changes, so the past can only be understood by continually
reinterpreting it, and fiction does that very well (Reynolds and Noakes 22). Thus,
Winterson uses life as the pretext, views fiction as a game and creates a puzzle from bits
857
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
of reality: in an attempt to explain why she labelled Sexing the Cherry as a reading of T. S.
Eliots Four Quartets, Winterson stated that
[i]ts about the nature of time, and time is one of the things that Im obsessed with
What it is, how it affects us, how it moves through us, how we move through
it. And so I took that poem as a starting point to explore. (Reynolds and Noakes
23)
Despite the fact that Winterson continually plays with the same set of themes,
namely the issues of time, identity, boundaries and desire, she constantly leaves one
space for another because, she argues, even when patterns seem to be emerging, it is
essential not to get stuck into them: those themes are there, and possibly I will go on
exploring them, but I wouldnt want to be a slave to them, any more than I want to be a
slave to anything else (Reynolds and Noakes 25). Consequently, she aims at
defamiliarising the familiar, uses exasperating narrative patterns and avoids
closure: I think its always a mistake to try and lock yourself into any one place or
time, because its simply not how the mind works (Reynolds and Noakes 20).
As Reynolds and Noakes (6) point out, Wintersons quirky humour, the
intermingling of embedded fairy tales and inserted seemingly secondary stories that
increasingly take over the real story, along with the extreme swervings back and
forth between a banal everyday and a surreal vision, all endow Wintersons works with
the conviction of a prose that is poetic in its intensity. In her novels, she imagines a
wealth of details and employs a merry-go-round of techniques:
So I think its a great privilege for a writer because you have a freedom that few
people ever experience. You really are in the place, at the moment, but that
moment itself is fully expanded because you are travelling in time and in
imagination to all sorts of other moments. (Reynolds and Noakes 24)
Winterson writes with both her soul and her memory, especially her literary
memory, so she rewrites all literature, freely employing intertextuality:
All texts work off other texts. Its a continual rewriting and rereading of what has
gone before, and you hope that you can add something new. Theres interpretation
as well as creation in everything that happens with books. (Reynolds and Noakes
18-19)
Cover-versions and re-workings of well-known stories and myths intermingle to form
multiple narrative strands. The springs of words grow into rivers of stories that gather into the
readers delta of imagination before flowing into an ocean of meaning. Wintersons novels
feature a medley of literary and historical references, as well as a collection of quotes from
other Wintersonian novels. The author explains that she often quotes herself due to the fact
that all the books speak to each other because its the journey of my imagination, its the
journey of my soul in those books. So continually they must address one another (Reynolds
and Noakes 25).
858
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Awarded the Whitbread Best-First-Novel Prize in 1985 for Oranges Are Not the Only
Fruit, and the John Llewellyn Rhys Memorial Prize for The Passion in 1987, winner of the E.
M. Forster Award in 1989 with Sexing the Cherry, Winterson was later cast away by literary
critics and journalists alike following the release of the much depreciated Art and Lies, only to
restore her high-profile with the more recent Lighthousekeeping and Weight: The Myth of
Atlas and Heracles. Compared, as Shepard notes, to an unlikely pantheon of literary figures,
from Flannery O'Connor through Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Italo Calvino, Milan Kundera and
Virginia Woolf, Winterson enjoys a privileged though controversial position on the
Desperado literary stage, swaying between the margins and the centre, but always being at the
heart of the dispute, and in the hearts of her many readers. As Reynolds and Noakes (5) point
out,
Jeanette Winterson is not an acquired taste. If you like her work, you love it
passionately, without reserve. [] If you dont like her work, you hate it. But
there arent any dont knows. Even the people whove never read a line of her
work have an opinion on Jeanette Winterson.
It is in the poetry of Wintersons language that the power of her writing rests: not in
the plot but in the many interwoven stories, not in the story but in the telling. In all of her
novels Jeanette Winterson shows a surprising capacity to defamiliarise the literary
language. In Wintersons works time seems to be folded and stretched, allowing for the
linking of events ostensibly separated in both space and time (Preda 255). The elliptical
storytelling, the ambiguous endings and the intentional structural lacunas break the linearity
of the narrative, thus fostering the spatial simultaneity of Wintersons discourse. The aim is to
discourage reductionist reading, promoting, instead, active reading, a process that requires
permanent evolutionary adaptations on the part of the reader (Preda 254).
Starting with her very first novel, Winterson has been shaping her Desperado
readership: she is an author determined to challenge those accustomed to peaceful,
gratifying reading and to erase soap opera expectations (Vianu 33-44). In the exclusive
interview conducted by Margaret Reynolds in September 2002 Winterson explains her choice
of double- or multiple-strand narrative, and her preference for fragmentary discourse and
seemingly plotless fiction by pointing out that pauses, spaces, and breaks in the narrative are
necessary forceful interruptions which prevent readers from becoming fascinated by the
story line and allow them to notice the beauty of the language. Language should not be
perceived as merely a meaning-conveying medium, but as something in its own right,
which needs to be concentrated on, just in the way that poetry does, without looking for
the next bit of excitement, because reading is not supposed to be a faintly pornographic
experience. Therefore, Winterson tries to make the readers aware of the reading process,
demands their concentration, as reading is not like watching television: Its a dialogue, and
its not a passive act. Winterson knows, of course, that there are people who find this vastly
irritating and simply want to skip along and read a monolithic narrative, and her advice to
those who keep whining about how much they need the comforts of closure is to watch
television, or choose one of the many books that are, in fact, just printed television:
859
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
It seems to me that TV and cinema have taken over the narrative function of the
novel, in much the same way that the novel once took over the narrative function
of poetry. That frees me up for story, for poetry and for language that does more
than convey meaning. (Reynolds and Noakes 15-16)
Thus, Winterson addresses an initiated readership, being, of course, aware that,
whether readers or critics, those who are wondering how to put the pieces of her narrative
puzzles together experience a sense of frustration at the lack of closure and, not surprisingly,
blame it on the writer, known to be resistant to notions such as what [] the Americans call
closure and to the old-fashioned plot line which, she believes, had better be left to crime
writers of the old school (Reynolds and Noakes 15-16).
The structure of Wintersons novels offers a non-linear alternative to chronological
linear plot: a spiral structure that unfolds to reveal the self-organising dynamics of a story-
line shaped by the language (Preda 254). Wintersons novels have been deemed inconsistent
and pulpy not only because they always seem to be subject to frequent intrusions from the
authors self-reflexive commentary, but also due to the fragmentary nature of her discourse.
Although for Winterson fragmentation is a technique meant to engender complexity, the
critics seem reluctant to acknowledge its beneficial implications and unable to perceive its
instrumental role in the development of the novel (Preda 254). It is not surprising, therefore,
that, like all Desperado writers, Winterson utterly resents misguided critical attempts at
categorization. She defends the fragmentariness of her narrative by pointing out that the
mind travels dimensionally and those who claim that this is unrealistic are themselves
missing the point. She further explains that
[r]ealism isnt simply about this day in the twenty-first century where were alive.
Realism is about all of those lives, all of those histories, all of those moments
which can be collected and shaped by us. Its the whole picture that Im interested
in, not a part of it. Which is why I get rather cross when people say, Yes, but you
dont write realist narrative. I do. But its the whole picture. (Reynolds and
Noakes 20)
Although she aims to exhaust the critics attack strategies, to disarm their critical
spirit, Winterson is determined to be understood by her readers. Thus, when asked about
her website, Winterson explained that despite the enormous amount of time and money
required in order to keep it going, she believes it is a kind of public service she ought to offer:
Im one of the few writers anywhere who runs a website like that [] but I do it
because I know that there are people all over the world who see the Internet as a
genuine resource, and who want to know more about my work and who cant
always get my work. (Reynolds and Noakes 28)
Jeanette Winterson aspires at being international and is aware that advertisement
is the soul of communication. She is a well-known author who has been awarded prizes not
only in Britain, but also in other European countries and in the United States as well, her work
having been translated into twenty-three languages, the latest of which is the Chinese
language. Wintersons first novel, Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit, in Chinese translation,
860
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
was launched during the authors visit to the Shanghai Book Fair (August 17 23, 2011).
Knowing how crucial the title of a book can be, Winterson states that a title in not merely a
way of labelling or tagging what youre writing, but rather an element integral to it, so she
strives to come up with evocative and memorable word combinations from the start, always
aiming for a title that people will easily remember and use as a talisman for what theyve
read, so that they associate the title with the content. Speaking about her first novel,
Winterson admits that Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit is definitely not a selling title
though, she points out, its become part of the language. Which just shows you can persuade
anybody of anything if you do it for long enough (Reynolds and Noakes 13-14).
As Makinen (153-154) pertinently argued, the critical debates on Wintersons novels
emerge, on the whole, a surprisingly long time after the texts publication, and the fact that
Winterson criticism appears to have a longer gestation period than that for many other
writers may indicate that Wintersons novels may well be ahead of their times. One thing is
sure, her works defy easy categorisation, being extremely difficult to conceptualise, define
and label. Any critical appraisal of Wintersons work should, therefore, be grounded not
merely on a single analytical perspective, but on a wide array of formal issues and thematic
analyses, from narrative structure and point of view to recurrent themes and intertextual
references. Consequently, Wintersons work might fully benefit from the critical opportunities
offered by Vianus newly designed framework of analysis known as the Desperado project.
Bibliography
Aldrich, Robert and Garry Wotherspoon. Whos Who in Contemporary Gay and Lesbian
History. Vol.2: From Antiquity to World War II. London: Routledge, 2001. Reprint, London:
Taylor and Francis e-Library, 2005.
Makinen, Merja. The Novels of Jeanette Winterson. Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005.
Miller, Laura. The Salon Interview. http://www1.salon.com/april97/winterson2970428.html
October 2013.
Preda, Alina. Jeanette Winterson and the Metamorphoses of Literary Writing. Cluj-Napoca:
Editura Argonaut, 2010.
Pressler, Chris. Prizes and Fairy Tales Jeanette Winterson versus Salman Rushdie.
http://www.starbacks.ca/SoHo/3415/cp_jeanette.html October 2013.
Reynolds, Margaret and Jonathan Noakes. Jeanette Winterson: the essential guide. London:
Vintage, 2003.
Shepard, Jim. Jeanette Wintersons The Stone Gods. The New York Times Book Review, 14
February 1993.
Vianu, Lidia. The Desperado Age: British Literature at the Start of the Third Millennium.
Bucharest: Bucharest University Press, 2004. Reprint, Bucharest: LiterNet Publishing House,
2006.
Winterson, Jeanette. The Passion. London: Bloomsbury, 1987. Reprint, London: Penguin
Books Ltd., 1988.
Winterson, Jeanette. On The.Powerbook. http://www.jeanettewinterson.com/pages/content/
10 October 2013.
861
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
SOCIO-CULTURAL IMAGINARY AND LITERARY FUNCTIONS OF
CREMATION IN ROMANIAN EPIGRAMS1
Adriana TEODORESCU, Researcher, PhD and Marius ROTAR, Researcher, PhD,
1 Decembrie 1918 University of Alba-Iulia
Abstract: Although, at least to some extent, death seems to be no longer forbidden (T.
Walter, The Revival of Death, 1994), in our days, cremation as a practice of bodily
disposal, as a social discourse and underlying imaginary is still a subject difficult to tackle.
The reluctance of The Romanian Orthodox Church (that, in contradistinction to the Catholic
Church, maintains the interdiction to officiate the funeral ceremonies for the person who opts
for cremation) continues to reinforce cremation as a taboo. No matter how socio-culturally
un-elaborated, cremation is present as a topic in Romanian literature. The epigrams written
when the Western cremationist ideas have penetrated in Romania (the second half of the
nineteenth century) use cremation and its related elements (fire, ashes, to burn, crematorium)
as an instrument for articulating social criticism on the ethical values of
contemporaneousness and upon the meaning of life and reality in general. Also, the epigrams
partially discard the predominant negative imaginary of these elements and contribute to the
building of a new one, an imaginary capable of metaphoric crystallisations. Irony and self-
irony are amongst the main ways of constructing this ambivalent imaginary of cremation. We
aim at analysing the poetic and socio-cultural mechanisms that engender the occurrences of
the cremation topic in the Romanian epigrams from the last decades and at examining to
what extent the classical imaginary of cremation persists and to which extent it changes.
Keywords: epigram, cremation, (self)irony, crematorium, fire, ashes, taboo, metaphor
1. Introducere. Cremaiune i epigrame
n Occidentul actual, incinerarea este o modalitate de dispunere asupra cadavrului ce
coexist cu nhumarea, ca opiune liber consimit, aflndu-se n continu cretere2 i fiind
reglementat la nivelul fiecrui stat. Acceptarea cremaiunii de ctre catolicism are loc n
1963, prin intermediul papei Paul al IV-lea, singura rezisten fiind constituit, n prezent, de
ctre Biserica Ortodox3. n ara noastr4, aceeai instituie a fcut ca implementarea unui
sistem funerar cremaionist s lase extrem de mult de dorit (un singur crematoriu funcional,
la Vitan-Brzeti i un incinerator la Oradea 5) i a contribuit n mod decisiv la conturarea
cremaiunii ca o practic neasumat socio-cultural i respins dintr-un punct de vedere
1
This work was supported by the Romanian National Council for Scientific Research CNCS-UEFISCDI, grant
number 54/04.10. 2011 PNII TE
2
Vezi, pe larg, International Cremation Statistics, Pharos, 4, 77, 2011, pp. 29-43. n Romania au avut loc 853
de incinerri n 2010 i 840 incinerri n 2011. Rata incinerarii este de 0,33% din totalul deceselor. Pentru locul
incinerrii n contextul globalizrii i de-tabuizrii evenimentului morii Ruth McManus, Death in the Global
Age, Hampshire, Palgrave Macmilliam, 2013, p.22, precum si Tony Walter, The Revival of Death, London and
New York, Routledge Taylor & Francis Group, 1994, p. 48.
3
Douglas J. Davies, Theology of Death, London and New York, T& T Clark Continuum, 2008, pp. 129-135, cu
diferene n cazul Ucrainei i Serbiei.
4
Mai multe despre statutul incinerrii n Romnia : Marius Rotar, Eternitate prin cenu. O istorie a
crematoriilor i incinerrilor umane n Romnia secolelor XIX-XXI, Iai, Institutul European 2011.
5
http://www.phoenix-cremation.ro/, consultat ultima dat n 20.11.2013
862
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
etic(ist) (prin sinoadele din 1928 i 1933). Cu toate c Romnia este prima ar ortodox
balcanic din lume dispunnd de un crematoriu Cenua, n 1928 , n pofida faptului c
perioada interbelic a fost una relativ nfloritoare6 pentru discursul cremaionist al elitelor
nverunate, n mare parte formate din medici i oameni de cultur, comunismul a reuit s
sting avntul cremaionist, i pe cel discursiv, i pe cel al practicilor7. n zilele noastre,
impedimentul ideologic ortodox se perpetueaz8 i se agraveaz9, producnd numeroase
stereotipizri negative ale cremaiunii i ale celor dispui s aleag incinerarea10, implicit
crend situaia artificial a unei alegeri disjunctive: sau incinerare i respingere, sau nhumare
i acceptare.
Epigramele, n calitatea lor de formul literar cu mari posibiliti de ilustrare social,
pot fi poziionate, fa de cremaiune, n dou moduri relevante. Mai nti, prin identificarea
unor autori epigramiti care au optat pentru incinerare n cazul morii proprii i, n al doilea
rnd, prin analiza acelor epigrame n care epigramitii neincinerai, unii nc vii, au utilizat
cremaiunea drept motiv sau tem literar. Primul mod de a pune n relaie epigramele i
cremaiunea ar putea fi adncit, ca nsemntate, de explorarea creaiilor epigramatice a acestor
autori, n tentativa de a gsi n ele, dincolo de un discurs direct, asumat, elemente de
psihologie personal i de viziune asupra lumii, care s poat fi corelate cu decizia acestora
pentru incinerare11. n lucrarea de fa ns, ne vom focaliza numai asupra epigramelor n care
incinerarea, ca utilizare literar, este evident, epigrame scrise din perioada interbelic (foarte
rar chiar i mai repede) i pn astzi (majoritatea ns, din ultimele cinci decenii, ceea ce le
situeaz, dac nu suntem foarte restrictivi, n (cvasi)contemporaneitate). Totui, pentru a oferi
o idee asupra primului mod de abordare, precizm c exist epigramiti care au ales sau
susinut incinerarea: Radu D. Rosetti (1874-1964), Emandi Alexandru Barbu (1908-1983),
Vero Wechsler Leon (1880-1938), Vladimir Ion (?-2000), George Colfescu (?-1984), Caranfil
Filip Gheorghe (Pache) (?-1996)12. Nu am identificat nc, pn acum, vreo epigram scris
6
Apariia revistei Flacra sacr. Organ pentru propagarea cremaiunii umane n Romnia, al crei rol este de a
populariza incinerarea n spaiul romnesc, fiind tiprite, lunar, n jur de 3000 de copii i genernd o cretere
semnificativ a numrului de incinerri. Tot atunci, Romnia ajunge s fie reprezentat la Praga, n 1936, la
conferina internaional dedicat incinerrii, de ctre Mihai Popovici. Poate mai important este recunoaterea
caracterului legal al incinerrii, de ctre Codul Penal, n 1936, valabil i n contemporaneitate.
7
Marius Rotar i Adriana Teodorescu, Cremation in Romania: Stereotypes and Communist Perceptions,
Revista de tiine Politice, No. 35, 2012, Craiova, pp. 35-45.
8
Refuzul bisericii ortodoxe de a oficia slujbe celor incinerai, chiar dac sunt ortodoci. Cf. Ioan C. Teu,
nhumare versus incinerare, Doxologia, (2010), http://www.doxologia.ro/puncte-de-vedere/inhumare-versus-
incinerare, accesat ultima dat n 10.12.2011; Gabriel Militaru, Incinerarea morilor, ntre dorina muribundului
i nvtura Bisericii, http://prgabriel.wordpress.com/2008/09/29/incinerarea-mortilor-intre-dorinta-
muribundului-si-invatatura-bisericii/, accesat ultima dat n 08.12.2011.
9
Hotrrea nr. 4529 din 5 iulie 2012 a Sfntului Sinod al Bisericii Ortodoxe Romne n legtur cu practica
necretin a incinerrii morilor ce reconfirma deciziile Sinoadelor din 1928 si 1933.
http://www.patriarhia.ro/_layouts/images/File/4529%20Comunicare%20practica%20incinerarii.pdf, consultat
ultima dat n 20.11.2013. A se vedea, de asemenea, asemnarea dintre sinucidere i incinerare: Nicolae Necula,
Tradiie i nnoire in slujirea liturgic, Galai, Editura Episcopiei Dunrii de Jos, 1996 sau eutanasie i
incinerare Vasile Gordon, O ntrebare tot mai actual: ardem sau ngropam morii, n Ziarul Lumina, 2013
http://ziarullumina.ro/biserica-si-societate/o-intrebare-tot-mai-actuala-ingropam-mortii-sau-ii-ardem accesat
ultima data la 06.10.2013.
10
De pild, cremaiunea este asociat cu necredina, cu (post)modernizarea n sens antichristic, cu pragmatismul
orb, cu desconsiderarea pentru trup i ateismul etc.
11
Plnuim, pe viitor, un astfel de demers.
12
http://www.incinerareamurg.ro/romani-celebri-care-au-fost-incinerati, consultat ultima dat n 20.11.2013
863
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
de catre Radu D. Rosetti unii dintre maetrii genului avnd ca tematic cremaiunea, cu
toate c acesta a fost implicat att n constituirea Societatii Cenua, ct i n dezvoltarea
incinerrii n Romania interbelic.
n continuare, vom analiza principalele categorii i subcategorii de epigrame n funcie
de modul n care este reprezentat incinerarea n cadrul acestora, relevnd funciile lor
literare, n interiorul poemului epigramatic, precum i gradul lor de conformism, respectiv de
deviere de la perspectiva romneasc asupra incinerrii care presupune stereotipizarea
negativ a cremaiunii i a celor care o prefer nhumrii. Trebuie semnalat faptul c epigrama
nu a fost dintotdeauna un apanaj stilistic al celor pro-cremaiune. De pild, n cea de-a doua
jumtate a secolului al XIX-lea, Nicolae Scurtescu, autor paoptist minor, polemizeaz, prin
epigrame, cu doctorul Constantin I. Istrati, fervent susintor al incinerrii13. Totodat, intenia
lui Iuliu Dragomirescu de a nfiina o societate cremaionist n 1905 (adunnd in prima faza
200 de susintori), a fost satirizat n revista Furnica14, la fel cum Nicolae Crevedia ironiza
susinerea cremaiunii de ctre Radu D. Rosetti15. Doar c, n Romnia, tabuizarea socio-
cultural excesiv a acestor vremuri cremaiunea nu este numai stigmatizat, ci i, cu mici
excepii ale rbufnirii senzaionaliste mass-mediatice16, ocultat ca reprezentare socio-
cultural, determin ca simpla apariie, asumat, fie ea i n spaiul literar, s constituie un fapt
pozitiv i un prim indiciu de demistificare i gndire critic.
2. Epigramele n care incinerarea este metaforizat
n acest caz, incinerarea nu se reprezint complet pe sine, ci este o figur de stil pentru
alte realiti socio-culturale pe care autorul dorete s le surprind n versurile sale. Nu se
poate spune, totui, c incinerarea, ca mijloc de oglindire a altceva dect ea nsi, nu se aduce
n scen i pe sine, fie i doar parial i mai curnd rezidual. n alte cuvinte, imaginea captat
n oglind nu este o imagine pur, ci una mediat, semn al medierii fiind nsi rama pe care
un ochi atent ar putea-o surprinde. Funcia instrumentar a incinerrii adjuvant n referirea
ctre o realitate care nu are, n mod literal, nimic de-a face cu cremaiunea (designatul ultim al
incinerrii se afl, practic, n exteriorul ei) realizeaz aproape inerent o estetizare a
incinerrii, mbogindu-i valenele semantice i posibilitile de a-i asocia elemente din
discursuri culturale variate, deseori surprinztor de ndeprtate (Ex: cremaiunea i erotismul
frust, cremaiunea i politicile sociale lipsite de blndee etc.).
Incinerarea, ca realitate socio-cultural extrem de problematic, este ns i ea
valorificat prin acest proces de metaforizare specific abordrii epigramatice a cremaiunii.
Prin valorificare nelegem dou chestiuni majore, ambele cu mize sociale i literare. n
primul rnd, utilizarea pe teren literar a ideii de cremaiune implic o de-tabuizare necesar,
de-tabuizare realizat prin simpla intrare n vizibilitate imagistic i lingvistic: cremaiunea i
elementele sale constitutive, foc, cenu, ardere, scrum etc., sunt smulse simulacrului de non-
13
n Arderea morilor, Scurtescu reitereaz, ironic, criticile adresate cremaionitilor de ctre detractorii practicii
din acea perioad (pgnismul, imposibilitatea unei nvieri viitoare etc.). Cf. Marius Rotar, Op.cit., pp. 84-86.
14
O.D., Crematiunea, Furnica, 2, 64, 1905, p. 3.
15
Clienii domnului Rosetti,/ De-o vreme ncoace sunt pui n gard/ Sunt informai ca avocatul,/ i dup
moarte o s-i... ard. Nicolae Crevedia, Epigrama, n Universul Literar, XLIV, 2, 20, 1928, p. 328.
16
A se vedea cazul Sergiu Nicolaescu.
864
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
existen generat de ctre atitudinea contemporan i de ctre cea mai veche n faa unui astfel
de subiect.
Apoi, n al doilea rnd, datorit metaforizrii, pe de o parte cremaiunea se dovedete
util literaturii, intrnd, astfel, n rndul motivelor literare (se edific i se fundamenteaz ca
motiv i tem literar), iar, pe de alt parte, tot cremaiunea intr ntr-un proces de
reconstrucie a imaginarului social aferent ei, dezbrndu-se de simplicitatea i unilateralitatea
negativ, reducionist, care o eticheteaz fr a ncerca s o cunoasc sau s dea seama de ea.
Este adevrat c aceast reconstrucie nu este nici unitar i nici uniform la nivelul fiecrei
epigrame n parte. Dimpotriv, trebuie observat c sunt i cazuri n care metaforizarea este
subminat de ctre stereotipizare. Sunt situaii n care scurtcircuitul reprezentaional este att
de puternic, de imediat, nct pare a fi nimic altceva dect un recurs la clieu cultural. Totui,
la o analiz mai atent, contientizm faptul c, i dac am accepta ca adevrat acest aspect,
fr alte cercetri, stereotipizarea camuflat n metaforizare nu se finalizeaz cu redarea unui
stereotip, ci a destrmrii sale. La aceast destrmare contribuie semnificativ ironia.
Ironia nsoete ntotdeauna metaforizarea incinerrii chiar dac ntr-un grad diferit,
de la epigram la epigram fiind un atribut definitoriu al speciei epigramatice. Ea regleaz,
ntr-o prim instan, conexiunea dintre autor i obiectul de reprezentat, fcnd n aa fel nct
niciodat s nu se realizeze o empatie complet ntre autor i tema aleas i constituind stadiul
incipient i marcat stilistic al deconstruciei prietenoase operate de ctre epigram asupra
realitii sociale. Dincolo de punerea n chestiune a obiectului de reprezentat, mai precis n
partea de subiectivitate emanat de acesta (capacitatea obiectului de a funciona alteritar), tot
ironia este cea care, conform teoriei lui Vladimir Janklvitch, pune n micare un limbaj
autentic al alteritii. n opinia filosofului francez, ironia nseamn o permanent descoperire a
inteligenei celuilalt, a adversarului contra cruia se ndreapt: onoreaz i are ncredere n
agerimea carel ajut pe adversarul su s o descopere. Ba mai mult, ea l trateaz ca pe un
adevrat partener al unui adevrat dialog 17. Dimensiunea alteritar implicat de ironie
nglobeaz att obiectul de reprezentat, cum tocmai am precizat, ct i cititorul, la rndul su
mprit, n diverse proporii, ntre obiectul ironizat (cnd cititorul se poate confunda cu
adresantul ironizat al epigramei) i autorul ironiei (cnd valena cititorului luat drept martor al
ironizrii este mai pregnant). Prin urmare, este ndeajuns de evident c ironia este un ferment
corosiv pentru instituirea clieelor, ntruct este eminamente o for a fisurrii dintre autor i
cititor, dintre autor i obiectul de reprezentat, precum i dintre obiectul de reprezentat i
cititor.
n funcie de caracteristicile procesului de metaforizare a cremaiunii, exist mai multe
subtipuri ale acestei categorii de epigrame pe care le vom detalia n continuare. Ca pondere a
ce se ctig i ce se pierde pentru o istorie cultural romneasc a incinerrii, menionm c
fiecare dintre ele aduce beneficii de imagine (social i cultural) incinerrii i doar o parte
dintre ele sunt cazuri de epigrame care pot fi suspectate de scurt-circuit reprezentaional i, n
consecin, de a fi vehiculatoare de cliee ale incinerrii. De remarcat este i c exist
epigrame care aparin simultan la dou sau chiar trei subcategorii, criteriile dup care am
alctuit tipologia epigramelor nefiind mutual exclusive, ci descriptive.
Vladimir Janklvitch, Ironia, traducere din francez de F. Drgan i V. Fanache, Dacia, ClujNapoca, 1994, p.
17
57.
865
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
2.1. Epigrame n care metaforizarea se realizeaz pe baza unor similariti de coninut
Epigramele n care metaforizarea pare a fi declanat printr-o afinitate coninutistic
dintre imaginarul socio-cultural al incinerrii i un alt imaginar, cel aferent tematicii
principale a epigramei, fr s fie extrem de numeroase, sunt importante ca simptom socio-
literar al capacitii incinerrii de a depi limitrile tabuizante pe care le cunoate n Romnia
ultimelor decenii. Afinitatea se produce pe baza unui al treilea termen, un termen scufundat,
ascuns n structura de adncime a celor dou imaginarii, termen care acioneaz, coeziv, fiind
un liant ntre cele dou imaginarii, cel cremaionist i cel din spatele subiectului epigramei.
Deertciunea
Deertciunea (descins din uzitatatul vanitas vanitatum) este unul dintre termenii
scufundai cei mai frecvent ntlnii.18 Exist, pe de o parte, deertciunea ce caracterizeaz
subiectul epigramei i, de cealalt parte, zdrnicia simbolic a focului 19 creia i se adaug, i
se suprascrie pentru a forma o structur imagistic i mai puternic, zdrnicia, din nou
simbolic, dar n plus i cu o nuan social, a cremaiunii ca practic de dispunere asupra
cadavrului. Este interesant c, dac incinerarea este, n Romnia contemporan, un subiect
controversat i o practic meninut la periferia normalitii culturale de ctre factori precum
stigmatizarea Ortodox i mass-mediatic, sau absena covritoare a crematoriilor,
deertciunea trimite la date afectiv umane mai generale. Prin urmare, dincolo de atitudinile
mai mult sau mai puin pozitive fa de incinerare care se pot detecta n glasul auctorial
epigramatic, simpla asociere pe baza unui termen comun, a unor aspecte generale despre
realitatea uman i incinerare ar putea fi de bun augur pentru aceasta din urm, indicnd o
tendin de normalizare (prin punerea cremaiunii n proximitatea firescului), dac se poate
spune astfel, a percepiei i reprezentrii acesteia i, implicit, una de de-tabuizare (firescul are
un grad sporit de vizibilitate, cultural dac nu la nivel de contientizare personal,
deertciunea fiind un veritabil leitmotiv cultural care traverseaz secolele i civilizaiile).
Zdrnicia vieii poate s se refere la plcerile vicioase ale vieii, uneori explicite
(fumatul20), ca n epigrama Destin, a lui Mircea Popoviciu 21, sau la efemeritatea omului, a
aciunilor i a relaiilor sale, ca n Dubl tragedie ntr-un sat de Ion Diviza22. Uneori,
zdrnica unei viei care se scurge fr o recompens final epigramitii sunt, n acest sens,
cumplit de nemiloi cu posibilitiile de iluzioare ale omului/cititorului se complexific,
adugndu-i ideea de arbitraritate. De pild, o incinerare ntmpltoare constituie att un
element de ritualitate funerar, mod de dispunere asupra cadavrului, ct i o cauz efectiv de
18
De altfel, Virgiliu Slvescu a integrat aceast tem epitafului i implicit epigramei:, Epitaful cea din urma
desertaciune omeneasca, in Epigrama, II-III, 20-22, 1940, p. 3-6; 19-23 apud. George Corbu, Prefaa, in
Cimitirul Vesel, p.6.
19
Cf.: Umberto Eco, Flacra e frumoas, n Cum ne construim dumanul, Iai, Polirom, traducere de . Mincu,
2011.
20
Fumul i asociaz, la muli epigramiti, pe lng accepia de efemeritate, o discret, dar persistent valen
thanatic. (Ex: l sorbi, i pare foarte bun/i crezi c viaa i-o mngie/Te duce fumul de tutun/Direct la fumul
de tmie). Cf. Valentin Groza, Tutunul, n Fumuri. Culegere de epigrame (coord. Elis Rpeanu), Editura
Sagittarius, Bucureti, 2002
21
De-att Snagov ce-a inhalat,/Tot scrumul e n atmosfer/i crematoriul l-a tratat/ Cu-o urn-n loc de
scrumier. Mircea Popovici, Destin, n Fumuri. Culegere de epigrame.
22
Ion Diviza, Dubl tragedie ntr-un sat, n Fumuri. Culegere de epigrame. A fumat n pod ppua.../Tata-i
numra cenua/i amorul lor notoriu/I-a unit la crematoriu.
866
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
moarte pentru pompierul care nu a mai reuit s sting focul23. ns hazardul nu este pndit de
neant. Efemeritatea cunoate rar sau deloc deriva nihilist a absurdului, una dintre dovezi
fiind nsui umorul ca produs de baz al poantei epigramatice. Ironia genereaz un umor care
nu cade n bclie, i nici nu evolueaz brutal nspre sarcasm, un umor care se privete critic
prin intermediul autoironiei24, astfel c incinerarea se menine, n calitatea sa de motiv literar,
la distan de riscul unei nfierri etice, fie ea pozitiv sau negativ. Incinerarea nu este bun
sau rea, semnificaiile ei merg dincolo de aceste etichete moralizatoare, nspre un sens uman
mai profund i ambivalent.
Arderea creatoare
Arderea creatoare este o alt baz comun temei anumitor epigrame, respectiv
imaginarului cremaiunii, cu rdcini simbolice puternice. n acest punct, vorbim de o
palpabil (re)valorificare pozitiv a cremaiunii. De pild, n Duel epigramatic, Naum
Smarandache aduce n prim plan tema creaiei artistice (mai exact, epigramatice), marnd n
special pe sub-accepiunea belicoas i competitiv a acesteia; ultima caracteristic
(rivalitatea intra-artistic, ntre autori) e mai puin ntlnit n cazul artei poetice clasice: Eu,
precum pasrea Phoenix.../n st duel, luptnd cu mine,/Arzndu-m, vei da iar chix,/C din
cenu, iar revine/La via, pasrea Phoenix...25. Ironia este simultan o for dirijat contra
celuilalt, adversarul literar arderea creatoare, phoenix-ian, care presupune regenerare, via
purificat , i mpotriva emitorului de discurs epigramatic, cnd avem de-a face cu auto-
ironia. Auto-ironia detectabil n paralelismul ardere creativ ardere vindicativ (o
rzbunare la cote joase, lipsit de elegana gesturilor ample motivate psihologic 26, aflat n
tandem stilistic cu chix) pondereaz o plenar expresie dramatic a regenerrii prin art,
expunnd-o derizoriului (fr s o anuleze ns). O lecie implicit important care poate fi
extras din acest exemplu literar i folosit pe terenul imaginarului socio-cultural este,
pornind de la observaia c exist focuri i focuri, arderi i arderi, c incinerarea i elementele
componente aferente ei pe plan imaginar nu sunt reductibile la o singur semnificaie i c
fundamental este perspectiva din care sunt privite acestea.
Tot arderea creatoare este elementul care apropie imaginarul cremaionist de
imaginarul autorului de oper de art i n epigrama Autoironie, a lui Marcel Tciune, ns
ceea ce este special, e c incinerarea este chemat s reprezinte relaia scriitor-art i printr-un
alt termen. Nu pot scpa nici prin minune/(Cnd critica-mi va bate-n u),/Dei am fost
23
Valerian Lic, Epitaf pompierului incinerat, in Cimitirul vesel: Antologie epitafuri i epigrame (coord.
Valerian Lic), Ploieti, Editura Premier, 2000. Necrutor i-a fost sorocul/n clipa-aceea-afurisit/E prima lui
nereuit/Cnd n-a putut s sting focul!), p. 90.
24
Un exemplu, n acest sens: Nici nu visam s-ajung mumie/Cel mult la crematoriu scrum.../Noroc c, la birou,
Ilie/ M-a conservat, de viu, n fum. tefan Marinescu, Auto-epitaful unui ipohondru, n Fumuri. Culegere de
epigrame. Fumul pare un uciga ascuns, mai de temut dect nimicitorul foc. Ironia inverseaz semnificaia
cultural a nimicirii, pregnant n cazul focului i mai voalat, prin posterioritatea lui n raport cu focul, a
fumului, artnd, n registru comic, desigur, c moartea n via, cea de la birou, este mai scitoare i mai acut
i imediat nimicitoare dect cealalt. Auto-ironia face i mai mult, pulverizeaz semantic chiar i aceast
inversare umoristic. Ceea ce rmne este o efemeritate pe ct de real, pe att de arjat, dar care nu risc s
deraieze spre evaluri n cheie tragic a deertciunii lumii.
25
Naum Smarandache, Duel epigramatic, n n lupt cu un... bei (dueluri epigramatice) (coord. Naum
Smarandache), Sibiu, Alma Mater, 2006.
26
romnescul i-am ars-o se situeaz n zona argoului.
867
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
mereu tciune,/Prevd c-am s ajung cenu!27. La nivel de expresie, termenul pozitiv al
arderii creative este tciune (omonim al numelui autorului, Tciune), dar mai exist i un
termen (cenua), care ine de paradigma imaginarului cremaionist, ce nu este ns ncadrabil
ntr-o ardere creativ, dect poate ntr-o ardere creativ cu final non-creativ este destul de
clar c cenua simbolizeaz n epigram un rest, o ieire (cauzat, i auto-ironia e puternic
aici, de frica de critica literar) din artisticitate i poate din ceea ce e semnificativ, dintr-un
univers al semnelor. Chiar i aa, global vorbind, metaforizarea incinerrii n vederea
transferului de reprezentare de la mijloacele i imaginarul propriu nspre punerea n imagini a
relaiei autor-art, rmne, n aceast epigram, un ctig pentru imaginarul socio-literar al
incinerrii. Cenua activeaz, ntr-o msur mai slab, fiind secundar, subordonat, ca for
declanatoare de reprezentare, accepiunea vieii ca deertciune.
Focul ca putere distrugtoare
Mai rar, cnd cel de-al treilea element este focul, el este conotat clasic, uor negativ28,
ca o putere care distruge. Aceast putere este suprascris, la nivel expresiv i de background
cultural, peste imaginea focului biblic, revanard i punitiv, doar c ironia face ca aceast
suprapunere s fie mai degrab teatralizat, jucat, dect asumat. Schimb metoda.../Pe-o
buturug nu-mi stric fora,/Ci foc i dau, arznd cu tora,/Curnd se va preface-n
scrum,/Precum l-am ars i pe Naum!29. Naum, cel mai probabil, este epigramistul Naum
Smarandache, prezent i el n acelai volum. Subiectul epigramei este relaia conflictual, de
confruntare, dintre autorul epigramei i o alt persoan. Aadar, ceea ce se confrunt nu este o
instan divin, ci dou persoane umane, doi epigramiti rivali, pui pe otii i ironii.
2.2. Epigrame n care metaforizarea se declaneaz preponderent de pe criterii
lingvistice
Sunt i cazuri de epigrame, nu puine, cnd ceea ce declaneaz metaforizarea
incinerrii n vederea exprimrii unei idei este un mecanism lingvistic mai mult dect unul
imagistic. Mai exact, termenul comun care face posibil metaforizarea nu este unul care ine
de o intersecie coninutistic a reprezentrilor culturale ale incinerrii, respectiv a
semnificaiilor temei/obiectului de reprezentat al epigramei, ci una ct se poate de formal,
pur verbal. Este adevrat c, ulterior, acest al treilea termen lingvistic, provocnd
metaforizarea, ajunge s dea natere unor sensuri, ns faza primar a metaforizrii este una
oarecum automat, inductiv din punct de vedere a semantismului, nu una descriptiv,
justificabil prin coninut. Frecvent, de exemplu, apare verbul a arde. Realitatea incinerrii
este apropiat, de ctre autor, de o alt realitate cu care, teoretic, la o prim vedere, nu ar avea
nimic n comun (iubirea/relaiile erotice, politica i manipularea social etc.). Cu toate
acestea, trebuie semnalat faptul c declanatorul lingvistic este lingvistic numai n raport cu
mecanismele observabile de generare a textului, altfel, n spatele coagulrilor lingvistice
27
Marcel Tciune, Autoironie, n Antologia epigramei romneti (G. Corbu, V. Lic, G. Zarafu coord.),
Editura Pro Transilvania, 2007.
28
A nu se confunda focul, ca element de legtur ntre imaginarul subiectului epigramei i cel al incinerrii, cnd
funcioneaz ca un catalizator al metaforizrii incinerrii, cu focul ca element parial al incinerrii, despre care
vom discuta n seciunea 2.3. n acest al doilea caz avem, ntr-adevr, numeroase ocurene negative ale focului.
29
Sorin Beiu, Duel epigramatic. Schimb metoda..., n n lupt cu un... bei (dueluri epigramatice).
868
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ascunzndu-se destule procese imaginare i de reprezentare. De pild, faptul c se poate spune
c politica/gazul etc. te arde la buzunar se explic printr-o asemnare ntre acesta i arderea
efectiv, ca proces fizic i chimic. n funcie de ideea de ansamblu care traverseaz textul
(idee nscut ulterior, cum spuneam, declanrii de tip lingvistic), exist trei tipuri frecvente
de epigrame ale cror metaforizri sunt provocate de factorul lingvistic: care se axeaz pe
poetica consumului, cele care prezint erotismul sau epigrame coagulate n jurul ideii de
manipulare sau abuz social-politic.
Consumul
Consumul se refer la viaa personajului sau auto-personajului prezentat de ctre
epigram, este un consum realizat prin viciu i care aduce fericire. Cel care fumeaz o via
ntreag, producnd fum, va fi, la rndul su (dar poate nu la fel de fericit, ironia epigramatic
deseori sesizeaz), consumat, fcut scrum la crematoriu: A fumat o via-ntreag/C igara i-
a fost drag/Omu-i fericit acum/C-i n crematoriu, scrum 30). Nu incinerarea este
persiflat aici, ci dorina omului de a tri viaa la maxim, trire care sfrete, inevitabil, cu
moartea. La fel si consumul excesiv de alcool determina aceeasi rezolvare (Zace-aici un
stranic ins/ Care-a fost un beiv notoriu/ i-a but pn s-a stins.../ Fumul de la
crematoriu)31.
Erotismul
Aa cum se va vedea i la metaforizarea incomplet a cremaiunii (doar a unor
elemente ale ei), arderea este deseori conotat erotic. i nu de iubire platonic e vorba, ci, n
bunul spirit ironic al epigramitilor, de dragostea hedonist i uneori, nu rar, depravat. Era
nflcrat, spun unii,/i ca dovad, n final,/A ars n focul pasiunii/La crematoriul...
comunal32. E extrem de interesant acest exemplu, ntruct incinerarea este asociat cu
pasiunea care, fie ea orict de licenioas i discutabil din punct de vedere moral, se plaseaz
de partea plin a vieii, fiind un ctig pentru imaginarul socio-literar negativ al cremaiunii. A
arde n focurile pasiunii devine, n cmp metaforic, a arde la crematoriu: a consuma un corp
i, invers: a arde la crematoriu pare c este urmarea fireasc, gest de consecven personal
don-juan-ian, a unei viei folosite maximal n beneficul propriu. Individualismului cutrii
plcerii proprii i corespunde individualismul de care incinerarea a fost tot timpul suspectat
i pe care i l-a asumat ntotdeauna n diferite proporii.
Manipularea i abuzul socio-politic
Manipularea social sau abuzul politic sunt teme care se cristalizeaz prin
metaforizarea incinerrii, pornit de la cuvinte precum a arde sau urn. Politicile sociale i
preurile la gaz pot s ard la buzunar aa cum te ard i prietenii, cei fali, dac nu eti atent i
le dai crezare de fiecare dat: n via suntem ucenici,/nvei ncet-ncet s mori./Toi te
ajut. Nite-amici/M-au ars de douzeci de ori 33. Amicii fali care te ard sunt imaginai de
ctre Dan Norea ca instane vestitoare ale focului din iad. Cu alte cuvinte, dup moarte i
30
Alexandru Misiuga, Idealul mplinit, din n Fumuri. Culegere de epigrame.
31
Vasile Hutu, Epitaful unui beiv, n Cimitirul Vesel, p. 66.
32
Ion Arca, Epitaful lui Don Juan, n Antologia epigramei romneti.
33
Dan Norea, Pregtiri pentru focul din iad, n Epi...Gramatica, Constana, Ex Ponto, 2011.
869
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
poate i la nceputul morii (adic prin incinerare), individul uman este expus celorlali i are
puine sau zero metode de a se apra. C manipularea celorlali poate duce la distrugere e
destul de limpede, dar ideea de baz nu este aici aceast posibilitate a manipulrii, ci pur i
simplu faptul c manipularea exist i, implicit, dintr-o meta-perspectiv, c este asociabil
cremaiunii (dei un anumit grad de parializare a incinerrii, ca tem i imaginar, se resimte
n aceast epigram, mergnd mai mult nspre accepiunea de ardere, nu att de cremaiune
total).
Un alt exemplu, dialogul nfiat de Corneliu Sofronie, n Dialog la crematoriu (n
ara n care voteaz i morii), un dialog ntre morii care ar vota i dup moarte (ironie a unor
realiti din preajma alegerilor, cu specific romnesc) i care se afl la crematoriu, are drept
factor declanator nu arderea, ci urna. n mn cu cenua funerar/A ntrebat, tiind c-i
oportun:/ - Pe sta n ce urn vrei s-l pun?/- Pune-l i tu n urna-electoral!. De fapt, ceea
ce primeaz n aceast epigram nu este incinerarea de aceea nici nu am inclus-o n cadrul
epigramelor n care cremaiunea se reprezint pe sine ci o situaie politic romneasc
caracterizat prin demagogie i corupie. Urna de vot, mult rvnit de ctre politicieni spre a fi
gestionat dup voia proprie cheam n ajutor urna incinerailor. Sunt i di n care
incinerarea pare a fi o form de rzbunare contra unui politician corupt, iar urna un simbol al
acesteia34. Analiznd toate aceste aspecte, observm caracterul proteic al imaginarului
cremaiunii.
2.3. Epigrame n care cremaiunea este metaforizat parial
Foarte multe sunt epigramele n care putem sesiza o metaforizare parial a incinerrii
sau, cu alte cuvinte, o metaforizare aplicat exclusiv elementelor incinerrii: foc, scrum,
cenu, urn, ardere etc. Diferena fa de subcategoria metaforizrii lingvistice este nu numai
faptul c n acest caz, incinerarea, ca ansamblu imagistic i conceptual este rareori prezent, ci
i faptul c natura elementelor pariale cremaioniste este mai curnd
coninutistic/ideatic/imagistic dect lingvistic. Motivul pentru care merit s ne oprim
asupra acestui tip de epigrame este c, chiar i fr s implice prezena integral a incinerrii,
ele furnizeaz informaii preioase despre un statut literar i poate depune mrturie asupra
unui imaginar social al incinerrii aflat, n ciuda tabuizrii, n schimbare, contribuind la
nelegerea mai profund a acestora.
Focul i arderea pot ambele sugera excesul, o anumit form de consum prin precipitare i
consum existenial care culmineaz cu moartea35, ce cteodat dobndete accente estetice36,
dup cum pot ncorpora i sensul negativ clasic, de pedeaps 37 (sens niciodat dus pn n
34
El a fcut aproape tot/S ias tot mereu la vot/i uite c i dup moarte/El tot de urn are parte. Alexandru
Hanganu, Unui ales incinerat, n Cimitirul vesel: Antologie epitafuri i epigrame, p.65.
35
Dei cntat eti de poei,/Primeti, ca jertf, mii de viei,/Ce, ca igara, ard molcum.../i se prefac n fum i
scrum!. Georgeta Vtavu, Tutunului, n Fumuri. Culegere de epigrame. Sau: nzestrat cu o voin
rar/Existenei el i-a dat un sens.../Cci a ars mereu, a ars intens/Aprinznd igar din igar!. Ion Cnvoiu,
Focul sacru, n Antologia epigramei romneti.
36
Trecnd pe-aceast tin/Tot cutndu-mi drumul,/Am ars s dau lumin/i-aici se afl scrumul!. George
Zarafu, Autoepitaf, n Cimitirul vesel: Antologie epitafuri i epigrame, p.174.
37
epe dac-ar fi s vie/Cu al nemuririi nimb,/Ar da foc la pucrie/i la casele de schimb. Nicolae Bunduri,
Judecarea corupilor n actuala inflaie, din arhiva personal a lui Gheorghe Culicovschi (2005),
http://www.citatepedia.ro/index.php?id=129941, consultat ultima dat n 21.11.2013.
870
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
pnzele albe, din pricina ironiei atotprezente). Dar ambele sunt i elemente care transmit ideea
de trire maximal a vieii i de cutare/aflare a plcerii gratuite, personale, fie ea i printr-un
viciu precum fumatul38. De altfel, nu de puine ori, dependena de igar, de foc, e prezentat,
ironic, ca fiind vital, astfel c focul se contamineaz cu sensuri pozitive i vitaliste, n pofida
ironiei subminatoare. Focul, mai ales n forma sa eminamente activat, de ardere, se poate
referi ns i la iubire, din nou, la cea erotic i aezat ntr-un discurs cu iz licenios Supl
ca o lumnare/Te-a cnta precum un bard/Dar tentaia-i mai mare,/S te ard39. Exist i
situaii n care este luat n rs tocmai percepia colectiv a focului ca distrugtor, fie n sensul
pozitiv, de rezolvitor de probleme (prin nimicire) 40, fie n sensul negativ, de demonizare. De
pild, tefan-Cornel Rodean persifleaz gestul oamenilor de a incendia ginile suspectate de
grip aviar: Cnd la gini nu te pricepi deloc/i n-ai pic de habar de medicin,/Ca s rezolvi
problema dintr-un foc/i trebuie o minte de gin41.
Pentru epigramiti, cenua nu este numai, pe modelul restului uman, un produs
rezidual lipsit de nsemntate, ci i o materie care presupune mai mult viaa dect moartea,
rupndu-se de simbolismul nihilist n care a fost ncarcerat42. Cenua poate furniza bucurie
(plcere, hedonism), dup cum se vede cel mai bine n imaginile resureciei din cenu, este
comunicaional pune n relaie, transmite mesaje43. Asemenea utilizri mai puin
convenionale ale elementelor ce compun imaginarul cremaiunii indic tendina pronunat
de a reconstrui acest imaginar pe coordonate n care etica nu devine apstoare i nici morala
cretin-ortodox nu i impune punctul de vedere simbolic i cultural (focul exterminator;
cenua non-semnificativ, rest).
3. Epigramele n care incinerarea se reprezint pe sine
A doua categorie major de epigrame fac din incinerare un motiv literar sunt cele n
care incinerarea este reprezentat direct, ca semnificat ultim. Nu mai vorbim, n aceast
situaie, de metaforizare ca proces principal i vertebrant al logicii epigramatice, pentru c nu
mai are loc un transfer-scop al imaginilor reprezentate (suscitate de ctre incinerare) ctre un
alt semn conceptual i imagistic. Sigur, totui, c incinerarea, ca motiv literar, i poate asocia
i aici, prin procesul de reprezentare, diverse alte semnificaii i imaginarii (de pild, plcerea
fumatului), ns referina ctre incinerare, ca practic i realitate extrinsec discursului rmne
central. Dac exist metaforizare (deseori sub forma comparaiei), aceasta se face nu dinspre
incinerare ctre altceva, ci dinspre acel altceva (hedonismul vicios i boem al fumatului,
consumarea vieii pentru ceilali) nspre incinerare.
38
mi triesc povara/Cu foc dup foc/De-mi luai igara/Simt c m sufoc! Gheorghe Guru, Unui fumtor,
n Cochetnd cu muzele: pamflete la zi, Galai, Editura Sinteze, 2010.
39
Dan Cpruciu, Tentaia divei, n Sonatele sonete: sonete epigramatice: epigrame, Galai, Pax Aura Mundi,
2011. Un alt exemplu: Vecinei de deasupra care/E supl ca o lumnare,/Catrene-i scriu (eu sunt un bard)/i tare
mult a vrea s-o ard. Nicolae Gon-Topor din arhiva personal a lui Gheorghe Culicovschi (2005),
http://www.citatepedia.ro/index.php?id=133117, consultat ultima data n 21.11.2013.
40
E un fals sens pozitiv, focul nu este bun, ci este acionat n vederea obinerii a ceva bun prin distrugere, nu prin
adaos efectiv de valoare/substan etc.
41
tefan-Cornel Rodean, Aviara s-a rezolvat dnd foc ginilor, Lumea epigramelor, nr. 5, martie 2012, p. 11.
42
tefan Borbly, Cenua eseu de mitopoetic, n Homo brucans i alte eseuri, Bucureti, Contemporanul,
2011.
43
Chiar dac e un mesaj de fericire egoist, mizantrop: A fost incendiu mare, au scpat/Doar apte case n
ntregul sat,/Dar bucuria mi-o exprim n rime,/Cci caprele au ars n ntregime. Dan Norea, Sentimente nscute
din cenu, n Epi...Gramatica.
871
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Incinerarea ca practic funerar derizorie de dispunere asupra cadavrului
Epigramele care se nscriu n aceast categorie contribuie la perpetuarea unor
aprehensiuni socio-imaginare romneti referitoare la cremaiune. Cea mai mare dintre ele:
incinerarea ar putea fi o practic de dispunere asupra cadavrului care nu cinstete suficient de
mult persoana decedat44, inferioar (se subnelege dintr-o comparaie nemrturisit, dar
prezent n subsidiarul textului) nmormntrii, implicnd sensuri negative multiple. Spre
exemplu, incinerarea pare a se asocia cu srcia i cu umilina: Oricine poate s-neleag/C
soarta nu m-a rsfat:/Prlit am fost o via-ntreag,/Iar azi sfresc... incinerat!45, cu
profanul i cu ratarea (E drept s fie-ncinerat,/Chiar dac doar un simulacru,/Cci soarta nu
l-a rsfat/Cu focul sacru!46 ori n via eu m-am ars destul/Cu multe, c-s deja stul,/Deci
o dorin am, aparte:/S nu fiu ars i dup moarte!47). Aici intr i o creaie a lui Mihai
Beniuc ce poate fi integrat genului: Cnd mi-au depus cenua-n urn,/ Intrai n faza mea
nocturn/ Dup-o via zbuciumat,/ Din care ceea ce-am ales/ E c m-am ars destul de des/
Dar ca acuma niciodat48.
Incinerarea ca practic funerar nesigur de dispunere asupra cadavrului
Variant a cremaiunii derizorii, cremaiunea poate fi o practic funerar nesigur
pentru viitorul postum al celui care a ales incinerarea, aa cum se prezint n epigrama lui
Vasile Tacu: St cenu-ntr-un borcan;/Soaa-i, ca vdanele,/N-a lsat s treac-un an/i-a-
ncurcat borcanele49. Urna sugereaz aici un obiect funerar care nu-i poate conserva n timp
nsemntatea ritualic, se banalizeaz. n cheie ironic i haioas, pare a fi ilustrat tocmai
ideea lui Jean-Paul Sartre: a fi mort nseamn a fi prad celorlali, cci la banalizarea urnei
contribuie i soia prea puin credincioas memoriei celui mort. Oricum, incinerarea, n
aceast optic, nu asigur odihna venic.
Cremaiunea ca form de acces la o imortalitate simbolic
Sunt ns i situaii cnd incinerarea este considerat un foarte bun vehicul ctre o
imortalitate simbolic, construcie a imaginii post-sinelui, fie printr-un proces de transfer
simbolic ctre art (arderea creatoare i regenerarea estetic de tip Phoenix): M-am vrut
incinerat, spernd c-aa/-Eliberat de-a lutului ctu-/n cazul cnd, postum, m-ar publica/A
nvia din propria-mi cenu50, fie numai printr-o regenerare cvasi-demonic: Cnd o s-i
44
Marius Rotar & Adriana Teodorescu, Op. cit.
45
Constantin Iuracu-Tataia, Autoepitaf, n Reflexe (i reflecii) ntr-o pictur de cerneal (coord. Constantin
Iuracu-Tataia), Iai, D.I.G, 2005.
46
Eugen Deutsch, Epitaf la incinerarea unui epigramist, n Reflexe (i reflecii) ntr-o pictur de cerneal. A
se vedea i Ion Cavanoiu, Un critic literar i om de vaz/ Prin testament s-a vrut incinerat./Cenua - cerul s i-o
aib-n paz,/C mult prea mult pmntul l-a... rbdat! (vezi i Constant Petrescu, La incinerarea unei rude
literare, n Cimitirul vesel: Antologie epitafuri i epigrame, p. 27; p. 128). Aici este persiflat elitismul i falsul
intelectualism (lipsa de flacr sacr). Cum ns ironizarea nu este niciodat dus pn la capt, caracteristic
epigramatic, se poate spune c, cel puin parial, elitismul asociat incinerrii este reactivat.
47
Mihai Cosma, Autoepitaf, n Cimitirul vesel: Antologie epitafuri i epigrame, p. 38.
48
Mihai Beniuc, De pe o urn funerar, n Scrieri. Poezii. Arderi, vol. IV, Bucureti, Minerva, 1973, p. 91.
Beniuc a dorit s fie incinerat la fel ca a doua sa soie, Emma Beniuc, avnd numele inscripionat pe o ni
funerar n Columbariul principal al Crematoriului Cenua. A fost ns nhumat n Cimitirul Catolic Bellu din
Bucureti.
49
Vasile Tacu, Epitaf la un so incinerat, n Antologia epigramei romneti, p.149.
50
Vasile Tacu, Ultima speran, n Cimitirul vesel: Antologie epitafuri i epigrame, p. 149
872
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
moar soacra, cic,/De-ar fi s-o-ngroape chiar n drum,/El n-o s-o ard, c-i e fric/S nu se
nasc iar din scrum!51. n ultimul exemplu, imortalitatea simbolic este privit printr-o prea
groas lup ironic, dar ideea din fundal rmne aceeai, incinerarea are (i) aceast capacitate
de a simboliza resurecia, rentoarcerea.
Incinerarea ca practic (aproape) fireasc de dispunere asupra cadavrului
Cremaiunea poate fi prezentat i pe un ton relativ neutru, n calitatea sa de alegere
normal a individului, ca i cum nu ar exista un statut cultural aparte al acestei practici
funerare, statut marcat de contestare religioas i de problematizare social care o arunc la o
periferie a acceptabilitii colective romneti: Cum din fire ovia,/C aa-i fusese
felu,/Mort de-un ceas, se tot codea:/-La Cenua... ori la Bellu? 52. De mai multe ori ns,
am putea afirma c incinerarea este aproape fireasc. Epigramele scot n eviden pri
negative ale incinerrii, dar care nu sunt i ne-fireti. Negativul incinerrii este negativul
morii, a ceea ce se opune vieii. ntr-adevr, n cazul acestui tip de epigrame, nu exist o
dihotomie incinerare-nmormntare, nici un derizoriu marcat, ci pur i simplu o balana via-
moarte care se nclin, cum altfel, n favoarea primului termen: Viaa e un foc activ/ns
provizoriu/Pentru c definitiv/Arzi la Crematoriu53; Un dric i un birjar candriu/S-mi
cnte-ntregul repertoriu,/Un stingtor pus n sicriu/n drumul meu... spre crematoriu! 54.
Rar, dar totui demn de luat n considerare, tocmai pentru c presupune o abatere
major, total de la stereotipurile consacrate pe teritoriu socio-cultural romnesc, incinerarea
este dezirabil i preferabil nmormntrii: nghe n lut ncet, ncet,/Cnd iarna-i face
prezentarea/i-ncep n tain s regret/ C-am refuzat incinerarea55. Aceast imaginare a
destinului post-mortem al trupului, pe care simurile lumeti de baz nu l-au prsit este
strbtut de o anumit sensibilitate poetic exacerbat, nespecific epigramelor, ci altor
specii ale genului liric.
Scurt concluzie
Din cele examinate mai sus, se poate observa c, n cazul epigramelor n care
cremaiunea se reprezint pe sine, exist un proces de polisemantizare a incinerrii la care se
ajunge nu prin metaforizrile nspre incinerare, de care aminteam, ci i datorit ezitrii
perspectivale auctoriale, ceva mai preganante dect n cazul primei categorii de epigrame.
Iari, nu este de neglijat nici prima categorie de epigrame, cele n interiorul crora
incinerarea este metaforizat, avnd un rol adjuvant de reprezentare a unor realiti pe care fie
coninutistic, fie lingvistic, autorul epigramelor le gsete similare cremaiunii, total sau
incomplet (elemente ale cremaiunii). Ambele categorii demonstreaz i aceasta este marea
lecie a examinrii literare epigramatice a cremaiunii c incinerarea are puterea de a se
suprapune peste orice realitate uman, fapt ce traduce vivacitatea imaginarului aferent
cremaiunii i, implicit, artificialitatea reprimrii reprezentaionale i practice a acesteia.
51
Gheorghe Berdan, Pasrea Phoenix, n Antologia epigramei romneti.
52
Mircea Trifu, Epitaf unui nehotrt, n Epigramma, Bucureti, Litera, 1976.
53
Florea tefnescu, Gnduri la o incinerare, n Urmaii lui Cincinat (coord. Gheorghe Culicovschi),
Cmpina, Editura Ridendo, 2004.
54
Marian Popescu, Ultima dorin a pompierului, Cimitirul vesel: Antologie epitafuri i epigrame, p.139.
55
Corin Bianu, Mie nsumi, n Epigrame pentru eternitate (coord. Mircea Trifu), Bucureti, Litera, 1980.
873
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Bibliografie
Borbly, tefan, Cenua eseu de mitopoetic, n Homo brucans i alte eseuri, Bucureti,
Contemporanul, 2011, pp. 184-196.
Cpruciu, Dan, Tentaia divei, n Sonatele sonete: sonete epigramatice: epigrame, Galai,
Pax Aura Mundi, 2011.
Corbu, G., Lic V. i Zarafu G. (coord.), Antologia epigramei romneti, Editura Pro
Transilvania, 2007.
Culicovschi, Gheorghe, Urmaii lui Cincinat, Cmpina, Editura Ridendo, 2004.
Davies, Douglas J., Theology of Death, London and New York, T& T Clark Continuum,
2008.
Guru, Gheorghe, Cochetnd cu muzele: pamflete la zi, Galai, Editura Sinteze, 2010.
Hotrrea nr. 4529 din 5 iulie 2012 a Sfntului Sinod al Bisericii Ortodoxe Romne n
legtur cu practica necretin a incinerrii morilor,
http://www.patriarhia.ro/_layouts/images/File/4529%20Comunicare%20practica%20incinerar
ii.pdf, consultat ultima dat n 20.11.2013.
Eco, Umberto, Flacra e frumoas, n Cum ne construim dumanul, Iai, Polirom, traducere
de tefania Mincu, 2011.
Janklvitch, Vladimir, Ironia, traducere din francez de Florica Drgan i V. Fanache,
ClujNapoca, Dacia, 1994.
Iuracu-Tataia, Constantin, Reflexe (i reflecii) ntr-o pictur de cerneal, Iai, D.I.G, 2005.
International Cremation Statistics, Pharos, 4, 77, 2011, p. 29-43.
Lic, Valerian (coord.), Cimitirul vesel: Antologie epitafuri i epigrame, Ploieti, Editura
Premier, 2000.
McManus, Ruth, Death in the Global Age, Hampshire, Palgrave Macmilliam, 2013.
Militaru, Gabriel, Incinerarea morilor, ntre dorina muribundului i nvtura Bisericii,
http://prgabriel.wordpress.com/2008/09/29/incinerarea-mortilor-intre-dorinta-muribundului-
si-invatatura-bisericii/, accesat ultima dat n 08.12.2011.
Naum, Smarandache (coord.), n lupt cu un... bei (dueluri epigramatice), Sibiu, Alma Mater,
2006.
Necula, Nicolae, Tradiie i nnoire in slujirea liturgic, Galai, Editura Episcopiei Dunrii de
Jos, 1996.
Norea, Dan, Epi...Gramatica, Constana, Ex Ponto, 2011.
Rpeanu, Elis (coord.), Fumuri. Culegere de epigrame, Editura Sagittarius, Bucureti, 2002.
Rodean, tefan-Cornel, Aviara s-a rezolvat dnd foc ginilor, Lumea epigramelor, nr. 5,
martie 2012, p. 11.
Rotar, Marius, Eternitate prin cenu. O istorie a crematoriilor i incinerrilor umane n
Romnia secolelor XIX-XXI, Iai, Institutul European 2011.
Rotar, Marius i Teodorescu, Adriana, Cremation in Romania: Stereotypes and Communist
Perceptions, Revista de tiine Politice, No. 35, 2012, Craiova, pp. 35-45.
Teu, Ioan C., nhumare versus incinerare, Doxologia, (2010),
http://www.doxologia.ro/puncte-de-vedere/inhumare-versus-incinerare, accesat ultima dat n
10.12.2011.
874
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Trifu, Mircea (coord.), Epigrame pentru eternitate, Bucureti, Litera, 1980.
Trifu, Mircea, Epigramma, Litera, Bucureti, 1976.
Walter, Tony, The Revival of Death, London and New York, Routledge Taylor & Francis
Group, 1994.
875
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
LA TRADUCTION DES REFERENTS CULTURELS DANS LE ROMAN LE
TESTAMENT FRANAIS DANDRE MAKINE VERS LE ROUMAIN
Iulia CORDU, PhD Candidate, tefan cel Mare University of Suceava
Abstract: In this article, we plan to analyze the importance of cultural and social elements in
the translative approach, by giving some examples of translation into romanian of the novel
Le testament franais by Andre Makine. The translation process is an attempt to give a new
life to the text for the target audience, so the state of the target culture proves to be very
important and raises a problem of compatibility with the source culture. In the case that we
submit for analysis, the researcher can wonder whether we are in the presence of only one
source culture or of several, taking into account that the subject of the novel takes place in
France and Russia. The reception of the translated work by the romanian readers is based on
characteristics that are familiar for the audience, but also on the cultural differences between
the three cultures involved. We plan to answer the question whether the romanian translation
of Russian cultural elements flatters the original work or not.
Keywords: cultural translation, compatibility, strategies, tramslation studies, cultural
symbols
1. Sur la traduction et la culture
La problmatique des rfrents culturels dans la traductologie simpose comme un
champ de recherche essentiel, qui implique des aspects cls pour un dcodage russi dans la
langue cible. Une uvre traduite doit tre regarde comme le rsultat de linteraction des
cultures avec les modalits de traduire, spcifiques chaque traducteur et, donc, avec des
interventions forcment subjectives. En analysant les traductions, nous avons essay de
prendre en considration lappartenance culturelle de lauteur et du traducteur, ainsi que les
symboles inhrents du texte. Notre objectif a t dobserver si le processus traductif a men
la constitution de lidentit de sa propre culture (Cordonnier, 2002 : 41) ou leffacement
de lAutre.
Loin dtre un simple transfert linguistique, la traduction transporte dans la langue
cible le texte avec les informations historiques, culturelles, sociales implicites et assure les
relations entre les cultures trangres rencontres. Une affirmation toujours vraie, mise en
avant par Georges Mounin il ya cinquante ans, est que les deux conditions essentielles pour
traduire une langue trangre sont ltude de la langue et de son ethnographie (Mounin, 1994
(1956) : 236). Comme notre analyse se propose de le montrer, les composantes culturelles
jouent un grand rle, y compris dans la traduction de spcialit qui contient des terminologies
figes. Dix ans plus tard, Henri Meschonnic introduit le concept de langue-culture , qui
dsigne le tout insparable que forment la langue et la culture. Au-del du transfert
linguistique, le traducteur dstructure, faonne, restructure lidentit culturelle
(Cordonnier, 2002 : 41) pour le bnfice du public cible, ayant un rle crateur, innovateur
pour la langue.
876
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Dfinir la culture serait une mission trop ample pour notre expos, mais nous voulons
cependant donner notre conception de ce terme, inspire des ouvrages des spcialistes en
traductologie. Mme si chacun a une vision diffrente, cause du fait que la culture est une
construction intellectuelle, une explication largement accepte est celle de modes de vie et
de pense communs une communaut donne et qui conduisent les individus appartenant
cette communaut agir dans certaines situations sociales dune faon commune
(Coordonnier, 2002 : 40). Pour une vision plus dtaille sur lensemble qui forme la culture
mais qui devrait inclure aussi la coordonne temporelle, pour rendre son caractre toujours
changeant nous citons un fragment de Komissarov :
Les gens qui appartiennent la mme communaut linguistique sont membres
dun certain type de culture. Ils partagent beaucoup de traditions, habitudes,
modalits de faire et de dire les choses. Ils ont en commun la connaissance sur
leur pays, sa gographie, son histoire, son climat, ses institutions politiques,
conomiques, sociales et culturelles, son thique et ses tabous et beaucoup
dautres choses.1 (Komissarov, 1991 : 33)
La raison dtre de la traduction est justement lexistence des langages, dans lopinion
de Komissarov, ce qui explique la ncessit et lapparition de linterlingual communication
(1991 : 33). Quand on se propose comme objectif de surmonter la barrire linguistique,
labsence de la comprhension des cultures de dpart et darrive est un obstacle important.
Selon le mme auteur (1991 : 46), en tant que vhicule dintrt des lments interculturels, la
traduction dune culture vers lautre apporte aux lecteurs cible des ides et des faits inhrents
dans la langue-culture source, tend leur horizon culturel, leur fait dcouvrir dautres
coutumes, symboles et croyances. Ce rle ducatif de la traduction est largement reconnu,
bien que de nombreux spcialistes en traductologie comme Marianne Lederer et V.N.
Komissarov attirent lattention des praticiens de la traduction sur le fait quil ne faut pas
sous-estimer le lecteur.
Linutilit de donner une dfinition fige la culture pour lanalyse traductologique
vient du fait que rien nest dfinitif dans les paramtres de la culture. Les rflexions
thoriques, les coutumes pratiques et mme la langue dexpression changent avec l'volution
de l'histoire, comme observent Delisle et Wordsworth, qui affirment que les limites de la
culture sont fluides, mouvantes (1995: 193). Si la culture est llment idologique qui unit
une communaut, elle comprend aussi lunit politique dune zone gographique. Les deux
lments vont prouver leur importance dans la partie analytique de notre travail, quand nous
parlerons de la comprhension du texte dans la perspective de latmosphre et de la priode
historique.
La richesse des paramtres culturels fait voluer la culture cible entire, si lon
considre que, dans son travail, le traducteur importe des caractristiques culturelles, des
informations nouvelles et des spcificits insolites pour le lecteur. Dans le VII e chapitre du
volume Les traducteurs dans lhistoire (1995 : 193), Delisle et Woodsworth ralisent un
portrait gnral de la figure du traducteur au cours des sicles ; nous en avons extrait et
1
Notre traduction de langlais.
877
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
paraphras les traits qui prouvent la ncessit dune connaissance rigoureuse des cultures
impliques :
Traits culturels dans le portrait du traducteur
a. Il habite les villes, lieux de carrefours culturels.
b. Il sintresse aux valeurs culturelles trangres pour le bnfice de la ville.
c. Il attend lapparition des nouveauts littraires dans les centres culturels.
d. Il ralise aussi des traductions commandites par les rudits.
e. Il voyage pour trouver des uvres nouvelles et pour connatre davantage sur la
culture quil va traduire.
f. Il ddie le livre au protecteur et la prface au lecteur.
g. Il choisit les textes traduire en fonctions de ses prfrences de genre et de ses
convictions pdagogiques. (Delisle, Woodsworth, 1995 : 194-202)
Mme si ce portrait ne vise pas ncessairement le traducteur moderne, nous
considrons que parmi ces traits se retrouvent aussi quelques particularits des traducteurs
contemporains. Lexception serait peut-tre lintrt pour le dveloppement culturel de son
pays qui a t complt par la motivation financire.
Les solutions traductives les plus rencontres pour des problmes de traduction
dordre culturel sont ladaptation et lexplicitation. Komissarov semble mlanger les deux
procds dans une seule notion appele pragmatic adaptation : offrir des informations
supplmentaires dans le texte cible pour compenser pour la manque de certaines
connaissances partages par les rcepteurs du texte source 2 (Komissarov, 1991 : 42). La
solution apparemment simple de cet auteur pour les problmes soulevs par la traduction
culturelle est de les remettre sous la forme dun problme de langue et de les introduire dans
la thorie linguistique de la traduction.
Dautre part, Marianne Lederer est une des spcialistes qui encouragent lintervention
minimale du traducteur pour aider la comprhension par le lecteur, en dcourageant
lexplicitation et les notes en bas de page pour favoriser les claircissements dans le contexte.
Selon lauteure, ces stratgies de traduction sont inutiles si le texte apporte progressivement
des claircissements, mais elle recommande lajout dun glossaire la fin de luvre. Dans
les cas o les emprunts sexpliquent par le contexte, Lederer est davis que le traducteur ne
doit pas offrir dinformations supplmentaires. Elle suggre de prendre lexemple des auteurs
bi-culturels qui crivent dune manire assez dtendue et qui ont lintuition native de
doser correctement limplicite et lexplicite sans sacharner traduire chacun des lments
linguistiques (Lederer, 1998 : 161). Dans le cas des termes quon ne connat pas du tout,
lexplicitation peut tre absente ; cest le cas du gulab-jamuns indien trouv par la chercheuse
franaise dans une traduction dun auteur qui appartient la culture indienne et celle
britannique simultanment : le terme est report en franais, mais le lecteur peut se faire une
impression vague sur ce plat en dcouvrant quun personnage ne le mange pas cause de son
2
Notre traduction de langlais.
878
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
diabte. Le sens du rfrent nest pas dvoil, mais dcouvrir sa fonction (un plat qui contient
du sucre) est jug comme suffisant. Ainsi, le lecteur reoit-il les descriptions des cultures,
intgres dans lensemble du texte, et non pas celles des termes reports qui font le lecteur
sortir du rcit (Lederer, 1998 : 167). La vision de Marianne Lederer nous semble trs
intressante et cohrente, raison pour laquelle nous en extrairons quelques conclusions
schmatises :
a. La traduction ne transmet pas toute la culture, mais seulement une partie.
b. Le lecteur ne doit pas tre sous-estim.
c. Lexplicitation est accepte seulement si le message tait autrement
compromis.
d. Les approches diffrentes de traduction donnent des versions diffrentes, mais
des adeptes existent pour chacune dentre elles.
Nous voulons suivre dans la partie danalyse de la traduction dans quelle mesure la
traductrice a appliqu ces conseils gnraux. Selon notre opinion, les rgles dune traduction
russie se trouvent dans lintuition de chaque traducteur expriment.
2. Le nom propre dans le paradigme culturel
La partie la plus particulire des lments qui composent la langue-culture pourrait
tre lonomastique, et plus prcisment lanthroponymie. Les noms propres sont parfois le
seul indice quon ncessite pour deviner lorigine culturelle dune personne. Un lecteur
quelque peu avis saura quun Giovanni vient probablement dItalie, un John de lAngleterre
et un Vladimir de Russie. En crivant un roman, les auteurs ddient souvent beaucoup de
temps au choix des noms de personnages, qui peuvent avoir des significations subtiles. Cela a
une pertinence particulire pour les traducteurs, surtout pour ceux qui sont aussi des crivains
leur tour et qui nosent pas traduire les noms propres. Michel Ballard affirme que certains
auteurs ont la prtention que les noms ne soient pas traduits, que le traducteur les reprenne tels
quels (Ballard, 1998 : 199). Dailleurs, Georges Mounin soutenait aussi en 1956 la non-
traduction des noms propres : lillusion dun texte crit directement dans notre langue []
comporte une limite infranchissable : les noms propres, quil faut garder dans la forme
trangre toutes les fois quelle nest pas francise (Mounin, 1994 (1956) : 78).
Si quelques prnoms ont des correspondants dans deux ou plusieurs langues Peter,
Pierre, Piotr, Pedro, Pieter, Petru, etc. , la traduction des autres est bloque par ce que Michel
Ballard appelle la non-concidence globale des systmes de dsignation (Ballard, 1995 :
203). Dans lanalyse de la traduction que nous allons effectuer dans la partie suivante, nous
aurons quelques exemples de noms propres adapts.
3. Analyse de la traduction du Testament franais
La traduction que nous analysons a t ralise par Virginia Baciu et publie en 1997
aux ditions Univers, en Roumanie. Lhistoire du jeune homme russe qui passe ses vacances
dt chez sa grand-mre franaise et devient marqu par les deux cultures dans lesquelles il
est lev, le sujet du roman Le testament franais se droule tant en Russie, quen France. Le
879
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
transport des termes et des ides vers la troisime culture implique, la culture roumaine,
impose au processus de traduction une attention augmente aux lments culturels, base sur
une connaissance optimale des trois actants.
a. Larchitecture en traduction
Le mlange des cultures franaise et russe revient lattention du lecteur partout dans
le roman, mlange dont les consquences apportent rarement quelque chose de bon : le petit
Russe qui connat bien le franais et les histoires fascinantes sur la France dantan souffre
parce quil est diffrent, le tsar Nicolas abdique immdiatement aprs le fastueux banquet
donn son honneur Cherbourg et le personnage principal narrive pas publier son roman
parce quil semblait trop bien crit en franais par un crivain russe.
Ni linfluence franaise dans les villes russes nest mieux reue : la tentative dun
gouverneur ambitieux de faire construire toute une avenue portant lempreinte du style
moderne (Makine, 1995 : 34) ne rsiste pas la furie de la Rvolution dOctobre3, qui
critiquait le style dcadent de lart bourgeois occidental. La traductrice se trouve devant un
dfi stylistique, en ayant pour tche de dcrire en roumain lintrusion du style architectural
franais dans la petite ville russe fige la bordure des steppes dans un tonnement profond
devant linfini qui souvrait ses portes (Makine, 1995 : 34)
Termes architecturaux Termes architecturaux
Version franaise Version roumaine
Sinuosits, galbes, courbes Sinuozitile, reliefurile, curbele
Un immeuble aux tranges ils- O cldire cu stranii ferestruici
de-buf ovales ovale
Tiges de rosiers dcoratifs Lujeri de trandafiri decorativi
entourant les entres care ncojurau intrrile
Surabondance architecturale Supraabunden arhitectural
Deux visages de jolies Dou chipuri frumoase de
bacchantes bacante
Isba Izba
(Makine, 1995 : 34-35) (Makine, 1997 : 21-22)
Ces termes, extraits dun seul fragment du livre, choisis pour leur appartenance au
domaine architectural, ont t traduits avec des stratgies diffrentes. Ceux qui navaient pas
dquivalent en roumain ont t rendus par un autre terme, proche comme signification. Le
terme galbe, traduit par relief signifie contour, profil plus ou moins courbe dun membre
darchitecture, dun vase, dun meuble 4 ; trouver trois termes qui signifient presque la mme
chose est un dfi important et ce choix semble satisfaisant. Peut-tre aurions-nous choisi la
variante sinuozitile, rotunjimile, curbele pour exprimer la mme ide de courbe
harmonieuse. Un autre terme li lart de construire les btiments est ils-de-buf qui a t
rendu en roumain par ferestruici ; les ils-de-buf tant des lucarnes fentre ronde ou
3
La rvolution doctobre 1917, qui a cr le premier Etat communiste de lhistoire et ensuite, lUnion des
rpubliques sovitiques en 1922.
4
Cf. http://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais/galbe/35857?q=galbe#35822 , date de la consultation
23.11.2013, 20h.
880
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ovale 5, leur correspondant en roumain serait simplement lucarn. Le terme rencontr dans
la traduction publie, ferestruic, est une sous-traduction qui ne transmet pas le sens de
petite ouverture pratique dans un toit 6. Pour la traduction du dernier terme, bacchante
bacant, nous pouvons observer lemprunt du franais, originant du latin bacchans,-tis,
transform laide de ladaptation phontique pour lacceptation dfinitive dans le lexique
roumain.
La Rvolution dOctobre, qui a supprim tous les privilges caractre religieux et
qui a spar lglise orthodoxe de ltat, a men aussi la destruction des symboles de
lglise. Une telle consquence nfaste a affect lun des piliers culturels de la petite ville
ruse : la transformation de lglise dans un cinma. Lglise dcapite , comme Charlotte
la appele, a perdu sa coupole dore et son iconostase pour que le cinma La Barricade y
reoive ses premiers spectateurs. Aprs quAliocha et sa sur dcouvrent la vrit sur le
cinma de leur ville, ils avouent que nous avions vu slever au-dessus de la btisse trapue
(dont le pass nous tait inconnu), la silhouette lance dun bulbe dor et dune croix
(Makine, 1995 : 37). Le sens de ce bulbe dor, qui reprsente la coupole de lglise,
nexprime pas seulement une racine de quelques plantes, mais aussi un renflement la base
ou au milieu dune flche dglise, dun clocher, etc. 7 La traductrice choisit cependant
dexpliciter et de reprendre le terme coupole, peut-tre en sous-estimant son lecteur roumain.
b. Lanthroponymie en traduction
Nous avions affirm, en nous ralliant aux opinions de Mounin et Ballard, que les noms
propres ne devraient pas tre traduits. En prenant le cas de Charlotte Lemonnier, un des
personnages centraux du roman, la sonorit de son nom nous indique son origine franaise.
Ce nest pas par une faute de traduction quelle devient Charlota Norbertovna , mais par
lintention dun de ses voisins de Saranza, la ville o elle passe la dernire partie de sa vie.
Leffort de Gavrilytch dtre poli et de parler avec Charlotte, quil respectait beaucoup, se
traduit aussi dans le fait quil russifie son nom et quil la salue en franais :
- Bonjour, Charlota Norbertovna !
Oui, il tait le seul, dans la cour, lappeler par son prnom franais, lgrement
russifi, il est vrai. Mais qui plus est, il avait retenu, on ne savait plus ni quand,
ni comment, celui du pre de Charlotte et il formait ce patronyme exotique
Norbertovna le comble de la politesse et dempressement dans sa
bouche. (Makine, 1995 : 32)
Le choix de la traductrice roumaine de ne pas expliquer la formation du patronyme
russe sinscrit dans les recommandations faites par Marianne Lederer, de ne pas introduire des
notes en bas de page ou dexpliciter quand le texte offre des claircissements suffisants. Le
lecteur comprend que le nom propre insolite une liaison avec le nom du pre de Charlotte,
ce qui est lessentiel. Les suffixes utiliss pour les patronymes (qui signifient soit fils de
5
Cf. http://www.larousse.fr/dictionnaires/francais/%C5%93il-de-b%C5%93uf/55647?q=oeils-de-boeuf#55275 ,
date de la consultation 23.11.2013, 20h.
6
Cf. http://www.mediadico.com/dictionnaire/definition/lucarne , date de la consultation 23.11.2013, 20h.
7
Cf. www.mediadico.com/dictionnaire/definition/bulbe , date de la consultation 23.11.2013, 19h.
881
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ovitch , soit fille de ovna ) sont ajouts au prnom du pre dans les pays slaves de lEst
de lEurope.
- Bun ziua, Charlota Norbertovna!
Da, era singurul, din curtea aceea, care o chema pe numele ei franuzesc, uor
rusificat, e drept. Ba mai mult, inuse minte, nu se mai tia nici cnd, nici cum,
prenumele tatlui Charlottei i alctuia numele acela exotic Norbertovna
culmea politeei i a curtoaziei n gura lui. (Makine, 1997 : 19-20)
Probablement cause de la proximit gographique, qui augmente la possibilit que le
lecteur connaisse dj cette rgle de formation des patronymes, la traductrice najoute aucune
explication supplmentaire aux explications du texte. Les autres noms propres quon
rencontre dans le roman sont traduits tels quels, avec des rares adaptations phontiques :
Glacha Glaa, Norbert et Albertine Lemonnier (une seule fois nous rencontrons dans la
versios roumaine le nom Adrienne Lemonnier page 8, mais nous suspectons que cest une
faute de frappe), Fiodor Fiodor, Avdotia Avdotia etc.
Le contact des cultures et de lhistoire, dans le cas de la Russie et la Roumanie, rend la
comprhension du texte traduit plus facile. Un exemple qui soutient cette affirmation est le
cas du patronyme Norbertovna, dont le sens peut tre compris sans dautres interventions
supplmentaires. Une autre situation de traduction connue par le lecteur roumain comme
ralit quotidienne dans le pass communiste sont les files dattente ou cozile ; je suivais
une file dattente interminable qui serpentait aux abords dun magasin dalimentation, puis,
franchissant le seuil, senroulait lintrieur [] ma sur vint me rejoindre : deux nous
avions droit la double quantit de la marchandise rationne (Makine, 1995 : 59). Le
communisme a fait connatre aux Roumains aussi cette rgle qui limitait la quantit de
nourriture quils pouvaient acheter mensuellement, latmosphre gnrale, lespoir de trouver
du pain et quelque chose manger aux magasins et les longues heures passes la queue sont
rendues en roumain trs facilement.
Conclusion
La traduction que nous avons tudie est ralise par une praticienne roumaine, ce qui
a une influence significative sur son travail. La proximit gographique de la Russie et de la
Roumanie est un avantage pour la traduction, car les ides lies au rgime politique, aux
ralits quotidiennes et mme au climat sont comprises et transmises plus naturellement.
Nous avons dcouvert que la compatibilit des cultures source avec la culture darrive a
permis la cration dun texte homologue qui respecte le sens et la nature du texte initial.
La traduction en roumain du Testament franais, roman distingu avec le prix
Goncourt, le prix Mdicis et le prix Goncourt des Lycens lanne de sa parution, simposait
le plus tt possible. laide de la traduction de Virginia Baciu, le public roumain a pu
savourer la pseudo-autobiographie (Clment, 2009 : 10) de Makine et limmense fresque des
vastes plaines de Sibrie pendant lre sovitique. La richesse des symboles culturels prsents
dans le roman en font une matire de recherche particulirement intressante pour la
traduction du texte et des cultures.
882
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Note : Contribution ralise dans le cadre du programme CNCS PN-II-ID-PCE-2011-3-0812
(Projet de recherche exploratoire) Traduction culturelle et littrature(s) francophone(s) :
histoire, rception et critique des traductions, Contrat 133/27.10.2011.
Corpus
MAKINE, Andre, Le testament franais, Editions Mercure de France, Paris, 1995, ISBN 2-
7152-1936-9, 311p.
MAKINE, Andre, Le testament franais, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1997, ISBN 973-34-
0470-5, 209 p.
Bibliographie
CORDONNIER, Jean-Louis, Aspects culturels de la traduction : quelques notions cls in
Meta, journal des traducteurs / Meta: Translator's Journal, vol.47, no.1, 2002, pp.38-50
http://www.erudit.org/revue/meta/2002/v47/n1/007990ar.pdf
DELISLE, J., WORDSWORTH, J., (VII e chapitre) Les traducteurs dans lhistoire, Les
Presses de L'Universi d'Ottawa/ditions UNESCO, 1995, ISBN PUO 2-7603-0412-4, ISBN
UNESCO 92-3-203138-8
http://books.google.ro/books?id=b6ujqR43m58C&pg=PA193&hl=ro&source=gbs_toc_r&ca
d=4#v=onepage&q=fluides&f=false
KOMISSAROV, V.N., Language and Culture in Translation: Competitors or
Collaborators ? in TTR : traduction, terminologie, rdaction, vol.4, no.1, 1991, pp. 33-47
http://www.erudit.org/revue/ttr/1991/v4/n1/037080ar.pdf
LEDERER, Marianne, Traduire le culturel in Palimpsestes, (sous la direction de) Paul
Bensimon et Didier Coupaye, no. 11, 1998, Presses de la Sorbonne Nouvelle, ISBN 2-87854-
137-5, pp. 161-172
BALLARD, Michel, La traduction du nom propre comme ngotiation in Palimpsestes,
(sous la direction de) Paul Bensimon et Didier Coupaye, no. 11, 1998, Presses de la Sorbonne
Nouvelle, ISBN 2-87854-137-5,
CLEMENT, Murielle Lucie, Andre Makine. (Etudes runies et prsentes par Murielle Lucie
Clment), Editions Rodopi, 187 p.
MOUNIN, Georges, Les belles infidles, Presses Universitaires de Lille, 1994, ISBN 2-
85939-459-1 (1e dition parue en 1955 aux Cahiers du Sud)
883
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
EXHIBER LA DIFFICULTE DU DIALOGUE ORIENT OCCIDENT POUR MIEUX
LA SURMONTER? UNE LECTURE DE PARAGES DE THEODORE CAZABAN
Gina PUIC, Assistant Professor, PhD, Universit de Strasbourg and tefan cel Mare
University of Suceava
Abstract: The article Display the difficulty of dialogue between Orient and Occident in
order to overcome it? A reading of Parages of Thodore Cazaban will comment the
conception of Theodor/Thodore Cazaban (born in Romania in 1921 and exiled in France
since 1947) of the dialogue between Orient and Occident, as it is shown in its unique novel
Parages (1963). Exiled as an anticommunist from the very beginning, Cazaban, because of
his discretion on the literary scene and his limited productivity, remained a voice on the
margins, but very representative of the frustrations and other complains of Romanian
intellectuals who were exiled in France. If some of his ideas are inspired from the books of
Ren Gunon (rejection of the occidental world through a criticism of rationalism,
progressivism, materialism, and even humanism), Cazaban is nevertheless one of those
writers Antoine Compagnon described as being modern in so far as they are first of all
antimodern (Les Antimodernes, de Joseph de Maistre Roland Barthes, Paris, Gallimard,
2005), caught in the whirls of History but unable to abandon the past.
Keywords: Theodor/Thodore Cazaban, Romanian Francophonie, literature of exile,
modernity, anti-modernity.
N en 1921 Flticeni, Theodor (Thodore) Cazaban1 quitta la Roumanie en 1947 pour
ne jamais y revenir. Son parcours intellectuel et plus largement existentiel se confond avec
toute lhistoire de lexil roumain anticommuniste, dont il reste un reprsentant de tout
premier ordre. Pendant longtemps impliqu politiquement, il uvra surtout comme
journaliste. Du point de vue strictement littraire, aprs avoir produit quelques crits en
roumain avant de prendre la voie de lexil, il attendra le dbut des annes 1960 pour publier
en franais. Ce sera Parages, que Gallimard fera paratre en 1963, et qui restera son unique
roman, et son seul ouvrage publi jusqu prsent en France.
Sensible aux innovations littraires dans lair du temps, Cazaban croise formellement le
mouvement du Nouveau Roman franais, alors en pleine vogue Paris, mais il sen
dmarque aussi par sa qute dune spiritualit dont les nouvelles critures en gnral staient
dbarrasses. Sy ajoute un certain nombre dides et de convictions qui avaient cours dans
les rangs des exils roumains Paris, ces derniers pour la plupart en guerre non seulement
avec la Roumanie communiste, mais aussi avec la France quils jugeaient trop complaisante
face aux doctrines de gauche, et dans les valeurs de laquelle ils refusaient en partie de croire.
A la longue, ce divorce idologique devint un refus plus large et explicite de lOccident
contemporain. Voyons comment cette idologie fut travaille par Cazaban dans Parages.
1
Thodore Cazaban est le nom sous lequel lcrivain a sign les crits en langue franaise (Parages, mais aussi
des pices de thtre non publies et non joues), raison suffisante pour ladopter ici, aux dpens de son nom
dorigine, Theodor Cazaban.
884
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Le modle Ren Gunon
Dans La crise du Monde moderne2, ouvrage ayant durablement marqu lauteur de
Parages, Ren Gunon oppose lOccident (moderne), dcrit comme civilisation
proprement antitraditionnelle , toutes les civilisations qui sont demeures fidles
lesprit traditionnel, et qui sont les civilisations orientales 3. Dans la conception
traditionnelle , mtaphysique de Gunon, rattache la philosophia perennis4, la
civilisation moderne qui sest dveloppe en Occident, de manire acclre depuis quelques
sicles, subit une crise grave et elle est destine prir comme dautres civilisations ont
disparu avant elle, ne laissant derrire que dinfimes traces5. Gunon fait aussi le lien entre
cette fin de la civilisation occidentale, quil sent toute proche, et la fin dun cycle cosmique,
et synthtise le tout par lide que les dsquilibres partiels et transitoires concourent
finalement la ralisation de lquilibre total 6. Au cataclysme attendu, succderait ainsi
non seulement un simple redressement ncessaire, mais une rnovation totale 7.
Quest-ce qui marque cette civilisation occidentale crpusculaire et qui gne tant
Gunon et tous les tenants de la vision traditionnelle , des degrs plus ou moins
importants ? Le rationalisme, parce quil nie expressment tout ce qui est dordre supra-
rationnel ; lhumanisme (auquel est associ lindividualisme), parce quil rduit tout des
proportions purement humaines , fait abstraction de tout principe dordre suprieur , et
parce que, symboliquement, il dtourne du ciel sous prtexte de conqurir la terre ; la
supriorit de laction sur la contemplation ; la fragmentation et la spcialisation promues
par la science moderne ; la dispersion du religieux, depuis la naissance du Protestantisme, en
une multitude de sectes ; la ngation de toute hirarchie sociale ; les principes dgalit,
de progrs, et autres dogmes laques ; le matrialisme. 8
Tous ces aspects, considrs trs majoritairement comme autant dacquis de la socit
moderne, constituant des avances certaines dans la recherche de la facilitation de la vie
humaine, la rendant plus digne et plus juste, sont dnoncs par lhomme de la Tradition en
raison du souci majeur et quasi unique qui est le sien de prserver et de cultiver la recherche
du Principe (les racines) aux dpens de ses manifestations (les branches), qui peuvent tre
2
Ren Gunon, La Crise du Monde moderne, Paris, Gallimard, NRF , 1946.
3
Ibid., pp. 30-31.
4
Dans la Philosophia perennis, telle quelle fut redfinie au XXe sicle par Ren Gunon, les prceptes en sont
considrs comme remontant des temps immmoriaux et appartenant toutes les traditions vritables. Cette
Tradition primordiale est cense se transmettre par initiation dans de rares cercles dlus. Selon Ren
Gunon, pour que linitiation soit russie, cest--dire que laspirant accde une connaissance supra-
rationnelle du Divin, il faut au pralable raliser les tats suprieurs de son tre et parvenir lunion entre son
individualit et le Principe. Gunon considre que la Modernit est incompatible avec la philosophia perennis -
do le rejet de lide de progrs, et le verdict sans appel lgard du contemporain, vu comme limite extrme
du Kali Yuga (lge sombre dans la cosmologie hindoue).
5
Ren Gunon, La Crise du Monde moderne, op. cit., p. 8.
6
Ibid., p. 13.
7
Ibid., p. 27.
8
Ibid., pp 22, 26, 46, 74-77, 85. La pense traditionnelle , sotrique de Gunon, pour thorique quelle
soit dans son litisme (ne serait-ce que parce que son auteur tait un admirateur des vertus de la contemplation),
sapparente, certes, des visions totalitaires, quand elle est dtourne de ses objectifs et de son contexte. Notre
but nest pas ici, on laura compris, dencenser ce type de vision, mais dexpliquer limpact quelle a pu avoir
sur Cazaban.
885
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
multiples. Cest dici que partent toutes les incomprhensions entre tenants de la Tradition et
modernistes.
Cazaban puise assez librement dans les ides de Gunon. Et il nest sans doute pas
aussi proche de lui comme on pourrait le croire, et comme il la peut-tre cru lui-mme par
moments. Certes, La crise du Monde moderne, ouvrage dont au fil du temps il recommande
la lecture nombre damis 9 a eu une influence dcisive sur lui, mais ce nest quun des
ouvrages dans lesquels Cazaban a pu trouver, sinon des rponses, du moins une certaine
rsonance avec ses penses et proccupations, et peut-tre frustrations. Une autre influence
et dans une direction assez proche vint du ct dOrtega Y Gasset et La rvolte des
masses10.
Par-del lantimodernit, la modernit
Mais, quel que soit le degr dinfluence directe ou indirecte de tel ou tel esprit ou livre
sur la pense de Cazaban, ce quil demeure encore et surtout cest que pour tre un parfait
crivain antimoderne, lauteur de Parages est proprement un crivain moderne.
Ce paradoxe a clairement t expliqu par Antoine Compagnon, dans un ouvrage
devenu classique : Les Antimodernes, de Joseph de Maistre Roland Barthes 11. Compagnon
distingue ainsi les crivains antimodernes des crivains traditionalistes ces derniers vus
comme des champions du statu quo , conservateurs et ractionnaires de tout poil, []
immobilistes et [] ultracistes, [] scrogneugneux et [] grognons 12, alors que les
premiers, depuis Baudelaire, tout au moins, sont les crateurs mmes de la modernit
littraire celle qui a survcu aux naufrages du temps impitoyable, par-del les modes
passagres.
Certes, Cazaban est fortement du par diffrents aspects de son temps, il est mme
plus dune fois grognon , voire ultraciste , mais il ne sy rduit pas, car il nen est pas
moins un moderne un moderne dniais, pas dupe de la fable progressiste, pris dans le
mouvement de lhistoire mais [galement] incapable de faire son deuil du pass , un
moderne malgr lui, son corps dfendant, vu de dos , moderne en lui-mme , en
haine de soi en tant que moderne , vivant sur le fil du rasoir , vivant surtout sa
modernit comme un arrachement 13.
N aprs la Rvolution franaise de 1789, lantimoderne se dmarque du traditionaliste,
qui est de toutes les poques, par sa moderne sensibilit antimoderne 14, et la littrature
franaise en loccurrence est pratiquement constitue dantimodernes dans tout ce quelle a
de plus remarquable, comme le dmontre encore brillamment Antoine Compagnon :
De Chateaubriand Proust au moins, entre le Gnie du christianisme et A la
recherche du temps perdu, en passant par Baudelaire et tant dautres, le gnie
antimoderne sest rfugi dans la littrature, et dans la littrature mme que nous
9
Paul Barbneagr (Paul Barba-Negra) est le plus connu dentre eux. A ce titre, il exprima plusieurs reprises
sa gratitude envers Cazaban.
10
La premire dition originale de cet ouvrage fut publie en 1929.
11
Antoine Compagnon, Les antimodernes, de Joseph de Maistre Roland Barthes, Paris, Gallimard, NRF ,
2005.
12
Ibid., p. 7.
13
Ibid., pp. 13, 441, 8, 252, 12.
14
Ibid., p. 9.
886
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
qualifions de moderne, dans la littrature dont la postrit a fait son canon,
littrature non traditionnelle mais proprement moderne car antimoderne,
littrature dont la distance idologique est insparable de son audace littraire, la
diffrence de luvre mre de Bourget, Barrs ou Maurras 15.
De toutes les poques de laprs 1789, ne se rduisant pas un type unique , les
crivains antimodernes, ractionnaires de charme , constituent le sel du moderne 16, et
ils ne steignent pas avec Proust, ni peut-tre avec Julien Gracq, propos duquel Compagnon
affirme quil pourrait avoir raison de ses contemporains, les nouveaux romanciers dans la
mmoire de la postrit. Lantimoderne semble tre fait pour durer, car il saffranchit lui-
mme des accidents de lHistoire. Et ses nombreuses contrarits, les contradictions et les
malentendus quil cre, sa rage tonifiante , son esprit outrancier lui vitent la
malchance dtre compris, la pire qui puisse sabattre sur un auteur 17, comme le dit Emil
Cioran.
Signe, entre autres, que Cazaban garde une certaine distance par rapport Gunon,
quil adapte surtout sa pense, quil y puise librement son inspiration en crivain moderne,
quil trouve des ressources ailleurs, est le fait que dans Parages, ce nest pas le sujet-
narrateur, double vident de lauteur, qui est le vrai porte-parole de cette pense
traditionnelle, antimoderne, ractionnaire, mais Jean, un compatriote du narrateur dont celui-
ci rpercute la voix, et qui assure ainsi la caricature du narrateur, quant la question de
lOccident notamment.
Le choc des civilisations
Mais, tout en critiquant lgrement Jean de ne pas avoir dpass un certain stade, de
ne pas stre adapt, le narrateur nen affirme pas moins que son ami est, dun point de vue
trs limit et moral (Parages, p. 37), meilleur que lui-mme. Proche et distant de
Jean, il dcrit non sans verve les impressions toujours savoureusement scandalises de ce
dernier :
Je me suis rappel surtout son attitude de suprme patience ou de sagesse devant
Mme Clamet qui lui reprochait tout ce bazar (il faut en convenir quil y a chez
lui un terrible dsordre) et son regard derrire les lunettes qui semble vouloir
retenir lintrieur de lorbite, pour une ternit mchante, tout ce qui dune
manire ou dune autre (car Mme Clamet nest quun prtexte) est occidental ,
cest--dire norme, tatillon, lunatique et fadasse / [] un doigt sur le
journal, latralement, comme pour signifier la vanit de tout commentaire, voil
Jean qui me fait lire : Le dieu du Rock retrouva sa Cadillac jaune entirement
recouverte de numros de tlphone crits avec des btons de rouge lvres .
Voil Jean qui juge lOccident, voil lindex de Jean, mais non lauriculaire, pour
la distance, qui fixe lOccident sur la table de son laboratoire / et alors il ny
a que les lunettes qui brillent et non pas les yeux ; je sais quil se dit lOccident,
quoi ? et quil essaie doublier. (Parages, p. 35-36)
15
Ibid., p. 10. Cest nous qui soulignons.
16
Ibid., p. 448.
17
Cioran, Joseph de Maistre. Essai sur la pense ractionnaire (1957), in uvres, Paris, Gallimard, Quarto ,
1995, pp. 1521, 1519, 1520.
887
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Cest cette voix rapporte que Cazaban confie donc essentiellement le soin de
sattaquer dans son roman ce qui est occidental et qui lui semble reprsenter une drive du
contemporain. Il nen reste pas moins vrai que le narrateur partage certains des points de vue
de Jean, mais cette proximit idologique fait plus partie de son pass.
Tel quil se dcrit au prsent de la narration, le narrateur a entre-temps volu, quitt
nombre de ses anciennes positions, est devenu plus nuanc, sait faire la part des choses. Il
nest plus dans cet quilibre ptrifi de colres contradictoires et dtonnement unique en
Occident - priode propos de laquelle il ajoute entre parenthses : ctait lpoque o je
voulais macheter un appareil photographique, pour lOccident, justement, pour me venger
(Parages, p. 37). Cest une poque de flou dans les souvenirs du narrateur, correspondant
l indistinction dans laquelle ses compatriotes continuent de rester engloutis jusqu un
certain point, jusquau cou, pas plus, par lHistoire (ibid.). Et ne se demande-t-il pas
dailleurs, quand limage de Jean en vient se former dans son esprit, sil continuerait le
voir sils nhabitaient pas tous deux la mme maison ? Et il ajoute : le sentiment que jai de
lui [de Jean] sest form lespace dun instant et une onde dennui est passe (Parages, p.
35).
Quoi quil en soit, le narrateur et Jean nont pas dautre sujet de conversation hormis
lOccident. Et mme si le premier a dpass le stade le plus passionnel dans la critique de
lOccident, il se souvient de lpoque o il se plaisait faire part Jean, mais aussi Vincent,
lami tranger, de son curieux projet
de composer avec des matriaux divers, hasardeux, une chronique de
lintolrable , en cueillant des opinions politiques des experts, ou des faits divers,
aussi divers que possible : des comptes rendus dans les journaux sur les crimes
surtout, horribles, significatifs, ou les histoires de suicide des vieux, et mme des
images heureuses pourquoi pas ? de la vie : la concierge pacifique qui va
sacheter des salsifis, la Nordique qui fait de lauto-stop, le noir qui danse et la
princesse avec le clarinettiste ; et puis les foules avec leur droit au bonheur , les
djeuners sur lherbe quand lHistoire va au pique-nique et les rvolutionnaires
la ptanque dans un crpuscule mridional attendri, la sautologie [sic !] qui est
une caractriologie, les images des parades de chars fleuris en Amrique, et des
ballets sur glace pour la splendeur vide me disais-je, pour la visualit, pour la
joie complte de la rtine humide, exacte, du public, ou de la majorette, pour la
joie, un point cest tout ! Ah mais !... (Parages, pp. 57-58)
Dans cette numration dlments composant cette possible chronique de
lintolrable , selon le narrateur, se distingue dabord lintolrance du sujet. Cest en exil
souffrant quil parle ici. Un exil qui na encore franchi nul pas, qui est dans le tourment,
dans un entre-deux mondes dsesprant.
Au grand thme de lOccident, sont associs ple-mle des concepts et des ralits
comme agglomration urbaine, dmocratie, vacuit, fuite effrne en avant, et mme le
paysage :
Le paysage, voil le coupable ! la forme, voil le fond du problme. Je mettais en
cause le paysage industriel, le XIXe sicle, et pas seulement le XIXe, les grandes
agglomrations urbaines, jaccusais les architectes pour lexistence des cours
intrieures horribles et qui orientent mal tant dappartements habits encore
888
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ceux qui donnent sur la rue ne sont pas trop privilgis si lon considre que la rue
est elle aussi un trou o il pleut, bref, je dplorais cette fatalit et cette propension
moderne de regarder dans les trous. Apportera-t-elle la Cadillac panoramique
quelque remde cette situation ? Le sens de lhistoire, je me disais, en dpend,
beaucoup plus que du nez de Cloptre, et jai eu [] la sagesse de demeurer plus
que sceptique : cest que le monde entier dans sa phase actuelle, peut bien tre
considr comme une espce de trou ou, si lon veut, engag dans une descente
acclre vers des bas-fonds humides et sombres. (Parages, p. 134)
Dans cette critique du monde moderne, sous langle de lurbanisme et des nouvelles
relations humaines quil instaure, cest aussi en Europen oriental que Cazaban parle ici cet
Oriental n dans lentre-deux-guerres, lev dans une ambiance rurale et bucolique,
population homogne, dans le respect de la grandeur, de leffort asctique, de la hirarchie
des tres et des choses. Parages est aussi un livre dexil, et le livre dun exil, ne loublions
pas.
Et cest, en partie, justement en vertu dun mode de pense hrit et quil na plus les
moyens de dvelopper quil oppose ici une rsistance tenace aux milieux cosmopolites, vus,
selon cette vision traditionnelle, comme promoteurs de la mdiocrit, de la complaisance
indiffrente, de linsignifiant, de la vacuit ; et comme producteurs dune nouvelle forme de
dshumanisation. Celui qui dans son exil a longtemps t condamn vivre dans des
chambres dhtel, voire lasile, et qui entre dans les maisons habites comme dans un
temple (Parages, p. 179), est choqu par le drame moderne de la solitude, par les liens
familiaux distendus, par lindividualisme dramatiquement galopant.
A sa faon donc et de plusieurs faons , Parages illustre un choc intellectuel des
civilisations. Mais ce choc intellectuel des civilisations na pas attendu, pour se produire en
France, que viennent les exils anti-communistes de lEurope de lEst et quils y dispensent
leur vrit rserve (Parages, p. 38). Ce clash est ancien. Il est indissociable de la
naissance de la Modernit, dont lun des produits drivs est lanti-modernit littraire elle-
mme.
La contestation impuissante du prsent occidental est le fruit du scepticisme
historique en gnral, et elle implique une mise en cause de lvolutionnisme. Parlant de
Joseph de Maistre et de Chateaubriand, Compagnon remarque leur doute essentiel qui les
rend antimodernes et [qui] fait le charme de leurs propositions les plus touchantes et
scandaleuses 18.
Aprs avoir brivement voqu la possibilit dune Cadillac panoramique , tant
soit peu capable dlever la vue sinon lesprit, Cazaban renonce se la figurer. Car il est
convaincu, comme Cioran, que lide de progrs dshonore lesprit 19. Lvolution
temporelle est une descente de plus en plus acclre et inconfortable pour lesprit, qui dans
le trou et les bas-fonds humides et sombres trouve de moins en moins de ressources
pour survivre. Trou et bas-fonds humides et sombres sont donc des figures dun
manque de confort historique patent, o lunique issue attendue nest plus quun
cataclysme qui rsorbe et transforme tout.
18
Antoine Compagnon, op. cit., p. 75.
19
Cioran, De linconvnient dtre n (1973), in uvres, Paris, Gallimard, Quarto , 1995, p. 1353. Le
propos est cit aussi par Antoine Compagnon, op. cit., p. 62.
889
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
La faible tolrance face la mdiocrit, ou ce qui est peru comme tel, est
dtectable ds louverture du livre, quand le narrateur se montre excd par la prsence des
autres les jeunes, surtout :
Ils sont de trop, ils sont trop. Tous. Les deux jeunes, par exemple, ma gauche
[] Ils sont l et ils me psent ; moi de faire en sorte quils ne soient plus, quils
ne soient pas, moi de men dfaire (Parages, p.7).
Avant de se lancer dans sa qute intrieure, le narrateur a besoin de sassurer dun
bon confort ambiant. Et pour trouver ce confort, pour sviter ennui et irritation, il doit
abolir (Parages, p. 7) la prsence des autres, se mnager un espace de solitude parmi eux,
en tablissant une ncessaire distance (ibid.) par rapport tous. Ce curieux dsir dtre
seul, de plus en plus seul (Parages, p. 8) au milieu de la foule, est encore, par excellence,
une position antimoderne, la position litiste de celui qui ne peut compltement adhrer un
temps et des milieux dans lesquels il est pourtant contraint de vivre. Ainsi de lauteur
mme, qui, pour tre un pourfendeur des foules, de la grande ville, du bruit industriel, de la
jeunesse, et caetera, ne peut sempcher de sy mnager un refuge et de travailleur depuis cet
espace de laltrit.
Jeunesse stupide
Quoi quil en soit, le divorce est clairement sign entre sujet-narrateur-personnage et
cette jeunesse fire de son temps, jeunesse stupide , associe la classe infrieure et la
standardisation (Parages, p. 50), cette jeunesse qui rclame tous les droits et aucune
obligation 20, comme lanalysait, et non sans sinquiter, Ortega y Gasset, cette jeunesse
oppose lautre jeunesse, celle des vieux temps, jeunesse offense par linjustice
fondamentale, ou bien plutt, par la laideur, [], par la comdie, [], par la btise ;
finalement par linsignifiance (Parages, p. 57). [J]ai toujours aim la jeunesse /
quand elle souffre, videmment, et non pas quand elle gueule (ibid.), affirme encore le
narrateur cazabanien, pour mieux marquer ses distances, et prciser ses positions.
La distance hautaine affiche lendroit de la jeunesse qui volue sous ses yeux trouve
justification en ce quelle reprsente la catgorie qui va toujours plus loin dans lillustration
et laggravation de ce que Ortega Y Gasset nommait lhomme-masse , cet individu vid
[] de sa propre histoire, sans entrailles de pass , qui manque un "dedans", une
intimit inexorablement, inalinablement sienne, un moi irrvocable , toujours prt, au
contraire, feindre quil est ceci ou cela - enfin, lhomme sans la noblesse qui
oblige 21.
En vrai antimoderne pris dans son temps, en rsonance avec lui, mais dcidment contre lui
, Cazaban peroit, comme son narrateur, et avec une sensibilit accrue, la tendance qui se
dessine dans la socit : les rvoltes qui sont dans lair du temps, rsultat de ce que Ren
Gunon nomme chaos social 22, et qui sont le fait de ces hritiers ingrats, enfants gts
20
Jos Ortega Y Gasset, La rvolte des masses, traduit de lespagnol par Louis Parrot, avec une prface de
lauteur, Paris, Stock, 1961, p. 246. Cest un des livres phares de Thodore Cazaban, quil cite plusieurs
reprises dans un livre dentretiens avec Cristian Bdili (Captiv n lumea liber, cu o postfa de Al. Paleologu,
Cluj, Echinox, 2002 ; 2e dition, Galaxia Gutenberg, Cartea vie, Trgu-Lpu, 2010).
21
Jos Ortega Y Gasset, op. cit., p. 19.
22
Ren Gunon, op. cit., pp. 7, et 83-95 notamment.
890
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
de lhistoire humaine23, mus, entre quelques autres choses, par un respect presque
mystique, exclusif, de la coucherie (Parages, p. 142), et dont les autres proccupations
essentielles tournent autour des jeux et du sport24, au mpris de certaines vertus masculines
et aristocratiques et des bons critres de jugement (Parages, p. 60).
Vituprations antimodernes
Il en rsulte, chez le sujet cazabanien, un fort sentiment dexaspration devant le
concept trs galvaud de vie , ou plutt de droit la vie une vie heureuse, cela
sentend, rclame par des masses montantes et grouillantes , dont la bonne conscience
se situe mi-chemin entre la lune et la mauvaise foi (Parages, pp. 142-143) :
La vie ! Car voil le mot lch ! Cest la vie ! Les grands mots ! Les gros !
Graves, gras et gros comme des marchaux ! Voil loffense quon me jette au
visage, la grimace quon veut me coller, la grimace crase sur mon visage, la
limace, la contorsion, la comdie, la singerie, la vie ! , qui rassure les salauds,
les avancs, ces effacs, ces affaisss, ces faussaires, ces falsifis, ces salsifis,
menteurs surtout ces efficaces, avec leurs formules, leurs mots : Lamour de la
vie , le droit au bonheur (mais non ! mais pourquoi le droit au bonheur ?
Pourquoi ? De quel droit ?). Le bonheur est une ide neuve en Europe ! Une
ide ! le bonheur une ide ! En Europe ! Sic ! Et aux Antilles ! Et un droit.
Plouf ! le droit des lampistes ! Mme Clamet et Mme Belvoux, Vincent !!!... ou
bien : Sourire la vie , du soleil plein le cur ! . Debout les mots ! A
Aubervilliers, Sceaux, Toronto et Copacabana ! Les mots, les homonymes,
les synonymes, dvergonds, grossiers, agglutins, les scarabes, les Carabes, les
paronymes, avec leur gros bon sens rouge qui tache, leur consistance, prenez-en
donc ! Rgalez-vous, pas cher, mesdames !... A moi ! On me dit a moi ! moi,
qui dans ce monde-l o la concierge pacifique va sacheter des choux-fleurs, o
les pays naissent du mtissage entre un ordre religieux et une compagnie pour
lexploitation des bananes et pullulent, pour que Vincent puisse faire ses analyses,
dans ce monde o jai tout de mme des attaches, suis, devrais tre le soldat de
la vrit, de la fidlit, de lhonneur, le soldat rsistant, le vigile sur les remparts,
la vigie, le ractionnaire superbe, emblme la proue, Gibelin pour la Syrie,
argonaute sur une mer propre et rebours (Parages, pp. 228-229).
Cest pour donner une ide trs prcise de la virulence du propos que nous avons
laiss couler la citation. On a ici faire un certain ton , une certaine voix , un
certain accent et un style spcifique. Cest son style (aussi) que lon reconnat
lantimoderne. Compagnon parle dans ce cas dune figure de style qui sappellerait
vitupration , imprcation ou vocifration 25 - cest lattitude de celui qui se bat
pour une cause perdue davance, qui combat ce qui ne cesse de crotre et de se dvelopper.
Lnergie du dsespoir, la vitalit dsespre donnent une loquence qui peut toucher au
sublime 26.
23
Ortega Y Gasset, op. cit., p. 146.
24
Ibid., p. 148.
25
Antoine Compagnon, op. cit., pp. 17, 137.
26
Ibid., p. 137.
891
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Cest en amoureux transi des mots, dissertant leur propos avec lamertume de
lamant tromp, que Cazaban sexprime ici. Les mots (des autres) sont dclars
coupables et toujours considrs de trop. Lerreur fatale du contemporain est, dans
la conception de lantimoderne et de Cazaban en particulier , celle dabuser des
mots, de mots coups de leur source vivante, de leur ralit. La parole est
instrumentalise, asservie linsignifiance et lidologie des bons sentiments,
elles-mmes leves en talons du nouvel humanisme.
Haro sur lhumanisme, la dmocratie, lHistoire, le progrs et autres dogmes laques
(Gunon)
Cest aussi cela, cette plthore de mots jaillissant de partout, mais revenant ce que
Ortega Y Gasset nommait rpertoire dides toutes faites 27, ou encore rafale de
tromperie gnrale 28, une pure rhtorique dnue de contenu, qui explique la remise en
cause svre de lhumanisme, tel que proclam par les hommes nouveaux, laide des
nouveaux moyens dinformation. Do aussi sa critique trs dure de lide de dmocratie et
de progressisme, et, plus largement, de lHistoire, qui avance oublieuse de son propre pass,
induisant lide que lpoque contemporaine vaut plus que toutes les autres, alors quelle
profite amplement du travail des prcdentes. Notons lironie cazabanienne au sujet de
lHistoire (de son volution), lorsque lcrivain en vient rappeler, par la voix de son
narrateur-personnage, les rapports quil juge habituellement opportun dtablir entre la
"Weltanschauung" dune majorette et le sens de lHistoire (Parages, p. 67) !
Ce nest pas sans rapport avec ce discrdit jet sur les formes dexpression favorises
par le temps prsent que le silence et le retrait fascinent lcrivain antimoderne. Et Cazaban en
fournira la preuve en quelque sorte clatante.
Gunon, lui, critiquait ouvertement et sans appel lhumanisme en tant que
programme de la civilisation moderne 29 tout court. Ce quil imputait surtout aux
dfenseurs effrns de lhumanisme, ctait le fait quils rduisaient tout des proportions
humaines :
En voulant tout ramener la mesure de lhomme, pris pour une fin en lui-mme,
on a fini par descendre, dtape en tape, au niveau de ce quil y a en celui-ci de
plus infrieur, et par ne plus gure chercher que la satisfaction des besoins
inhrents au ct matriel de sa nature, recherche bien illusoire, du reste, car elle
cre toujours plus de besoins artificiels quelle nen peut satisfaire 30.
Sans doute moins net dans son jugement lencontre de lhumanisme, Cazaban
semble, lui, le critiquer, ainsi que dautres semblables dogmes laques , dabord parce
quil souponne ceux qui sen font les dfenseurs de faillir du point de vue de la vrit, de
jouer la comdie (lexpression revient plusieurs reprises dans Parages). Ainsi, ce sont
plus leurs slogans, et certains mlanges des genres, jugs insupportables, quil met en cause,
et moins les concepts eux-mmes ou la ralit quils dsignent.
27
Ortega Y Gasset, op. cit., p. 114.
28
Ibid., p. 154.
29
Ren Gunon, op. cit., p. 26.
30
Ibid.
892
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Comme on a vu, le narrateur dnonce avec hargne dans Parages les projets qui font
que des pays naissent du mtissage entre un ordre religieux et une compagnie pour
lexploitation des bananes (Parages, p. 228) ; ou encore la foi non pas religieuse mais
galitaire, des peuples vacanciers et atlantiques, qui fait que la dmocratie dteint mme sur
le ciel (Parages, p. 151). Cazaban rejoint ici nouveau Gunon, qui dplorait la
dgnrescence de la religion en moralisme et le passage de la doctrine au second
plan , phnomnes dont les causes devaient tre cherches, selon lauteur de La Crise du
Monde moderne, dans la dispersion en une multitude toujours croissante de sectes, dont
chacune ne reprsente que lopinion particulire de quelques individus 31.
Pour conclure : la difficult du dialogue comme source dcriture
Ce qui prcde ne constitue que quelques-uns des points de litige que Thodore
Cazaban trouva dans les manifestations les plus saillantes de cet esprit de la modernit si bien
incarn par lOccident, et quil dnonce dans Parages tantt avec distance, tantt avec
passion. Le malaise de lcrivain exil, partag par dautres de ses conationaux dpayss, alla
donc dans le sens dun relatif refus du temps prsent, et le conduisit se rfugier
momentanment dans des thmatiques ractionnaires, avant de lui faire adopter le silence. En
cela, Cazaban semble rejoindre nouveau Gunon, lequel, considrant le formalisme de la
lettre comme tant l une des varits du matrialisme 32, invitait lhomme de la
Tradition sexprimer le moins possible.
Mais il serait trs rducteur de ne voir dans lauteur de Parages quun intellectuel en
divorce avec son temps et lpigone dun penseur ayant rsolument tourn le dos
lOccident. Car il apparat, au contraire, que la difficult du dialogue avec ses contemporains
fut pour Cazaban source dune criture irrductiblement sienne dont les quelques citations
prsentes dans cet article donnent une ide.
Bibliographie
Corpus dtude :
Cazaban, Thodore, Parages, Paris, Gallimard, NRF , 1963.
Ouvrages cits :
Cazaban, Theodor en dialogue avec Bdili, Cristian, Captiv n lumea liber, avec une
postface de Al. Paleologu, Cluj, Echinox, 2002 ; 2e dition, Galaxia Gutenberg, Cartea vie,
Trgu-Lpu, 2010.
Cioran, Joseph de Maistre. Essai sur la pense ractionnaire (1957), in uvres, Paris,
Gallimard, Quarto , 1995, pp. 1519-1559.
Cioran, De linconvnient dtre n (1973), in uvres, Paris, Gallimard, Quarto , 1995,
pp 1267-1400.
Compagnon, Antoine, Les antimodernes, de Joseph de Maistre Roland Barthes, Paris,
Gallimard, NRF , 2005.
31
Ibid., pp. 74-75.
32
Ibid., p. 129.
893
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Gasset, Y Ortega Jos, La rvolte des masses, traduit de lespagnol par Louis Parrot, avec
une prface de lauteur, Paris, Stock, 1961.
Gunon, Ren, La Crise du Monde moderne, Paris, Gallimard, NRF , 1946.
894
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
WARRIORS BEGINNINGS OF XXTH CENTURY LITERATURE
Alina BAKO, Assistant, PhD, Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu
Abstract: The writing of the first middle of XXth century appears as a lucid representation of
the society, authentic and of a cruel reality, submitted to an individual and community crisis.
In the literature, the permanent threat of war makes the existence of the human being hardly.
The writers Camil Petrescu and Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu are the first to use analytical
analysis tools. For Romanian writers, membership of the European family was established
through an excessive return to adopt a formula from Marcel Proust.
Keywords: war, literature, history, representation, prose
Scrierile nceputului de secol apar ca o reprezentare ultralucid, autentic a societii i
trimit la o realitate crud, supus crizei individului i comunitii. n literatur, ameninarea
permanent a rzboiului condiioneaz existena individului care se las cu greu scos din
starea de inerie de o privire de introspecie asupra propriei fiine, cu instrumentele unui
chirurg.
Romanul romnesc de la nceputul secolului al XX-lea a fost marcat de o puternic
influen a literaturii occidentale, de ideile tiinifice din epoc care s-au dezvoltat cu o
impresionant putere de iradiere. Pentru scriitorii romni, apartenena la familia european s-a
concretizat printr-o excesiv ntoarcere spre adoptarea unei formule proustiene. Despre cei
care vor marca direciile fundamentale, Tudor Vianu anticipeaz cele dou momente ale
literaturii romne. Cel marcat de Liviu Rebreanu, prin realism i obiectivitate maxim, dar i
Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu prin adncimea analizelor psihologice i noua formul narativ
utilizat n roman: mpreun cu Liviu Rebreanu, d-na Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu este, fr
ndoial, scriitorul care a exercitat o nrurire mai adnc asupra dezvoltrii romanului nou.
Motivele pe care le-a introdus n circulaie, adncimea analizelor, arta caracterizrii sale,
procedeele ntrebuinate se regsesc din belug n producia ultimilor ani (...) 1 Trecerea de la
subiectivism la obiectivism, aa cum o dorea Eugen Lovinescu, este revzut n sensul
renunrii la reziduurile lirice, specifice prozei sentimentale. Modernitatea devine, n
viziunea Hortensiei Papadat-Bengescu O experien totodat exclusiv i decisiv. Darul
introspeciei dus pn la msura lui liminar, poate dus la exces. ansa de a fi indiscret, cu
mare talent.. Fcnd parte, n contiina criticii, din aa numiii scriitori proustieni, alturi
de Camil Petrescu, cel care analizeaz cu ochi critic teoria proustian a romanului, autoarea se
detaeaz de cmpul acesta btut al ncercrilor de ncadrare ntr-o anumit formul de
creaie.
Ideea de model implic, nc de la nceput, o copie imperfect, un fel de degradare a
originalului. n acest sens, avem n vedere formula novatoare a scriiturii Hortensiei Papadat-
Bengescu care se detaeaz de constrngerile legate de dorina inexplicabil a criticii de a o
1
Tudor Vianu Arta prozatorilor romni, Bucureti, , Editura Minerva 1981, p. 197
895
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ncadra ntr-o anume categorie. Charles Nodier 2 analizeaz modul n care anumii scriitori se
raporteaz la un anume model literar, prin faptul c stilul ar fi, nu cunoaterea i abilitatea de
a aplica un anume techn, ci viziunea care se creeaz prin lectura operei. n acest sens, nu este
vorba de o apropiere prin intemediul metodei de creaiei, a stilului, ci ceva mai mult care
determin originalitatea scriitorilor romni. Analiznd literatura francez, Vladimir Schotter
n Le Modle : un support de cration paradoxal en littrature3 vorbete despre modul n
care literatura francez a explorat anumite opere literare crendu-i n felul acesta un stil
propriu: Dune part limitation traditionnelle : processus qui consiste transporter, pour
les exploiter dans son propre style, les images, les ides ou expressions dun autre style. Cest
par imitation dailleurs que sest dveloppe et enrichie la littrature franaise, en transfrant
les matires et sujets antiques en langue mdivale, en langue vernaculaire rgionale, en
moyen-franais, et enfin en franais moderne. En tmoigne cette remarque de Brunetire: De
toutes les influences qui sexercent dans lhistoire dune littrature, la principale est celle des
uvres sur les uvres4. Aadar, aceast circulaie liber a ideilor este fecund din punctul de
vedere al creaiei, aa cum un scriitor este o sum de cunotine dobndite prin lectur.
Operele lui Camil Petrescu i Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu conin nuclee uor decelabile prin
care am putem s le raportm la textul lui Marcel Proust, dar numai ca idee, aa cum ne-am
putea pune ntrebarea (fr rspuns sau cu o mulime infinit de variante) de ce, la nivel
tematic, toate marile literaturi ale lumii sunt recurente. On ne peut imiter quun modle, et un
modle est dabord le rsultat dune abstraction, construit par une dmarche inductive
applique un corpus. La dimension statistique dcoule videmment dune ncessit absolue,
elle est dordre pragmatique : faire reconnatre ce que limitation est cense rpliquer, et cette
ressemblance du mimcrit ne frappe que si ce dernier semble dabord conforme au plus grand
nombre duvres authentiques quun mme style [] permet de classer ensemble. 5
Atmosfera efervescent de nceput de secol XX i descoperirile importante din
domeniile tiinifice, cu siguran determin revoluii, prin contaminare i n celelalte cmpuri
disciplinare. n literatur se constat inserarea n peisajul cultural a sinceritii, prin scrierea
de articole programatice6, jurnale, mrturisiri. Articolul cel mai des citat n legtur cu
proustianismul lui Camil Petrescu este Noua structur i opera lui Marcel Proust (1935) n
care sunt evideniate cteva puncte de reflecie asupra romanului scriitorului francez. Din
punctul nostru de vedere, articolul, programatic, nu face dect s schieze modernitatea lui
Proust i propriul punct de vedere care se concretizeaz n identificarea acelei nevoi de
realitate primar i introducerea n text a unui narator care s nu mai tie totul despre
personaje: Ca s evit asemenea grave contradicii, ca s evit arbitrarul de a pretinde c
2
Charles Nodier, Questions de littrature lgale Du plagiat, de la supposition dauteurs, et des supercheries
qui ont rapport aux livres, Genve, Droz, 2003, p.23.
3
Vladimir Schotter, Le Modle : un support de cration paradoxal en littrature , Babel, 25 | 2012, 307-
326
4
Brunetire Ferdinand, L'volution des genres dans la littrature franaise, volume I : Lvolution, Paris,2003,
p.23.
5
Bilous Daniel, Librement imit de , dans Le Got de la forme en littrature Actes du colloque de Cerisy
du 14 au 21 aot 2001 critures et lectures contraintes , Clamecy, collection Formules, Noesis diteur,
2004.
6
Anton Holban mrturisea c Teoriile scriitorilorl oricare ar fi ele, sunt inutile atunci cnd vor s aduc mai
mult dect graia de paradox, a crui valoare nu st n adevr ci n imagine apud Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu
comentat de Carmen Ligia Rdulescu, Editura Recif, Cluj, 1994, p.31.
896
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ghicesc ce se ntmpl n cugetele oamenilor, nu e dect o singur soluie. S nu descriu dect
ceea ce vd, ceea ceaud, ceea ce nregistreaz simurile mele, ceea ce gndesc eu... Aceasta-i
singura realitate pe care o pot povesti Dar aceasta-i realitatea contiinei mele, coninutul
meu psihologic Din mine nsumi, eu nu pot iei Orice a face, eu nu pot descrie dect
propriile mele senzaii, propriile mele imagini. Eu nu pot vorbi onest dect la persoana nti.
Artistul nu poate povesti dect propria viziune despre lume E ceea ce face Proust cu
hotrre i luciditate7. Aceast unitate de perpectiv, referindu-ne la construcia personajelor
este unul din punctele cheie ale noutii de viziune, la fel ca i introducerea fluxului amintirii
i implicit a parantezei pe care acesta o presupune n construirea firului narativ. Dar aceste
dou procedee se regsesc i n operele altor scriitori, din ri ca Japonia, SUA, Columbia,
Canada i care trimit la deschideri universale asupra operei proustiene, fie c este vorba
despre o recunoatere a influenei, inevitabile n epoc, parodie sau pasti. La noi, climatul
societii literare romneti din epoc a determinat reacii ca cea a lui George Clinescu:
Proust face victimele cele mai numeroase. E de ajuns un stil opac, umbrit, o exprimare
discontinu i voalat, o atenie mai mare ctre strile de contiin i avem de-a face cu un
proustian. D-na Papadat-Bengescu e proustian, d-l Camil Petrescu e proustian (...) Popor nou
i sntos, care abia ncepem s percepem viaa, nu ne putem impune, fr riscuri, s simim
cu o mn bttorit de sap fiorurile epidermei micate de sidef. Noi vom putea fi tolstoieni,
balzacieni, adic scriitori preocupai de sensul lumii i de forma exterioar a omenirii, i nu
vom fi nc n stare de introspecie pn ce nu vom cnta bucuria de a tri i de a cunoate.
Tipul firesc de roman romnesc este deocamdat acela obiectiv8. Cei doi scriitori amintii
vor reui s se impun, chiar dac mai trziu, Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu mrturisete c are
regretul de a nu fi ptruns n contiina publicului numeros, n masa cititorului. M gndesc
uneori cu melancolie la toi aceia care dac m-ar fi citit, m-ar fi putut nelege, ar fi putut
gndi cu mine i ca mine, m-ar fi putut blama poate, dar m-ar fi cunoscut.9 Ca orice formul
inovatoare, scrierea ei se detaeaz de ceea ce era obinuit publicul pn atunci determinnd
fie ignorare, fie respingere brutal. Propunerea i sublinierea originalitii ei o face Eugen
Lovinescu, detand-o de formula limitatoare a proustianismului10: Dac numele scriitoarei a
fost pus de mai multe ori alturi de cel al lui Marcel Proust, alturarea nu nseamn
identificare i nu trebuie s mearg mai departe de sensul general al aptitudinii analiticii; n
niciun caz nu poate fi vorba la scriitoare de metoda proustian a asociaiei strilor de
contiin identice, dei risipite n timp, care, rsturnnd ordinea cronologic a evenimentelor
7
Camil Petrescu, Teze i antiteze, Noua structur i opera lui Marcel Proust, Bucureti, Editura 100+1
Grammar,2002, p.7.
8
G. Clinescu, Romanul romnesc fa cu Proust, n Ulysse, E.P.L. Bucureti, 1967, p. 123
9
Dan Petraincu, Cu scriitoarea H.Papadat-Bengescu despre romanul Logodnicul i despre creaie, interviu n
Vremea, an.VIII, nr.389, p.9.
10
La fel procedeaz i Mircea Zaciu care scrie: H.P.-Bengescu mrturisete totui a nu-l fi descoperit pe Proust
dect mai trziu, dup ce critica, prin insistena asocierii, i-l semnalase. Nu numai c lectura monumentului epic
o obosete, astfel c o abandoneaz, dar orict struin i-ar fi pus critica n sublinierea nrudirilor, scriitoarea
nu pare a le fi recunoscut i, vorbnd despre Proust, mult mai trziu, o face cu detaare i chiar cu o uoar nuan
de nemulumire. (....) Dac se poate stabili totui o relaie ntre cele dou valori literare, cred c discuia trebuie
mutat de pe terenul metodei proustiene, ctre esena viziunii scriitorului francez i n acest sens vom ntlni
datele mai largi ai unor termeni de larg circulaie n epoc (pornind de la ideile lui Bergson i pui n pagin de
numeroi scriitori, de-ar fi s amintim cteva nume de romaniciere ca Dorothy Richardson, Rosamond,
Lehmann, Elisabeth Bowen, Gertrude Stein sau Virginia Woolf). n Masca geniului, EPL, Bucureti, 1967,
p.198.
897
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
vrea s stabileasc o nou ordine interioar 11. Punerea sub semnul ntrebrii a mult prea
uzitatei formule, mut intereseul asupra valorii opere literare a scriitoarei. 12 Spiritul analitic,
remarcat i inventariat i la Camil Petrescu determin numai o abisal intuiie a unei noi
modaliti de creaie, o evoluie fireasc, innd cont de o redescoperire a fiinei umane n
epoc i o permutare a interesului asupra adncimilor sufleteti, asupra a ceea ce se gsete n
contiina bulversat a omului.
Lumea i viaa organe pentru masa mea de disecie
Sufletul este o tainic vitrin n care se adpostesc vise rzlee culese din mila drumului
Lumea i viaa rmn a fi organe pentru masa mea de disecie mrturisea Hortensia
Papadat-Bengescu ntr-un interviu acordat lui Dan Petraincu13 n ncercarea de a exprima
modul n care i construiete personajele. Ea este cea care introduce n romanul romnesc
personajul reflector, care supravegheaz cu ochi critic aciunile celorlali, nregistreaz cu un
acut sim de observaie toate evenimentele care se desfoar, ntr-un flux narativ lent, n care
detaliul este cel care conteaz cel mai mult.
Personajele se afl pe o scen mobil, n care decorurile se schimb brusc, fr
explicaii. Interveniile personajului reflector Mini i n celelalte volume Nory probeaz
validitatea teoriei prin nregistrarea exteriorului, dar i printr-un proces de introspecie. Mini
empatizeaz cu atmosfera, cu oamenii, simte exacerbat: Acea uscciune a sufletelor era azi
un ce material care molipsea atmosfera din jur. 14 nregistarea univoc, organic de cele mai
multe ori, informeaz lectorul asupra profunditii conflictelor. Latena acestora calamiteaz
de fapt ntreaga via a personajelor, ruinnd existene aflate sub semnul mtilor. ntr-un
articol intitulat Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu i montrii Ion Negoiescu devoaleaz aspectul
grotesc al personajelor: Doctorul Walter, care apreciaz n portretul lui Darwin, atrnat n
casa lui pe perete, cutezana de a pune pe om n faa grimasei ancestrale, gndete c de la
Darwin ncoace, omul nu se mai sfiete n oglinda contiinei de a fi bestie; (...) Montrii din
ciclul Hallipa triesc n continue disimulri fa de ei nii i fa de societate: este trstura
lor proustian.15 Deloc o trstur proustian, ci mai degrab o modalitate a autoarei de a
pune n eviden tarele societii bucuretene, aparenele ce trebuiau pstrate dincolo de orice
alt obligaie, aceasta implica o lume dezumanizat, creionat din personaje carnavaleti.
Observaiile se fac natural, sugestia fiind o opiune a autoarei pentru introducerea ntr-un
univers populat de suflete invalide, lipsite de atributul cel mai important: simirea.
Un carusel absurd, ntr-o micare nchis, cu oglinzi ce reflect mai degrab sufletul
dect trupul se contureaz n mijlocul unei societi bolnave. Monstruozitatea personajelor
este desenat n culori tari, cu att mai mult cu ct nu exist posibilitate de salvare. (...)
desluise acel proces de emanaiuni i dizolvri ale sufletului n corp, cum i acele efluvii
dinuntrul vieei n afar, nc imponderabile dar care vor forma cndva o chimie nou n
noimele inseparabile ale trupului sufletesc i ale celui de carne. 16 Recuzita pus n slujba
11
Eugen Lovinescu, Scrieri, vol.2, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1970, pp.245-246.
12
Ovid.S.Crohmlnniceanu remarca nrudirea cu Proust, ct exist, ine de obiectul literaturii n Literatura
romn ntre cele dou rzboaie mondiale, vol.I, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1972, p.416.
13
Dan Petraincu, op.cit,p.124.
14
Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, Fecioarele despletite, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu, 1982, p.18
15
Ion Negoiescu, Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu i montrii n Arge, an VI, 1971 ,p.7.
16
Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, op.cit., p.19.
898
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
unei duble realiti, aceea a sufletului i cea a trupului este alctuit din marionete, din
elemente de bufonerie, analizate lucid, cu ironie. Limitele trupului de carne devin nesfritele
iluzii ale trupului sufletesc. ...Cuvintele, faptele, oamenii astfel evocai treceau pe dinaitea lui
Mini ca un film, uor nvluit.17 Iluzia aceasta de perpetu micare se transform ntr-o
imagine difuz, ce cuprinde laolalt oameni, fapte i cuvinte. ntregul spaiu se umple de
gesturi, de micare, de sunet, fr ns a coagula ceva care s evolueze. Lumea Hortensiei
Papadat-Bengescu nu cunoate devenirea. Procesul transformrii se produce invers, n sensul
unei degradri, de cele mai multe ori trupeti, ca urmare a unei infirmiti sufleteti. Acolo
erau i preioasele plane anatomice, pe care le studia Rim n legtur cu funciile fibrelor
nervoase, alteraiile i deviaiile lor. Acelea de la care Mini spera realizarea ntmpltoare a
credinelor ei ntr-un trup integral al sensibilitei.18 Materia epic a romanelor se constituie
din acest amalgam al trupului disecat de o privire rbdtoare, aflat mereu la pnd,
nemiloas, care extrage tot rul din fiinele umane ce se nir n faa ei.
Oamenii descrii de scriitoare sufer de o maladie invizibil, iar ereditatea lor
nspimnt prin reiterarea tarelor i aproape normalitatea n care pare c se ncadreaz:
Interesant este c Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, fcnd literatur psihologic, rmne n
social, i analizele scriitoarei, aparent sustrase condiionrilor materiale, sunt totui,
semnificative pentru rolul istoric pe care l joac fiine ca Hallipii sau Drgnetii.19 Cci
Mini reflect asupra unei realiti a unei noblei mahalageti, o tradiie a aceleiai clase,
oricare ar fi ea, i care din calitile ei pstrate intact, din buna ei stare i purtare, ajungea a-i
forma o educaie, fie ea chiar la un nivel inferior. O mahala care are valoarea, demnitatea,
sculele ei de pre chiar strmoii ei, ca acea bab Smoal 20 Ironia i sarcasmul cu care sunt
studiate personajele i, mai apoi realitatea creia i aparin, se certific prin sursele
inepuizabile ale acelei noblei mahalageti. Grija pentru respectarea conveniilor falsific
ntr-att aceste existene, nct le face monstruoase, condamnnd implicit ordinea social care
oblig oamenii s triasc astfel. 21 Doctorul Rim, analizat prin mpletirea celor dou pri ale
fiinei, trupul sufletesc, conine n sine o neconcorda, o dizarmonie, ca majoritatea
personajelor. Chiar dac nu sunt bolnave fizic, la nceput, secretul, taina care le macin
sufletul, nate o boal a trupului. Ispitit de realizarea unor contururi precise, autoarea pune n
mna Miniei instrumentul prin care, chirurgical disec iluzoriu mruntaiele celui cu care
vorbete: Cu un creion fin n degetele cugetrei, Mini acum fcea un desen n care trupul
sufletesc al lui Rim, plin de ispite, iubitor de alcov i parfumuri, nevoit s-i exteriorizeze
aptitudinile pasionale prin fizicul aceluiai Rim, fcea contorsiuni desperate i comice.22
Nevoia de materialitate se urzete prin unirea substanelor din care este creat acest trup
sufletesc. Este foarte interesant modul de percepere a imaterialitii. Organismul devine un fel
de dublu al personajului, unul ascuns, profund, unul care determin toate aciunile acestuia, se
ntregete cu trupul de carne i acioneaz pentru crearea unei identiti proprii. Cred totui
ntr-un alt trup, separat, sufletesc. Ce fel?....n jurul acelor fire tentaculare ale nervilor funcia
17
Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, op.cit., p.30.
18
Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, op.cit., p.45.
19
Ovid.S.Crohmlniceanu, op.cit., p.416.
20
Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, op.cit., p.71.
21
Ovid.S.Crohmlniceanu, op.cit., p.416
22
Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, op.cit., p.81.
899
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
lor crea o substan, nc impalpabil, dar care se va dovedi. Acea substan, emanat de
sensibilitate, lua forme felurite la feluritele fiine i compunea astfel un organism. 23
Privirea se mut apoi dinspre fiina vie, mic, parte a unui tot, spre general, spre
cetatea vie, alctuit din trupuri sufleteti. Contaminarea se produce ca un flux alctuit din
sordidul prezent n sufletul uman, ce devine un fel de canal de scurgere al fiinelor i din
sentimente, singurele care fac s palpite trupul. Ca un proces de acumulare, sufletul oraului
se ntregete cu fiecare locuitor, cu fiecare suflu de via. Cuprinse cu privirea oraul, profilat
n transparena negurii. l iubi. Se gndi la ceea ce se cheam sufletul oraelor! Era emanarea
sufletului colectiv al citadinilor. n aerul acela cuprins ntre cldiri, trupul sufletesc al
fiecruia i depune spuma vie a tuturor simirilor. Acolo, n atmosfera Cetii, erau i
canalele tuturor drenajelor, dar i plutirea tuturor emanaiilor sentimentale, care i dau
respiraia aceea ncrcat adesea, alteori plin de ebrietate, sau volatil ca un lirism. 24 Starea
dominant este de imponderabilitate, de beie a simurilor, de prea plinul vieii care trebuie s
se reverse din om n cetate, ntre care exist o legtur indisolubil. Observaia lui Eugen
Lovinescu privind modul n care scrie autoarea conine, anticipativ, nucleele de rezisten:
De rasa stendhalian a analitilor, ea urmrete viaa sentimental prin colaboraia analizei,
prin care, odat cu atitudinea sincer pn la cinism fa de fenomenul sufletesc, i n specie
fa de feminitate, iese din romantismul i subiectivismul obinuit al literaturii feminine. Dei
materialul este exclusiv feminin, atitudinea scriitoarei e viril, fr sentimentalism, fr
duioie, fr simpatie chiar, porni din setea cunotinei pure i realizat, cu eliminarea
dulcegriei, prin procedee riguros tiinifice.25
Camil Petrescu n faa oglinzii
- Atunci ce e un scriitor?
- Un scriitor e un om care exprim n scris cu o liminar sinceritate ceea ce a simit,
ceea ce a gndit, ceea ce i s-a ntmplat n via, lui i celor pe care i-a cunoscut, sau chiar
obiectelor nensufleite. Fr ortografie, fr compoziie, fr stil i chiar fr caligrafie.26
scrie chiar n nceputul romanului, n notele de subsol scriitorul. Primul impuls de analiz este
acela al identificrii filonului proustian al operei. Dar pentru c ne-am propus scoaterea n
eviden a originalitii, dincolo de influenele epocii literare, am ncercat ncadrarea acestora
n limitele discursului camilpetrescian. Autenticitatea la care se refer autorul devine o
trstur dominant a romanelor, inspirate din experienele trite. Stilul anticalofil conine o
ncercare de smulgere a realitii brute, fr intervenii inutile.
Recursul la formula narativ a autenticitii se nate i dintr-un fel de mod a vremii.
Publicarea scrisorilor i a jurnalelor intime se transform ntr-o posibilitate de a surprinde
viaa, n cele mai mici detalii, de a ficionaliza ct mai puin, sau mcar de a da aceast
impresie. Camil Petrescu inoveaz prin mbinarea n romanul Patul lui Procust,a celor dou
tipuri. Naratorul personaj, povestitor i povestit la rndul lui, i asum sarcina de a scoate la
iveal intimitatea doamnei T. Noocraia ce caracterizeaz lumea lui i cere tributul printr-un
soi de pudoare nvins, ns, n cele mai multe cazuri de circumstane sociale sau sentimente
23
Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, op.cit., p.144.
24
Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, op.cit., p.149.
25
Eugen Lovinescu, Istoria literaturii romne contemporane, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1989, p.223.
26
Camil Petrescu, Patul lui Procust, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1982, p.10.Camil Petrescu, op.cit., p.5.
900
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
inferioare cum e mila. Nici chiar brutalitatea cu care eu mai trziu am publicat - cu mici
modificri - fr tirea i nvoirea ei, ntr-o revist puin rspndit, scrisorile acestea, care
altfel aveau o destinaie strict personal i le primisem cu cteva luni nainte, nici buna
nelegere pe care le-au artat-o civa critici n-au nduplecat-o. Oroarea ei de exhibiionism,
fie i psihologic, fusese mai tare.27
Personajele sunt vzute ca fiind nzestrate cu o sensibilitate exacerbat, mpins la
extrem, care le mpiedic s devin. Ele sunt surprinse n dou ipostaze: cei care se ridic
deasupra comunului, deasupra vulgaritii i compromisului, ca Doamna T., Fred Vasilescu,
Ladima i ceilali din specia limitatului, a celui care are o gndire linear, fr substan, liber
de orice gnduri chinuitoare, avid de materialitate, cum este D. sau Emilia. Firete c oricare
altul ar fi plecat imediat, jignit, el ns a rmas umilit i cu sufletul ghemuit. ntr-o clip mi-a
prut ru de brutalitatea mea i am cutat acum, dup ce mi se prea c pusesem lucrurile la
punct i stabilisem o nelegere tcut ntre noi, c nu trebuie s mai vie alt dat - s repar
puin din rul pe care-1 fcusem acestui trup cu nervii roi de suferin, ca un lemn de cari - i
am chemat servitoarea, spunnd s prepare de ceai. Din tot corpul i s-a ridicat n privire o
strlucire, ca untdelemnul care se nal din fundul apei. i-am fost mulumit de mine.28
Fluxul narativ curge lin, se construiete asemeni unei puzzel, din buci colorate, din amintiri
vii. Elementele cheie ale textului citat sunt nervii i privirea, cele car l caracterizeaz pe
D., cel care iubete fr a fi iubit i accept umiline pentru femeia dorit.
Dragostea nemprtit este trit la intensitate maxim, cci se transform n
suferin fizic. Intervine, n acest moment, o amintire din trecut, o for nemaipomenit care
traverseaz corpul, supus unei proces ndelungat de erodare. Era o durere pe care nu o mai
puteam stpni, care mi mcina corpul ca un voltaj prea mare, un aparat. La fel mergea acum
cu o alt femeie, reedita funcional ca un conductor un drum care n amintirea mea era un
refugiu unic de bucurie trecut, cci socoteam cele trei zile petrecute n vremea dragostei
noastre, n orelul ssesc cu aspect medieval i cu cetate, incomparabile n viaa lui i a
mea.29 Amintirea pe care o are doamna T. din Sighioara conine n ea momentul unic al
ntlnirii celor dou suflete, momentul de iubire, inserat acum n actualitatea scrierii.
Actul de a scrie este unul lucid, n care amalgamul de fapte, personaje, cuvinte se
amestec ntr-un tot. Scriitorul trebuie s fac eforturi pentru a toarce firul epic, pentru a-l
rsuci i ghida spre sine, spre propria plcere de a reda realitatea, pe msur ce o triete.A
trebuit s fac un gest care s arate cum vreau i am inut s m explic, repede. Dar e ceva att
de ncurcat, c toate virtualitile astea m enervau tot mai mult, tocmai pentru c nu puteam
exprima nimic, erau fr coad i cap, nghesuite n cteva clipe, cum ai vr cu sila i ai
nghemui pe cineva, care s-ar zbate, ntr-un sac.30
Un alt element de inovare este pluriperspectivismul, relativizarea punctului de vedere
care transform textul, ca i la Hortensia Papadat-Bengescu, ntr-o permenent punere sub
semnul ntrebrii. ndoiala din vorbele personajului determin nencrederea, ovaiala
cititorului care nu e deprins s primeasc rspunsuri.Scriitorul insista mereu, fr s observe
ct sunt de nervos, pn cnd, surprinzndu-mi direcia privirii, m-a interpelat mirat:
27
Camil Petrescu, op.cit., p.10.
28
Camil Petrescu, op.cit., p.23.
29
Camil Petrescu, op.cit., p.28.
30
Camil Petrescu, op.cit., p.127.
901
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
- N-oi fi pus gnd ru urtei aceleia care st de vorb cu Ladima? efule, te tiam om
de gust.
Parc m-ar fi stropit cineva cu o can de ap ca s m detepte dintr-o reverie
stupefiant. Am ridicat din umeri ca insultat de aceast presupunere, dar n mine s-a instalat
un semn de ntrebare, ca gravat cu un stilet acid. S fie ntr-adevr urt?... E posibil deci ca
un scriitor, om presupus de gust, s-o gseasc urt? E adevrat c acum, parc scpat de hip-
noz, nici mie nu mi se prea frumoas.31 Imaginea femeii aceasteia pe care o vede cnd
frumoas, cnd urt, este de fapt modalitatea prin care scriitorul recurge la participarea activ
a lectorului, dar i la preluarea din realitate a unor situaii menite s ofere autenticitate textelor
sale.
Cei doi scriitori analizai se dovedesc piloni reali ai romanului romnesc, aflndu-se la
rscrucea unor majore evenimente istorice i care i dovedesc fora prin evoluia ulterioar a
literaturii. Textele lor conin germenii modernitii, fr a fi tributare vreunei formule
artistice, ci fiind contemporane cu alte idei literare ale epocii, cu care se afl n raporturi de
dialog sau contradictorii, dup caz.
Bibliografie
Admu, Anton, (i) filosofia lui Camil Petrescu, Editura Timpul, Iai, 2007
Albrs,R-M. Istoria romanului modern, Editura pentru Literatur Universal, 1968
Alexandrescu, Ion, Persoan, personalitate, personaj, Editura Junimea, Iai, 1988
Baldensperger, Fernand, Literatura: creaie, succes, durat, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1974
Balot, Nicolae, Romanul romnesc n secolul XX, Editura Viitorul romnesc, Bucureti,
1997
Barthes, Roland, Plcerea textului, trad. de Marian Papahagi, postfa de Ion Pop, Editura
Echinox, Cluj, 1994
Bergson, Henri, Eseu asupra datelor imediate ale contiinei.Traducere de DianaMorrau,
Iai, Editura InstitutulEuropean, 1992.
Bergson, Henri, Materie i memorie, Traducere de Cora Chiriac, Iai, Editura Polirom, 1996
Bilous Daniel, Librement imit de , dans Le Got de la forme en littrature Actes du
colloque de Cerisy du 14 au 21 aot 2001 critures et lectures contraintes , Clamecy,
collection Formules, Noesis diteur, 2004.
Booth, Wayne C., Retorica romanului, trad. de Alina Clej i tefan Stoenescu, Editura
Univers, Bucureti, 1976
Brtescu, George, Psihanaliza n Romnia, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti 1994
Bremond, Claude, Logica povestirii, trad. de Micaela Slvescu, prefa de Ioan Pnzaru,
Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1991
Brunetire, Ferdinand, L'volution des genres dans la littrature franaise, volume I :
Lvolution, Paris, 2003.
Camil Petrescu interpretat de..:Ediie ngrijit de Paul Dugneanu, Editura. Eminescu, 1972
Clin, Liviu, Camil Petrescu, Bucureti, Editura Eminescu, 1972
Clin, Liviu, Camil Petrescu n oglinzi paralele, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1976
31
Camil Petrescu, op.cit., p.198.
902
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Clinescu, G., Istoria literaturii de la origini pn n prezent, Fundaia European Drgan,
Editura Nagard, 1980
Ciocrlie, Corina, Femei n faa oglinzii, Editura Echinox, Cluj, 1998
Cioculescu, erban, Aspecte literare contemporane (1932-1947), Editura Minerva, Bucureti,
1972
Cornea, Paul, Aproapele i departele, Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1990
Creu, Nicolae, Construcie i semnificaie n romanul romnesc modern, Iai, Editura
Universitii, 1978
Crohmlniceanu, Ovid S., Literatura romn ntre cele dou rzboaie, Editura Minerva,
Bucureti, 1972, vol. 1 i 2
Eugen Lovinescu, Scrieri, vol.2, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, 1970.
Manolescu, Nicolae,Arca lui Noe. Eseu despre romanul romnesc,Editura 100+1 Gramar,
Bucureti, 1998
Nodier, Charles, Questions de littrature lgale Du plagiat, de la supposition dauteurs, et
des supercheries qui ont rapport aux livres, Genve, Droz, 2003.
Pavel, Toma, Lumi ficionale, traducere de Maria Mociornia, Minerva, BPT, Bucureti, 1992
Prvulescu, Ioana, ntoarcere n Bucuretiul interbelic, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2006
Prvulescu, Ioana, Alfabetul doamnelor, Editura Crater, Bucureti, 1999
Camil Petrescu, Teze i antiteze, Noua structur i opera lui Marcel Proust, Bucureti,
Editura 100+1 Grammar,2002
Schotter, Vladimir Le Modle : un support de cration paradoxal en littrature , Babel,
25 | 2012.
Tomu, Mircea, Romanul romanului romnesc (n cutarea personajului, vol.1; Despre
identitatea unui gen fr identitate: romanul ca personaj al propriului su roman,
vol.2),Editura 100+1 Gramar, Bucureti, 1999.
Vianu, Tudor, Arta prozatorilor romni, Bucureti, , Editura Minerva 1981.
903
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
MASTERING THE RULES: A NEW STRATEGY OF SUBVERTING AUTHORITY.
THE CASE OF LEWIS CARROLLS ALICES
Ctlina BLINITEANU, Assistant, PhD, Vasile Alecsandri University of Bacu
Abstract: Starting from Northrop Fryes idea that all respect for the law is a product of the
social imagination, and the social imagination is what literature directly addresses. . . .1 we
want to show that certain texts confirm/reaffirm to readers that the social order and its rules
or laws work or should work. Any failure in their implementation reflects a flaw of the social
system, and at the same time Alices expectations regarding her status as a new woman. Our
paper deals on the one hand with the education in Victorian England whose goal is to mould
children into young Christian gentlemen/ladies and on the other hand with the childs
attempts at subverting adults authority. The rejection of Victorian manners and education is
revealed through satirical presentation of maxims and morals about obedience, thus the
Victorian upbringing is presented as nonsensical when Alice aims at learning and mastering
the rules of the game in both Wonderland and the Looking Glass.
Keywords: authority, recognition, order vs. disorder, absurdity, Victorian education
Childrens literature approaches as a main theme the power relationships established
by a particular society which are further transmitted to the new generation. Fairy tales are
among the first examples which provide the readers with the necessary information about the
parents power over their heirs, about the parents authority over their children in all
conditions and social strata. These works often present the parental brutal and dominating
way of educating and disciplining the child into adopting and submitting himself to social
norms and conventions. One topic depicted in Lewis Carrolls books refers to the public
school and to the teachers authority, in which he criticizes the educational system and its
intimidating methods. Both Mary Liston and Colin Manlove 2 discuss in their works the
explicit critique on the teachers authority and on the power of educational institutions found
in the narratives which dealt with the Victorian public school. The use of nonsense generally
signals a critique of society, of politics, of rules, because it indicates the contrast with these
conventions. Nonsense should not be understood as accidental or random deviance from
reason, it should be perceived more as subversion rather than the destruction of meaning.
In the 19th century parents, teachers or other officials who might get into contact with
children often misuse their authority and unjustly treat the pupils. The child is never presented
as a subject free from rules or free from social norms; the child has always been involved in
the social system, it has always had to pay attention to the relationships, the limitations and
morals of the world it lives in. In the narratives having children as main characters, these
struggle to elude or to confront the adults as skilfully as they can. Since the publication of
1
Northrop Frye, Literature and Law in Law Society of Upper Canada Gazette 70, 1970.
2
Colin Manlove, From Alice to Harry Potter: Childrens Fantasy in England, Cybereditions, Christchurch,
2003, pp. 185-6; Mary Liston, The Rule of Law through the Looking Glass in Law and Literature, Vol. 21,
Issue 1, 2009, University of California Press, p. 43.
904
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Lewis Carrolls Alices, people have left behind the old didactics and have proved flexibility
regarding the childs creativity, although the world is still being ordered both morally and
hierarchically3. The legal and political restraints are meant to assure the recognition of order
over disorder and to reduce chaos and the essential goals of laws/rules are order and stability.
In Alices Adventures in Wonderland the law is understood only as a set of rules for a game,
which cannot be preserved in a regime with an absolute sovereignty.
In each book Alice leaves her middle-class Victorian world in order to embrace the
adventures from Wonderland and the Looking Glass, two strange worlds where the normal
rules do not apply. In these new worlds, Alice discovers that the laws are in fact some rules
taken from the game of chess, the ones acknowledged in a battle, or the ones prescribed by the
etiquette, all operating within one system meant to emphasize the concept of absolute
sovereignty. Within this absurd system, Alice comes across different types of authoritarian
figures who behave childishly, selfishly, irresponsibly, and most of the time madly. Madness,
here, does not necessarily indicate insanity, but rather anger or eccentricity. Wonderland
seems to be an upside down version of reality, of its legal system. Alice does not feel
alienated in this world, because she is not a typical Victorian child, hence her courage to
speak freely without being asked. Her assertion and confidence are remarked in her speech:
when the Red Queen admonishes her Speak when youre spoken to! Alice replies: But if
everybody obeyed that rule . . . and if you only spoke when you were spoken to, and the other
person always waited for you to begin, you see nobody would ever say anything. . . . (p.
251). Alices goal in both books is represented through her desire to learn and to master the
rules in order to know how to play that game from Wonderland or from the Looking Glass.
On the one hand, Wonderland proves to be a model of authority, where most of the
remarks take the form of commands and where the authority figures expect obedience and
compliance from their subjects. Each of these figures believes about himself/ herself to be the
absolute sovereign, but in the end Alice defies their power by minimizing their authority and
reaffirming their position as mere pawn in a game. On the other hand, Wonderland is
portrayed through anarchy due to the instability of characters, of spatial borders, of concepts.
The Looking Glass presents a different perspective on authority, since all its inhabitants are
forced to comply with the authoritative rules of a game of chess, rules that they did not create
or that they could never change.
The subversion of authority from the real world is exhibited in the game of croquet
which Alice is forced to play. This game can lack order and fairness due to its changeable
rules and to its bad structure. The mixture of cards (taking up the roles of hoops), flamingos
(as mallets) and hedgehogs (as balls) creates various problems since these parts of the game
are all living, each having their own identity and selfish interests, thus making the game
ineffective. The lack of order is enhanced not only by the participants in the game, but also by
everybodys tendency of running around, by everybodys reduced interest of actually playing
that game, by the continuous danger of death penalty shouted by the queen: The players all
played at once, without waiting for turns, quarrelling all the while, and fighting for the
hedgehogs; and in a very short time the Queen was in a furious passion, and went stamping
3
John Morrison, Stories for Good Children in Tall Stories? Reading Law and Literature, ed. John Morrison
and Christine Bell, Aldershot, UK, Dartmouth, 1996.
905
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
about, and shouting Off with his head! or Off with her head! about once in a minute (p.
85). The inconstancy of the game of croquet is also revealed when nobody seems indignant
with having flamingos as mallets, when severe punishments are applied for minor errors,
when rules are applied retroactively without paying attention to the present game. The chaotic
atmosphere is further maintained when none of the Red Queens threats and punishments is
ever enforced, everyone knows that the threat of beheading is just an idle talk, as the Gryphon
confesses to Alice: Its all her fancy, that: they never executes nobody, you know. . . . (p.
95).
The Red Queens capricious and authoritarian behaviour is incongruous with her
position; therefore, she is not able to implement a legal system which will work efficiently.
The retrospective character of the rules reminds the readers of Franz Kafkas work, when his
heroes are punished for something they do not know of or forgot of having committed, thus
the absurdity of implementing this legal system. Alice keeps on thinking like a usual child,
being willing to learn the laws/rules as she is only interested in winning the game of chess or
croquet. Both Carroll and Kafka are interested in exhibiting the readers the absurdity of the
laws/ rules, since the goal of a legal system is not to win, but to impose morality in the
actual behaviour of human beings 4. The Red Queens absolute sovereignty in Wonderland
suggests the ineffectiveness of her authority as well as the anarchic tendencies of the political
order. Joseph Zornado suggests that the Red Queen is an attack of the notion of motherly
love, since her threats are as capricious and terrifying as the adults power over the child:
Anything can happen at any time, and it is at the pleasure of the adult to determine right from
wrong, up from down, and any other rules of any other game in order to preserve and the
defend the status quo5.
Each conversation between Alice and the inhabitants of Wonderland produce
confusion (because she is often misdirected, her questions are answered evasively or she
simply misinterprets the signs) and anger (Alice is often insulted or regarded with disdain by
these imaginary creatures). Each conversation includes commands (Everybody says come
on! here, thought Alice . . . I never was so ordered about before, in all my life, never! p.
95), or instructions (Drink me. Eat me) or directions (the episode with the caterpillar) or
orders (Off with their heads!). When this level is overcome, the discourse continues with
riddles and puns which question the characters authority and prove their incapacity of
playing a pivotal role. What we notice from the conversation with Humpty Dumpty is the
interest in the form of communication rather than on the depth of topics: the conversation
starts with a series of insults, but it later improves. Humpty Dumptys interest in the verbal
exchange makes him an authority in language, in defining the meaning of words. Alice and
the readers find out that language has a power of its own, and words do not function as
passive objects utilized by the speaker6. The one that masters best the words can be called an
authority in this domain, hence the game of words between Alice and Humpty Dumpty.
4
Mary Liston, The Rule of Law through the Looking Glass in Law and Literature, Vol. 21, Issue 1, 2009,
University of California Press, p. 49.
5
Joseph L. Zornado, Inventing the Child: Culture, Ideology, and the Story of Childhood, New York, Garland,
2001, p. 116.
6
W. H. Auden wrote: In both worlds, one of the most important and powerful characters is not a person but the
English language. Alice, who had hitherto supposed that words were passive objects, discovers that they have a
life and will of their own. (W. H. Auden, Todays Wonder-World Needs Alice, in Aspects of Alice: Lewis
906
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Gaining identity seems to be part of this game, with Alice facing the question Who
are you? (p. 47) several times and making great effort to find her identity and recognition in
Wonderland. At the beginning of her journey through the Looking Glass, she seems to reject
her identity of a human being coming from reality and to embrace the identity particular to the
creatures from the fantasy worlds: Its a great huge game of chess thats being playedall
over the worldif this is the world at all, you know. Oh, what fun it is! How I wish I was one
of them! I wouldnt mind being a Pawn, if only I might jointhough of course I should like
to be a Queen, best. (p. 163) (becoming a Queen is related to the Victorian cultural breeding
Alice received). Alice naively thinks that her mastering the game of chess will grant her equal
rights to the other creatures and subsequently she will be treated as a member of this peculiar
world. Alice does not get the sought recognition probably because she behaves neither as a
piece on the chess board nor as a participant in the game. In this game, the pieces and the
players, unlike Alice, do not seek recognition or the transgression towards another status (e.g.
from being a pawn towards becoming a queen). Alice is still influenced by the social
construction of power; therefore, she is aware of the importance of different positions or
statuses. Her possible frustrations or repressed wishes concerning her position as a female
child in the Victorian society are revealed by her struggle of becoming a free woman, a
queen, etc. I dont want to be anybodys prisoner. I want to be a Queen. (p. 242)
Alices identity or status is not so much resolved in the first book, because she is
clearly different from the figures from the deck of cards, or from the animals encountered
during her journey. All the time she is perceived as an outsider, as a foreigner, as an outcast in
Wonderland. All characters from the first book look down on her with disdain and suspicion
because she has not yet learnt the rules/laws of the imaginative worlds. Once she realizes she
has to comply with these rules, Alice succeeds in behaving like the rest of the fantastic
creatures and in getting the recognition of a full membership. In the second book Alice
exhibits the accumulation of experience when she no longer is the confused child in
Wonderland, but instead she has a goal: the achievement of a higher status. After having acted
in accordance with the rules from the Looking Glass, Alice reaches the eighth square and
becomes a queen receiving the same value as the White and the Red Queens, although the two
sovereigns try to elbow or push Alice from her seat. Alice never anticipated her powerlessness
as a queen: the other two queens still treat her as a child (Alice is given orders before and
during the banquet) and sometimes no real option is left to her (e.g. her inability of entering
her own party). When she wanted to claim her position as a queen, she had to ring one of the
two bells: visitor and servant; being excluded from both classes she cannot gain
admittance. Her status as Queen Alice is shown only in her name, it is never accompanied
by a traditional growth in power. By letting others define her position and dominate her, Alice
cannot gain authority. The sharing of sovereignty does not resist, hence the chaotic end of the
chess game.
In the first book, Alice questions the absolute sovereignty of the cards, therefore her
question Who cares for you? functions as a catalyst for the dissolution of Wonderland and
for the return into the real world. In the second book Alice again provokes the dissolution of
Carrolls Dreamchild as Seen Through the Critics Looking-Glasses, ed. Robert Phillips, New York: Vanguard
Press, 1971, pp. 910).
907
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
the Looking Glass when she exclaimed: I cant stand this any longer! pulling violently the
tablecloth and causing the general chaos among the chess pieces and other creatures. By
throwing away the cards in the first book, by overturning the chess pieces from the second
book Alice reveals her will of redefining her position she defies the position held by the
queens from the Looking Glass and Wonderland and at the same time she defies the
established order from both fictional worlds. Each time Alice is sent back into the real world,
because her Victorian education could no longer stand the state of chaos, anarchy and
confusion dominating the imaginative worlds. With his books Lewis Carroll satirizes the 18 th
and 19th century narratives which present the rules all children should obey in case these
rules were broken, the child was supposed to suffer frightening consequences. Carrolls books
come as a response to the constant manipulation of childrens fears. The writer undermines
the traditional education trying to suggest the children into defying the adults authoritarian
voice: Alice learns to use puns, to elude the rigidity of adults discourse, to express her own
individuality, her own will. For the little girl the journeys into different dream-worlds
represent in fact a way of learning how to deal with the adults authority in the Victorian
society and how to create a space of her own in the adults world.
Bibliography
BORGEOIS, David C.C., Making Space: the subversion of authoritarian language in Lewis
Carrolls Alice books, MA thesis, McGill University, Montreal, 2002.
CARROLL, Lewis, Alices Adventures in Wonderland & Through the Looking-Glass,
London, Wordsworth Editions, 2001.
FRYE, Northrop, Literature and Law in Law Society of Upper Canada Gazette 70, 1970.
LISTON, Mary, The Rule of Law through the Looking Glass in Law and Literature, Vol.
21, Issue 1, 2009, University of California Press, pp. 42-77.
MANLOVE, Colin, From Alice to Harry Potter: Childrens Fantasy in England,
Cybereditions, Christchurch, 2003.
MORRISON, John, Stories for Good Children in Tall Stories? Reading Law and Literature,
ed. John Morrison and Christine Bell, Aldershot, UK, Dartmouth, 1996.
PHILLIPS, Robert (ed.), Aspects of Alice: Lewis Carrolls Dreamchild as Seen Through the
Critics Looking-Glasses, ed. Robert Phillips (New York: Vanguard Press, 1971), 910.
RACKIN, Donald. Alices Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass:
Nonsense, Sense, and Meaning. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1991.
SUSINA, Jan, Educating Alice: The Lessons of Wonderland//Jabberwocky: The Journal of
Lewis Carroll Society, nr. 71, 1989, pp. 3-9.
ZORNADO, Joseph L., Inventing the Child: Culture, Ideology, and the Story of Childhood,
New York, Garland, 2001.
908
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
CONSIDERATIONS ON CONSTRUCTIONAL HOMONYMY IN ROMANIAN
Florina-Maria BCIL, Assistant Professor, PhD, University of the West, Timioara
Abstract: The current papers purpose is to take into consideration some aspects regarding
constructional (syntactical) homonymy in Romanian, starting from the idea that researchers
extended the area of homonymy to other levels of the language and defined it as the
association of some identical sonorous complexes with different meanings. We will highlight
that the mentioned phenomenon, frequently met in communication, regards contexts with the
same phonological organization, but which mark a difference in the syntactical function of
one of the parts of sentence, and that it is favored by certain characteristics related to
morphology or word order. Although it is a matter of syntax, constructional homonymy must
be studied in relation with Semantics, Phonetics and Morphology, thus being a typical case of
interdependence between the language compartments. Moreover, the detailed analyses of
certain structures would facilitate their classification following several criteria and would
contribute to establishing the relation between real syntactical homonymy and a potential
one.
Keywords: ambiguity, homonymy, context, grammar, intonation
Acceptnd extinderea sferei omonimiei i la alte niveluri ale limbii, fenomenul se
definete ca asociere a unor complexe sonore identice cu coninuturi diferite. Lucrrile de
specialitate relativ recente iau n discuie i mbinrile de cuvinte sau propoziiile
interpretabile n diverse feluri, adic ceea ce se numete omonimie construcional
(neutralizare sintactic sau omonimie sintactic)1. Dou sau mai multe enunuri sunt
omonime dac sunt formate din aceleai cuvinte, aezate n aceeai ordine, i dac
organizarea lor sintactic e diferit.2 Omonimia sintactic apare relativ frecvent n
1
Pentru denumirile date de specialiti fenomenului de neutralizare n sintax, vezi Luminia Hoar Lzrescu,
Sinonimia i omonimia gramatical n limba romn, Iai, Editura Cermi, 1999, p. 186, unde autoarea arat c
se poate vorbi i n sintax despre semnificante fonologic identice (fie la nivelul propoziiei, fie la nivelul
frazei), care transmit informaie sintactic diferit (care au funcie sintactic [subl. aut.] distinct).; pentru
opiniile privitoare la conceptul de omonimie sintactic n lingvistica romneasc i strin, precum i pentru
definiiile date acesteia, vezi idem, ibidem, p. 187-191. Autoarea precizeaz (ibidem, p. 192) c omonimia
sintactic reprezint relaia la nivel sintactic ce se stabilete ntre pri de propoziie, propoziii sau fraze cu
aceeai organizare fonologic care sunt, ns, diferite n privina informaiei sintactice transmise (a funciei
sintactice). Omonimie sintactic exist nu numai la nivelul receptorului de mesaj lingvistic, ci i la nivelul
emitorului [subl. aut.] acestuia.
2
Sorin Stati, Elemente de analiz sintactic, Bucureti, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 1972, p. 178; vezi i
idem, Omonimia sintactic, n Limb i literatur, XI (1966), p. 388: Cnd dou sau mai multe structuri
sintactice se exprim prin enunuri cu aceeai organizare fonologic, acestea din urm formeaz o serie
omonimic.; Angela Bidu-Vrnceanu, Narcisa Forscu, Limba romn contemporan. Lexicul, Bucureti,
Editura Humanitas Educaional, 2005, p. 61: Omonimia sintactic privete structurile sintactice cu organizare i
componen identice care pot fi interpretate diferit din punctul de vedere al nelesului.; Angela Bidu-
Vrnceanu, n idem et alii, Dicionar general de tiine. tiine ale limbii, Bucureti, Editura tiinific, 1997, p.
335, s.v. omonim: Omonime sintactice sunt propoziii sau grupuri sintactice care au aceeai componen i
organizare sintactic, dar care se deosebesc ca semnificaie.; Gheorghe Constantinescu-Dobridor, Dicionar de
termeni lingvistici, Bucureti, Editura Teora, 1998, p. 130, s.v. enun, unde se arat c enunul omonim este cel
format din cuvinte identice cu ale altui enun, aezate n ordine identic cu ale acestuia, dar cu o organizare
sintactic diferit.
909
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
comunicare, fiind favorizat de anumite caracteristici morfologice (de pild, forme cazuale
identice) sau de topic ale unei limbi.
n studiul intitulat Omonimia sintactic, Sorin Stati consider c asocierea unor
expresii fonematice identice cu structuri relaionale distincte este un fapt uor de neles dac
pornim de la un exemplu... matematic: ceea ce se rostete cinci plus patru ori ase minus
trei conine o serie de termeni aritmetici (numerele ntregi 5, 4, 6 i 3, operaiile de adunare,
scdere, nmulire) care pot fi dispui n mai multe variante. Diferenele structurale sunt
simbolizate grafic prin paranteze i evideniate de rezultatele diferite ale calculului:
a) (5 + 4) x (6 3) = 27; c) 5 + (4 x 6) 3 = 26;
b) 5 + [4 x (6 3)] = 17; d) [(5 + 4) x 6] 3 = 513.
Dac dou sau mai multe structuri sintactice se exprim prin enunuri cu aceeai
organizare fonologic, deosebindu-se prin funcia sintactic a uneia dintre prile de
propoziie, acestea alctuiesc o pereche sau o serie omonimic format din doi termeni (Vine
seara.: 1) [predicat + circumstanial de timp]; 2) [predicat + subiect]) sau chiar trei (Ateapt
seara.: 1) [predicat + subiect]; 2) [predicat + complement direct]; 3) [predicat + circumstanial
de timp]). Cu excepia ambiguitilor intenionate, pentru emitor, mesajul rostit la un
moment dat reprezint ns realizarea unei singure structuri propoziionale: de pild, dac la
ntrebarea Cnd vine Ion acas? se rspunde Vine seara., este clar c seara admite o singur
interpretare, aceea de circumstanial de timp, interlocutorul nebnuind ambiguitatea virtual
de natur structural4.
Omonimia sintactic se refer strict la enunurile care conin aceleai cuvinte i admit
dou sau mai multe variante de analiz, nu i la diferitele segmentri accidentale, fr
consecine pentru sistemul sintactic (vezi secvene precum el desface el des face5). Ea nu se
refer nici la contextele n componena crora intr omonime lexicale sau lexico-gramaticale
(A venit la mine., cu mine1, pronume personal, form accentuat, persoana I, singular,
acuzativ mine2, substantiv feminin, plural < min): Diferena exclusiv semantic dintre
dou propoziii cu aceeai organizare fonologic nu este suficient pentru stabilirea unei
relaii omonimice de tip sintactic. Propoziiile cu aceeai organizare fonologic, pentru a fi
omonime sintactic, trebuie s se deosebeasc nu numai din punctul de vedere al informaiei
semantice transmise, ci i din acela al informaiei sintactice (al funciei sintactice).6 Se
exclud i enunurile echivoce de tipul Ion mi-a spus c el nu accept. (unde el se poate referi
la Ion sau substituie un alt substantiv); Ion s-a ntlnit cu prietenul su. (unde adjectivul
pronominal posesiv de persoana a III-a trimite fie la subiectul propoziiei: prietenul lui Ion,
fie la un substantiv subneles: Ion s-a ntlnit cu prietenul altcuiva.), ntruct schema
propoziional e una singur (actualizeaz aceleai funcii sintactice, deci coninutul
funcional este identic).
Enunurile omonime pot conine o singur sintagm (vezi exemplul Vine seara.,
discutat mai sus) ori dou sau mai multe sintagme, ale cror termeni sunt repartizai diferit:
3
Vezi Sorin Stati, Omonimia sintactic, p. 388.
4
Pentru aceast problem, vezi idem, Elemente de analiz sintactic, p. 178.
5
Vezi idem, Teorie i metod n sintax, Bucureti, Editura Academiei, 1967, p. 214.
6
Luminia Hoar Lzrescu, op. cit., p. 189.
910
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Dau cartea elevului.1 ([predicat + complement direct + complement indirect]) Dau cartea
elevului.2 ([predicat + complement direct + atribut]). Aadar, exist omonime sintactice care
difer prin rolul unui singur element (situaia cea mai frecvent): Spune anecdota lui Mircea!
(ambiguitatea se bazeaz pe cele dou funcii sintactice posibile ale termenului lui Mircea:
complement indirect n dativ sau atribut substantival genitival) ori prin funciile mai multor
uniti: A rmas colegul nostru.1 (Ceilali colegi au plecat.: [predicat + subiect + atribut],
ntr-un context precum: Crezi c a rmas colegul nostru n clas?) A rmas colegul
nostru.2 (Ne va fi coleg n continuare.: [verb copulativ + nume predicativ + atribut], ntr-o
fraz ca: Dei a vrut s se transfere la o alt coal, pn la urm a rmas colegul nostru.).
Se observ c, n cazul unor asemenea propoziii, diferenele de interpretare sunt exclusiv de
ordin sintactic, n timp ce la altele se remarc i deosebiri la nivel morfologic.
n enunurile omonime, situaiile posibile sunt numeroase i variate: subordonarea
poate alterna cu relaia de interdependen (vezi supra, exemplul Vine seara.) sau cu cea de
coordonare, relaia de interdependen cu cea de inciden (Maria[,] a venit!: [subiect +
predicat] / [substantiv n vocativ (evideniat, n vorbire, prin intonaie i pauz, iar n scris,
prin virgul) + predicat]), raportul apozitiv cu coordonarea i / sau subordonarea (cf. S-a
ntlnit cu Ion, cu Popescu.: [predicat + complement prepoziional + apoziie] / [predicat +
complement prepoziional multiplu]; I-am dat cartea copilului[,] lui Ion.: [predicat +
complement direct + complement indirect (anticipat) + atribut substantival genitival] /
[predicat + complement direct + complement indirect (anticipat) + apoziie (marcat, n
rostire, prin pauz, iar n scris, prin punctuaie)] / [predicat + complement direct + atribut
substantival genitival + apoziie] / [predicat + complement direct + atribut substantival
genitival + complement indirect (anticipat)])7, un tip de subordonare cu alt tip de subordonare
(copilului acestuia = [substantiv + atribut adjectival] / [substantiv + atribut pronominal
genitival]; Am rezolvat problema de ieri. [predicat + complement direct + atribut adverbial] /
[predicat + complement direct + circumstanial de timp]) etc., construciile respective
pretndu-se la diverse interpretri semantice verosimile.
Enunurile omonime se ntlnesc n cadrul aceluiai stil al limbii (Aduce cartea de
acas.1, unde de acas e circumstanial de loc, i Aduce cartea de acas.2, cu de acas
atribut) sau aparin unor stiluri diferite (Noaptea cutreier munii.1, cu noaptea =
circumstanial de timp n vorbirea obinuit, i Noaptea cutreier munii.2, cu noaptea =
subiect n limbajul poetic) 8.
Exist modele lingvistice care i-au propus gsirea explicaiilor acestui fenomen de
neutralizare a coninutului sintactic. Gramatica generativ-transformaional consider c
sesizarea ambiguitilor reprezint o trstur a competenei lingvistice, limba fiind organizat
pe dou niveluri diferite: omonimia sintactic este atribuit n exclusivitate structurii de
suprafa, rezultnd din aplicarea anumitor transformri, al cror efect a fost convertirea
structurilor de baz (de adncime) diferite (unde ambiguitile sunt nlturate) n structuri de
suprafa identice9.
7
Pentru discuia despre intonaia distinct n cazul interpretrilor posibile ale acestui enun, vezi * * *,
Gramatica limbii romne. II. Enunul, Bucureti, Editura Academiei Romne, 2005, p. 934.
8
Vezi Sorin Stati, Teorie i metod n sintax, p. 218.
9
Aadar, dou enunuri sunt omonime cnd au o structur de suprafa identic i dou structuri de adncime
diferite; pentru aceast discuie, vezi idem, Interferene lingvistice. Din istoria relaiilor lingvisticii cu alte
911
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Se impune ns i examinarea detaliat a raportului dintre omonimia sintactic real
(evitat prin diferite mijloace) i cea potenial (enunurile care ar putea fi nelese n mai
multe feluri dac se face abstracie de contextul lingvistic i extralingvistic)10. Avnd n
vedere caracterul potenial omonimic al structurilor sintactice, se poate afirma c numrul
omonimelor reale este foarte mic n comparaie cu cel al omonimelor poteniale.
n limba romn, se vorbete despre omonimia multor tipuri de construcii; asupra
unora dintre acestea ne vom opri n continuare. Astfel, sunt echivoce sintagmele difereniate
prin diverse valori ale genitivului, adesea fiind posibile dou lecturi, explicabile prin
structurile de baz deosebite (cu genitivul subiectiv sau obiectiv): istoria unui tnr poate fi
ceea ce istorisete un tnr sau ceea ce se spune despre el; convocarea directorului
nseamn convocarea pe care a fcut-o directorul (genitiv subiectiv, sens activ) sau
convocarea directorului de ctre altcineva (genitiv obiectiv, sens pasiv); chemarea
profesorului este interpretabil cu referire la Agent (profesorul cheam pe cineva) ori la
Pacient (cineva l cheam pe profesor) etc. n mod similar, adjectivul pronominal posesiv
determinnd anumite substantive poate fi analizat i ca subiect al structurii iniiale, i ca
obiect al acesteia: alegerea mea construcie rezultat din transformarea fie a propoziiei Eu
aleg. ([subiect + predicat]), fie a secvenei Cineva m alege. ([subiect + predicat +
complement direct]).
La constituirea enunului ca structur semnificativ particip att unitile lexicale care
l compun, ct i modul specific de organizare. Propoziia i citete scrisoarea tatlui. admite,
n funcie de statutul sintactic al celui de-al doilea substantiv (tatlui), dou lecturi: Tatlui
[Beneficiar] i citete scrisoarea., dac substantivul se subordoneaz verbului, i i citete
[lui / ei] scrisoarea tatlui [Posesor / Agent]., n condiiile dependenei fa de substantivul
scrisoare. n acest exemplu, diferena de organizare sintactic este condiionat ns i de
deosebiri la nivelul situaiei comunicaional-refereniale. Prima interpretare presupune un unic
referent pentru cele dou componente nominale (substantivul i pronumele au acelai
tiine, Bucureti, Editura tiinific, 1971, p. 96, nota 8; Luminia Hoar Lzrescu, op. cit., p. 190; Angela
Bidu-Vrnceanu, n idem et alii, Dicionar general de tiine. tiine ale limbii, p. 336, s.v. omonimie; Gabriela
Pan Dindelegan, n idem et alii, Dicionar general de tiine. tiine ale limbii, p. 161, s.v. dezambiguizare;
idem, Sintaxa transformaional a grupului verbal n limba romn, Bucureti, Editura Academiei, 1974,
p. 272-276; Gheorghe Constantinescu-Dobridor, op. cit., p. 21, s.v. ambiguitate.
10
Exemplificnd, Luminia Hoar Lzrescu, op. cit., p. 186, propune o distincie net ntre omonimia sintactic
i ambiguitatea sintactic. Astfel, omonimia sintactic reprezint prile de propoziie, propoziiile sau frazele
multiinterpretabile sintactic att din punctul de vedere al emitorului de mesaj lingvistic, ct i din perspectiva
receptorului acestuia (sunt omonime sintactic n sine), n timp ce ambiguitatea sintactic vizeaz prile de
propoziie, propoziiile sau frazele multiinterpretabile sintactic exclusiv la nivelul receptorului de mesaj
lingvistic (sunt ambigue sintactic n contextul dat) [subl. aut.]; idem, ibidem, p. 198: Dac omonimia sintactic
se manifest att la nivelul interlocutorului, ct i la cel al vorbitorului, ambiguitatea sintactic apare exclusiv la
nivelul interlocutorului [subl. aut.]. Structurile sintactice ambigue din punct de vedere sintactic sunt susceptibile
de o multipl interpretare numai pentru receptorul de mesaje lingvistice, n mintea emitorului de mesaje
neexistnd ambiguitate sintactic. Ambiguitatea sintactic are un caracter potenial; ea reprezint relaia la
nivel sintactic ce se stabilete ntre pri de propoziie, propoziii sau fraze cu aceeai organizare fonologic,
distincte, ns, din punctul de vedere al informaiei sintactice (funciei sintactice) transmise, ambiguitatea
sintactic existnd exclusiv pentru receptorul [subl. aut.] de mesaj lingvistic. Autoarea consider (ibidem, p.
200-203 i p. 206-207) c ambiguitatea la nivelul propoziiei i al frazei se manifest nu numai n planul faptelor
propriu-zise de limb, ci i n acela al interpretrilor acestora (de exemplu, poate veni: [predicat + complement
direct] sau o structur unitar cu rol de predicat verbal compus); pentru discuia despre diferenierea
ambiguitilor efective de cele virtuale, vezi i Sorin Stati, Omonimia sintactic, p. 389-390 (paragraful
Caracterul potenial al omonimiei sintactice).
912
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
referent), n cea de-a doua lectur, substantivul i pronumele au refereni diferii. Contextul
situaional i lingvistic precizeaz calitatea (identitate sau nonidentitate) a raportului
referenial, care reprezint componenta principal a coninutului informaional al enunului,
fiind implicat ns i n organizarea sintactic (relevarea particularitilor refereniale se
impune n descrierea i caracterizarea a numeroase situaii gramaticale).11
Construciile cu dativ coninnd verbe care accept determinarea prin dativ i n afara
valorii posesive au un grad mare de ambiguitate, cci cliticul poate primi ambele interpretri:
a) fie o poziie de subcategorizare, fr o relaie de posesie (vezi structura i-am trimis
cartea., interpretabil ca ie i-am trimis o anume carte, care nu e a ta., unde cliticul este
complement indirect); b) fie o valoare de dativ posesiv (i-am trimis ie / am trimis altcuiva
cartea ta., unde cliticul este complement posesiv). Numai n structurile n care apar un
complement posesiv i unul indirect, ambele n dativ, dublarea (emfatic) a complementului
posesiv exprimat prin clitic se poate face exclusiv prin adjectiv pronominal posesiv (i-am
vndut casa ta de la ar unui localnic., nu i *ie i-am vndut casa de la ar unui
localnic.); n vinde-mi moia, -mi poate fi deci complement indirect: Vinde-mi mie moia
ta. sau posesiv: Scoate tu la vnzare moia mea.. De obicei, contextul mai larg
dezambiguizeaz asemenea construcii12.
n general, libertatea de topic a unui tip de sintagm este supus unor constrngeri.
Astfel, plasarea unui substantiv dup un verb tranzitiv poate conduce la o construcie ambigu
sub aspectul organizrii: fa de Lupul atac., n care substantivul realizeaz o relaie de
interdependen cu verbul-predicat, avnd funcie de subiect, n succesiunea Atac lupul.,
organizarea devine ambigu, substantivul putnd reprezenta, prin poziia i forma lui,
subiectul (exprimnd valoarea de [Agent]) sau complementul direct (rednd valoarea de
[Pacient]). Echivocul este, n acest caz, rezultatul caracterului nerelevant al topicii, al
compatibilitii poziiei postverbale, cnd verbul este tranzitiv, cu ocurena unor termeni care
intr n relaii diferite cu verbul, dar i al unei particulariti morfologice omonimia,
general n flexiunea substantival romneasc, dintre nominativ i acuzativ (cf. i gruparea
Alege tabloul., care conine un raport de dependen, n opoziie cu Alege decanul., secven
sintactic ambigu). Semantica termenilor poate anula efectul acestei omonimii cazuale dublate
de topica echivoc, asigurnd dezambiguizarea, dei, foarte frecvent, precizarea structurii
interne a gruprilor [verb tranzitiv + substantiv] presupune intervenia clarificatoare a
contextului13.
Prin urmare, sunt, n acelai timp, morfologice i sintactice omonimiile dintre
genitivul atribut i dativul complement indirect (Am mprumutat cartea unui prieten.) sau
dintre nominativul subiect i acuzativul complement direct (Luni ncepe coala.), iar altele
sunt exclusiv sintactice: omonimia dintre atribut i complement (Scoate hainele din saco.),
dintre predicativul suplimentar i un circumstanial (Te-a vzut venind.: Te-a vzut c / cum
veneai. dou posibile interpretri relativ apropiate ntre ele, dar deosebite esenial de
varianta Te-a vzut cnd venea.; aceast omonimie este complicat i de subiectul
11
* * *, Gramatica limbii romne. II. Enunul, p. 15.
12
Pentru aceast problem, vezi * * *, Gramatica limbii romne. I. Cuvntul, Bucureti, Editura Academiei
Romne, 2005, p. 356; * * *, Gramatica limbii romne. II. Enunul, p. 444.
13
Pentru aceast discuie, vezi Valeria Guu Romalo, Sintaxa limbii romne. Probleme i interpretri, Bucureti,
Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 1973, p. 47-48.
913
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
gerunziului, care poate fi identic cu subiectul propoziiei sau diferit de acesta14). n cazul unor
asemenea omonimii, dezambiguizarea este asigurat de topic: Am mprumutat unui prieten
cartea., coala ncepe luni., Scoate din saco hainele., Venind te-a vzut. etc.
Am artat c omonimia la nivel morfologic determin i caracterul echivoc al unor
construcii cu verbe intranzitive, grupate cu elemente lexicale ca iarna, vara, ziua, noaptea
etc. n aceste cazuri, sursa ambiguitii o constituie identitatea formal dintre substantivele i
adverbele respective, aa c Vine iarna. poate reprezenta realizarea unei relaii de
interdependen (cf. enunurile Curnd vine i iarna. / Iar vine iarna.) sau a uneia de
dependen (Mo Crciun vine iarna.); n aceeai situaie sunt ncepe ziua., Sosete noaptea.
etc. Alteori, semantica termenilor iarna, ziua este incompatibil cu funcia de subiect:
Lucreaz noaptea. este o construcie n care sensul lexical al elementelor le situeaz ntr-un
raport de dependen15.
Adesea, n analiza sintactic, persist confuzia dintre subiectul multiplu al unei
propoziii i circumstanialul sociativ16 (numai cnd acesta nsoete subiectul n realizarea
aciunii i poate deveni el nsui subiect, alturi de cel deja existent, nu i cnd se refer la o
alt parte a propoziiei), ignorndu-se faptul c subiectul multiplu impune acordul predicatului
la plural i c forma de numr a acestuia distinge cele dou poziii sintactice17. Confuzia apare
mai ales cnd, ca element coordonator n cadrul subiectului multiplu, se ntrebuineaz, cu
sensul conjunciei copulative i, prepoziia cu sau, cu acelai neles, locuiunile
prepoziionale mpreun cu, cu tot cu, specifice circumstanialului sociativ, ori locuiunea i
cu, frecvent n limba popular i n exprimarea familiar. Antepunerea circumstanialului, cu
un evident rol emfatic, poate crea echivoc, dar acordul la singular clarific statutul
elementelor. Acest criteriu distinctiv devine ns inoperant cnd verbul-predicat al propoziiei
prezint o identitate ntre singular i plural. Intervin, astfel, dou categorii de situaii: cele n
care verbul respectiv este nsoit de un determinant a crui form este sau nu un indiciu al
subiectului multiplu i cele n care verbul nu are determinri.
n exemplul: i ne coborm noi, i ne tot coborm, cu mare greutate, pe nite
povrniuri primejdioase, i ne ncurcm printre ciritei de brad, i caii lunecau i se duceau
de-a rstgolul, i eu cu Dumitru mergeam zgribulii i plngeam [subl. n. F.-M.B.] n
pumni de frig18, eu cu Dumitru reprezint subiectul multiplu, iar verbul-predicat mergeam
este la plural, fapt indicat de predicativul suplimentar zgribulii. Cnd verbul nu are
compliniri, se va recurge fie la unele informaii oferite de fraza care conine propoziia n
discuie: Eu cu Dumitru [...] mergeam tot zburdnd i hrjonindu-ne, de parc nu eram noi
[subl. n. F.-M.B.] rioii din Broteni19 unde formele pronominale -ne i noi confer sens
de plural predicatului i indic existena unui subiect multiplu , fie la analiza coninutului
textului: n fraza Cnd am venit eu cu tata i cu fraii [subl. n. F.-M.B.] mei, Petrea i
14
Cf. Ileana Petre, Precizri cu privire la termenii neutralizare, omonimie, sincretism n lingvistica
romneasc, n Analele Universitii din Craiova, VI (1978), p. 132.
15
Vezi Mioara Avram, Gramatica pentru toi, ediia a II-a revzut i adugit, Bucureti, Editura Humanitas,
1997, p. 481.
16
Pentru aceast discuie, vezi D. Craoveanu, Categorii sintactice necircumstaniale, Timioara, Editura
Mirton, 2002, p. 52-54.
17
Vezi * * *, Gramatica limbii romne. II. Enunul, p. 366 i p. 513-514.
18
Ion Creang, Poveti, Amintiri, Povestiri. Ediie ngrijit i repere istorico-literare alctuite de Iorgu Iordan i
Elisabeta Brncu, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, ediia a III-a n seria Patrimoniu, 1983, p. 170.
19
Idem, ibidem, p. 170.
914
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Vasile i Nic, din Ardeal n Pipirig, [...] unde se pomeneau coli ca a lui Balo n
Moldova?20, elementele subliniate alctuiesc subiectul multiplu, avnd sensul pluralului
inclusiv noi.
Unele construcii cu apoziii prezint similitudini formale cu structurile juxtapuse, iar
distincia dintre ele se realizeaz i cu ajutorul acordului. Dac dou nume juxtapuse, aflate n
poziia sintactic de subiect, sunt fiecare la singular, sintagma este apozitiv cnd acordul cu
predicatul se face la singular: Tnrul acela, prietenul ei, era de fa. (al doilea termen
funcioneaz ca o redenumire a primului; de asemenea, izolarea construciei prin virgule
infirm ipoteza interpretrii celui de-al doilea nominal ca o parte a subiectului multiplu). Dac
cele dou nume juxtapuse propun o interpretare asociativ de subiect multiplu, aa cum o
demonstreaz i absena virgulei dup cel de-al doilea component, acordul se face la plural,
iar varianta apozitiv este exclus: Tnrul acela, prietenul ei erau de fa.21
i predicativul suplimentar intr uneori n mbinri echivoce: n exemplul Maria o
vede bucuroas., elementul subliniat se refer fie la subiect, fie la complementul direct,
datorit faptului c ambele prezint aceleai particulariti de gen i de numr;
dezambiguizarea se poate face n contexte n care subiectul i complementul se difereniaz
dup gen i / sau numr: Maria l / i / le vede bucuroas.
Adjectivele cu funcie de predicativ suplimentar care se raporteaz la un nominal
subiect de genul masculin, numrul singular i care, la acest gen i numr, sunt omonime cu
adverbele admit i interpretarea ca circumstaniale de mod realizate prin adverbe: Elevul
ascult atent. Asemenea enunuri se pot dezambiguiza prin recurgerea la forma de feminin i
/ sau de plural a adjectivului: Elevii ascult atent. (circumstanial de mod) vs Elevii ascult
ateni. (predicativ suplimentar); dac nu se face acordul cu regentul nominal, elementul
respectiv trebuie interpretat ca adverb (circumstanial): Mrarul i-l dau ieftin., Maina i-o
dau ieftin. (colocvial: Maina i-o dau ieftin.)22.
Cnd predicativul suplimentar subordonat subiectului se realizeaz prin pronume i
numerale, iar subiectul este nelexicalizat, construciile sunt ambigue: pronumele sau
numeralul respectiv poate fi analizat fie ca predicativ suplimentar, fie ca subiect (postpus
verbului): A plecat prima., Au reuit toi. Dezambiguizarea se face prin lexicalizarea
subiectului (Andreea a plecat prima., Candidaii au reuit toi.) situaie n care pronumele
sau numeralul are funcie sintactic de predicativ suplimentar (i poart accentul frastic) ori
prin introducerea unor determinri suplimentare (A plecat prima din stnga.), n acest caz
pronumele sau numeralul avnd rol de subiect 23. Aceeai confuzie se face, n condiii similare,
ntre A ajuns [acolo] primul.1 [verb predicativ + numeral ordinal, subiect] i A ajuns [acolo]
primul.2 [verb copulativ + numeral ordinal, nume predicativ]. i propoziiile Se angajeaz
grdinar., Se propune director. pot avea dou lecturi: [verb-predicat + subiect] / [verb-
20
Idem, ibidem, p. 164.
21
Vezi * * *, Gramatica limbii romne. II. Enunul, p. 625.
22
Idem, ibidem, p. 297 i p. 309; vezi i Emina Cplnan, Elementul predicativ suplimentar probleme de
acord, n In magistri honorem Vasile Fril. 50 de ani de carier universitar. Volum coordonat de Ana-Maria
Pop, Trgu-Mure, Editura Ardealul, 2012, p. 145-152.
23
Pentru aceast discuie, vezi * * *, Gramatica limbii romne. II. Enunul, p. 188 i p. 308; Sorin Stati,
Elemente de analiz sintactic, p. 79.
915
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
predicat (+ subiect subneles) + substantiv nearticulat cu funcie de complement predicativ al
obiectului] (Ion se angajeaz grdinar.)24.
n contextele cu predicativ suplimentar realizat prin adverbe de tipul aa, altfel, bine,
este posibil adesea i interpretarea acestuia drept circumstanial de mod. n propoziii ca: Te-
am gsit aa., Pe Maria o pictase altfel., l tiu bine., adverbul are dou citiri: predicativ
suplimentar, calificnd nominalul cu funcie de complement direct, sau circumstanial de
mod. Dezambiguizarea se poate face prin extinderea enunului: Te-am gsit aa, schimbat,
mai vesel parc., Pe Maria o pictase altfel, mai nalt., l tiu bine, ntr-o form
excelent. (cu predicativ suplimentar), dar Te-am gsit aa, destul de greu., Pe Maria o
pictase altfel, n acuarel., l tiu bine, doar ne cunoatem de douzeci de ani. (cu
circumstanial de mod)25.
Unele construcii formate din substantiv sau grup nominal precedat de prepoziia ca
pot prezenta dificulti de interpretare din cauza faptului c prepoziia are dou sensuri,
calitativ i comparativ, i cu amndou apare n structuri cu predicativ suplimentar. Exist
anumite elemente care pot ajuta la dezambiguizarea construciei: ca exprim calitatea dac
substantivul este nearticulat (Le vorbete ca preedinte.), iar dac acesta este articulat cu
articolul nehotrt, ca are, de obicei, sens comparativ (Le vorbete ca un preedinte.). Dac
substantivul este articulat hotrt (avnd diverse determinri), poate fi interpretat n ambele
feluri: enunul O vedea ca profesoara de matematic a claselor V-VIII. poate fi citit ca O
vedea n acelai mod ca profesoara de matematic a claselor V-VIII. (construcie
comparativ, descriind doar circumstana n care se desfoar evenimentul desemnat de verb,
nu i participanii) sau O vedea pe ea n calitate de / n funcia de profesoar de matematic a
claselor V-VIII. (exprimnd calitatea). Construcia se poate dezambiguiza prin nlocuirea
prepoziiei ca printr-un sinonim (de pild, la fel ca pentru sensul comparativ, n calitate de
pentru a descrie calitatea)26.
Multe sintagme cu verbe la gerunziu sunt ambigue sub raportul istoriei derivative sau
al delimitrii de alte poziii sintactice. n enunurile n care verbul regent este tranzitiv, cu un
complement direct lexicalizat i determinat de un verb la gerunziu, acesta din urm poate fi
interpretat ca raportndu-se la subiect sau la complementul direct: n propoziia Am gsit-o
cutnd n cartea de telefon., numai dac gerunziul se raporteaz la complementul direct
ocup poziia de predicativ suplimentar; dac se refer la subiect, este circumstanial
instrumental.
n unele cazuri, gerunziul care se raporteaz la subiect poate fi interpretat ca predicativ
suplimentar, derivat dintr-o propoziie principal: alteori ns, nu poate fi considerat dect
circumstanial. La dezambiguizare contribuie sensul verbului regent i al gerunziului: dac
acesta exprim o caracteristic a nominalului-subiect, este vorba de un predicativ suplimentar
(raportarea semantic la un nominal fiind una dintre caracteristicile sale definitorii): Am
primit florile zmbind. (< Am primit florile i am zmbit.), iar dac red o circumstan n
care se desfoar aciunea regentului, se afl n poziia unui circumstanial (de timp, de mod
etc.): Am cumprat cri vechi cltorind prin ar. Prin urmare, enunul Am vzut-o trecnd
24
Vezi * * *, Gramatica limbii romne. II. Enunul, p. 322.
25
Idem, ibidem, p. 304.
26
Pentru discuia despre asemenea ambiguiti i interpretri litigioase n construciile cu predicativul
suplimentar, vezi idem, ibidem, p. 308-312.
916
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
strada. poate fi interpretat ca derivat dintr-o structur cu o completiv direct, gerunziul fiind
predicativ suplimentar (Am vzut c ea trecea strada.) sau ca o ocuren a
circumstanialului de timp (Am vzut-o n timp ce (eu) treceam strada.).
Uneori, propoziii difereniate prin topic precum Aud maina venind. i Aud venind
maina. se deosebesc prin aceea c elementul cel mai apropiat de verbul-predicat (aud) este
considerat complement direct. Construciile de acest tip devin mai transparente dac
nominalul postpus este un substantiv propriu, care necesit dublare i prezena prepoziiei pe
cnd are funcia de complement direct. Faptul c structurile similare cu substantiv propriu nu
sunt posibile fr mrcile de complement direct arat c nominalele din asemenea structuri
se afl n poziia unui complement direct (*Vd venind Maria., *Vd Maria venind., dar O
vd venind pe Maria., O vd pe Maria venind.), chiar dac topica sa nu reflect ntotdeauna
aceast ierarhie sintactic. i n alte tipuri de construcii gerunziul poate fi interpretat ca
raportndu-se la subiect sau la un alt nominal, cu funcie de complement prepoziional
(propoziia Mi-aduc aminte de el trecnd prin Bucureti. provine din [...] cnd trec eu prin
Bucureti. sau din [...] cnd trecea el prin Bucureti.) ori de circumstanial sociativ (enunul
Ioana s-a ntors cu Maria tremurnd din toate ncheieturile. este derivat din Ioana s-a ntors
cu Maria i Ioana tremura din toate ncheieturile. sau din Ioana s-a ntors cu Maria, care
tremura din toate ncheieturile.)27.
Cu supinul n antepunere (De vorbit / de scris, l-a nvat profesorul.), mesajul nu
este suficient de clar: aparent, supinul poate fi considerat un complement secundar, dar, dac
se consider c el anticip o propoziie dintr-o fraz eliptic (De vorbit / de scris, l-a nvat
profesorul s vorbeasc / s scrie.), e vorba de un circumstanial de relaie28. n propoziiile
Crile sunt greu / uor de procurat., Hainele sunt dificil / anevoie de splat., adverbul de
mod, dei antepus, constituie o determinare a supinului. Nu aceeai analiz se poate propune
pentru construcii de tipul Filmul este interesant de vzut., unde adverbul de mod nu permite,
din punct de vedere semantic, interpretarea ca subordonat al supinului (film de vzut
*interesant)29.
Funcia de circumstanial de cauz se poate intersecta cu aceea de circumstanial de
timp. Interferena apare ndeosebi cnd n poziia sintactic de circumstanial de cauz se afl
verbe la gerunziu. Uneori, disocierea lor este dificil: Vznd c drumul este alunecos,
oferul a oprit maina. [= din cauz c a vzut... / cnd a vzut...]30.
Circumstanialul de cauz se exprim i prin locuiunile adverbiale cu valoare
discursiv de aceea, pentru aceea, de asta, pentru asta, de ce (cu varianta popular la ce), pe
care le regsim i la circumstanialul de scop, contextul lingvistic sau extralingvistic avnd rol
27
Pentru ambiguitile i interpretrile litigioase cu gerunziul predicativ suplimentar, vezi idem, ibidem, p. 196-
197.
28
Idem, ibidem, p. 395.
29
Vezi * * *, Gramatica limbii romne. I. Cuvntul, p. 519.
30
Pentru omonimia sintactic a construciilor cu gerunziul, vezi Luminia Hoar Lzrescu, op. cit., p. 196-197,
iar pentru interferenele dintre diferitele realizri ale circumstanialului de cauz i alte poziii sintactice, vezi * *
*, Gramatica limbii romne. II. Enunul, p. 538-539; cf. i discuia despre formele participiale i gerunziale din
textul poetic arghezian, forme care pot intra, uneori, pe calea metaforei, n jocul omonimiei sintactice, n Simona
Constantinovici, Palimpseste argheziene. Curs de lexicologie aplicat, Timioara, Editura Politehnica, 2005, p.
180-181 i p. 191-198.
917
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
dezambiguizator, prin ocurena unei propoziii cauzale sau finale: Fiindc n-am avut timp,
de aceea nu te-am cutat. / De aceea am venit, ca s te ajut.)31.
Locuiunea adverbial de ce poate reprezenta corelativul unei subordonate exprimnd
comparaia proporional (progresiv), introdus prin locuiunea conjuncional omonim: De
ce l asculta, de ce se ntrista. Acestea nu trebuie confundate cu mbinarea liber de ce,
alctuit din pronume interogativ sau relativ n acuzativ, precedat de prepoziie (De ce i-e
fric nu scapi.).
Dup cum se observ, dei este o problem de sintax, omonimia construcional
trebuie studiat n legtur cu semantica, fonetica i morfologia, cci ne aflm n faa unui
aspect tipic de interdependen a compartimentelor limbii (fonetic morfologie sintax
lexic). Limba romn deine un repertoriu nsemnat de tipuri de enunuri cu structur (virtual)
ambigu cazuri interesante a cror analiz atent va facilita, desigur, clasificarea lor dup
diverse criterii i stabilirea raportului dintre omonimia sintactic real i cea potenial.
Bibliografie
* * *, Gramatica limbii romne. I. Cuvntul; II. Enunul, Bucureti, Editura Academiei
Romne, 2005.
Avram, Mioara, Gramatica pentru toi, ediia a II-a revzut i adugit, Bucureti, Editura
Humanitas, 1997.
Bidu-Vrnceanu, Angela, Clrau, Cristina, Ionescu-Ruxndoiu, Liliana, Manca, Mihaela,
Pan Dindelegan, Gabriela, Dicionar general de tiine. tiine ale limbii, Bucureti, Editura
tiinific, 1997.
Bidu-Vrnceanu, Angela, Forscu, Narcisa, Limba romn contemporan. Lexicul, Bucureti,
Editura Humanitas Educaional, 2005.
Cplnan, Emina, Elementul predicativ suplimentar probleme de acord, n In magistri
honorem Vasile Fril. 50 de ani de carier universitar. Volum coordonat de Ana-Maria
Pop, Trgu-Mure, Editura Ardealul, 2012, p. 145-152.
Constantinescu-Dobridor, Gheorghe, Dicionar de termeni lingvistici, Bucureti, Editura
Teora, 1998.
Constantinovici, Simona, Palimpseste argheziene. Curs de lexicologie aplicat, Timioara,
Editura Politehnica, 2005.
Craoveanu, D., Categorii sintactice necircumstaniale, Timioara, Editura Mirton, 2002.
Creang, Ion, Poveti, Amintiri, Povestiri. Ediie ngrijit i repere istorico-literare alctuite de
Iorgu Iordan i Elisabeta Brncu, Bucureti, Editura Minerva, ediia a III-a n seria
Patrimoniu, 1983.
Guu Romalo, Valeria, Sintaxa limbii romne. Probleme i interpretri, Bucureti, Editura
Didactic i Pedagogic, 1973.
Hoar Lzrescu, Luminia, Sinonimia i omonimia gramatical n limba romn, Iai,
Editura Cermi, 1999.
31
Pentru aceast problem, vezi * * *, Gramatica limbii romne. II. Enunul, p. 531 i p. 546. De pild, ntr-un
context restrns precum De asta am venit., locuiunea adverbial de asta este interpretabil sintactic fie ca un
circumstanial de cauz, fie ca unul de scop; cf. i De ce a venit? (= Din ce motiv a venit? / Cu ce scop a
venit?).
918
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Pan Dindelegan, Gabriela, Sintaxa transformaional a grupului verbal n limba romn,
Bucureti, Editura Academiei, 1974.
Petre, Ileana, Precizri cu privire la termenii neutralizare, omonimie, sincretism n
lingvistica romneasc, n Analele Universitii din Craiova, VI (1978), p. 131-133.
Stati, Sorin, Elemente de analiz sintactic, Bucureti, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 1972.
Stati, Sorin, Interferene lingvistice. Din istoria relaiilor lingvisticii cu alte tiine, Bucureti,
Editura tiinific, 1971.
Stati, Sorin, Omonimia sintactic, n Limb i literatur, XI (1966), p. 387-395.
Stati, Sorin, Teorie i metod n sintax, Bucureti, Editura Academiei, 1967.
919
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
CULTURAL INTERFERENCE IN LANGUAGE LEARNING: DIFFICULTIES OF
THE SPELLING AND PUNCTUATION IN ALTERNATE LANGUAGE CODES
Aida TODI, Assistant Professor, PhD, Ovidius University of Constana
Abstract: Errors encountered most frequently by those who redact a text, especially those that
have to write in a foreign language (or even in Romanian, but also know one or some foreign
languages) usually regard spelling (diacritics, accents, apostrophes, umlauts/ trema) and
punctuation (using the comma, types of quotation marks). We consider that these errors, when
they are not owed to the simple fact of not knowing the rules of the Romanian language, but
owed to active or passive bilingualism/ trilingualism, represent cultural interferences in the
alternation of linguistic codes (concerning diacritics, different types of accents, umlauts,
quotation marks); determining some causes that generate the talked about deficiencies
represent one of the objectives weve set to point out through this contribution.
In the text below I did not consider the writing situations where the languages utilize the same
punctuation marks or diacritics (writing with an initial capital letter at the beginning of a
phrase or sentence, at the names of institutions, country names, national or religious
holidays, company names and organizations etc.); Ive summarized the most important
orthographic and punctuation particularities in the most used circulation languages and the
differences towards Romanian, trying to see how these characteristics interfere at this level,
for the ones that know two (or more) languages. Following these rules is very important for
translators, as well as for those who draw up scientific texts, essays etc. and for those that are
needed to operate with frequent changes in linguistic code. These are confronted, sometimes,
with phenomena of contamination of the orthographic and punctuation rules. The writing of
numerals also presents different conventions from a language to another; some of them will
be handled in the present communication.
Keywords: language learning, cultural interference, difficulties, Romanian and foreign
languages, contamination of the orthographic and punctuation rules
Greelile pe care le ntmpin cel mai frecvent cei care redacteaz un text, n mod
special cei care trebuie s scrie ntr-o limb strin (sau chiar n romn, dar sunt cunosctori
ai unei / unor limbi strine) privesc n general ortografia (diacriticele, accentele, apostroful,
trema / umlautul, desprirea n silabe, utilizarea iniialei majuscule n situaii diferite de la o
limb la alta) i punctuaia (utilizarea virgulei, tipurile de ghilimele). Considerm c acestea,
atunci cnd nu se datoreaz pur i simplu necunoaterii regulilor limbii romne, ci
bilingvismului / trilingvismului activ sau pasiv, reprezint interferene culturale n alternarea
codurilor lingvistice (n ceea ce privete diacriticele, diferitele tipuri de accent, trema,
ghilimelele); stabilirea ctorva cauze care genereaz carenele despre care vorbim repezint
unul dintre obiectivele pe care am propus s le punctm prin aceast contribuie.
n cele de mai jos nu am avut n vedere situaiile de scriere n care limbile utilizeaz
aceleai semne de punctuaie sau diacritice (scrierea cu iniial majuscul la nceput de
propoziie sau fraz, la numele unor instituii, numele de ri, de srbtori naionale sau
religioase, nume de companii i organizaii etc.); am trecut n revist particularitile
920
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ortografice i de punctuaie mai importante ale celor mai utilizate limbi de circulaie i
diferenele fa de romn, ncercnd s vedem cum interfereaz la acest nivel, la cunosctorii
celor dou (sau mai multe) limbi, aceste caracteristici. Respectarea acestor reguli este foarte
important att pentru traductori, ct i pentru cei care redacteaz texte tiinifice, referate
etc. i care se vd nevoii s opereze frecvent schimbri de cod lingvistic. Acetia se
confrunt, uneori, cu fenomene de contaminare a regulilor ortografice i de punctuaie.
Scrierea numeralelor prezint i ea convenii diferite de la o limb la alta; de unele dintre
acestea ne vom ocupa n prezenta comunicare.
Greelile care afecteaz ortografia (diacriticele, accentele, apostroful, trema /
umlautul, desprirea n silabe, utilizarea iniialei majuscule n situaii diferite de la o limb la
alta) i punctuaia (utilizarea virgulei, tipurile de ghilimele), cnd se datoreaz bilingvismului
/ trilingvismului activ sau pasiv, reprezint interferene culturale n alternarea codurilor
lingvistice.
n ceea ce privete diacriticele, diferitele tipuri de accent, trema, ghilimelele, cauzele
care genereaz carenele despre care vorbim sunt totui mai numeroase; printre acestea
enumerm:
tastatura calculatorului, setat, de regul, pe limba englez; n aceast situaie,
recomandm instalarea setrii i pe alte limbi pentru care se utilizeaz respectivul computer:
romn, francez etc. (n funcie de necesiti); dificulti mai mari pune alfabetul chirilic;
utilizarea masiv a chatului i a forumurilor de discuie, unde se renun total la
diacritice;
viteza (graba) sau neglijena n tastare;
superficialitate n verificarea final a textului; se tie c, atunci cnd intervine
corectorul automat pentru limba englez, multe dintre cuvintele scrise iniial corect se
modific, aa nct textul neverificat poate s apar cu numeroase greeli;
tendina de unificare (simplificare) a regulilor (numit, n lingvistic, legea
minimului efort);
uneori suportul electronic cruia i este destinat textul nu accept diacriticele,
accentele i ghilimelele; este cazul unor publicaii online sau forumuri de discuie care, atunci
cnd se folosesc semnele grafice amintite, le distorsioneaz pn la deformarea total a
cuvintelor, acestea ajungnd de nerecunoscut.
Iat tipurile mai frecvente de greeli care afecteaz semnele grafice amintite 1:
lipsa total sau parial a diacriticelor 2; trema (dou puncte orizontale) pe
vocal (, , , , ) indic pronunarea lor n alt mod dect fr trem 3;
1
Asupra acestora s-a mai atras atenia (Funeriu 1998). Vezi i Todi 2007b.
2
Unele situri atrag atenia asupra necesitii scrierii cu diacritice; de pild wikipedia.
3
Chiar dac, la prima vedere, acest aspect pare, probabil, nesemnificativ, el poate avea implicaii serioase n
transmiterea i / sau receptarea mesajului. Amintesc, n acest sens, n scop anecdotic, dar i pentru a arta c
respectarea acestor semne este important, un episod real, care mi s-a ntmplat personal. n urm cu mai muli
ani am participat la o conferin internaional n afara rii. Am trimis rezumatul n francez, iar organizatorii au
tradus totul (probabil printr-un program automat) i n englez. Presupun c am uitat s pun trema pe i sau poate
programul de traducere nu suporta diacriticele se ntmpl i asta uneori. Cunosctorii tiu c ai se pronun n
francez e, iar dac vrei ca i s se pronune i trebuie s foloseti acest semn (). Prenumele meu (Aida) a fost
tradus automat n englez ca o form de trecut a verbului aider (fr. a ajuta, perf. simplu, pers. a III-a sg. aida).
Era foarte neclar pentru toat lumea ce caut acea form verbal lng numele meu (Todi).
921
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
utilizarea greit a diacriticelor;
utilizarea unor semne asemntoare cu diacriticele, dar cu alt semnificaie n
lingvistic (ex.: unii l redau pe prin ; dar n transcrierile fonetice, tilda de pe a sau alt
vocal indic nazalitate / pronunare nazal a vocalei respective)
utilizarea greit a unor fonturi care nu au diacriticele limbii respective i le
nlocuiesc cu semne similare;
Alt problem generat de utilizarea mai multor limbi o reprezint scrierea cu
majuscule: germana care folosete mai multe majuscule dect engleza. n arab nu se folosesc
litere majuscule.
Fr a face o clasificare strict sau o analiz amnunit a acestora, site-urile dedicate
serviciilor de traducere atrag atenia asupra acestor diferene ntre limbi, de care trebuie s se
in cont n procesul traducerii4.
n cele de mai jos nu am avut n vedere situaiile de scriere n care limbile utilizeaz
aceleai semne de punctuaie sau diacritice (scrierea cu iniial majuscul la nceput de
propoziie sau fraz, la numele unor instituii, numele de ri, de srbtori naionale sau
religioase, nume de companii i organizaii etc.); am trecut n revist particularitile
ortografice i de punctuaie mai importante n cele mai utilizate limbi de circulaie i
diferenele fa de romn, ncercnd s vedem cum interfereaz la acest nivel, la cunosctorii
celor dou (sau mai multe) limbi, aceste caracteristici. Respectarea acestor reguli este foarte
important att pentru traductori, ct i pentru cei care redacteaz texte tiinifice, referate
etc. i care se vd nevoii s opereze frecvent schimbri de cod lingvistic. Acetia se
confrunt, uneori, cu fenomene de contaminare a regulilor ortografice i de punctuaie.
n ultima vreme a devenit cvasigeneral scrierea fr diacritice a cuvintelor romneti,
ceea ce duce la dificulti de citire i, uneori, la confuzii, avnd n vedere rolul distinctiv al
acestora. Acelai lucru se ntmpl frecvent n cazul limbii franceze, de pild, unde notarea
accentului, absolute obligatorie, este trecut de muli cu vederea, poate i din motive de
comoditate (configuraia tastaturii). n limba romn, spre deosebire de alte limbi (francez,
italian etc.), n general accentul nu se marcheaz; exist totui situaii de omonimie a
formelor scrise n care marcarea accentului se poate dovedi necesar: este cazul acelor
omografe, destul de numeroase n romn (cele acle, fin afn, ugust augst,
brem barm, cpii copi etc.)5. Totui, nemarcarea accentului n asemenea situaii nu
reprezint o greeal prea grav, ntruct dezambiguizarea se produce, de obicei, prin context.
n romn scrierea cu litere majuscule este n general puin folosit, ea limitndu-se la:
iniiala numelor proprii (inclusiv nume de instituii), de srbtori naionale;
semnalm scrierea cu iniial majuscul i la o serie de locuiuni pronominale
(formule de adresare cu un grad nalt de politee)6; la acestea se scriu cu majuscul att
substantivul, ct i posesivul care l nsoete, iniferent de formele flexionare la care apar:
Altea Sa, Altea Voastr, Alteele Voastre, Cucernicia Sa, Cucernicia Ta, Cucernicia
Voastr, Cucerniciile Voastre, Cuvioia Sa, Cuvioia Ta, Cuvioia Voastr, Cuvioiile
4
http://www.betterlanguages.com/romanian/servicii-de-traducere/brandingul/.
5
Vezi o list ampl la Todi 2007a: 49-52.
6
Inventarul acestora apare i n cartea noastr Todi 2007a: 150-151, de unde l-am preluat; n cartea citat
locuiunile pronominale apar cu menionrile stilistice fcute de DOOM 2, de unde au fost extrase.
922
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Voastre, Domnia Ei, Domnia Lui, Domnia Sa, Domnia Ta, Domnia Voastr, Domniile
Voastre, Excelena Sa, Excelena Voastr, Excelenele Voastre, nlimea Sa (nv.), nlimea
Ta, nlimea Voastr (nv.), nlimile Voastre (nv.), Luminarea Sa (nv.), Luminia Sa,
Luminia Ta, Luminia Voastr (nv.), Luminiile Voastre (nv.), Magnificena Sa (livr.),
Magnificena Voastr (livr.), Maiestatea Sa / Majestatea Sa, Maiestatea Sa / Majestatea Sa,
Maiestatea Voastr / Majestatea Voastr, Majestile Voastre, Mria Sa (nv.), Mria Ta
(nv.), Mria Voastr (nv.), Mriile Voastre (nv.), Preacuvioia Sa, Preacuvioia Ta,
Preacuvioia Voastr, Preacuvioiile Voastre, Preasfinia Sa, Preasfinia Ta, Preasfinia
Voastr, Preasfiniile Voastre, Sanctitatea Ta (Sa, Voastr), Sfinia Sa, Sfinia Ta, Sfinia
Voastr, Sfiniile Voastre.
Am simit necesar s atragem atenia asupra acestei categorii de cuvinte, inventariind o
lung list, pentru c n vechea ediie a DOOM (DOOM 1) se recomanda scrierea posesivului
cu minuscul, deci este posibil ca pn i vorbitorii nativi de romn s aib o nesiguran n
utilizarea lor. Asta dovedete, nc o dat, c ortografia reprezint o convenie academic, dar
o convenie care trebuie cunoscut i respectat, alturi de altele, asemntoare. Spre
deosebire de englez, funciile i calitile, orict de impoortante ar fi, se scriu cu minuscul:
avocat, cancelar, deputat, general, ministru, han, pa, prefect, rege, premier; la fel se scriu
numele unor medalii sau premii, titluri tiinifice i onorifice: doctor honoris causa, doctor n
filologie, membru de onoare al Academiei Romne.
n timp ce numele domeniilor la care se refer funciile se scriu cu
liter mic (ministrul de externe, ministrul afacerilor externe al...), numele oficiale
complete de funcii se scriu cu liter mare.
n componena unor nume proprii, cuvintele ajuttoare se scriu cu liter mic:
articolul sau particulele din unele nume de persoane romneti sau strine: Ludovic al XIV-
lea, tefan cel Mare, Leonardo da Vinci, Charles de Gaulle, Andrea del Sarto, Joachim du
Bellay, Abd el-Kader, Jeanne la Papesse, Ludwig van Beethoven, Friedrich von Schiller; la
fel, articolele, prepoziiile din nume de atri (Scroafa-cu-Purcei), de
entiti geografice i administrativ-teritoriale (America de Nord, Regatul Unit al Marii
Britanii i al Irlandei de Nord, Statele Unite ale Americii), instituii (Consiliul de Minitri al
...), srbtori (Ziua Internaional a Femeii). Spre deosebire de alte limbi, n care se scriu cu
majuscul substantivele care denumesc popoare, zilele sptmnii, lunile anului, disciplinele
de nvmnt, ortografia romneasc recomand scrierea lor cu litere mici. Adesea se
constat ns, la elevii i chiar la studenii romni, scrierea cu majuscul, probabil tocmai sub
influena acestor limbi. Se scrie, de regul, cu liter mare la iniial primul cuvnt dintr-o
not de subsol, inclusiv cnd ncepe cu abrevieri folosite n indicaiile bibliografice; titlu de
coloan dintr-un tabel etc.
Citatul, cnd nu este precedat de dou puncte, ncepe cu liter mic.
Se scrie cu liter mare n coresponden, cereri etc., cuvntul cu care ncepe
prima comunicare dup formula de adresare urmat de virgul: Domnule Director, Doamn
Decan.
Se scriu tot cu majuscul i alte realiti cu caracter religios: Sfntul Munte, Sfnta
Scriptur, Sfntul Mormnt, precum i pronumele personale care se refer la divinitate
923
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
(acestea constituind o particularitate a stilului religios) 7: dup mare mila Ta, ne rugm ie,
Doamne!
i pronumele de politee maxim se scrie cu liter mare, n coresponden.
Se scriu cu majuscul punctele cardinale, cnd au valoare de nume propriu,
desemnnd o regiune: importat din Apus / Vest, din Orient, n Apusul
Europei, n Orientul Apropiat; cnd nu au aceast valoare, numele punctelor cardinale se scriu
cu liter mic.
Titlurile de publicaii periodice, opere literare, tiinifice, artistice etc., emisiuni radio-
TV, documente de importan internaional sau naional se scriu, de asemenea, cu
majuscule: Adevrul literar i artistic (ziar), Amintiri din copilrie, Floarea
darurilor, Gramatica limbii romne, Limba romn (revist), O scrisoare pierdut,
Proclamaia de la Islaz, Psaltirea scheian, Regulamentul organic, Romnia literar,
Simfonia fantastic, Tatl nostru.
n englez, scrierea cu majuscule are n vedere:
pronumele personal de persoana I singular: I;
zilele sptmnii, lunile anului: Monday, Tuesday; January, February; Christmas;
numele de cartiere, strzi i monumente (cu excepia articolului): the Latin
Quarter; the Eiffel Tower, St Paul's Cathedral; Buckingham Palace, the White House, Oxford
Street, Fifth Avenue; the Middle East, the North Pole;
numele de naionaliti i religii: Japanese, English; Christianity, Buddhism;
titluri tiinifice sau universitare ale persoanelor, indifferent de poziia n enun:
Professor Jones, Dr Smith; Captain Kirk, King Henry VIII.
titlurile de cri, poezii, cntece, piese de teatru, filme (cu excepia prepoziiilor, a
articolelor, a particulei de genitiv of etc.): War and Peace, Like a Virgin;
n titlurile articolelor, recenziilor, referatelor etc.;
mai multe abrevieri i acronime utilizeaz punctul n mod facultativ, ca n romn:
G.M.T. sau GMT (Greenwich Mean Time); N.A.T.O. sau NATO (North Atlantic Treaty
Organization).
Scrierea numeralelor prezint i ea convenii diferite de la o limb la alta.
Data, de pild, se noteaz, n engleza american, n ordinea lun zi an
(11/24/2012), iar n engleza britanic, n ordinea zi lun an (24/11/2012), ca n romn;
necunoaterea acestor diferene poate duce la erori de traducere, uneori importante (data de
expirare a unui produs, a unui medicament etc.).
n ceea ce privete punctuaia, n limba francez se las ntotdeauna un spaiu
tipografic (blanc) naintea de dou puncte sau de punct i virgul8, ceea ce nu se ntmpl, de
pild, n englez i n romn. Spaniola plaseaz semnele de ntrebare i cele de exclamare la
nceputul frazei interogative i exclamative. n limba francez i englez se pune virgul
nainte de etc. (et caetera), n timp ce norma limbii romne nu permite aceasta.
7
Bardu 2011a, Bardu 2011b.
8
Personal considerm c acel spaiu lsat nainte de dou puncte sau punct i virgul aduce unele prejudicii
textului, ntruct computerul interpreteaz blancul respectiv ca o pauz dintre cuvinte, iar atunci cnd aceste
semn se afl la sfrit de rnd, le poate trece automat pe rndul urmtor.
924
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Cei familiarizai cu scrierea n limba englez au tendina s foloseasc ghilimelele
specifice acestei limbi (.), inclusiv n textele scrise n romn, unde ghilimelele au alt
poziie (.) sau francez (<<>>).
Principala dificultate de utilizare a regulilor de punctuaie i ortografie depinde, n
mare msur, de caracterul convenional al acestora (i fluctuaia lor n timp), conveniile
diferind i de la o limb la alta. Soluia bunei lor ntrebuinri ar fi cunoaterea aprofundat a
diferenelor dintre limbile utilizate, respectarea regulilor fcndu-se att n interiorul fiecrei
limbi, ct i n actul de traducere. De mare importan este i consultarea, ori de cte ori e
necesar, a lucrrilor normative n vigoare pentru fiecare limb n care se redacteaz textul.
Bibliografie
Bardu 2011a: Nistor Bardu, Stiluri i limbaje n limba romn actual, Ovidius University
Press, Constana, 2011.
Bardu 2011b: Nistor Bardu, Consideraii asupra stilului religios, n Aida Todi (coord.),
Filologie i didactic, Editura Universitar, Bucureti, 2011, p. 59-69.
Andronescu 1997: erban C. Andronescu, Tehnica scrierii academice, Editura Fundaiei
Romnia de mine, Bucureti.
DN 4: Florin Marcu, Noul dicionar de neologisme, Editura Academiei Romne, Bucureti,
1997.
DOOM 2: Academia Romn, Institutul de Lingvistic Iorgu Iordan Al. Rosetti,
Dicionarul ortografic, ortoepic i morfologic al limbii romne, Ediia a II-a revzut i
adugit, Univers Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2005.
DSL: Angela Bidu-Vrnceanu, Cristina Clrau, Liliana Ionescu-Ruxndoiu, Mihaela
Manca, Gabriela Pan-Dindelegan, Dicionar general de tiine. tiine ale limbii, Editura
tiinific, Bucureti, 1997.
Funeriu 1998: Ion Funeriu, Principii i norme de tehnoredactare computerizat, Timioara,
Amarcord.
Todi 2007a: Aida Todi, Pentru o limb romn corect, Bucureti, All.
Todi 2007b: De la DOOM 1 la DOOM 2. Probleme de fonetic, ortografie i ortoepie n cele
mai recente lucrri normative, n Annales Universitatis Apulensis, Seria Philologica, Alba
Iulia, 8/2007, p. 206-211.
http://www.betterlanguages.com/romanian/servicii-de-traducere/brandingul/
925
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
WHAT IS SEEN FROM THE HOSPITALITY/ HOSTILITY OF THE POSTMODERN
TEXT
Lucia ISPAS, Assistant Professor, PhD, Petroleum-Gas University of Ploieti
Abstract: Initially, Radu Petrescu had written a realistic novel, following the model offered by
Balzac and G. Clinescu, but he decided to re-write this novel by inserting in the original
canvas a postmodern meta-fictional work, in which he debated, throughout his characters,
topics concerning a theoretical approach to literature, similarly to the way in which he had
done that in his gigantic diary. Cosequently, Ce se vede (What One Can See) becomes a
complex organism, in the manner described by Ihab Hassan, which displays its anatomical
parts to be further investigated, a new novel that revolves around its nature and its condition.
Our paper aims at analysing the particular way in which logos (the literary theory/the
poetics of the text) and ethos (the assumed position and the goal of the writer) are igeniously,
still delicatly combined with pathos (the meta-, inter- and subtextual pleading), by re-shaping
and reconsidering these antique categories of the rhetorical triangle.
Keywords: logos, ethos, pathos, postmodernism, hos(ti)pitality
n anul 1971 aprea, n volumul Proze, scurta naraiune n Efes, care va sta la baza
romanului Ce se vede, publicat opt ani mai trziu. n realitate, distana temporal dintre cele
dou scrieri aparinnd lui Radu Petrescu este mult mai mare. n Efes este o producie literar
a anilor 50, scris n maniera lui Balzac, Clinescu ori Hortensia Papadat Bengescu, a crei
carnaie epic se articuleaz pe scheletul rigid construit n jurul temei motenirii. Primele 70
de pagini din romanul Ce se vede reiau naraiunea-matc, cu minime modificri privind
numele personajelor. Ceea ce se aduce nou prin romanul rezultat este inserarea unui mic tratat
de teorie literar, n care autorul precizeaz sau reia ideile despre scriitur, statutul autorului
sau al cititorului n opera literar sau dialectica privirii integratoare, aa cum procedase de
nenumrate ori n paginile jurnalelor sale antume, i nu numai. Produsul ce rezult este un
hibrid postmodern (n maniera descris de Ihab Hassan), care nu se sfiete s-i expun,
printr-o membran cu permeabilitate selectiv, toate organele interne care au dobndit alte
funcii dect cele consacrate, ocante i provocatoare.
Aparent ospitalier prin pseudo-realism, textul lui Radu Petrescu se dovedete ostil
pentru cititorul comod, consumator de convenii literare, prin oferta meta-romanului. Saltul de
la G. Clinescu la postmodernism poate da senzaia de vertij, dar autorul ne obinuise deja cu
integrarea teoriei literaturii n texte puin primitoare, n spe, jurnalele, devenite astfel mai
puin spaii ale autoanalizei i mai mult ale autoreflexivitii textuale, laboratoare de creaie
sau metajurnale. Ce se vede propune o structur uor abracadabrant prin tehnica relurii i a
colajului (care confer uneori impresia de broare greit a crii). Subiectul principal al
romanului rmne literatura, dei pare a fi lsat ntr-un con de umbr de evenimentele care
precipit firul narativ. Cartea se oglindete narcisic n propriile ape, reflectnd asupra imaginii
i statutului su, derutnd astfel cititorul de roman realist, dar respectnd viziunea autorului:
926
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Romanul, definit ca un obiect, ca o imagine unic deci, urmeaz s fie i el, n ntregul lui, ca
obiect, n prezent i cititorul poate s vad singur procesul lui de constituire.[ Meteorologia
lecturii, p. 181]. i pentru Radu Petrescu, liderul colii de la Trgovite, ca i pentru ceilali
membri ai gruprii literare, considerai a fi prini ai postmodernismului romnesc, orice
creaie literar include propria sa teorie literar1, iar scriitura e n centrul literaturii. 2
Autorul romanului se strduiete, prin intermediul pathosului, s conving cititorul,
altfel reticent i retractil, s accepte logosul. Textul este productivitate3, nate text, iar proza
devine utilitar4. ncrederea acordat scriitorului se manifest trziu, pentru c acesta opereaz
cu presupunerea c cititorul va accepta logosul fr ntrebri, ceea ce se ntmpl rar sau
aproape niciodat5. Uzitnd enthymenul, autorul i asum premisa omis: golul, lipsa,
fractura primesc valoarea unui semnificat, sau, uneori, a unui semnificant transcendental
rezultnd astfel auto-dezvluirea, complet sau nu a adevrului ca Logos.6 n Ce se vede,
scrisul i scriitura sunt chemate s vorbeasc despre propriile resorturi, despre mbinrile
lucrate cu finee de ceasornicar, care fac ca mecanismul literar s funcioneze. Fals tratat de
teorie literar, dar i fals roman realist, scriere livresc postmodern avant-la-lettre, n esen,
Ce se vede este o pledoarie n favoarea acceptrii menirii literaturii n primul rnd de ctre ea
nsi. Devenit form de meditaie pentru literatur, livrescul este, n acelai timp, un mod de
a fi, iar poetul livresc nu este acela care lefuiete la infinit temele tratate de alii, ci acela
pentru care lumea crilor este profund i vie ca orice creaie.7Metaromanul, dens i
ofertant, pune n abis condiia autorului n raport cu opera i cu personajele, dar i
participarea cititorului la actul de creaie. Dobndirea unei priviri integratoare devine astfel o
condiie necesar i suficient pentru ca att eroii, ct i autorul nsui s capete mult-rvnita
verticalizare (despre care vorbesc att jurnalele, ct i romanele O singur vrst sau Matei
Iliescu). n jurul acestor trei nuclee de interes graviteaz preocuparea scriitorului de a camufla
ntre paginile primitoare ale unui roman cuminte puncte de vedere teoretice originale i
ndrznee, nu numai pentru timpul n care au fost scrise sau publicate, ci i pentru literatura
actual.
Eroii din romanul lui Radu Petrescu sunt scrii i au intuiia acestui fapt. Din acest
punct de vedere, Matei Iliescu anticipeaz ntr-o mare msur dezvoltrile din Ce se vede
referitoare la contiina personajelor ca fiine de hrtie. 8Existena lor de cerneal este
rezultatul direct al minii sigure a autorului, o instan pn atunci doar intuit, unanim
acceptat, dar niciodat introdus n ecuaia comunicrii prin text. Acionnd ca un mic
Dumnezeu n interiorul propriei creaii, scriitorul i foreaz personajele s se aplece asupra
condiiei lor, dar i asupra relaiei cu creatorul. Crezi c trim n alt parte dect aici, ntre
hrtii?[p. 70, 158 i 168], se ntreba Poenreanu, unul dintre prietenii tnrului Eliade, eroul
romanului. Contiina asumatei condiii de personaj le d dreptul eroilor, altfel clinescieni,
1
Adrian Marino, Biografia ideii de literatur, vol. 3, Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1994, p. 280.
2
Jean Ricardou, Pentru o teorie a textului, Univers, Bucureti, 1980 p. 155.
3
Julia Kristeva, Pentru o teorie a textului, ed. cit., p. 252.
4
Jean Ricardou, Pentru o teorie a textului, ed. cit., p. 128.
5
John C. Bean, Virginia A.Chappel, Alice M. Gillam, Reading Rhetorically: Brief Edition, New York, Pearson
Longman, 2004, p. 73.
6
Jacques Derrida, Dissemination, University of Chicago Press, 1981, p. 26.
7
Eugen Simion, ntoarcerea autorului, Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1981, p. 451-452.
8
Mircea Benea, Farmecul discret al autoreflexivitii, Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 2000, p. 69.
927
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ca, ntr-un decor ostil, cobort parc din paginile romanului realist, s chestioneze rostul i
menirea autorului i a cititorului. Mai mult, au senzaia c pot reclama dreptul la ubicuitate,
putina de a fi n aceeai clip n locuri att de ndeprtate, tradus n text prin capacitatea
de a reproduce fidel un anumit eveniment, fr s fi participat direct la acesta i prin
acoperirea unor distane temporale foarte mari (din 1907 n 1977). Ca o consecin fireasc,
exist multiple reluri ale acelorai scene, din mai multe unghiuri, ceea ce se poate traduce la
nivelul tehnicii narative prin colaj, viziune palimpsestic, tehnica ppuilor Matrioca i aceea
a oglinzilor. Reluarea la nesfrit gsete n text i o explicaie mai profund, aflat n strns
legtur cu posibilitatea operei de a construi o lume i cu funcia ordonatoare a scrisului, acea
revelare a Tatlui prin Fiu:
ns, dac exist ntr-adevr o carte a vieii, atunci cteva, destule foi ale ei se vor
repeta ntocmai, spre mirarea cititorului care va socoti c e victima unei greeli de
broare, dac nu-i va aduce aminte c Iris, purttoarea de mesaje a lui Zeus,
repet ntocmai cuvintele, multe, puine, cte i-au fost ncredinate s le
transmit.[p. 152]
Spre finalul romanului, grupul de prieteni ajunge la realizarea faptului c niciunul
dintre membri nu ar putea s ndeplineasc cerinele pentru a deveni erou de roman. Insul care
i scrie, o fiin poate plictisit, lipsit de imaginaie, poate aerian, obosit sau abstras este
un mic tip splcit i aton i, dac locuiete undeva, locuiete ntr-un loc plin de fulgi, de praf,
de miros de tutun modest[p. 151] i nu le este de niciun folos: Scriitorul pune pe hrtie
semne, stimuli. Nu cred c personajul este opera cuiva anume. El este creat de puterea de a
visa a umanitii n generalitatea ei.[p.72] La fel gndea i Paul Valry, fr a fi inuit
pericolul contrazicerii, cnd pornea de la premiza c autorul este un personaj care ncurc
inutil datele problemei, un detaliu futil i c operele sunt fiicele formei lor9 (acel Tat sie
nsui de la Radu Petrescu), dar accepta, n ultim instan, autoritatea autorului, puterea lui
de a face, nu numai slbiciunea lui de a se lsa fcut10, deci scris. Autorul se obstineaz
totui s rmn o prezen constant, dar impalpabil. Concluzia la care ajunge grupul nu
mai poate surprinde: deoarece este alctuit din aceeai substan ca i ele, personajele i pot
fagocita autorul, ca o continuare fireasc a acelui demers cosmofagic pe care l ncepuser mai
nainte: ...ai devenit, astfel, univers, cci orice ins este, fr nicio tehnic un univers. Dar tu
ai nghiit universul. Cosmofagie ntr-un fel de acte manqu.[p. 125]. Prin theofagie (la
care antropologia face referire ca fiind devorarea zeului practicat n anumite culturi), acestea
i manifest revolta, dar, n acelai timp, proiecteaz raportul autor-creaie-personaj din
clieizare, n plin postmodernism: ...m-am interferat n mecanismul lumii cu chip uman, al
lumii antropomorfe, interiorizndu-mi-o sau nghiind acest om mare care e, poate, autorul
nostru, cel care ne scrie[p.127].
Printr-un fascinant proces de translaie, nu numai c eroii sunt o proiecie mental a
unui individ (sngele meu este cerneala lui, faptele mele i ale celorlali de aici sunt
respiraia lui[p.163])situat n acelai timp n, dar i deasupra textului, ci autorul nsui
devine ficiune, cu o existen trit, prin urmare scris, de ctre personajele sale (dup cum
9
Paul Valry, apud Eugen Simion, op. cit., p. 51.
10
Ibid., p. 54.
928
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
sugera i Valry: Autorul ateapt cu nelinite s fie creat de opera pe care a nscut-o11).
Aa cum mrturisea deseori n jurnalele sale, Radu Petrescu se temea de revolta personajelor
proprii, care i manifestau uneori refuzul de a-l asculta i foloseau o voce personal, scpat
de sub controlul autorului (n timp ce Dora l amuz, Matei rde de el, aa cum noteaz n
Prul Berenicei), dar se i surprindea alteori vorbind precum eroii si, mprumutnd unele
dintre replicile acestora. Marea majoritate a eroilor si din romane nu sunt altceva dect alter-
ego-uri, prelungiri ale eului care se mrturisea n jurnale, purttori de cuvnt ai scriitorului,
simple forme n care se turna mereu acelai fond personal. Mai mult, personajul din jurnale,
dual, cu o parte ancorat n cotidian, teluric, efigie a vocii auctoriale, iar o alta eteric, semn al
aparteneei la condiia de erou, este tot un eu de cerneal, un construct care triete doar n
paginile crii, incompatibil cu mult dezbtutele idei de sinceritate (categorie moral) sau
autenticitate (categorie estetic), condiii eseniale pentru ca un jurnal s nu se literaturizeze.
n romanul Ce se vede, fiina de carne a autorului este pulverizat i recompus n
spaiul ficiunii n una de hrtie, ca i a personajelor: vorbele repetate rarefiaz persoana
celui care le repet, pentru ca s aib din ce se alctui fiina, fr nume, dar foarte individual,
a celui repetat.[p.179] Avem astfel de-a face cu o de-construcie a instanei auctoriale: Acel
i totui nu-i nimic afar de mine indic o stare de alert a subiectivitii, o revolt a
creatorului care simte c opera este pe cale s-l nghit.12Autorul triete astfel n text, nu
numai prin text, revaloriznd toposul morii creatoare, asemeni Meterului Manole.13La Radu
Petrescu aceast idee apare menionat frecvent, n spaii literare care includ n aceeai
msur att jurnalul, ct i romanul: ...ai fost fcut doar pentru a scrie, pentru a tri doar n
ce scrii[Prizonier al provizoratului, p.79] sau sufletul meu e hrtia aceasta, pulsaiile lui
doar aici se simt[Ocheanul ntors, p. 41] ori ...eu cel real, ca om, sunt aici, n rndurile
acestea, i nu ca coninut, ci eu sunt chiar rndurile acestea, imaginile acestea, i dincolo, din
punctul de vedere a ceea ce este specific umanitii, nu exist[Prizonier al provizoratului, p.
50]
Dac la Paul Valry scriitorul se ndeprteaz de oper ca s se lase mai bine inventat
de ea, la Roland Barthes acesta este prins n rzboiul ficiunilor, nu este dect o
jucrie.14Eliade, Poenreanu, Ojescu, tinerii din romanul Ce se vede, contientizeaz aceast
prezen, o vd, manifest o team respectuoas fa de ea, dar o i desconsider: Am fi
avut dreptul la cineva mai puternic, capabil s ne scoat din nefiin, s ne dea sngele lui i
s ne vad n ntregime, aa cum suntem[p.151]. Oricare ar fi atitudinea lor, concluzia nu
poate fi alta dect c autorul, suferind de complexul Michelangelo, nu poate fiina dect n
universul imaterial al textului. Ppuar i ventriloc, acest ins gsete plcere, n concordan
cu moda postmodern, n a face din mnuirea marionetelor un spectacol n sine i din vorbitul
pe mai multe voci o art. Surprinztor este momentul n care este el nsui mnuit de ppuile
crora le-a dat via n text i realizarea faptului c nsi existena lui este revendicat i trit
de acestea: omul acesta mi aparine.[p.129] Radu Petrescu i explic clar aceast poziie n
Meteorologia lecturii:
11
Ibid., p. 59.
12
Eugen Simion, op. cit., p. 54.
13
Mircea Eliade, Comentarii la legenda Meterului Manole, Humanitas, Bucureti, 2004, p. 124.
14
Roland Barthes, apud Eugen Simion, op. cit., p. 104.
929
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Am dat singurul sens pe care l poate avea tragicul n literatur, unde nu este de
cutat n catastrofa eroilor contieni de a fi depit prin fora lor vital o limit
determinat de voina altor fore care acioneaz asemenea lor, ca text, n
straturile fabulei, zeii sau istoria, ci n aceea c orict de vii i de autonomi ne
par, eroii sunt totui scrii, nu au cum trece de limita aceasta i scrii n aa fel
nct cuvintele din care sunt fcui construiesc alturi de text prezena trupului
de aer al celui care i scrie i care le este astfel destin.[p.91]
Aa cum intuia Eugen Simion, lng elementele care determin procesul literar (autor,
oper, lume), poetica modern aaz un nou factor (lectorul) cu rol din ce n ce mai
important15. Aparent, autorul a disprut din text ca instituie, dar, n timpul lecturii revine n
chip cordial, deoarece plcerea textului l cere, l creeaz 16. Cititorul este, aadar, cealalt
instan asupra creia se apleac interogator personajele din romanul Ce se vede, fcnd din
spaiul generos, dar riguros al textului realist, unul neateptat de ospitalier. Aceast instan a
comunicrii literare, dintotdeauna intuit, dar rareori menionat constituie un alt centru de
interes n jurul crora se construiete miezul postmodern al unei scrieri ce prea a aparine
anilor 50. Forma cubic a textului include, pe lng autor-narator-personaje i aceast
instan, pn atunci implicit, devenit acum nu numai explicit, ci i extrem de necesar n
nsui procesul de creaie: Opera i creeaz propriile sensuri i le mbogete prin contactul
cu lectorii ei imprevizibili. 17
Radu Petrescu ne obinuise nc din jurnale cu grija aproape obsesiv fa de cel ce
avea s-i devin lector. Primul cititor al operei este, fr ndoial, autorul nsui: Cel care l
scrie l i citete n timp ce l scrie.[p. 72]. Acesta are puterea s cenzureze, s altereze i s
rescrie. Continuu nesatisfcut de felul n care produce literatur, venic incapabil s gseasc
acea fraz cu retractilitate de amoeb, diaristul se apleac mereu asupra textului, revenind,
refcnd sau reconsidernd. Autorul de jurnal ajunge astfel s se auto-deconstruiasc,
rescriindu-se permanent. Teama de cititorul n minile cruia avea s-i ncap jurnalul se
transform ntr-o adevrat obsesie, care l determin pe autor s-i analizeze mereu cu un
ochi critic fiecare pagin din ceea ce ar fi trebuit s fie mrturisire sincer i autentic. n
consecin, jurnalele publicate antum sunt mai puin semne ale trecerii individului Radu
Petrescu i mai mult laboratoare de creaie, ndreptare de lectur asistat sau micro-tratate de
teorie literar.
Personajele din romanul Ce se vede se contamineaz de aceast fobie, mprumutnd
ntructva vocea eroului diarist. Cu siguran, elementul inedit adus de romanul n discuie
este viziunea asupra statutului cititorului, care se modific radical, n concordan cu noile
tendine privitoare la teoria romanului. Sartre considera c pentru lector, totul este de fcut i
totul este deja fcut.18i vedea lectura ca fiind un pact de generozitate ntre autor i cititor,
fiecare are ncredere n cellalt, fiecare conteaz pe cellalt, cere de la cellalt ceea ce cere de
la sine19, lucru pe care l observa i Freud20, vorbind despre convenia tacit ncheiat ntre
15
Eugen Simion, op. cit., p. 417.
16
Eugen Simion, op. cit., p. 105.
17
Paul Valry, apud Eugen Simion, op. cit., p. 59.
18
Jean Paul Sartre, apud Eugen Simion, op. cit., p.80.
19
Ibid., p. 78.
20
Sigmund Freud, The Uncanny, Writing on Art and Literature, Stanford University Press, 1997, p. 227.
930
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
autor i cititor, n care i unul, i cellalt este contient de faptul c devine, pe rnd,
consumator i productor de literatur. n aceste circumstane, aa cum observa i Radu
Petrescu (att n jurnale, ct i n romane), lectorul nu mai este doar un simplu receptacul, ci
face parte din chiar structura textului.
Pronumele eu (din textul scris) desemneaz astfel, n primul rnd, principiul de
organizare a textului. Noi trimite la ansamblurile de fraze i cuvinte. naintnd
spre cititorul - care este astfel chemat i convocat n spaiul textului - voi
devine dominant, dar cititorul este mai nti actor gramatical ntre ceilali n
ptratul deschis i ridicarea la ptrat care e spaiul textului. 21
i pentru Jean Ricardou, lectura are urmri asupra textului, n sensul c l re-creeaz,
avnd fora de a scoate n eviden amnunte, semnificaii, la care numele de pe copert nu s-a
gndit. Cititorul se implic n oper, rescriind, substituindu-se adevratului creator22. Autorul
se las, astfel, scris, nu numai de ctre eroii si, ci i de cititori. Dac aceasta este relaia
acestei instane cu textul-convenie, cititorul devine, prin urmare, parte integrant a acestei
convenii: Dac vede, dac nu st pasiv s ningem n el, troienindu-l pe dinuntru?[p. 70].
Personajele au nevoie de prezena lui, l caut, l intuiesc, l provoac, dar acesta se obstineaz
s rmn un mister. Mai mult, asupra lui planeaz suspiciunea c s-ar putea dovedi incapabil
de a-i nelege, vnnd doar dovezile unei inexistente, dar prezumate culpabiliti a eroilor.
De un lector-infractor se temea i diaristul Radu Petrescu, de un personaj n cutare de
cancanuri, total dezinteresat de actul literar. n aceeai msur, romancierul, autorul lui Matei
Iliescu, intuia faptul c un cititor comod nu ar reui niciodat s-l recunoasc pe Tat revelat
prin Fiu. Din tot ceea ce a scris, rzbate att teama c, la ntlnirea cu crile sale, se va
prezenta numai un cititor opac, impermeabil, dar i sperana c se va gsi cineva capabil s
scrie, citind, mpreun cu el, cartea, devenind astfel parte a ntregului.
Creterea personajului ctre o noiune a identitii constituit prin intermediul
auto-reflexivitii (ntr-un sens filosofic mre, nu ntr-unul critico-literar
restrictiv) ajut la crearea corpului efemer al cititorului-personaj. 23(trad.ns.)
Dup ce propune i rezolv ecuaia devenit, de aceast dat, cu dou necunoscute
(autorul i cititorul), Radu Petrescu procedeaz la analiza celui de-al treilea nucleu de interes:
dialectica privirii (o idee ce descinde din cinematografie i tehnicile ei), bazat pe jocul
continuu dintre orizontalitate i verticalitate, o alt marot a reprezentanilor colii de la
Trgovite. Acest punct nodal avea s fie dezbtut att n materia jurnalelor, ct i n romanele
Matei Iliescu sau O singur vrst, n care se pune n discuie ideea de verticalizare (ridicare
deasupra platitudinii cotidianului prin iubire sau scris), de vizualizare a vidului, a spaiului
dintre obiecte (cnd vreau, vd perfect aerul, nsumndu-m lucrurilor, crend mpreun cu
ele universul[Catalogul micrilor mele zilnice, p.425]) sau fora integratoare a privirii
educate (i-am spus c un artist privind toate acestea descoper, n spaiul care desparte
arborii de copii i densitatea ierbii de cea a norilor, compoziia unei cri[Ocheanul ntors, p.
36]). Dac homo sapiens dezvluie rostul jocului, homo faber construiete regulile jocului, iar
21
Philippe Sollers, Pentru o teorie a textului, Univers, Bucureti, 1980, p. 278.
22
Jean Ricardou, apud Eugen Simion, op. cit., p. 418.
23
Peter Sorrel, Narrative Worlds and Fictional Worlds, New Brunswick, New York, 2009, p. 52.
931
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
homo ludens joac jocul24, Radu Petrescu i asum toate aceste mti i face din personajele
sale adevrate port-parole. Matei Iliescu, Alphonse sau Alexandru Eliade i prietenii si se
angajeaz n lungi discuii pe tema valenelor privirii, polemiznd, dar contientizndu-i
limitele. Eroii din Ce se vede, care se ntlnesc mai nti n spaiul sublimat al oglinzii (ca i
cei doi ndrgostii din Matei Iliescu), sunt capabili s l vad pe cel ce i scrie, care ajunge s
fie scris de ei, dar i pe acela ce-i citete, deconstruindu-i. Personaje, autor i cititor se
ntlnesc n spaiul textului prin simplul gest de ncruciare a privirilor ridicate sus, n acel loc
n care este posibil inevitabila sfidare a oricrui univers de expectaie i orice anticipare
probabil.25
Prin intermediul acestei dialectici, ni se ofer, n primul rnd, o nou abordare a
termenului de autoreferenialitate. Lectorul este invitat s observe cum, prin limbaj,
contorsionndu-se, textul se auto-analizeaz. Cuvntul este cel care leag pathosul de logos,
unealta care poate face dintr-un roman balzacian, un echipament de camuflaj pentru un tratat
de teorie literar postmodern, satisfcnd astfel pasiunea ethosului (tradus la autorul
trgovitean prin constanta, aproape obsesiva nevoie de a se analiza pe sine, ca scriitor, i
limitele artei sale). Dei, n aparen, lumea ficiunii nu este dependent de limbaj, ea nu poate
fiina dect prin intermediul i cu ajutorul limbajului26.Scrisul este un mod de a privi i
construi lumea; autorul i oblig cititorul s alterneze jocul prim-planurilor roman realist/
meta-roman. Prin lentila care mrete a unui ochean ntors, privirea (respectiv, lectura)
educat reuete s descopere adevratul miez al romanului-surpriz.
Pentru a mpinge experimentul i mai departe, cititorul este provocat s repare prpastia
care se casc ntre realitate i ficiune, ptrunznd, prin lecturi succesive, n ceea ce autorul
numea a treia dimensiune, aceea a receptrii. Artistul creeaz astfel, concomitent, dou
spaii, dintre care cel absolut nu este, paradoxal, cel al picturii, al ficiunii, ci acela din care
este privit pictura.[Meteorologia lecturiii, p. 105]. Funcia acestui spaiu este s se
lrgeasc mereu, cu fiecare nou cititor, pn la acoperirea spaiului real, a crii lumii, astfel, a
ei, n text, n jumtatea nescris, dar construit, a crii scrise.[Meteorologia lecturiii, p. 88].
Lectorul ajunge aadar s fie text al textului lumii i text al celui care l scrie.
Sugestia lui Radu Petrescu, de a contempla n noi ceea ce el numea arhitecturile lumii,
poate constitui o soluie de comportament valabil n demersul de umplere att a vidului
dintre real i ficional, ct i a aceluia care se nate din conflictul dintre dorina de a fi
amuzai, curtai, i provocarea pe care o lanseaz un text palimpsestic, n care rescrierile
multiple, oglindirile succesive, alternarea rolurilor instanelor consacrate i tehnicile narative
experimentale nu nseamn numai ieirea dintr-o zon de siguran, ci i mbrtiarea de ctre
cititor a unei cariere de ziditor de lumi. Dialectica privirii se transform ntr-o filosofie a
vieuirii n i prin text.
Abordarea arhitectural este modul pathosului de a se strecura, iscoditor i jucu,
n locuri unde complexitatea fenomenologic sau structural se manifest
minimal, iar nelesurile puse n joc pot fi foarte semnificative.27
24
Ghe. M. tefan, Ethos, pathos, logos. Eseuri despre o dialectic ternar, All, Bucureti, 2010, p. 73.
25
Jacques Derrida, Of Hospitality, Stanford University Press, California, 2000, p. 83-84.
26
Ruth Ronen, Possible Worlds in Literary Theory, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1994, p. 34.
27
Ghe. M. tefan, op. cit., p. 82.
932
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Radu Petrescu i proiectase opera, nc de la nceput, ca pe un edificiu de dimensiuni
impresionante, ale crui corpuri, dei separate n aparen, se constituiau unul n prelungirea
celuilalt, lasnd ideile s circule ntre ele, pe principiul vaselor comunicante. n toat creaia,
fie aceasta jurnal, roman, proz scurt sau ndreptar de lectur, autorul se mrturisete pe sine,
se include ntre pliurile textului, lsnd multiplelor alter-ego-uri un liber arbitru restrns,
condiionat de capacitatea acestora de a se transforma n purttori de cuvnt ai autorului.
Crile i co-r/(e)spund, permind autorului s se manifeste liber, diferit, dar constant.
Apetena pentru scriptural, livresc, analiza literaturii din interior i asumarea acestei meniri
(ethos) putea fi transpus n spaiul textului direct (logos) sau mascat, prin intermediul
pathosului. n acest sistem, n Efes nu putea, n forma sa iniial, s ndeplineasc acest
funcie. Romanul nou rezultat prin adiie era echipat pentru a oferi autorului certitudinea c a
obinut unitatea operei sale. Ce se vede este un text ospitalier pentru consumatorul de proz
realist, cu un aer uor vetust, dar ostil prin multele inserii de pur teorie literar, prin
corul/duelul vocilor narative, prin multele reluri din unghiuri diferite, care deruteaz i
solicit. n acelai timp, pentru scriitor, un teren arid (un roman balzacian pe tema motenirii),
neprietenos fa de inteniile lui primare (pledoaria pentru logos) se dovedete a fi extrem de
primitor. Vieuind n decorul unei societi tulburi, printre bombardamente i cutremure, eroii
i permit luxul de a se apleca asupra condiiei lor de personaje, asupra autorului i cititorului,
chestionnd i oferind soluii de interpretare originale, dar n concordan cu spiritul vremii.
ncheiat de la primul rnd al textului scris, convenia autorului cu lectorul i modific
termenii cu fiecare cititor, dar i cu fiecare lectur succesiv. Romanul devine, pe rnd, un
text ospitalier i ostil, cu ajutorul cruia Radu Petrescu i poate revendica statutul de printe
al postmodernismului romnesc.
Bibliografie
Ediii citate
Catalogul micrilor mele zilnice, Humanitas, Bucureti, 1999
Ce se vede, Paralela 45, Piteti, 2009
Meteorologia lecturii, Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1982
Ocheanul ntors, Allfa Paideia, Bucureti, 1996
Prizonier al provizoratului, Paralela 45, Piteti, 2002
Bibliografie critic
Bean, John C.; Chappel, Virginia A.; Gillam, Alice M, Reading Rhetorically: Brief Edition,
New York, Pearson Longman, 2004,
Benea, Mircea, Farmecul discret al autoreflexivitii, Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 2000,
Derrida, Jacques, Dissemination, University of Chicago Press, 1981,
Derrida, Jacques, Of Hospitality, Stanford University Press, California, 2000,
Eliade, Mircea, Comentarii la legenda Meterului Manole, Humanitas, Bucureti, 2004,
Freud, Sigmund, The Uncanny, Writing on Art and Literature, Stanford University Press,
1997,
Kristeva, Julia, Problemele structurrii textului, n Pentru o teorie a textului, Univers,
Bucureti, 1980,
933
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Marino, Adrian, Biografia ideii de literatur, vol. 3, Dacia, Cluj-Napoca, 1994,
Ricardou, Jean, Literatura: o critic n Pentru o teorie a textului, Univers, Bucureti, 1980,
Ronen, Ruth, Possible Worlds in Literary Theory, Cambridge University Press, New York,
1994, Simion, Eugen, ntoarcerea autorului, Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti, 1981,
Sollers, Philippe, Pentru o teorie a textului, Univers, Bucureti, 1980,
Sorrel, Peter, Narrative Worlds and Fictional Worlds, New Brunswick, New York, 2009,
tefan, Ghe. M, Ethos, pathos, logos. Eseuri despre o dialectic ternar, All, Bucureti,
2010.
934
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
UNIVERSAL CULTURE VS. GLOBAL CULTURE
Aurora PACAN, Assistant, PhD, University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Trgu-Mure
Abstract: Universality is generally regarded as a system of values common to all cultures. In
the context of globalization and the expansion of the media system, the dialogue between
cultures intensified and diversified. Some pessimists perceive globalization as a roller that
flattens differences and annihilates the personality and individuality of nations, proposing a
kind of cultural promiscuity. If we are moving towards a global indiferent, flattened culture
or, conversely, to a cultural flourishing in all its diversity is a question that currently troubles
not only cultural but also social, political and economic media.
Keywords: culture, universality, globalization, mass-media
Cultura aparine celor mai intime i mai complexe structuri ale naturii fiinei umane.
Sensul vieii omeneti nu poate fi conceput n afara culturii. Se poate afirma c, dac omul
creeaz cultura, i cultura creeaz omul, i confer scopul suprem al existenei sale, adic i
legitimeaz nevoile situate n vrful piramidei lui Maslow. Nu exist o definiie standard a
culturii, ci, mai degrab, o serie de teoretizri convergente.
Una dintre primele definiii ale termenului a fost oferit de antropologul englez
Edward Burnett Tylor (1832-1917), care prezint cultura drept un ansamblu complex ce
include cunoaterea, credinele, arta, morala, dreptul, tradiiile i orice alte producii i
modaliti de via create de omul ce triete n societate1. Ovidiu Drimba definete cultura
n sens mai restrns, cu referire doar la aspectul spiritual: Cultura include n sfera ei
atitudinile, actele i operele limitate - ca genez, intenie, motivare i finalitate - la domeniul
spiritului i al intelectului. Opera, actul i omul de cultur urmresc satisfacerea nevoilor
spirituale i intelectuale; revelarea de sine, descoperirea necunoscutului, explicaia misterului
i plcerea frumosului. Iar n raporturile cu natura, cu omul, cu societatea, urmresc stabilirea,
nu a unor relaii practice, utilitare, sau de instrumentalizare a unuia de ctre cellalt, ci a unei
relaii de comunicare, de cutare, de regsire n cellalt. 2 Unele definiii ale culturii vizeaz
i cteva semnificaii ale conceptului de civilizaie. n viziunea lui Ovidiu Drimba, cele dou
noiuni se refer la dou domenii distincte ale activitii umane: Civilizaie nseamn
totalitatea mijloacelor cu ajutorul crora omul se adapteaz mediului (fizic i social), reuind
s-l supun i s-l transforme, s-l organizeze i s i se integreze. Tot ceea ce aparine
orizontului satisfacerii nevoilor materiale, confortului i securitii, nseamn civilizaie.3
tiinele comunicrii definesc cultura cam n aceti termeni: Producerea i
reproducerea cultural a sensului, nelesului i contiinei. Sfera nelesului, care unific sfera
1
Tylor, E. B., apud Pierre Bonnte i Michel Izard, Dicionar de etnologie i antropologie, trad. de Smaranda
Vultur i Radu Rutu, Editura Polirom, Iai, 1999, p. 682.
2
Ovidiu Drimba, Istoria culturii i civilizaiei, Editura SAECULUM I.O., Bucureti, 2007, p. 6.
3
Ovidiu Drimba, Istoria culturii i civilizaiei, Editura SAECULUM I.O., Bucureti, 2007, p. 6.
935
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
produciei (economicul) i cea a relaiilor sociale (politicul). 4 O definire strict e aproape
imposibil de configurat n condiiile n care termenul se folosete ntr-o varietate de contexte,
uneori fr nici o legtur ntre ele: cultura european, cultura tinerilor, persoan cult, cultura
clasei muncitoare, cultur victorian, sau perl de cultur, cultur de bacterii, agricultur. Prin
urmare, termenul cultur este multidiscursiv: poate fi discursul naionalismului, al modei, al
criticii literare, al marxismului, al feminismului. n fiecare dintre aceste cazuri, nelesul
termenului cultur va fi determinat relaional sau n mod negativ, prin difereniere de celelalte
din acelai discurs, dar nu n mod pozitiv, prin referire la vreo proprietate intrinsec sau
evident, care s fie fixate n eternitate ca fiind esenialmente culturale.5
Iniial, termenul se referea la agricultur, la cultivarea solului, a plantelor, apoi a ajuns
s cuprind i cultura de fiine vii. De aici deriv sensul de cultivarea minii, consacrat n
timpul capitalismului agrar timpuriu din secolele XVII i XVIII. Capitalismul urban,
industrial din secolul XIX pare s nu respecte acest neles al culturii. Termenul de cultur a
fost consacrat, n special de ctre Matthew Arnold i continuatorii lui, ca reprezentnd
cutarea nu a perfeciunii materiale, ci a celei spirituale, cu ajutorul cunoaterii i practicii
marii literaturi, a artelor fine i a muzicii serioase.6 Criticii acestui concept
argumentau c definirea elitist a culturii exclude majoritatea oamenilor, oferind cultura
doar unei minoriti de oameni culi. n plus, diviziunea culturii se suprapune i peste alte
diviziuni sociale, cum ar fi cele de clas, gen, ras etc. Hoggart (1957) i Williams (1958) au
declanat ofensiva pentru demolarea supremaiei culturii engleze de elit. Apoi, studiile
culturale au dus la transformarea conceptului de cultur n termenii abordrilor
multiculturaliste.7
Ce mai nseamn astzi sintagmele cultur naional, cultur european, cultur
global i cultur universal? Sunt acestea nite cercuri concentrice care trebuie depite
pentru a permite accesul culturii unei colectiviti distincte n contiina planetar sau doar
nite etichete goale de sensuri n contextul postmodernitii i al fragmentrii societilor ntr-
un mozaic multicultural? Aceast contrapondere universal/global nu poate fi ignorat n
studiile culturale post(post)moderne i se axeaz n mare msur pe tensiunea dintre ideile de
valoare umanist i vizibilitate planetar. n postmodernism, nu se mai aplic principiul
cartezian cuget deci exist. El s-a transformat, sub influena pragmatismului culturii media,
centrat pe vizual, n sunt vzut, deci exist.8
Emil Cioran scria, nc din 1939, c se poate realiza o clasificare a culturilor n culturi
mari i culturi mici, cele mari tinznd s creeze destinul celor mici, s le determine, s le
nglobeze, i se ntreba dac Romnia i alte culturi mici vor reui vreodat se impun n
istorie i n cultura universal. Marul marilor culturi n istorie seamn... unei fataliti,
cci nimic nu le poate opri de la pornirea lor de a se afirma i individualiza, de a impune stilul
lor de via altora i de a robi totul fascinaiei lor violente.9 Dac aceste culturi mici se tem
4
Tim O'Sullivan, John Hartley, Danny Saunders, Martin Montgomery, John Fiske, Concepte fundamentale din
tiinele comunicrii i studiile culturale, trad. de Monica Mitarc, Editura Polirom, Bucureti, 2001, p. 92.
5
Ibidem, p. 93.
6
Ibidem, p. 94.
7
Ibidem, p. 95.
8
Mihaela Constantinescu, Post/postmodernismul: Cultura divertismentului, Editura Univers Enciclopedic,
Bucureti, 2001, p.52.
9
Emil Cioran, Schimbarea la fa a Romniei, Humanitas, Bucureti, 1990, p. 8.
936
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
de asimilare i dispariie, postmodernitatea pune la ndoial chiar i viabilitatea conceptului de
cultur ca areal spiritual.
Societatea contemporan trece printr-un amplu proces de schimbare a paradigmei
culturale sub influena evoluiilor din tiin, a noilor forme de manifestare a artei i de
propagare a culturii prin mediile de comunicare. Cultura postmodern este asociat, prin toate
structurile i articulaiile sale interioare, cu ideea de globalizare. n viziunea lui Gianni
Vattimo, postmodernitatea presupune pluralitate i gndire slab: Post-modernitatea este
epoca unei gndiri nu att fragmentate, ct a pluralitii; chiar trecerea de la unitate la
pluralitate e o form de slbire... Gndirea slab accept elementele postmodernitii: sfritul
metafizicii, sfritul viziunii unitare.10 n acest sens, Vattimo consider c postmodernitatea
poate fi descris doar n termenii sfritului istoriei.
Conceptul de sfrit al istoriei face obiectul celebrei scrieri al lui Francis Fukuyama,
Sfritul istoriei i ultimul om care dezvolt ideile coninute ntr-un articol al aceluiai autor,
articol care a fcut vlv n 1989, fiind publicat n ziarul american The National Interest.
Autorul demonstreaz aici c cele dou fore care au pus n micare istoria, i anume logica
tiinei moderne i lupta pentru recunoatere au dus la cderea regimurilor totalitare i
instaurarea democraiei liberale de tip occidental i a societii de consum. Dar libertatea i
egalitatea politic i economic au condus de fapt la sfritul istoriei, iar omul, n acest fel,
satisfcut, a devenit ultimul om, pentru c va fi ncetat s munceasc i s lupte.11
Fukuyama merge mai departe, proclamnd chiar i sfritul culturii i al artei, pentru c
artitii nu ar mai putea spune nimic esenial nou despre condiia uman.12
Dar, probabil, cel mai mare pericol pentru cultura modern vine dintr-o direcie care
nu are nimic de-a face cu viziunea lui Giani Vattimo sau teoriile lui Fukuyama. Cultura este
comunicaional, prin urmare ea se bazeaz, n prezent, ntr-o bun msur, pe mijlocele de
comunicare n mas. Dar, de la sfritul secolului XX, mass-media s-a apropiat din ce n ce
mai mult de divertisment, livrnd aproape toate tipurile de informaii n acest ambalaj.
Inclusiv cultura trebuie s se conformeze acestui deziderat, dac dorete s se menin n
atenia publicului.
n prezent, trim ntr-o civilizaie a imaginii. Oriunde ne-am afla, suntem asediai de
imagini care impregneaz att lumea noastr material, ct i pe cea mental. Chiar peisajul
natural a fost confiscat de industria publicitar, astfel nct nu mai putem admira o plaj
nsorit sau o superb cascad fr s asociem, n subcontient, imaginea lor cu anumite
produse promovate n decoruri de acest fel. Toate aspectele vieii noastre i toate alegerile pe
care le ntreprindem sunt determinate nu att de realiti, ct de imaginea lor, astfel nct
imaginea nu mai e o reprezentare a realitii; ea a devenit mai real dect realitatea nsi.
Cultura imaginii, care s-a propagat cu repeziciune n satul global, a cucerit totul,
chiar i teritoriile pe care le-am fi crezut ferite de un astfel de pericol, spaii situate ntr-o cu
totul alt sfer a experienei umane. Cultura crii, Galaxia Gutenberg, a fost subminat de
cultura imaginii, iar lectura pare, din ce n ce mai mult, o ocupaie anacronic sau excentric.
Arta i-a pierdut, cumva, funcia primordial de reflectare a realitii, n condiiile n care nu
10
Gianni Vattimo, Sfritul modernitii, trad. de tefania Mincu, Editura Pontica, Constana, 1993, p. 185.
11
Francis Fukuyama, Sfritul istoriei i ultimul om, trad. de Mihaela Eftimiu, Editura Paideia, Bucureti, 1994,
p. 268.
12
Ibidem.
937
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
mai poate face distincie ntre realitate i imagine, fapt ce a condus la o criz profund a
tuturor domeniilor sale. Imaginarul artistic se construiete acum prin plierea sa pe imaginarul
mediatic, iar artitii contemporani s-au vzut obligai s se adapteze la aceast ruptur
dramatic a artei de realitate. Singurul mimetism al artei, posibil n acest context, este cel de
camuflare n culorile mediului13, dup cum observ Mircea Crtrescu, de adaptare la
cultura media.
Opera cultural este, n general, creaia unui singur autor, menit s fie diseminat
nspre ct mai muli receptori, n msura n care ea valorific, n structura sa de suprafa sau
n cea de profunzime, experiene individuale relevante pentru o colectivitate ct mai larg.
Aceast formul simpl, care l oblig pe creator s se sincronizeze cu aspiraiile comunitii
din care face parte, capt dimensiuni copleitoare n contextul erei globalizrii i
mediatizrii. Un individ poate s aparin unei colectiviti virtual - reale dispersate n toate
colurile lumii, n timp ce este total necunoscut oamenilor ce triesc n imediata proximitate.
Conceptul de identitate s-a pulverizat sau i-a remodelat conformaia teoretic i practic, iar
ntrebarea: Cine sunt eu? sau, pentru un artist: Pentru cine creez eu?, e cu siguran tot
mai tulburtoare. Orice produs cultural poate inti astzi spre o audien planetar, fapt ce
nu poate fi ignorat n nici una din fazele proiectului propus. Pe ct de tentant pare astzi
misiunea creatorului, pe att este de dificil, deoarece el a primit dreptul, dar i datoria de a fi
cetean ai satului global.
n contextul globalizrii i al expansiunii sistemului mediatic, dialogul ntre culturi s-a
intensificat i diversificat. n paralel cu deschiderea fa de alte culturi, s-a meninut sau chiar
a crescut efortul de meninere a identitii culturale a unor comuniti. Zygmunt Bauman,
comparnd termenii universalizare, creat de gndirea modern i cel de globalizare, nscut
de societatea postmodern, atribuie celui din urm conotaii negative. Precum conceptele de
civilizaie, dezvoltare, convergen, consens i alte cuvinte - cheie de la nceputurile gndirii
moderne i din perioada clasic a acesteia, ideea de universalizare emana speran, intenia i
hotrrea de a face ordine [...] Nimic din toate acestea nu a rmas n definiia globalizrii,
aa cum o red discursul actual. Termenul nou se refer n primul rnd la efectele globale, n
proporie covritoare neintenionate i neprevzute, mai curnd dect la iniiativele i
ntreprinderile globale.14 Sociologul polonez afirm c globalizarea este ceea ce ni se
ntmpl tuturor ntr-o imens no mans land, ce se ntinde dincolo de capacitatea de
gndire i aciune a omului. Bauman consider c globalizarea nu este dect un alt nume
pentru noua dezordine mondial: Sensul cel mai profund transmis de ideea de globalizare
const n caracterul ei nedefinit, dezorganizat i autopropulsat al problemelor lumii: lipsa
centrului, a unui pupitru de comand, a unui consiliu de decizie, a unui birou managerial. 15
El ntreprinde observaii extrem de drastice cu privire la manipularea prin mass-media i
efectele exploziei tehnologiilor comunicaionale, notnd c tot ce poate face calculatorul
pentru lumea a treia este s-i nregistreze prbuirea cu mai mult acuratee.16. n viziunea
sa, mult elogiata reea global de comunicaii, ntmpinat ca un fundament tehnologic al
13
Mircea Crtrescu, Postmodernismul romnesc, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2010, p. 477.
14
Zygmunt Bauman, Globalizarea i efectele ei sociale, trad. de Marius Conceatu, Editura Antet, Filipetii de
Trg, Prahova, 2005, p. 60.
15
Ibidem, p. 59.
16
Ibidem, p. 71.
938
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
unei iminente egaliti, de fapt, funcioneaz selectiv, n favoarea celor puini,
dezavantajndu-i i marginalizndu-i pe cei muli.
Revoluia informatic a creat o foame de informaii care nu e niciodat pe deplin
satisfcut. Se vorbete mereu despre necesitatea de informare, dar, atrage atenia Horia
Roman Patapievici, simplul transport de informaie nu are niciun fel de virtui spirituale.
Convingerea c Internetul este o reea de nfrire ntre toi oamenii lumii e complet greit,
afirm eseistul i ne reamintete cuvintele lui Heraclit: Mulimea cunotinelor nu te nva
s ai minte.17 Informaia nu poate fi procesat i organizat dect prin discernmnt, termen
care, n societatea modern nseamn, dup definiia lui Patapievici: [...] facultatea de a
decide, n condiii de incomensurabilitate a criteriilor, att valoarea relativ a paradigmelor
incomensurabile, ct i dezirabilitatea teoriilor morale bazate pe acestea.18 Aici pot exista
dou tipuri de atitudini: fie discernmntul este inutil i atunci deciziile bazate pe existena
paradigmelor incomensurabile sunt arbitrare i iraionale, fie discernmntul este esenial
pentru orice ntreprindere uman, ceea ce nseamn c nu totul poate fi redus la calcule sau
algoritmi. Horia Roman Patapievici consider corect cea de-a doua abordare: viciul
modernitii nu este c vrea s explice totul prin calcule, ci c exclude din fiin tot ce nu se
poate calcula.19 Cea mai grav boal a omului recent, a omului global este, n viziunea lui
Patapievici, lipsa discernmntului: Cu timpul, va trebui s descoperim c, fr
discernmnt, cultul pentru acumularea a ct mai mult informaie nu este dect o form
sofisticat de barbarie, bazat pe glorificarea stupid a ignoranei, n cele dou forme care fac
legea n lumea globalizat de azi: cultul vanitos al specializrii nguste i aversiunea
consumatorilor de cultur popular pentru ceea ce ei i turiferarii lor populiti, cu resentiment
i arogan, numesc cultura elitelor (evident, pentru oamenii cu discernmnt, un nonsens i
o form de mitocnie).20
Teoreticianul Adrian Dinu Rachieru se ntreab dac, dup un Ev mediu catolic, am
pit ntr-un Ev mediu catodic, care posed aceeai capacitate imens de srcire a
umanului: Globalizarea mediatic [...] nseamn, ntr-un sens, ntoarcerea la tribalism. 21
Mass-media a produs o nou cultur i tot ea a avut un rol decisiv n constituirea satului
planetar sau chiar a tribului planetar22 Teoreticianul afirm c epoca noastr este marcat
de o virulen ideologic, descrcat mediatic sub ambalaje mincinoase, ceea ce o face
extrem de vulnerabil. Globalizarea ar trebui s nsemne responsabilizare fa de problemele
omenirii i nu refugiul ntr-o euforie mediatic iresponsabil. 23
n opinia futurologului american Alvin Toffler, civilizaia se definete prin
modalitile de a produce mijloace de subzisten sau chiar bogie: n trecut, agricultura, apoi
industria, acum cu o nou ramur, care a cptat o amploare imens, industria
calculatoarelor.24 Cele trei nivele de dezvoltare, numite de Toffler Primul, al Doilea i Al
17
Horia Roman Patapievici, Omul recent, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2008, p. 250.
18
Ibidem, p. 251.
19
Horia Roman Patapievici, Omul recent, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2008, p. 251.
20
Ibidem, p. 253.
21
Adrian Dinu Rachieru, Globalizare i cultur media, Editura Institutul European, Iai, 2003, p. 11.
22
Ibidem, p. 111.
23
Ibidem.
24
Alvin Toffler, Al treilea val, trad. de Georgeta Bolomey i Dragan Stoianovici, Editura Antet i Lucman,
Filipetii de Trg, Prahova i Bucureti, fr an de apariie, p. 17.
939
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Treilea Val, vor produce pe viitor conflicte importante. Toffler arat c intelectualii regiunilor
economic napoiate scriu imnuri naionale, n timp ce poeii i intelectualii statelor celui de-al
Treilea Val cnt despre o lume globalizat, fr frontiere. De fapt, conflictele majore,
consider el, se afl la graniele dintre aceste civilizaii. De la conflictele minore, bazate pe
diferenele culturale, se ajunge la conflicte majore, la adevrate bi de snge, care
intereseaz mase mult mai largi de oameni, aflai pe diferite trepte ale civilizaiei. Asistm n
prezent la o uluitoare diversitate de rzboaie separatiste, violene etnice i religioase, lovituri
de stat, dispute asupra frontierelor, frmntri civile i rzboaie teroriste, mpingnd valuri de
imigrani chinuii de srcie i alungai de rzboaie, (precum i hoarde de traficani de
droguri) peste hotarele naionale. n economia global tot mai strns integrat, aceste mici
conflicte declaneaz efecte secundare n rile nconjurtoare (i chiar i n cele mai
ndeprtate.) Astfel un scenariu cu multe rzboaie mici i determin pe planificatorii militari
ai multor armate s priveasc din nou spre ceea ce ei numesc operaiuni speciale sau fore
speciale- rzboinicii de ni ai zilei de mine. 25
n Paroxistul indiferent, Jean Baudrillard se pronun n sensul unei delimitri clare
ntre mondial i universal, care nu numai c nu evolueaz mpreun, dar se i exclud.
Mondializarea este cea a tehnicilor, a pieei, a turismului, a informaiei. Universalitatea este a
valorilor, a drepturilor omului, a libertilor, a culturii, a democraiei. Mondializarea pare
ireversibil, n timp ce universalitatea e mai curnd pe cale de dispariie.26 Conceptul de
universalitate a fost lansat de cultura occidental, afirm Baudrillard, dorindu-se a fi un sistem
de valori care s anuleze diferenele dintre culturile pe care le include, situndu-se, n acelai
timp, deasupra lor. Considernd c rostul oricrei valori este de a deveni universal, nu
nelegem c, n acest fel, valoarea dispare, se pierde n universal. Astfel, democraia,
drepturile omului etc. sunt valori care, prin expansiunea lor, s-au diluat pn la anulare.
Globalizarea nseamn, n primul rnd, flexibilitatea pieei, circulaia fr precedent a
bunurilor i a banilor, ntr-un fel de promiscuitate economic ce i gsete echivalent i n
cultur, prin difuzarea mondial a tuturor valorilor. Astfel, nu mai exist nici o diferen ntre
universal i mondial, crede Baudrillard. Vestea bun ar fi c, dup spargerea oglinzii
universalului, singularitile revin la via, ca micri de rezisten la dominaia universalului.
Aceast resurgen, dac nu chiar aceast insurecie a singularitii poate mbrca forme
violente, animalice, iraionale dac o privim din punctul de vedere al gndirii luminate -
forme etnice, religioase, lingvistice, dar i la nivelul individului, caracteriale i nevrotice.27
n lipsa acestor singulariti care s fac diferena, ne ndreptm spre o cultur indiferent.
In viziunea lui Baudrillard, societile mai puin dezvoltate, adolescente au acum ansa de a
fi considerate de avangard, [...] nu societile noastre occidentale, mbuibate cu privilegiul
lor tehnologic, ca i cu un evoluionism feroce i drept-cugettor, care le interzice s se mai
gndeasc i la altceva dect la supremaia mondial a propriului lor model.28
25
Alvin Toffler, Rzboi i anti-rzboi, trad. de Mihnea Columbeanu, Editura Antet, Filipetii de Trg, Prahova,
1995, p.88.
26
Jean Baudrillard, Paroxistul indiferent, trad. de Bogdan Ghiu, Editura Idea Design & Print, Cluj-Napoca,
2001, p.16.
27
Ibidem, p.17.
28
Ibidem, p.19.
940
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
n viziunea lui Jean Baudrillard, cultura media e menit s ofere individului un bagaj
minim de cunotine, ceea ce el numete cea mai mic cultur comun, care nu mai
reprezint un bagaj cognitiv n sensul propriu al termenului, ci un straniu corpus de semne i
referine, de semnale intelectuale la mod, care se constituie n cultura de mas. Baudrillard
e convins c, inevitabil, comunicarea de mas exclude cultura i cunoaterea. Nu putem pune
problema unor adevrate procese simbolice sau didactice, cci ar nsemna s compromitem
participarea colectiv fr de care ceremonia n-ar avea sens - participare ce nu se poate
consacra dect printr-o liturghie, un cod formal de semne golite cu grij de orice reziduu de
sens.29 Concluzia ar fi c este inutil s confruntm valoarea culturii savante cu a culturii
mediatice. Acelai teoretician nu d nici o ans omului postmodern, considernd c el nu mai
are destin, nu mai e un subiect, ci are, mai degrab, conformaie de clon. Statutul su este
straniu, el este asemenea unei particule, unui corpuscul, unei molecule, unui electron liber,
unei monade.30
n privina confruntrii dintre global i universal s-au cristalizat, evident, dou curente
de opinie. Unul este cel exprimat de teoreticieni precum Bauman i Baudrillard, care
consider c globalizarea va conduce n mod inevitabil la exacerbarea tensiunilor interetnice
i interstatale. Pesimitii percep globalizarea ca pe un tvlug care niveleaz diferenele
culturale i anihileaz personalitatea i individualitatea naiunilor. Ali comentatori au o
viziune mai optimist asupra globalizrii, care ar duce la nflorirea culturilor, n toat
diversitatea lor, cu att mai mult cu ct au la dispoziie mijloace fr precedent de a se face
cunoscute. Aceast abordare este preferat i de Ioan Bari: Sunt scoase la iveal limbi
ignorate, tradiii locale, [...] Ideea c integrarea statelor atrofiaz culturile este dezminit pe
plan regional de ceea ce se ntmpl n Europa. Instituiile i economia se pot integra, nimeni
nu se atinge de culturi.31 Totui, gsirea echilibrului ntre integrare i dreptul de a fi diferit
reprezint o problem dificil, att la nivelul individului, ct i al statului din care face parte.
n aceast polemic, uneori, cu accente patetice, Steven Connor adopt o poziie
raional, suinut de o argumentaie pertinent. Connor accept c formele de organizare i
exprimare politic pot fi variabile n funcie de coordonatele geografice i istorice, dar
principiile i valorile care le genereaz nu pot fi supuse aceleiai fragmentri: [...] ce
principiu, exceptnd un principiu colectiv, desigur, un principiu universal, ar putea garanta
posibilitatea unei negocieri libere ntre aceste multiple centre de interes sau ntre jocurile de
limbaj eterogene ale lui Lyotard? 32 n opinia teoreticianului, politica postmodern a culturii
ar trebui s nu admit sistemele care impun uniformitatea prin retorica universalitii. Pe de
alt parte, nu exist argumente viabile de combatere a unor principii universale, precum
libertatea i dreptatea. Critica postmodern a sistemelor opresive ale universalitii depinde,
implicit, de contientizarea dreptului universal al fiecrui om de a nu fi supus unui regim
injust i tiranic. Altfel, nu ar mai conta dac metanaraiunile erau false sau nu, opresive sau
nu, i nu ar mai exista motive pentru a fi abandonate. n aceti termeni, chiar teza lui Lyotard
29
Jean Baudrillard, Societatea de consum. Mituri i structuri, trad. de Alexandru Matei, Editura Comunicare.ro,
Bucureti, 2008, p. 132.
30
Jean Baudrillard, Paroxistul indiferent, trad. de Bogdan Ghiu, Editura Idea Design & Print, Cluj-Napoca,
2001, p. 41.
31
Ioan Bari, Probleme globale contemporane, Editura Economic, Bucureti, 2003, p. 604.
32
Steven Connor, Cultura postmodern. O introducere n teoriile contemporane, trad. de Mihaela Oniga,
Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1999, p. 342.
941
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
a incredulitii fa de metanaraiuni nu ar nsemna prbuirea principiilor etice generale,
dimpotriv, ar demonstra permanenta lor for de corecie. 33
Ignorarea conceptului de valoare universal i a principiilor etice n favoarea unei
dictaturi a pragmatismului, a bunului plac, nseamn a adopta tot un principiu universal,
conform cruia puterea are ntotdeauna dreptate. Analiza cultural n postmodernitate
marcheaz o etap de importan epocal, nu doar n recunoaterea dreptului la diversitate, ci
i n dezvoltarea contiinei etice. Globalizarea, de fapt, urmrete exploatarea i
administrarea diversitii opiniilor i intereselor. Steven Connor consider c principala
sarcin teoretic a postmodernitii viitorului este crearea unor forme noi i mai
cuprinztoare de colectivitate etic.34 Concluzia inevitabil ar fi c analiza cultural
postmodern nu are voie s devin complicele unei globalizri exploatatoare, ci trebuie s
creeze un cadru comun de exprimare a vocilor diversitii, prin apelul la principii universale
de organizare politic, economic i cultural n satul planetar.
Bibliografie
Bari, Ioan, Probleme globale contemporane, Editura Economic, Bucureti, 2003
Baudrillard, Jean, Paroxistul indiferent, traducere de Bogdan Ghiu, Editura Idea Design &
Print, Cluj-Napoca, 2001
Baudrillard, Jean, Societatea de consum: mituri i structuri, traducere de Alexandru Matei,
Editura Comunicare.ro, Bucureti, 2005
Bauman, Zygmunt, Globalizarea i efectele ei sociale, traducere de Marius Conceatu, Editura
Antet, Filipetii de Trg, 2005
Bonte, Pierre i Michel Izard, Dicionar de etnologie i antropologie, traducere de Smaranda
Vultur i Radu Rutu, Editura Polirom, Iai, 1999
Crtrescu, Mircea, Postmodernismul romnesc, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1999
Connor, Steven, Cultura postmodern. O introducere n teoriile contemporane, traducere de
Mihaela Oniga, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1999
Constantinescu, Mihaela, Post/postmodernismul: Cultura divertismentului, Editura Univers
Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2001
Cioran, Emil, Schimbarea la fa a Romniei, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 1990
Drimba, Ovidiu, Istoria culturii i civilizaiei, Ed. SAECULUM I.O., Bucureti, 2007
Fukuyama, Francis, Sfritul istoriei i ultimul om, traducere de Mihaela Eftimiu, Editura
Paideia, Bucureti, 1994
O`Sullivan, Tom; Hartley, John; Saunders, Danny; Montgomery, Marin; Fiske, John,
Concepte findamentale din tiinele comunicrii i studiile culturale, traducere de Monica
Mitarc, Editura Polirom, Bucureti, 2001
Patapievici, Horia Roman, Omul recent, Editura Humanitas, Bucureti, 2008
Rachieru, Adrian-Dinu, Globalizare i cultur media, Editura Institutul European, Iai, 2003
33
Steven Connor, Cultura postmodern. O introducere n teoriile contemporane, trad. de Mihaela Oniga,
Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1999, p. 342
34
Ibidem , p. 343.
942
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Toffler, Alvin, Rzboi i anti-rzboi, traducere de Mihnea Columbeanu, Editura Antet,
Filipetii de Trg, 1995
Toffler, Alvin, Al treilea val, traducere de Georgeta Bolomey i Dragan Stoianovici, Editura
ANTET XX PRESS i LUCMAN, Bucureti, fr an de apariie
Vattimo, Giani, Sfritul modernitii. Nihilism i hermeneutic n cultura postmodern,
traducere de tefania Mincu, Editura Pontica, Constana, 1993
943
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
NATURAL LANGUAGE COMPLEXITY. SENTIMENT ANALYSIS
Daniela GFU, Scientific Researcher III, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai
ACS Andrei SCUTELNICU, Institute of Computer Science, Iai-Romanian Academy,
Alexandru Ioan Cuza University of Iai
Abstract. The paper brings in discussion one of the most current issues in the research area of
natural language processing, sentiment analysis. A sentiment analysis means to have the
necessary competence to identify the nature of speaker's opinions about entities or/and
specific needs (journalists, competitors, public opinion, services, products, etc.), knowing that
the decision-making process is affected by the received message. We are witnessing an
explosion of "sentiments" about matters of public interest subjects, available, especially, on
social media channels, including forums, blogs and other online or offline manifestation
forms. In other words, we have the most offering possibility to monitor in real time
commentators sentiment and act accordingly. We present in this paper aspects about natural
language complexity from emotional perspective and some language resources that can be
used in sentiment analysis systems. This research supports the direct beneficiaries (marketing
managers, PR firms, campaign managers, politicians, investors, online buyers), but, also,
specialists in the field of natural language processing, linguists, psychologists, etc.
Keywords: sentiment, analysis levels of sentiment, language resources, sentiment lexicon.
1. Introducere
Interesul pentru procesarea limbajului natural (PLN) i, implicit, pentru extragerea de
opinii dintr-un text, de cele mai multe ori subiective, a crescut vizibil. Numeroasele lucrri
care propun metode noi de extragere a cuvintelor/ expresiilor (des)calificatoare trezesc
interesul liderilor de opinie, oamenilor de afaceri, bancherilor, actorilor politici etc., contieni
de beneficiile constituirii unor seturi de date privitoare la opiniile receptorilor. Focalizarea
acestei lucrri asupra complexitii limbajului natural i relaiilor logice ale acestuia este
deosebit de important dac se privete aceast abordare prin prisma translatrii unei descrieri
n limbaj natural ntr-o descriere riguroas i neambigu.
Opiunea pentru o asemenea tem analiza sentimentelor (AS), n terminologie
american opinion mining, ntlnite n textele vehiculate prin diverse canale media online
(forumurile diverselor publicaii, social-media, blogurile etc.) - vine din nevoia clarificrii
comportamentului descriptiv al consumatorului, afectat de multitudinea de mesaje
promoionale, indiferent de natura i scopul lor. De pild, atunci cnd o persoan dorete s
cumpere un produs, de obicei va ncepe s caute comentarii i opinii scrise de alte persoane n
mediul virtual, care au trecut prin aceast experien (diversificarea ofertei, calitatea
produsului etc.). La ora actual, analiza sentimentelor, credem noi, este de mare actualitate i,
totodat, interes n zona de cercetare n prelucrarea limbajului natural.
Premisa prezentului studiu este aceea c estimarea orientrii emoionale prezente n
documentul-text ajut n construirea unei baze de date cu informaii referitoare la subiecte,
servicii, produse etc. de mare interes public, care poate servi implementrii unui instrument
de procesare a limbajului natural, util prezicerii nevoilor potenialului consumator.
944
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Lucrarea este structurat n cinci capitole. Dup o scurt introducere cu privire la tema
propus, n capitolul doi facem o scurt incursiune asupra preocuprilor anterioare care fac
obiectul multor lucrri axate pe analiza sentimentelor. n capitolul trei sunt descrise tehnicile
de analiz a sentimentelor, urmnd ca n capitolul 4 s menionm aspecte de modelare a
percepiei compoziionale, cu accent pe metoda propus. Ultimul capitol evideniz
concluziile prezentului studiu, menionnd i unul dintre proiectele de cercetare viitoare pe
care Grupul de Cercetare n Tehnologii ale Limbajului Natural al Facultii de Informatic de
la Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza din Iai (NLP-Group@UAIC-FII) l are n vedere.
2. Preocupri anterioare
Analiza sentimentelor a fcut obiectul unor cercetri ntreprinse n 2001 de Das, Chen
(Das & Chen, 2001) i Tong (2001) cu privire la opiniile exprimate pe piaa de vnzare. De
reinut, rmne clasificarea gradului de pozitivitate al unui text la nivel de document,
propoziie sau caracteristici, constnd n cuvinte ce exprim emoii (ex: furios, suprat,
fericit). O abordare a determinrii sentimentelor ntr-un text, spre exemplu, electoral (Gfu,
2011) a constat n clasificarea cuvintelor cu ncrctur emoional n dou clase: pozitive i
negative. Mai mult, exist abordri care iau n considerare i clasa neutru (valoarea 0),
asociind cuvintelor cte o valoare de la -5 la +5, scal pe care noi am redus-o de la -3 la +3,
considernd-o suficient de fin pentru discursul public (Gfu and Cristea, 2012) i chiar mai
mult, de la -1 la +1 (metoda prezentei lucrri).
n termeni generali, AS const n extragerea de opinii dintr-un text. ntlnit i ca
analiza subiectivitii1 ntr-o lucrare a lui K. Dave et. al (2003: 519-528), AS ar consta n
procesarea rezultatelor cutrii pentru un anumit articol, genernd o list de atribute ale
produsului (calitate, caracteristici etc.) i agregarea opiniilor pentru fiecare dintre ele
(srccios, combinat, bun). Mai mult, AS a fost interpretat ca incluznd diverse tipuri de
analiz i evaluare (Liu, 2006).
De la cercetarea subiectivitii, AS s-a axat i pe cercetarea obiectivitii ntr-un text, la
final rezultnd o clasificare a textelor n dou clase: obiectiv i subiectiv, de cele mai multe
ori mult mai dificil de ntreprins dect clasificarea dup polaritate (Mihalcea et. al., 2007).
3. Tehnici de analiz a sentimentelor
Exist o explozie uria azi de sentimente, disponibile de la social media, inclusiv
Twitter, Facebook, forumuri, bloguri etc. Analiza sentimentelor ofer organizaiilor
posibilitatea de a monitoriza opiniile cu privire la produsele/serviciile i reputaia acestora
(aa-numitul feedback)2, de pe diferite site-uri de social media n timp real i s acioneze n
consecin.
O prim clasificare a textelor analizate (propoziii/ fraze) ar putea ine seama de criteriul
subiectivitii. Vorbim de dou clase principale: obiective, care conin informaii concrete, i
subiective, care conin opinii explicite, credine i opinii cu privire la entitile specifice.
Atenia noastr se ndreapt, mai mult, pe analiza textelor subiective. Cu toate acestea, i
1
Au mai existat termeni ca extragerea de recenzii sau calcul al afeciunii. (Ioana Ardeleanu, Extragerea de
opinii din texte, lucrare de licen coord. de prof.univ.dr. Dan Cristea, 2013).
2
Exist pachete statistice majore, cum ar fi SAS i SPSS, care includ module specializate de analiza
sentimentelor.
945
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
textele obiective pot fi interesant de analizat, atunci cnd descriu opiniile lor de tip stock
picking.
Spre exemplu atunci cnd opinm cu privire la o pensiune X, unde am fost cazai n
vacana de iarn: Pensiunea X dispune de camere spaioase, curate, bine nclzite, unde eti
ntmpinat de un personal amabil etc.
n acest text, aplicaiile cu privire la analiza sentimentelor trebuie s fie n msur s
ofere un scor pentru ntreaga reexaminare (descriere), precum i scoruri pentru fiecare aspect
individual (fiecare element descriptiv apreciativ). Vorbim, n fapt, de analiza global i
analiz secvenial.
Amintim civa autori reprezentativi cu preocupri i comentarii importante n privina
analizei sentimentelor (Liu, 2010, 2012; Pang and Lee, 2008).
Ne vom concentra, n cele ce urmeaz, pe urmtoarele aspecte:
- Analiza sentimentelor la nivel de document;
- Analiza sentimentelor la nivel de propoziie/fraz;
- Aspecte bazate pe analiza de sentiment;
- Analize de sentiment comparativ;
- Achiziia lexiconului - sentiment.
3.1. Analiza sentimentelor la nivel de document
Este cea mai simpl form de analiz a sentimentului i se presupune c documentul
conine o opinie cu privire la un singur obiect principal exprimat de autorul mesajului. n
literatura de specialitate, am regsit dou abordri pentru analiza sentimentelor la nivelul
documentului: supervizat i nesupervizat.
a) Abordarea supervizat presupune c exist un set finit de clase. Documentul trebuie
s fie clasificat, datele de antrenare fiind atribuite fiecrei clase. Cel mai simplu caz este
atunci cnd exist dou clase: pozitiv i negativ. Desigur, poate fi adugat i o clas neutru
sau poate fi luat n considerare o scal numeric, la care s fie raportat documentul (de
exemplu: SentiWordNet3). Avnd n vedere datele de antrenare, sistemul nva un model
de clasificare, folosind un algoritm de clasificare, cum ar fi SVM (Support Vector Machines) 4
sau KNN ( K-nearest neighbors)5. Aceast clasificare este apoi folosit pentru a eticheta
documente noi n diversele lor clase sentiment. Autori ca Pang, Lee and Vaithyanathan (2002)
au artat c precizia bun este atins chiar i atunci cnd fiecare document este reprezentat ca
un grup de cuvinte (bag of words). Reprezentri mai avansate utilizeaz POS (partea de
vorbire), lexicoane sentiment i structurile de parsare (segmentare la nivel de unitate
lexical6).
3
SentiWordNet [Esuli and Sebastiani, 2006(a)] este o resurs lexical pentru analiza sentimentelor.
SentiWordNet atribuie fiecrui synset (mulimi de cuvinte sinonime ntre ele care definesc un concept lexical)
din WordNet [Esuli and Sebastiani, 2006(b)] trei scoruri-sentiment numerice: pozitivitate, negativitate i
obiectivitate.
4
SVM (Support Vector Machine) mapeaz vectorul de intrare ntr-un spaiu cu mai multe dimensiuni unde se
construiete un hiperplan liniar de separaie. Aceste clasificatoare se pot reprezenta prin funcii kernel (nucleu)
ce definesc similariti ntre perechi de date.
5
In cadrul metodei KNN (K-nearest neighbour), un exemplu necunoscut este clasificat prin votul majoritar al
vecinilor lui, fiind atribuit clasei din care are majoritatea vecinilor din cadrul celor k vecini cei mai apropiai (vot
majoritar). Pentru k=1 obiectul va fi atribuit clasei vecinului celui mai apropiat.
6
uniti lexicale pot fi: morfem, cuvnt, clauz, propoziie, fraz, document.
946
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
b) Abordarea nesupervizat n document la nivel de analiz a sentimentelor se bazeaz
pe determinarea orientrii semantice (OS) din fraze specifice din cadrul documentului. Dac
media OS dintre aceste fraze este de peste un prag predefinit, documentul este clasificat ca
fiind pozitiv. n caz contrar, se consider negativ. Exist dou abordri principale de selecie a
frazelor: un set de modele de POS-uri predefinite pot fi utilizate pentru a selecta aceste fraze
(Turney, 2002) sau un lexicon de cuvinte-sentiment i expresii (Taboada et. al, 2011).
3.2. Analiza sentimentelor la nivel de propoziie/ fraz
Un singur document poate conine mai multe opinii chiar i cu privire la aceeai
entitate. Cnd vrem s avem o imagine mai clar a opiniilor exprimate cu privire la o entitate
(lucru, fiin, organizaie, localitate etc.) trebuie s trecem la nivelul propoziiei/ frazei.
Presupunerea iniial este aceea c avem tiin de identitatea entitii care apare n text.
Mai mult, presupunem c exist o singur opinie n fiecare fraz. Aceast presupunere poate
fi realizat prin divizarea frazei n propoziii (fragment de text care conine i un verb
predicativ) n care fiecare propoziie conine doar o opinie. nainte de a analiza polaritatea la
nivel de fraz trebuie s determinm dac propoziiile sunt subiective sau obiective. Numai
propoziiile subiective vor fi apoi analizate. Majoritatea metodelor folosesc metode
supravegheate pentru a clasifica propoziiile n dou clase (Yu and Hatzivassiloglou, 2003).
Amintim abordarea bazat pe reduceri minimale, propus n Pang i Lee (2004).
Principala premis este c propoziiile vecine ar trebui s aib aceeai clasificare subiectiv.
Putem apoi clasifica aceste fraze n clase pozitive sau negative. Totodat s-a artat c este
recomandabil s se adopte strategii diferite pentru acest tip de analize (Narayanan, Liu and
Choudhary, 2009). La nivel semantic, pot interveni interogaiile, sarcasmul, metafora, umorul,
elemente dificil de detectat, mai ales n anumite contexte (spre exemplu n contextul
electoral).
3.3. Aspecte bazate pe analiza de sentiment
Abordrile anterioare funcioneaz bine atunci cnd fie ntregul document, fie fiecare
fragment de text analizat se refer la o singur entitate. Cu toate acestea, n multe cazuri,
oamenii vorbesc despre entiti care au mai multe trsturi (atribute) i, desigur, opiniile
difer. Acest lucru se ntmpl de multe ori n comentarii cu privire la produse, servicii etc.
sau n forumuri de discuii dedicate diverselor categorii de entiti (cum ar fi actori politici,
maini, aparate foto, smartphone-uri i chiar produse farmaceutice).
Spre exemplu: Becali a ajutat mult sracii, construindu-le case, dndu-le bani, dar
nimeni nu a tiut exact cum a fcut atia bani dect n momentul n care a fost arestat din
cauza unor terenuri cumprate pe nimic.
Clasificarea acestui enun, pozitiv (Becali a ajutat mult sracii, construindu-le case,
dndu-le bani) i negativ (dar nimeni nu a tiut exact cum a fcut atia bani dect n
momentul n care a fost arestat din cauza unor terenuri cumprate pe nimic) cu privire la
acest personaj ar fi posibil numai dac am analiza propoziiile pe rnd.
Analiza bazat pe ncrctura emoional este problema de cercetare care se
concentreaz pe recunoaterea tuturor formelor de expresii-sentiment ntr-un document dat i
aspectele la care se refer. Abordarea clasic, utilizat din ce n ce mai mult de departamentul
de relaii publice din marile companii/ societi comerciale, const n identificarea naturii
emoionale a comentariilor cu privire la calitatea produselor, serviciilor, imaginea brandului
etc. n limbaj natural, extragerea tuturor structurilor substantivale (NPs) i apoi pstrarea doar
947
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
a acelora a cror frecven este peste un prag nvat experimental (Hu and Liu, 2004). De
asemenea, analiza bazat pe ncrctura emoional se concentreaz pe recunoaterea tuturor
formelor de expresii-sentiment ntr-un document dat, ct i pe entitile la care se refer. Cu
alte cuvinte, identificarea aspectelor evaluative care sunt menionate n mod explicit n
propoziii. Exist, totui, multe opinii care nu sunt menionate n mod explicit n propoziii,
putnd fi deduse din expresiile-sentiment menionate implicit.
Spre exemplu: care se poate deduce din fragmentul...
3.4. Analize de sentiment comparativ
n multe cazuri, utilizatorii nu ofer o opinie direct despre un produs, prefernd n
schimb preri comparabile, cum ar fi:
Dacia Logan arat mult mai bine dect Dacia Solenza.
n acest caz, scopul sistemului de analiz a sentimentelor este de a identifica propoziii
care conin opinii comparative, precum i pentru a extrage entitatea preferat din acestea.
Autori ca Jindal and Liu (2006) descriu aceast metod analitic. Utilizarea unui numr
relativ mic de cuvinte, ca adjective adverbiale comparative (mai mult, mai puin, uoare etc.),
adjective i adverbe superlative (mai, cel puin, cele mai bune), clauze adiionale (favoare,
mare, prefera, dect, superioar, inferior, numrul unu, mpotriva), poate acoperi 98% din
totalul opiniilor comparative.
Pentru aceste cuvinte/ sintagme fiind folosite foarte des, dar cu precizie sczut, poate fi
folosit un clasificator7 pentru a filtra frazele care nu conin opinii comparative. Un algoritm
simplu pentru a identifica entitile preferate pe baza tipului de comparaii utilizate i prezena
negaiei prezint Ding, Liu and Zhang (2009).
3.5. Achiziia lexiconului - sentiment
Pn acum am putut observa c lexiconul este resursa cea mai important pentru
majoritatea tehnicilor de analiz a sentimentelor.
Exist trei opiuni pentru achiziionarea lexiconului-sentiment:
a) abordri manuale, n care cercettorii construiesc un lexicon manual, constnd dintr-un
set de cuvinte selectate din dicionare explicative, ulterior, extins prin utilizarea de resurse
lexicale deja existente (mbogirea cu sinonime, antonime). Am amintit deja de WordNet. Un
algoritm la ndemn este cel propus de Kamps, J., Marx, M., Mokken, R.J. and de Rijke, M.
(2004).
b) abordri bazate pe corpus, n care un set de cuvinte/ sintagme extrase dintr-un corpus
relativ restrns este extins prin utilizarea unui corpus mare de documente dintr-un singur
domeniu.
Principalul dezavantaj al oricrui algoritm pe baz de dicionar (a) este acela c
lexiconul dobndit este prea general i, prin urmare, nu surprinde particularitile specifice
unui domeniu specific (Dragut et al., 2010; Peng i Park, 2011).
Dac dorim s crem un lexicon-sentiment specific unui anumit domeniu trebuie s
utilizm un algoritm bazat pe un corpus. O lucrare clasic n acest domeniu (Hatzivassiloglou
and McKeown, 1997) evideniaz conceptul de coerena sentimentelor, care permite o
identificare a adjectivelor cu polaritate complex (seed-adjectives). Altfel spus, un set de
7
Spre exemplu, clasificatorul Nave Bayes, o metod statistic de clasificare i recunoatere a formelor, unde
fiecare document este privit ca o colecie de cuvinte, iar ordinea cuvintelor este considerat irelevant.
948
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
conectori lingvistici (i, sau, nici, fie, sau) a fost folosit pentru a gsi adjectivele care sunt
conectate la adjective cu polaritate cunoscut.
Spre exemplu: brbat puternic i armonios.
Dac tim c puternic este un cuvnt pozitiv, putem presupune c prin utilizarea
conectorului i cuvntul armonios este pozitiv.
4. Modelarea percepiei compoziionale
Exist o necesitate pentru o mai bun modelare a percepiei compoziionale. La nivel de
fraz, aceasta nseamn calcul mai precis al sentimentului general cu privire la subiectul (ceea
ce aici numim entitate) comentat, cuvintele/sintagmele-sentiment transformnd, n fapt,
structura semantic a frazei. De menionat faptul c o entitate, pe parcursul textului, poate s
apar sub forma unor structuri anaforice 8.
De exemplu: Mihai nva pe brnci pentru examen. El vrea s fie bursier.
Este evident c pronumele el se refer la Mihai, ambele propoziii fcnd parte din
acelai context lingvistic.
Cnd ntr-un document se fac referiri la mai multe persoane, este esenial s se
identifice textele relevante pentru fiecare entitate n parte. n acest moment, precizia n
identificarea acestor texte relevante este departe de a fi satisfctoare. Dei exist unele
abordri care folosesc metode de clasificare pentru a identifica spre exemplu ironia, acestea
nu sunt nc integrate n sisteme autonome de analiz a sentimentelor. O alt mare provocare
sunt textele cu greeli gramaticale, cu punctuaie lips sau problematic, care abund n argou
etc.
Abordrile actuale cu privire la analiza sentimentelor se opresc de obicei la extragerea
sentimentelor din declaraiile subiective. Astfel de afirmaii apar frecvent n articole de
tiri.Rmne ns problema contextului pe care, deocamdat, nu a fost surprins algoritmic.
4.1. Descrierea metodei
n prezenta lucrare, aplicaia este capabil s depisteze i s expliciteze aprecieri
calitative asupra unor entiti (companii, produse, persoane etc.). n realizarea softului s-au
parcurs urmtoarele etape (figura 1):
- construirea unei antologii de entiti, categorii i valori, fiind necesar pentru
obinerea unui rezultat ct mai corect i complet;
- preprocesarea textului, etap care se refer la adnotarea, mparirea unui text n
entiti, n cazul de fa cuvinte, simboluri sau alte elemente importante numite token-uri.
Fiecare token a fost adnotat automat la partea de vorbire (Simionescu, 2011);
- extragerea grupurilor nominale de interes (text chunking) 9, cu alte cuvinte mprirea
unui text n secvene de cuvinte corelate sintactic;
- recuperarea legturilor de natur anaforic, moment n care ne propunem s nu
pierdem nici o referire la o anume entitate. Extragerea legturilor de natur anaforic
reprezint gsirea referinei unui cuvnt/ unei expresii cu privire la o entitate din textul
analizat;
8
Anafora este procesul de utilizare a unei entiti lingvistice cum ar fi un pronume, cu scopul de a referi la o alt
entitate. A se vedea (Kamp & Reyle, 1993).
9
Noun Phrase chunking (NP-chunk) se refer la extragerea grupurilor/expresiilor substantivale dintr-o
propoziie.
949
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Spre exemplu: Oamenii ncep s ias n grupuri. Nimeni n-are s-i opreasc.
n propoziia de mai sus, -i-ul se refer la Oamenii. Pentru extragerea legturii de
natur anaforic, n aplicaia noastr am folosit unealta informatic RARE (Robust Anaphora
Resolution Engine)10, implementat de Eugen Ignat (2011).
- extragerea entitilor, etap n care s-a utilizat modulul NER (Name Entity
Recognition) n vederea extragerii automate a entitilor. n fapt, pot fi recunoscute entiti
precum nume de persoane, organizaii, localiti etc. Se primete la intrare (input) un fiier de
tip .txt11 i la ieire (output) obinem un fiier de tip .txt ce conine doar entitile menionate
n textul analizat.
De exemplu: Vodafone Romnia ofer cea mai bun conectivitate pentru serviciile de
date dintre toate reelele mobile GSM/ UMTS/ CDMA din Romnia.
Din acest text va rezulta un fiier care conine urmtoarele entiti: Vodafone,
Romnia, Vodafone Romnia, GSM, UMTS, CDMA. n cazul unei entiti care apare n
textul preprocesat de mai multe ori, fiierul de la ieire va reine acea entitate doar o singur
dat.
Figura 1 Arhitectura programului informatic
- recunoaterea categoriilor, valorilor i relaionarea cu entitile. Avnd la dispoziie
fiierele rezultate n urma parcurgerii etapelor anterioare, se vor extrage automat categoriile,
valorile i relaionarea cu entitile cu ajutorul unui set de reguli12.
Rmnnd la exemplul anterior, n fiier textul va aprea sub forma:
<entity type=company>Vodafone Romnia</entity>
10
Scopul instrumentului RARE este de a extrage lanuri corefereniale (v. metashare.infoiasi.ro).
11
Se prefer editorul NotePad++ pentru diversele funcionaliti (spre ex. recunoaterea diacriticelor limbii
romne).
12
Informatic vorbind o expresie regulat este un ir de caractere ablon care descrie mulimea cuvintelor
posibile, formate cu acele caractere, respectnd anumite reguli.
950
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
<category>conectivitate pentru serviciile de date</category>
<value =1>bun</value>
Aceste expresii regulate folosesc paranteze (rotunde, ptrate, acolade) prin care formeaz
regulile de formare a cuvintelor. Utilitatea cea mai frecvent a unei expresii regulate const n
a recunoate dac un ir conine sau nu cuvinte sau sub-ir care pot fi formate prin expresia
regulat respectiv.
De exemplu: irul de caractere m[i]r poate fi interpretat n mr i mir.
4.2. Metodologia de lucru
- se adnoteaz manual textul cu ajutorul aplicaiei Palinka13 un corpus de texte pentru a
construi o ontologie14 de entiti, categorii i valori;
- textul este preprocesat cu ajutorul uneltei POS-tagger pentru limba romn (Simionescu,
2011);
- se recunosc i se adnoteaz grupurile nominale de interes pentru aplicaia cu ajutorul NP-
chunker (Simionescu, 2011);
- se extrag automat numele proprii de entiti, cu ajutorul instrumentului NER (Name
Entity Recognition);
- se extrag legturile de tip anaforic din text cu ajutorul instrumentului RARE (Robust
Anaphora Resolution Engine);
- se recunosc n text entitile, categoriile i valorile din ontologiile deja construite;
- se scrie un set de reguli pentru recunoaterea valorilor i se realizeaz legturile de tip
entitate-categorie-valoare;
n lucrarea de fa, identificarea orientrilor de opinii referitoare la o trstur a unei
entiti dintr-un text se bazeaz pe un dicionar de opinii, rezultat din adnotarea unui corpus
(format din cuvinte i sintagme cu ncrctur emoional) pentru a determina orientarea
opiniilor identificate. Pe lng acest dicionar, important de tratat sunt negaiile i clauzele de
tipul dar, cu excepia, exceptnd.
Concret, parcurgem urmtorii pai:
- se identific cuvintele i frazele de opinie;
- fiecrui cuvnt pozitiv i se atribuie un scor de opinie de (+1), iar fiecarui cuvnt negativ,
(-1);
- cuvintele dependente de context vor avea scorul 0.
Lum spre exemplificare urmtorul fragment: Imaginea aparatului de fotografiat nu este
grozav, dar bateria ine mult.
Astfel, prima propoziie, Imaginea aparatului de fotografiat nu este grozav primete
scorul (+1), deoarece cuvntul grozav este un cuvnt pozitiv, urmnd ca n propoziia a
doua, dar bateria ine mult s primeasc scorul (0), cuvntul mult fiind considerat dependent
de context frazal. Remarcm faptul c nu au fost luate n vedere cele dou cuvinte, nu, i dar,
primul fiind o negaie i al doilea fiind un conector pragmatic.
- manipularea negaiei cuvintele de negaie sunt folosite pentru revizuirea scorurilor de
opinie obinute la pasul anterior, pe baza unor reguli. Dup acest pas prima propoziie,
Imaginea aparatului de fotografiat nu este grozav va primi scorul (-1) urmare a considerrii
13
http://clg.wlv.ac.uk/trac/palinka/
14
n limbaj natural, ontologia reprezint cunotinele ca un set de concepte dintr-un anumit domeniu, folosind un
vocabular comun pentru a indica tipurile, proprietile i relaiile dintre acele concepte.
951
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
negaiei nu.
- este cunoscut rolul conectorilor pragmatici (dar, doar, pentru c etc.) care introduc un
nou act de enunare, opinie contrar. Astfel, propoziia a doua, dar bateria ine mult primete
scorul (+1) urmare a lurii n considerare a conectorului dar.
- n ultima etap a aplicaiei se realizeaz sumarea formelor de expresii sentiment, pentru
a determina orientarea final a opiniei rezultate din text.
Revenind la exemplul nostru, scorul frazei: Imaginea aparatului de fotografiat nu este
grozav (-1), dar bateria ine mult (+1), va consta n sumarea celor dou valori: -1+1=0. Cu
alte cuvinte, fraza are o intensitate emoional neutr.
5. Concluzii i direcii viitoare de cercetare
Lucrarea prezint o metod automat capabil s depisteze i s expliciteze opinii
referitoare la anumite entiti (persoane, companii, produse etc.) identificate ntr-un text,
indiferent de natura lui, bazat pe un dicionar de opinii rezultat din adnotarea manual a unui
corpus iniial (format din cuvinte i sintagme cu ncrctur emoional). Mai mult, pe lng
acest dicionar, am avut n vedere rolul semantic al negaiilor i conectorilor pragmatici de
tipul dar, cu excepia, exceptnd. Aceast aplicaie vine s sprijine dezvoltarea unei
resurse lexicale complexe, necesar interpretrii aprecierilor calitative ntlnite n orice fel de
text, care poate fi de real folos managerilor de marketing, firmelor de PR, politicienilor,
cumprtorilor on-line, dar i specialitilor n domeniul prelucrrii limbajului natural, lingviti
etc.
Din cele relatate, observm faptul c operaia de nsumare a scorurilor pentru fiecare
propoziie cu o anumit ncrctur emoional nu este suficient acoperitoare (v. exemplul
precedent cnd apare variant de neutralizare a sentimentelor), motiv pentru care ne propunem
s adugm diferenieri de intensitate n exprimarea opiniilor. n limba romn, folosirea
superlativului amplific semantic convingerile unui opinent. Spre exemplu: Vodafone
Romnia ofer cea mai bun conectivitate pentru serviciile de date dintre toate reelele
mobile GSM/ UMTS/ CDMA din Romnia.
Mihai este cel mai ru student de la facultatea noastr.
Superlativul ne determin s lrgim scala de valori. Astfel exprimri ca cea mai poate
prelua gradul de pozitivitate sau negativitate. n primul exemplu, cea mai bun primete
valoarea (+2), iar n exemplul al doilea cel mai ru primete valoarea (-2).
Referine bibliografice
Ardeleanu, I.: Extragerea de opinii din texte, lucrare de licen coord. de prof.univ.dr. Dan
Cristea, Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza din Iai, 2013.
Dave, K., Lawrence, S. and Pennock D.M.: Mining the peanut gallery: Opinion extraction
and semantic classification of product reviews, Proceedings of WWW, 2003.
Das, S. and Chen, M.: Yahoo! For Amazon: Extracting market sentiment from stock message
boards. In Proceedings of the Asia Acific Finance Association Annual Conference (APFA),
2001.
Ding, X., Liu, B. and Zhang, L.: Entity discovery and assignment for opinion mining
applications. In Proceedings of ACM SIGKDD International Conference on Knowledge
952
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Discovery and Data Mining, 2009.
Dragut, E.C., Yu, C., Sistla, P. and Meng, W.: Construction of a sentimental word dictionary.
In Proceedings of ACM International Conference on Information and Knowledge
Management, 2010.
Esuli, A. and Sebastiani, F.: SentiWordNet: A Publicly Available Lexical Resource for
Opinion Mining. Proceedings from International Conference on Language Resources and
Evaluation (LREC), Genoa, 2006.
Esuli, A. and Sebastiani, F.: Determining term subjectivity and term orientation for opinion
mining. In Proceedings of EACL-06, 11th Conference of the European Chapter of the
Association for Computational Linguistics, Trento, IT. Forthcoming, 2006.
Gfu, D.: Violena simbolic n discursul electoral, Casa Crii de tiin, Cluj-Napoca, 2011.
Gfu, D. and Cristea, D.: Multi-dimensional analysis of political language in Future
Information Technology, Application, and Service (volum 1/164), James J. (Jong Hyuk)
Park, Victor C.M. Leung, Cho-Li Wang, Taeshik Shon (editors), Springer, 2012.
Hatzivassiloglou, V. and McKeown, K.: Predicting the semantic orientation of adjectives.
In Proceedings of the Joint ACL/EACL Conference, 1997.
Hu, M. and Liu, B.: Mining opinion features in customer reviews. In Proceedings of AAAI,
2004.
Ignat, E.: RARE-UAIC (Robust Anaphora Resolution Engine), resurs gratuit pe META-
SHARE, Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza din Iai, 2011.
Jindal, N. and Liu, B.: Identifying comparative sentences in text documents. In Proceedings of
ACM SIGIR Conf. on Research and Development in Information Retrieval, 2006.
Kamp, H. & Reyle, U.: From Discourse to Logic, Dordrecht: Kluwer, 1993.
Liu, B.: Web data mining; Exploring hyperlinks, contents, and usage data. In Opinion
Mining, Springer, Heidelberg, 2006.
Liu, B.: Sentiment analysis and subjectivity. Handbook of Natural Language Processing. N.
Indurkhya and F.J. Damerau, eds., 2010.
Liu, B.: Sentiment analysis and opinion mining. Synthesis Lectures on Human Language
Technologies. Morgan & Claypool Publishers, 2012.
Mihalcea, R., Banea C., and Wiebe, J.: Learning Multilingual Subjective Language via Cross-
Lingual Projections. 45th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational
Linguistics (ACL-2007).
Narayanan, R., Liu, B. and Choudhary, A.: Sentiment analysis of conditional sentences.
In Proceedings of the 2009 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language
Processing (Singapore). Association for Computational Linguistics, 2009.
Pang, B. and Lee, L.: Opinion mining and sentiment analysis. Foundations and Trends in
Information Retrieval 2, 1-2, 2008.
Pang, B., Lee, L. and Vaithyanathan, S.: Thumbs up? Sentiment Classification using machine
learning techniques. In Proceedings of EMNLP-02, 7th Conference on Empirical Methods in
Natural Language Processing (Philadelphia, PA). Association for Computational Linguistics,
Morristown, NJ, 2002.
Pang, B. and Lee, L.: A Sentimental Education: Sentiment Analysis using Subjectivity
Summarization based on minimum cuts. In Proceedings of the Association for Computational
Linguistics, 2004.
953
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Peng, W. and Park, D.H.: Generate adjective sentiment dictionary for social media sentiment
analysis using constrained nonnegative matrix factorization. In Proceedings of the Fifth
International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media, 2011.
Simionescu, R.: UAIC Romanian Part of Speech Tagger, lucrare de disertaie coord. de
prof.univ.dr. Dan Cristea, Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza din Iai, nlptools.info.uaic.ro,
2011.
Simionescu, R.: NP-chunker (Noun Phrase chunking), instrument implementat la
Universitatea Alexandru Ioan Cuza din Iai, nlptools.info.uaic.ro, 2011.
Taboada, M., J. Brooke, J., Tofiloski, M., Voll, K. and Stede, M.: Lexicon-based methods for
sentiment analysis. Computational Linguistics 37, 2, 2011.
Turney, P.: Thumbs up or thumbs down? Semantic orientation applied to unsupervised
classification of reviews. In Proceedings of the Association for Computational Linguistics,
2002.
Tong, R.M.: An operational system for detecting and tracking opinions in on-line discussion.
Workshop note, SIGIR 2001 Workshop on Operational Text Classification.
Yu, H. and Hatzivassiloglou, V.: Towards answering opinion questions: Separating facts
from opinions and identifying the polarity of opinion sentences. In Proceedings of the
Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, 2003.
954
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
LA LANGUE ETRANGERE, INSTRUMENT DE DIALOGUE
DANS LE PROCES LE ROLE DU TRADUCTEUR-INTERPRETE
Diana DNIOR, University of Craiova
Abstract: The language of the trial in Romania is the Romanian language. The judicial
dialogue as an expression of judicial controversy, is organized in Romanian. The presence of
a defendant speaking a foreign language paralyzes communication. A dialogue seems
impossible, but yet, it is performed due to the presence of the translator-interpreter, who
needs special skills in this particular field, the legal one.
Keywords: trial, judge, defendant, translator-interpreter, foreign language
Affirm dans la Convention de sauvegarde des droits de l'homme et des liberts
fondamentales, le principe du "procs quitable" comprend aussi l'galit de la parole quelle
que doit la langue du plaideur. Mme quand le juge, le justiciable et l'avocat parlent la mme
langue la comprhension n'est pas toujours obligatoire, bien que ncessaire, et d'autant plus il
est difficile que ces acteurs du procs se comprennent lorsqu'ils parlent des langues
diffrentes, le recours au traducteur-interprte est obligatoire pour tablir un vritable
dialogue dans le cadres des dbats. Selon l'article 6 de la Convention europenne des droits de
l'homme, " Tout accus a droit notamment : a) tre inform, dans le plus court dlai, dans
une langue quil comprend et dune manire dtaille, de la nature et de la cause de
laccusation porte contre lui ; e) se faire assister gratuitement dun interprte, sil ne
comprend pas ou ne parle pas la langue employe laudience.
Le droit un procs quitable est garanti par la Constitution de la Roumanie dans son
article 21 (3) qui stipule que "Les parties ont droit un procs quitable et la solution des
affaires dans un dlai raisonnable". Dans son article 128, L'utilisation de la langue maternelle
et de l'interprte en justice, la Constitution dit que "(1) La procdure judiciaire se droule en
langue roumaine. (2) Les citoyens roumains appartenant aux minorits nationales ont droit de
s'exprimer en leur langue maternelle devant les tribunaux, dans les conditions de la loi
organique. (3) Les modalits d'exercice du droit prvu l'alina (2), y compris par l'utilisation
des interprtes ou des traductions, seront tablies de telle manire qu'elles n'empchent la
bonne administration de la justice et n'impliquent pas des frais supplmentaires pour les
intresss. (4) Les citoyens trangers ou les apatrides qui ne comprennent pas ou ne parlent
pas la langue roumaine ont le droit de prendre connaissance de tous les actes et des travaux du
dossier, de parler en instance et de poser des conclusions par interprte; dans les affaires
pnales ce droit est assur gratuitement."
Comme l'on vient de voir, le dialogue judiciaire, expression de la controverse
judiciaire1, est organis en langue nationale, dans notre cas, en langue roumaine. Quand donc
dans un procs est prsent un justiciable qui s'exprime dans une langue trangre, le principe
du contradictoire exige que le dialogue soit reconstitu par l'intervention d'un traducteur-
1
"La procdure c'est l'organisation de la controverse", Georges Wierderkehr, Droits de la dfense et procdure
civile, D 1978, Chron, p. 38.
955
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
interprte qui a le rle d'informer le justiciable d'autre langue de "tous les actes qui peuvent
lui porter atteinte d'une manire quelconque" 2. Le traducteur apparat ainsi comme le
dfenseur des intrts de celui dont il assure la traduction, car cette information a pour finalit
de faire comprendre au plaideur le droulement du procs et de lui protger les droits. Le
traducteur-interprte est la personne qui permet l'accus de participer au dbat. Pour assurer
la puret de l'information, "la prsence de ce collaborateur occasionnel est une garantie de la
bonne justice"3 et l'intervention de ce tiers intermdiaire entre le juge et le justiciable devient
inluctable.
La participation au dbat est impossible sans la nomination d'un interprte
Pour respecter la Convention europenne des droits de l'homme et la Constitution de la
Roumanie, la nomination d'un interprte en matire pnale est indispensable pour permettre
une participation effective du justiciable au dbat. Cette assistance du traducteur en matire
pnale permet l'inculp d'tre entendu personnellement, en rtablissant l'quilibre entre les
protagonistes, le lgislateur en adoptant dans ce sens une rglementation qui protge ses
intrts, sa libert et sa parole.
Le Nouveau Code roumain de procdure pnale 4 organise la prsence du traducteur-
interprte dans son art. 11, La langue officielle et le droit l'interprte, qui prvoit que (1)
La langue officielle dans le procs pnal est la langue roumaine. (2) Les citoyens roumains
appartenant aux minorits nationales ont le droit de s'exprimer dans leur langue maternelle
devant les tribunaux, les actes de procdures tant rdigs en langue roumaine. (3) On assure
gratuitement aux parties et aux sujets de la procdure qui ne parlent pas ou ne comprennent
pas la langue roumaine ou ne peuvent pas s'exprimer la possibilit de prendre connaissance
des pices du dossier, de parler, ainsi que de poser des conclusions devant l'instance, par
interprte. (4) Dans le cadre des procdures judiciaires on utilise des interprtes autoriss,
selon la loi. Sont galement compris dans la catgorie des interprtes les traducteurs autoriss,
selon la loi."
L'activit de traduction et le mtier de traducteur est encadr par l'Ordre INSEE n o
273/20025 dans le groupe "Spcialistes mtiers intellectuels et scientifiques", position
"Linguistes, traducteurs et interprte". La Loi 178/19976 et le Rglement d'application7
rgissent l'activit du traducteur autoris.
2
"Le droit l'information constitue un pralable l'exercice des droits la dfense, l'effet de la surprise en tant
proscrit de manire absolue. La loi judiciaire exige qu' chaque justiciable soient communiqus, clairement, tous
les actes qui peuvent lui porter attente d'une certaine manire.", Mohammed Salah-Bey, "Les droits de la dfense
lis l'information dans le procs civil" in L'information en droit priv, LGDJ, 1978, p. 73.
3
Jean-Florian Eschylle, L'interprtation en matire pnale, RSC, 1992, p. 261.
4
Le Code de procdure antrieur disposait, dans son article 7: "Dans le procs pnal, la procdure judiciaire se
droule en langue roumaine, devant les organes judiciaires on assure aux parties et d'autres personnes assignes
de comparatre l'utilisation de leur langue maternelle, les actes de la procdure en tant rdigs en langue
roumaine". Dans l'article 8 il tait prvu, en ce qui concerne l'utilisation de la langue officielle par interprte:
"On assure gratuitement aux parties qui ne parlent pas ou ne comprennent pas la langue roumaine ou ne peuvent
pas s'exprimer la possibilit de prendre connaissance des pices au dossier, le droit de parler, ainsi que le droit de
poser des conclusions en instance, par interprte."
5
Sur l'approbation de la Procdure d'actualisation de la nomenclateur Classification des occupations en
Roumanie.
6
Pour l'autorisation et le payement des interprtes et traducteurs utiliss par le Conseil suprieur de la
magistrature, par le Ministre de la justice, par le Parquet auprs de la Haute cour de cassation et de justice, par
956
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Etymologiquement, le terme interprte vient d'inter partes, parce que l'interprte se
trouve entre deux personnes qui ne pourraient se comprendre, communique sans son aide, ou
d'inter praes, celui qui est garant entre deux personnes qui ne se comprennent pas et pour
chacune d'entre elles par rapport une autre.
Le principe de l'oralit des dbats devant les instances de jugement, celui de la
comparution personnelle de l'inculp "dans la mesure o l'accent est mis sur l'examen de la
personnalit de l'inculp"8 justifie le recours systmatique un interprte pendant l'audience.
Il doit prsenter des garanties de moralit, parce qu'il transmet, sans contrle possible, les
allgations des parties aux procs, vu que les juges et les greffiers ne puissent comprendre
toutes les langues. 9 C'est la raison pour laquelle l'interprte infidle risque des sanctions
d'ordre pnal, disciplinaire ou civil.
Le prsence de l'interprte fait le plaideur bnficier d'une protection consistant dans la
certitude de pouvoir s'exprimer et dans la possibilit de comprendre les affirmations des
magistrats et des autres parties au procs. Mais, pourtant, la simple prsence aux dbats oraux
n'est pas suffisante. La communication des actes de procdure rdigs en roumain ou la
prsentation des documents crits dans une langue trangre exige l'intervention du
traducteur-interprte pour la traduction des pices au dossier. La dsignation d'un interprte
est un droit pour le justiciable et l'omission de l'organe de poursuite pnale d'assurer
gratuitement l'utilisation d'un interprte, dans les cas prvus par l'art. 128 C. proc. pn,
entrane la nullit relative des actes raliss au cours de la poursuite pnale, dans les
conditions de l'art. 197 alin. (1) et (4) du mme Code. Par consquent, la violation des
dispositions de l'art. 128 peut tre invoque lors de la ralisation de l'acte quand la partie est
prsente ou la premire audience en procdure complte quand la partie s'est absente lors
de la ralisation de l'acte, son invocation pour la premire fois en appel en tant tardive.
Assister aux dbats oraux et traduire les documents, voil la double mission de
l'interprte
La disparit linguistique est rsolue le plus souvent grce la comptence de
l'interprte. La barrire linguistique se prsente plutt comme une barrire entre les cultures,
l'interprte en ayant une mission explicative, cratrice par rapport au message initial. Il
transmet un message simplifi qui reflte, par la traduction des affirmations du magistrat, la
culture et la terminologie qui peuvent tre familires au justiciable. Et, inversement,
l'interprte peut expliquer au magistrat qui ne les comprend pas certaines expression des
allgations du justiciable d'autre langue, par une approche pluriculturelle. L'interprte a pour
mission essentielle d'assister le justiciable en traduisant les allgations des autres lors de
l'audience et de communiquer ses propres affirmations. L'interprte ne doit pas tout traduire,
mais tout ce qui est utile et important pour la parfaite comprhension des dbats. Ainsi, il doit
s'assurer que l'inculp comprenne les interpellations qui lui sont adresse, les dpositions des
tmoins, les interrogatoires des coinculps, les documents lus lors de l'audience, et
le Parquet national anticorruption, par les organes de poursuite pnale, par les instances judiciaires, par les
bureaux des notaires publics, par les avocats et par les excuteurs judiciaires.
7
Rglement d'application de la Loi n o 178/1997 approuv par l'Ordre du Ministre de la justice no 1054/C/2005.
8
Jean-Yves Lasalle, La comparution du prvenu, RSC 1981, p. 541.
9
Merlin, Rpertoire universel et raisonn de jurisprudence, Tom. XV, 5e d., Bruxelles, 1826, p. 485.
957
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
spcialement les documents crits des tmoins, les rquisitoires du Ministre public, le
contenu du jugement.10
Deux sries de difficults sont prsentes quand la traduction des documents crits: la
langue du procs en tant le roumain, les actes de procdure rdigs en roumain doivent tre
ports la connaissance du justiciable d'autre langue dans sa langue et les documents rdigs
en langue trangre et prsents par le plaideur doivent tre compris par le juge et les autres
parties. Selon Philippe Malaurie, "certaines dcisions impliquent, en effet, que le juge ait la
facult de traduire d'office" les documents prsents devant l'instance dans une langue
trangre11, parce que le juge a aujourd'hui "le pouvoir d'invoquer d'office la loi trangre, et
d'autant plus il faut lui reconnatre la facult de traduire d'office un acte tranger, condition
que les droit de la dfense soient respects, ou de demander sa traduction lors de la
rouverture des dbats"12. La Cour europenne des droits de l'homme affirme que "le droit
un interprte ne se limite pas l'interprtation, mais s'tend aussi la traduction de tous les
actes de la procdure engage contre l'inculp qu'il doit comprendre pour bnficier d'un
procs quitable"13. A partir de l'article 6 de la Convention europenne de sauvegarde des
droits de l'homme et des liberts fondamentales, la Cour dgage le principe de l'galit
d'armes pour qu'un procs soit quitable. Cette galit ne se ralise que si les facilits octroye
un plaideur qui connat la langue du juge pour prparer son procs sont identique celles du
justiciable qui ignore cette langue. Le grand principe qui gouverne la procdure est celui du
"procs quitable14 qui est l'origine de l'obligation d'informer le justiciable de langue
trangre dans sa langue, parce que "le droit un procs quitable est plac parmi les
exigences fondamentales de la personne humaine"15. Donc, dans l'ide de procs quitable, on
doit comprendre la protection du justiciable d'autre langue ds son arrt et jusqu' la
prononciation du verdict.
Le dialogue entre les acteurs du procs, dialogue imparfait reconstitu l'aide de
l'interprte
Vu que la "traduction est toujours trahison" 16, la prsence de l'interprte pendant la
procdure cre un risque de dformation des affirmations du magistrat et du justiciable. Pour
tre fidle, la traduction doit tre "la plus neutre possible, la plus simple transparente entre
deux discours identiques"17. L'objectif essentiel de la traduction reste, en dpassant la simple
10
Jean-Yves Lasalle, op. cit., p. 559.
11
Philippe Malaurie, Le droit franais et la diversit des langues, Journal de droit international, 1965, p. 583.
12
Idem.
13
Cour europenne des droits de lhomme, Affaire Luedicke, Belkacem et Ko, 28 novembre 1978, srie A, no
29&48.
14
Ren Koering-Joulin, La notion europenne de tribunal indpendant et impartial au sens de larticle 6 de la
Convention europenne de sauvegarde des droits de lhomme, RSC 1990, p. 765.
15
Giuseppe Sperduti, Larticle 6 de la Convention europenne des Droits de lHomme et les dcisions
administratives internes affectant des droits de caractre civil, Mlanges Pictet, 1984, p. 813.
16
Dj la langue ordinaire nest jamais traduisible 100% mais la langue juridique, qui plus est, est diffrente
les difficult seront ainsi multiplies, Jacques Mauro, Au Carrefour des droits et des langues: La langue
applicable au contrat, le risqu linguistique, Gaz Pal 1988/1, Doctr. P. 214.
17
Emmanuel Didier, Langues et langage du droit, Wilson / Lafleur Lte, Montral, 1990, p. 241.
958
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
juxtaposition des termes, l'acceptation de la dcision par le plaideur d'autre langue, car "il
n'existe de lgitimit du juge que s'il se fait comprendre"18.
La Cour europenne des droits de l'homme cre une limite au domaine d'application du
droit l'information dans sa langue. Elle retient un enchanement d'quivalences qui n'en sont
pas ainsi en fait: "droit la parole de l'accus = droit de se dfendre droit la dfense =
prrogatives de l'avocat qui reprsente l'accus quand celui-ci est normalement prsent"19. Par
la traduction, le justiciable est inform seulement des actes essentiels la protection des droits
de la dfense. La traduction complte du droulement du procs n'est pas obligatoire, ce qui
conduit une vague comprhension de l'enchanement des actes de la procdure. Cette
limitation du domaine o le traducteur intervient est compense, en matire pnale, par la
gratuit de l'assistance d'un interprte qui maintient l'quilibre entre les justiciables par
l'limination des difficults pcuniaires qui pourraient priver le justiciable d'autre langue de
l'aide du traducteur. Donc, le principe en est que pour tre efficace, l'assistance de l'interprte
doit tre gratuite. La restauration de l'galit d'armes et de l'gal accs la justice entre les
plaideurs suppose cette gratuit20. Prvue dans le domaine pnal, elle est inexistante dans les
autres procdures. Limite l'assurance de l'interprtariat oral, elle reste discutable pour la
traduction des documents, mme si la comprhension du droulement de la procdure par le
justiciable impose cette extension. La gratuit de l'assistance d'un interprte introduite dans la
Convention europenne des droits de l'homme et dans la Rsolution (75)3 relative aux aspects
lis la criminalit parmi les travailleurs immigrants assure toute son intensit la facult
d'une aide linguistique.
L'infidlit de la traduction en tant qu'instrument d'information
Dans le cas de la traduction on a souvent faire avec une quivalence incertaine 21, car
l'incomprhension est partie inhrente de toute communication par langage. 22 "La fidlit par
rapport au sens est une recherche, mais non pas une donne pralable" 23, de telle manire que
l'interprte, intermdiaire entre le juge et le justiciable, reconstruit le message et assure une
comprhension minimale entre les interlocuteurs. Destine transmettre fidlement le sens du
message, la mission de l'interprte est reconstruire le sens de l'nonciation en fonction des
capacits du rcepteur, du systme juridique o il intervient, de telle manire qu'il peut
dgager le sens littraire ou s'loigner de la simple traduction, en restant toutefois conforme
aux termes ou leur sens. La prsence de l'interprte est essentielle pour le juge galement,
pour lui transmettre les informations indispensables la rsolution du litige. Pour la
comprhension des diffrences culturelles et de systme le traducteur devrait ajouter des
18
Madame Burdeau, Synthse gnrale du colloque Justice sans frontires, le juge et ltranger, Gaz Pal 3-4
fvrier 1993, no 34-35, p. 47.
19
Grard Soulier, Lgalit de parole, principe de la dmocratie et du procs pnal, Le thtre et le procs, n o
17-18/1991, p. 8.
20
D'ailleurs, la Cour europenne des droits de l'homme a affirm l'importance de l'aide judiciaire comme moyen
d'assurer un droit effectif d'accs la justice, voir spcialement Affaire Airey, 9 octobre 1979, srie A, no 32.
21
Pour une analyse des difficult de traduction en droit international, voir Lazr Focneanu, Les langues comme
moyen dexpression en droit international, AFDI, 1970, p. 256.
22
Maurice Pergnier, Les fondements sociolinguistiques de la traduction, Thse, Lib. Honor Champion, 1978,
p. 27.
23
Maurice Pergnier, Idem, p. 62.
959
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
explications qui ne sont pas, la plupart du temps, donnes, faute de temps, mais est admise
"l'interprtation non pas simultan, mais conscutive et synthtique" 24.
Plac entre les acteurs du procs, l'interprte est le transmetteur fidle des paroles de
chacun. en cherchant l'quivalence entre deux nonciations. 25 La traduction doit restituer, le
plus fidlement possible, les intentions de l'auteur de l'nonciation traduite, en devenant une
"recration fidle", une "cration de sens"26. L'nonciation juridique, frquemment fonde sur
des "archasmes syntaxiques" et sur des "formules strotypes", en ne pouvant pas tre
traduite mot mot parce que ne prsente pas d'quivalent dans une autre langue, doit tre
connue par le traducteur pour la recration du sens qui ne doit pas tre modifi ou perdre des
significations. 27 L'interprte ignore le plus souvent la nature du litige et n'a pas ncessairement
des connaissances juridiques, en reconstruisant le message en fonction de sa perception du
procs. Mais, pour des nonciations complexes, il doit comprendre le litige respectif et
connatre la procdure28. Pour ce faire il doit avoir des connaissances juridiques acquises par
des tudes juridiques. Dans la traduction "il existe transfert de concepts, expression de la vue
intellectuelles de deux peuples. Il n'y a plus la constatation ou l'explication d'une ralit, mais
l'assimilation d'une civilisation" 29.
Bibliographie
Burdeau, Madame, Synthse gnrale du colloque Justice sans frontires, le juge et
ltranger, Gaz Pal 3-4 fvrier 1993, no 34-35.
Didier, Emmanuel, Langues et langage du droit, Wilson / Lafleur Lte, Montral, 1990.
Eschylle, Jean-Florian, L'interprtation en matire pnale, RSC, 1992.
Focneanu, Lazr, Les langues comme moyen dexpression en droit international, AFDI,
1970.
Koering-Joulin, Ren, La notion europenne de tribunal indpendant et impartial au sens
de larticle 6 de la Convention europenne de sauvegarde des droits de lhomme, RSC, 1990.
Lasalle, Jean-Yves, La comparution du prvenu, RSC 1981.
Malaurie, Philippe, Le droit franais et la diversit des langues, Journal de droit international,
1965.
Mauro, Jacques, Au Carrefour des droits et des langues: La langue applicable au contrat, le
risqu linguistique, Gaz Pal 1988/1, Doctr.
Michaud, Jean, Le traducteur et lexpert, RSC, 1985.
Michaud, Jean, Traducteur-interprte-expert, Textes et ralits, Gaz. Pal. 21-23 mars 1993,
Doctr.
Pergnier, Maurice, Les fondements sociolinguistiques de la traduction, Thse, Lib. Honor
Champion, 1978.
24
Affaire Kamasinski, 19 dcembre 1989, p. 31.
25
Maurice Pergnier, Idem, p. 25.
26
"La traduction est beaucoup plus, c'est la recration du sens", Jean Michaud, Le traducteur et lexpert, RSC
1985, p. 267.
27
Franois Terr, Brves notes sur les problmes de la traduction juridique, Revue internationale de droit
compar, 1986, p. 350.
28
Jean Michaud, Traducteur-interprte-expert, Textes et ralits, Gaz. Pal. 21-23 mars 1993, Doctr., p. 3.
29
Philippe Kahn, note sous Com. 25 juin 1968, Clunet, 1969, p. 101.
960
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Salah-Bey, Mohammed, Les droits de la dfense lis l'information dans le procs civil in
L'information en droit priv, LGDJ, 1978.
Soulier, Grard, Lgalit de parole, principe de la dmocratie et du procs pnal, Le thtre
et le procs, no 17-18/1991.
Sperduti, Giuseppe, Larticle 6 de la Convention europenne des Droits de lHomme et les
dcisions administratives internes affectant des droits de caractre civil, Mlanges Pictet,
1984.
Terr, Franois, Brves notes sur les problmes de la traduction juridique, Revue
internationale de droit compar, 1986.
Wierderkehr, Georges, Droits de la dfense et procdure civile, D 1978, Chron.
961
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ARGUMENTS IN FAVOR AND AGAINST FEMINISING PROFESSION NAMES IN
CONTEMPORARY FRENCH
Alina IFTIME, Assistant Professor, PhD Candidate, Ovidius University of Constana
Abstract: The subject of profession names feminisation is complex, it refers not only to the
linguistic system, but also to the ideological system. The cultural progress of society, womens
access to higher education, their integration on the labour market, and then their gradual
access to management, disrupted the order that the language reflected and that was imposed
by the French Academy, which relies on grammatical morphology and language history.
Nouns denoting professions that have experienced a recent feminization and whose feminine
is not formed in a natural way, as un chercheur / une chercheuse illustrate the existence of
a symbolic barrier, firmly embedded in the consciousness of users.
In addition to the grammatical or linguistic barriers, that can prevent reforms of the
language, there are many socio-cultural arguments, both for but also against feminisation. It
is often difficult to find the middle ground in this multitude of views. In this paper, we intend
to study the various arguments favourable to feminisation, but also those which oppose these
linguistic changes.
Regarding the arguments of the opponents, feminization is derogatory to women exercising
the job, and they propose as a solution, the use of generic masculine.
For the supporters of feminization, this initiative is not a whim for imposing some simple
words, but it is about the power of language and the womans place. By the professional
name, the woman integrates herself in a psychological, symbolic, social and professional
reality. So, feminine nouns denoting professions are seen as a sign of parity.
Keywords: feminisation, professional nouns, arguments in favour, arguments against.
La langue est un systme symbolique engag dans les
rapports sociaux. [] La langue est aussi, dans une large mesure
un miroir culturel qui fixe les reprsentations symboliques et se fait
lcho des prjugs et des strotypes, en mme temps quil
alimente et entretient ceux-ci.
Marina YAGUELLO, linguiste
Limba este un instrument al puterii, care traduce locul acordat femeilor n societate,
condiionnd viziunea despre lume prin atribuirea de cuvinte care definesc realitatea i care
influeneaz statutul i funcia fiinelor. Dac o limb posed genuri, precum limba francez,
la nivelul creia identificm genul masculin i genul feminin, putem s deducem c
distribuirea cuvintelor n genuri diferite impune o anumit viziune despre lume. Prin
feminizare, nu nelegem modificarea uzului limbii pentru a provoca o schimbare social, ci
adaptarea limbii la o evoluie sociologic efectiv.
nainte de a fi un fenomen lingvistic, feminizarea este un fenomen social, ntruct
considerm natural ca limba s traduc schimbrile societii (Commission gnrale de
terminologie et de nologie, 1998: 13) i s reflecte noua poziie a femeilor, dar noile roluri
asumate de femei la nivel profesional nu au provocat imediat schimbri lexicale i
gramaticale. De aceea, n multe situaii, asistm chiar la fenomenul invers: schimbarea social
962
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
este asumat de ctre limb, care, acionnd asupra vocabularului, ncurajeaz schimbarea
mentalitilor. Deci, prin deciziile politice nregistrate n favoarea feminizrii numelor de
profesii, se ncearc forarea sau accelerarea evoluiei feminizrii.
Dei la nivel lingvistic, conservatorismul este o atitudine destul de generalizat,
poziia lingvitilor, precum Bernard Cerquiglini, este favorabil feminizrii numelor de
meserii, din motive gramaticale, sociale, morale i civice.
1. Argumente n favoarea feminizrii
1.1. Argumente de natur lingvistic
Bernard Cerquiglini (2012) consider c din punct de vedere morfologic, nu exist
restricii n ceea ce privete feminizarea numelor de meserii sau grade, singura dificultate
fiind identificat la nivelul substantivelor care se termin n sufixul eur.
De mult vreme, limba francez feminizeaz numele de meserii i continu s o fac
ntruct din punct de vedere morfologic este posibil i astfel, marea majoritate a
substantivelor care denumesc meserii se feminizeaz cu uurin, cu excepia ctorva termeni
(Becquer et all., 1999: 30). Din punct de vedere teoretic, este foarte uor de feminizat. n
continuare, vom insista asupra tehnicilor de feminizare.
1. Folosirea unui determinant feminin
Feminizarea numelor de meserii implic utilizarea unui determinant feminin (une, la,
cette): la dpute, une juge, cette agente. Acest procedeu de feminizare este important n
special pentru substantivele epicene (cele care au form identic la masculin i feminin) sau
care se termin n e mut: la cadre, une architecte, cette vtrinaire.
O manier de accentuare a sexului persoanei la care se face referire, o reprezint
adugarea cuvntului monsieur sau madame n faa numelui de profesie: Madame la ministre,
Madame la dpute. Aceste formule de adresare sunt utilizate n cazul profesiilor valorizante
i n special n domeniul politic.
1.1.2. Adugarea unor sufixe feminine
Pe lng adugarea unui determinant feminin, o alt modalitate de feminizare este
adugarea unor terminaii feminine. n limba francez exist o serie de reguli gramaticale
complexe care impun folosirea acestor terminaii:
- substantivele care se termin n , i: un attach une attache; un apprenti
une apprentie;
- teur trice: un instituteur une institutrice;
- ien ienne: un chirurgien une chirurgienne;
- f ve: un sportif une sportive;
- eur eure: un assesseur une assesseure;
- eur euse: un annonceur une annonceuse;
Acestea sunt doar cteva exemple de sufixe folosite, formele feminine recomandate
oficial, n listele indicative din ghidurile de feminizare variind de la o ar francofon la alta.
1.2. Motivele sociale favorabile feminizrii rezid, dup prerea lingvitilor, n faptul
c n limba francez nu exist genul neutru. Exist un masculin care servete uneori de
generic, cnd este folosit la plural. Formula de adresare Mesdames et Messieurs les
Ambassadeurs este folosit generic, dar cnd vorbim despre doamna X, care conduce o
Ambasad, atunci expresia Madame X est ambassadrice, nu este generic, ci pur specific.
963
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Din punct de vedere social i civic, nu exist motive pentru care s li se impun
femeilor un gen care nu le este propriu. Pentru a nelege ce incomodeaz n a spune Madame
lAmbassadeur, Bernard Cerquiglini (2012) ne invit s ne ntoarcem n istorie. Pn n
secolul al XVIII-lea, toate profesiile erau feminizate, dar n secolul al XIX-lea, odat cu
dezvoltarea burgheziei, statutul femeii a deczut, rolul su reducndu-se la cel de soie i
mam. Astfel, lambassadrice s-a transformat n soia ambasadorului, prfte a devenit soia
prefectului, prsidente, soia preedintelui. Prin urmare, primele femei care au recucerit
spaiul social al secolului al XX-lea, au preferat s se numeasc ambassadeur, prfet,
prsident i nu ambassadrice, prfte, prsidente.
Dorina de feminizare a numelor de meserii poate fi considerat, la o privire
superficial, drept o lupt de impunere a folosirii unor cuvinte, dar importana acestui demers
este, de fapt, mult mai semnificativ, acesta avnd un impact asupra puterii limbii i locului
ocupat de femeie. Prin denumirea profesional, femeia face parte dintr-o realitate psihologic,
simbolic, social i profesional, deci, numele de profesii la feminin sunt vzute, de ctre
partizanii feminizrii, ca un semn de paritate.
2. Obstacole ntmpinate de procesul de feminizare a numelor de profesii
O parte din obstacolele invocate n realizarea feminizrii numelor de meserii sunt pur
lingvistice. Dar nu toate dificultile sunt strict legate de structura limbii, dup cum
menioneaz i Becquer et all. (1999: 7-8), femininul poate avea i valoare depreciativ,
deseori, din motive istorice.
Pentru a nelege dificultile gramaticale care pot mpiedica sau care ncetinesc
feminizarea numelor de meserii, vom insista n continuare pe unele particulariti ale limbii
franceze relaionate de acest aspect.
Genul substantivelor n limba francez
n limba francez exist dou posibiliti distincte de a marca genul unui substantiv,
fie printr-un articol masculin (le / l), fie printr-un articol feminin (la / l). Pentru substantivele
care desemneaz un referent nensufleit, repartizarea genului este perfect arbitrar la table, le
bureau ; la mer, locan ; le jour, la nuit (Becquer et all., 1999: 35), genul fiind doar o
problem de morfologie i de acord.
Referitor la substantivele nsufleite, se adaug i o valoare semantic, ce ofer o
informaie referitoare la sex la cuisinire = o femeie, le cuisinier = un brbat. n acest caz,
identificm un gen natural. ntruct fiecare substantiv este strict legat de unul din cele dou
articole, fiecare substantiv care denumete meserii indic sexul persoanei la care se face
referire le boulanger / la boulangre. Deci, dac denumim n acest mod persoanele care
exercit meserii, nu exist ambiguitate, dar trecerea numelor de meserii la feminin nu este att
de simpl.
Tipurile de feminin n limba francez
Morell (2005: 168) afirm existena a dou tipuri de feminin n limba francez:
femininul lexical i femininul gramatical. Femininul lexical este identificat n cazul
substantivelor pentru care putem remarca referirea la o femeie (ex: un confrre / une
964
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
consoeur, un valet / une soubrette). Femininele gramaticale sunt substantivele care au format
femininul prin adugarea unui morfem gramatical.
Masculinul generic
Dat fiind c n limba francez nu exist genul neutru, ca n limba latin, limba
francez a ales pentru a desemna un ansamblu de indivizi fr distincie de sex, sau genre
non marqu (Commission gnrale de terminologie et de nologie. 1998 : 36), masculinul
care asigur neutralizarea gramatical (Becquer et all., 1999: 37). Acest masculin evoc i
brbai i femei. Observm deci, c n realitate, genul gramatical nu urmeaz fidel diferena
sexual.
Adversarii procesului de feminizare consider c aceasta este depreciativ pentru
femei i inutil pentru recunoaterea muncii depuse de femei i c masculinul generic servete
la rezolvarea acestei probleme.
De ce nu exist paritate lexical? n principal, din motive ideologice, pentru c a
refuza s numeti, nseamn a refuza s atribui un loc, o poziie, nseamn a refuza
recunoaterea vizibilitii. Interesant este faptul c, deseori, varianta de feminin a
substantivului exist, dar utilizarea acesteia este de neimaginat. Reticenele n faa feminizrii
nu sunt att de ordin gramatical, ct psihologic i sociocultural. Opozanii feminizrii au
avansat mai multe argumente printre care: omonimia, eufonia i, n special, devalorizarea,
conotaii peiorative.
2.1. Omonimia
Una din reticenele fa de feminizare provine din faptul c o serie de substantive,
desemneaz i maini: balayeuse, faneuse, moissonneuse. Dar, dup cum atrag atenia i
Becquer et all. (1999: 30), chiar dac aceste meserii au existat naintea apariiei mainilor
respective (exemplu, la faneuse celle qui fane le foin, atestat n 1680, n vreme ce maina
este numit la fel de-abia n 1855), nu au existat preocupri legate de aceast eventual
confuzie. ns, nu numai mainile creeaz aceste blocaje semantice, precum ilustreaz
Becquer et all. (1999: 14) care furnizeaz exemplul substantivului la mdecine, care era
atribuit n secolul al XVI-lea, femeii care exercita profesia de medic, n timp ce astzi,
adugarea unui e este facultativ, dar rar utilizat, din cauza suprapunerii peste termenul care
desemneaz ramura tiinific medicina.
Considerm c argumentul conform cruia cuvntul feminin are i un alt sens (un
cafetier / une cafetire, un recteur / une rectrice une plume de la queue qui dirige le vol des
oiseaux) pare forat, ntruct exist multe alte cuvinte care au dublu sens, ceea ce nu a
mpiedicat folosirea lor.
- Un al doilea argument: femininul cuvntului respectiv ar desemna de mult timp pe
soia (la pharmacienne este soia farmacistului), dar de mult vreme, multe persoane nu-l
mai folosesc cu acest sens.
2.2. Eufonia
Un argument al rezistenei n faa feminizrii este eufonia, un argument de ordin
psihologic i sociocultural, concretizat n enunul: Cela sonne mal, ce nest pas beau!. De
fapt, este o pur chestiune de obicei. Spre exemplu, meseriile precum la sapeuse-pompire
965
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
sau la proviseuse nu sun bine tuturor francofonilor. Dar, Oficiul de limb francez din
Quebec (Biron et all., 1991: 11) susine c cel mai adesea, aceste prime impresii se
estompeaz i c un nou obicei lingvistic se instaleaz uor-uor.
2.3. Diverse conotaii
a. Conotaii peiorative
Conotaia peiorativ este dat de folosirea sufixului esse care se pstreaz n titlurile
de noblee ca duchesse, princesse, dar care, actualmente, n ghidurile de feminizare, nu mai
este recomandat pentru formarea noilor forme de feminin. Sufixul esse, perfect neutru n
limba francez veche (chanoinesse), este resimit astzi ca peiorativ: adversarii paritii la
nivelul limbii combat substantive ca ministresse, dputesse, membresse, care oricum nu sunt
folosite. (Becquer et all., 1999: 7)
b. Devalorizarea
Pe lng motivele morfologice invocate de adversarii feminizrii numelor de meserii,
precum cele enumerate anterior: omonimia suprtoare, eufonia sau conotaiile peiorative, n
ghidul Femme, jcris ton nom (1999: 32) se menioneaz i factori de natur social conform
crora, chiar femeile ar refuza folosirea formelor feminine, ntruct acestea consider c
denumirile precum directrice sau conseillre ar evoca o nuan devalorizant a acestor funcii.
Deci, n aceast situaie, nu este contestat forma substantivelor, care este corect din punct de
vedere gramatical, ci este invocat un aspect extralingvistic.
Feminizarea meseriei ar nsemna pierderea prestigiului i autoritii, ntruct forma
feminin a fost folosit anterior pentru a desemna soia persoanei care exercita profesia
respectiv (ex: lambassadrice, la ministresse, la prsidente). Aceeai team de devalorizare
intervine n domeniile de activitate n care astzi predomin femeile, spre exemplu,
nvmntul unde une directrice dcole nu ar fi la fel de bine vzut ca un directeur dcole.
Opozanii feminizrii insist aspra faptului c aspectul cel mai important n viaa
profesional este calitatea muncii prestate, i nu caracteristicile personale ale indivizilor.
Acest argument este cel confirmat de Hlne Carrera, academician al Academiei franceze,
care susine c funciile nu au sex i, prin urmare, dorete s fie numit secrtaire perpetuel.
Opozanii feminizrii susin c, n realitate, feminizarea acioneaz mpotriva egalitii
profesionale ntre brbai i femei. Argumentul invocat este acela conform cruia numele de
meserii feminine au fost determinate mereu n funcie de masculin. Acetia se refer la
valoarea generic a masculinului. Dup prerea adversarilor feminizrii, folosirea
masculinului generic pentru denumirea femeilor reprezint lipsa oricrei segregri ntre cele
dou sexe.
Concluzii
Subiectul feminizrii numelor de profesii nu este abordat doar din punct de vedere
lingvistic, ci aceast discuie este influenat att de situaia social, economic i politic din
rile cu limba oficial franceza, ct i de atitudini intelectuale i culturale luate referitor la
aceti factori.
Progresul cultural al societii, accesul femeilor la studii superioare, ptrunderea
acestora pe piaa muncii, au condus la schimbri profunde la nivelul limbii. Limba transpune
966
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
cultura, dar remarcm c o face, n mod neuniform, astfel, studiul resurselor lingvistice,
semantice i morfosemantice care intervin n crearea neologismelor, respectiv a substantivelor
de meserii, la feminin, scoate la iveal simetrii i disimetrii motivate de existena unor puncte
de vedere diferite asupra aceleai realiti, n funcie de cultura i identitatea sociocultural pe
care individul o atribuie limbii, n funcie de propria-i experien.
Este sigur c, pentru majoritatea vorbitorilor, femininul nu este mai puin prestigios
dect masculinul. De altfel, nu este natural s numim oamenii, n acord cu sexul lor? Dar
exist numeroase meserii feminine a cror folosire este perceput astzi ca peiorativ, ca o
marc de slbiciune sau de supunere n faa masculinului.
Din cele expuse anterior, reinem cele dou motive principale pentru susinerea
feminizrii: n primul rnd, o paritate lingvistic ntre brbai i femei, ceea ce ar conduce la o
mai mare egalitate n societate. n al doilea rnd, feminizarea ar clarifica att limba scris, ct
i limba vorbit.
ntr-o perioad n care femeia ocup un loc din ce n ce mai important n snul
societii, dificultile inerente survenite n procesul feminizrii, nu mai par s i descurajeze
pe utilizatori. n ciuda ntrzierii limbii n raport cu evoluia social, tendina de feminizare a
numelor de meserii, atunci cnd exist un motiv formal sau semantic justificativ, se impune.
Formele feminine sunt resimite ca neologisme, ceea ce este resimit de unii vorbitori
francofoni, ca o atingere la norm, care, dup prerea acestora, este afirmat de dicionare.
Dar, aa cum susin Mathieu i Pierrel (2009), dicionarele nu spun ceea ce trebuie s
spunem ci ceea ce se spune, precum menioneaz i dicionarul Academiei franceze,
dicionarul d seam de uz, dar, dicionarele, au fost mult vreme reticente fa de formele de
feminin ale substantivelor care denumesc profesii.
Bibliografie
Becquer A., Cerquiglini B., Cholewka N. (1999). Femme, jcris ton nom : Guide daide la
fminisation des noms de mtiers, titres, grades, fonctions. Disponibil pe Internet :
http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/dglf/ressources/feminisation.pdf (consultat pe 6 noiembrie
2013).
Biron M. et al. (1991). Au fminin : Guide de fminisation des titres de fonction et des textes.
Guides de lOffice qubcoise de la langue franaise. Les publications du Qubec.
Cerquiglini B. (2012). Je suis favorable la fminisation des noms de mtier pour des
raisons grammaticales, sociales, morales et citoyennes.
http://www.eveleblog.com/approfondir/le-linguiste-bernard-cerquiglini-je-suis-favorable-a-la-
feminisation-des-noms-de-metier-pour-des-raisons-grammaticales-sociales-morales-et-
citoyennes/ (consultat pe 6 noiembrie 2013).
Commission gnrale de terminologie et de nologie (1998). Rapport sur la fminisation des
noms de mtier, fonction, grade ou titre. Disponibil pe Internet:
http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/dglf/cogeter/feminisation/sommaire.html (consultat pe 6
noiembrie 2013).
Marie-Jo Mathieu, Jean-Marie Pierrel. (2009). La Fminisation dans la langue. in L.
Guittienne, M. Proust (Ed.), Homme- femme : de quel sexe tes-vous ?, pp. 111-122.
967
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
http://halshs.archives-
ouvertes.fr/docs/00/39/74/63/PDF/La_Feminisation_dans_la_langue.pdf (consultat pe 10
noiembrie 2013).
Morell G. (2005). Autour des mots : Le plus court chemin entre la typographie et vous. Les
ditions des Journaux officiels.
968
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE GRAMMAR OF ELOQUENCE IN TAKE IONESCUS DISCOURSE PENTRU
ROMNIA MARE / FOR GREAT ROMANIA
Cristina RADU-GOLEA, Assistant Professor, PhD, University of Craiova
Abstract: This research study aims to make an analysis of eloquence based on the
interpretation of the discourse Pentru Romnia Mare/For Great Romania, delivered by Take
Ionescu in Iai, in 1916. This study proves important (and useful) since it combines various
means specific to several disciplines: rhetoric, linguistics, communication theory, logic. There
are different terms and semantically dense formulations characterizing the political
discourse. The argumentation is both theoretical and practical, constituting a stimulus for
the speaker and/or listener who will be able to evaluate a certain type of discourse.
Keywords: eloquence, utterance, discourse, analysis, peformance
1. Text grammar deals with the study of a text as a supraphrastic entity with a
unitary (formal) syntactic structure and a global meaning 1. Together with grammar,
argumentation is part of the environment where we carry out our activity: television,
newspapers, the discourse of politicians, of teachers, lawyers, and it involves eloquence,
reasoning, discursive drafts. Their purpose may differ: from information and
communication to persuasion, conviction, even manipulation. Meaning and level distinctions
between the above-mentioned terms are often hard to establish in discursive practice.
From a logico-rhetorical perspective, Cham Perleman and Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteca (in
Trait de largumentation, lUniversit libre de Bruxelles, Bruxelles) distinguish between
persuasion and conviction. Instead, Phillipe Breton (in LArgumentation dans la
communication, Dcouverte, Paris, 2001, p. 3) considers that argumentation and
manipulation belong to the act of persuading, and the three procedures: argumentation,
manipulation and persuasion represent registers of communication and, impliedly, of any
type of discourse (legal, political, etc.).
To be persuasive (the verb to persuade means to give advice to the end, until the
person who is given advice fully accepts it) in a discourse means to advise, eloquently, the
recipient to accept a certain theory selected by the sender, in a language complying with the
ideas under debate. In the language of political discourse, there is need for certain utterances
1
DL, 2001, p. 245.
Denumirea de gramatic a textului (...) este motivat de originea studiilor consacrate acestui domeniu, care s-au
dezvoltat iniial n cadrul gramaticilor generativ-transformaionale. La un moment dat al evoluiei cercetrilor
lingvistice de acest tip, s-a observat c atenia era exclusiv ndreptat asupra descrierii propoziiei/frazei i a
regulilor de formare a acesteia (componenta sintactic), la care se adugau aspectele semantice legate tot de
generarea propoziiilor/frazelor corecte (componenta semantic)./ The name of text grammar () is motivated
by the origin of the studies devoted to this domain, which were initially developed within transformational-
generative grammars. At a certain moment in the evolution of linguistic research of this type, it became obvious
that the focus was exclusively on the description of the sentence and its structuring rules (syntactic component),
as well as the semantic aspects related to the generation of correct sentences (semantic component). (DL,
2001, p. 245-246)
969
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
which should follow several directions2 as far as interpretation is concerned. First, the
message should be understood by the audience and, depending on wishes/opportunities, the
audience should be persuaded in the end 3. Speaking before an audience has its own rules.
Besides talent, the performance of those using the word for the purpose of arguments/pleas
involves training, study, repetition and consistency; oratorical talent depends on how it is
revealed through various means of expression.
The difference between the progress of technological thought, of its applications, and
the progress of mentality involves an ever stronger difference between man as a unique
individual and as a member of society. Verbal communication, focused on true/false criteria,
turned more and more to metalanguage, by accepting the correct definition, according to
which a sentence is more than a presentation of meaning, it also means intuition of an
unexpressed judgment 4. Modern communication, paradoxically, needs pragmatics, close to
the artistic side, close to the emotional energy of man. The technique of spontaneity
actually implies complexity: it is known that speech and thought are mutually conditional.
Speech becomes identity and a work instrument at the same time, so that there is more and
more need for pragmatics, for a training aiming to acquire knowledge of speech performances
in more and more domains.
Despite the great number of studies developed on this topic so far5, text grammar,
argumentative syntax and eloquence continue to be important issues of any type of discourse.
2. Legal and political activities (and impliedly, oratorical art) are among the domains
where reasoning must be extremely clear, precise and, sometimes, concise. Therefore, certain
knowledge of logic is crucial in the intellectual training of an orator. It represents one of the
numerous requirements involved by the exercise, at a superior level, of different
manifestations in the field of law 6. Knowledge of logic is not enough as such, in order to
make an orator/sender reason effectively in various particular situations. Logical knowledge
and abilities are just a means of control and optimization of certain activities whose quality
also depends on other factors. In the context of a debate, the main purpose is to persuade the
audience. The aim of argumentation is the persuasion of the audience 7, so as to obtain its
approval.
The research on eloquence developed against the background of the practical discourse
investigation. Unlike theoretical discourses (where the emphasis is on questioning the truth
2
Cf. Topal, Sintaxa propoziiilor subordonate din codurile juridice de la 1863-1865, 2004.
3
Cf. Pitiriciu, 2012, p. 65-70.
4
Sophism (cf. Gr. sophisma) means ruse, deception and denotes a series of logical errors found in the
practice of justifying ideas by demonstration or argumentation, whether they are intentional or not. Cf. Cazacu,
2007, p. 89.
5
Levi, Judith, Linguistics, Language and Law. A Topical Bibliography, Evanston, Illinois, 1982; Kevelson,
Roberta, Language and Legal Speech Acts: Decisions in Di Pietro, Robert (ed.), Linguistics and Professions,
1982, pp. 121-131; Maley, Yon, The Language of the Law in Gibbons, John (ed.), Language and the Law,
Longman, London, pp. 30-41. Robin, Ccile, La langue du procs, Clermont-Ferrand: Presses universitaires de
Facult de Droit de Clermont-Ferrand, Paris L.G.D.J., 2000, etc.
6
There are many other requirements that legal professionals have to meet. To enter this elite, one has to be
initiated throughout a long and painful process of education, practice and to be endowed by nature with such
qualities as intelligence, scientific curiosity, shrewdness and speculative insight. (Badea, 2008, p. 22).
7
By audience one understands either mankind (universal audience), or an interlocutor (in a dialogue), or the
subject himself. Cf. Stoianovici, Dima, Marga, 1991, p. 230.
970
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
claim of assertions), the practical discourse questions the justness claim of assertions with
regard to order and values8.
Linguists define an utterance in relation to a sentence; if a sentence is an abstract
linguistic entity, used in different situations, an utterance is the particular expression of a
sentence by a determined speaker in a certain place, at a certain moment 9. When, in logic,
one mentions propositions, we are actually interested in the content of those propositions,
namely the ideas expressed by what is called, in grammar, a sentence: declarative or assertive.
Although the object of logic differs from that of any linguistic discipline, logic pays attention
to certain general aspects of language, theoretically (applications focus on correspondences
and discrepancies between the logical form of propositions and their linguistic form). The
correct determination of the logical relations between propositions involves considering (too)
the relations between the notions expressed by the terms occurring in these propositions, and
the rigour and accuracy of reasoning also depend on the clarity of the ideas expressed in
premises and conclusions. Thus, certain topics were naturally added to the object of formal
logic: typology of terms, logical relations between terms, definition and classification
operations, as well as the specification and systematization of terms/notions.
3. A controversial domain concerns the relation between rhetoric and logic, in general,
between rhetoric and eloquence, in particular. It is known that orators do their best to
persuade the audience in many ways: a) by reasoning (or discourse logic); b) by intuition
(sensorial way); c) by emotions (sentimental way). In order to form (and formulate!)
convictions by way of reason, the orator makes use of arguments, proofs, filtered by reasoning
and based, in general, on fair judgments, namely propositions establishing a relation between
two notions. Therefore, eloquence is, to a certain extent, a form of reasoning, since any
explanation10 is also a rationality exercise. Besides argumentation and demonstration (as
discursive means of communication, knowledge and action), an explanation plays a distinct
role. If something happens, what matters is what happens and, more than that, why and
how it happens. The two performative acts: conviction and persuasion differ from the
perspective of the mechanism by which they are assumed by the recipient, as individual
situations, in relation to the act of knowledge. An explanation may be a series of arguments
(but it may constitute, sometimes, an indirect means of dispute). This statement can be
demonstrated if we illustrate it by an excerpt from the political discourse For Great Romania,
delivered by Take Ionescu, a lawyer (and a politician) in the Chamber of Deputies, in Iai, on
14 December, 1916:
8
Perelman considers that successful argumentation before the universal audience is close to the rational evidence
of demonstration; in this case, persuasion is close to the conviction determined by demonstration. (apud
Stoianovici, Dima, Marga, 1991, p. 230)
9
DL, 2001, p. 196.
Cf. O secven de morfeme este o fraz dac i numai dac este gramatical./ A sequence of morphemes
forms a sentence if and only if it is grammatical. (Reboul, Moeschler, 2012, p. 55)
10
To explain (< Fr. explication, cf. Lat. explicatio, -onis) to make clear, to clarify, to make obvious, or to
offer understanding. Often, explanations are imperfect or unsatisfying, depending on a certain rationality
ideal. (Cazacu, 2007, p. 39)
971
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Take Ionescu, ministru fr portofoliu: Eu aa am neles: nu are s stnjeneasc
sau nu are s ngreuneze realizarea reformelor? Dar mai nti: nimeni nu poate s
profetizeze c guvernul rzboiului, guvernul pn la ncheierea pcii, va fi tot el
guvernul reformelor dup pace. in ns s se tie n acest ceas c nainte de
rzboi, acum ase sau apte luni, n comitetul partidului conservator, am examinat
cu toii, n vremea cnd tria rposatul Filipescu, care n-a avut norocul nici s
triasc destul ca s vad victoria i nici s moar nainte de nceputul
nfrngerilor, am examinat profunde transformri la cari creaiunea Romniei
Mari trebuie s ne supuie, transformri mult mai numeroase dect reformele
agrare i cele electorale./ Take Ionescu, a minister without portfolio: this is
what I have understood: wont it prevent reforms or make them more difficult?
But first of all: nobody can prophesy that the War Cabinet, the government until
the conclusion of peace, will still be the government of reforms after signing
peace. But I insist that everybody should know now that before the start of the
war, six or seven months ago, in the committee of the Conservative Party, we all
examined, when late Filipescu was still alive, and he wasnt lucky enough to live
and see the victory, and to die before the beginning of defeats, we all examined
the profound changes that the creation of Great Romania must make us undergo,
changes which are much greater in number than any agrarian and electoral
reform. 11
In the excerpt above, the orator intended to capture the audiences attention by making
use of repetition (nouns: guvernul/government, transformri/changes, reforme/reforms, verbs:
a examina/to examine, a tri/to live); they resume (and emphasize) the speakers ideas. The
lawyer motivated and explained, in brief, certain things that were transmitted to those
interested. For Take Ionescu there is a principle explaining the common sense of a
demonstration: the orator must do whatever necessary in order to be understood. He also
addresses the audience through questions to which he tries to find answers: the function of
rhetorical questions is to check the recipients attitude towards the presuppositions of a certain
propositional content that the sender wants to impose 12.
In general, the orator bears in mind a certain (conceptual) representation of the utterance
and he wants to transmit it to his interlocutor. The effort to demarcate the end of oratorical art
and the beginning of literary art is an illusion, therefore extremely difficult to separate. One
can say that the two arts coexist in the political discourse of Take Ionescu, thus increasing the
expressivity of argumentation:
n aceast comunitate de suferine se dospesc legturile noastre cu aliaii (aplauze), legturi
cari nu se vor opri n ziua ncheierii pcii, ci vor continua i n urm, cci tot cu ei va trebui sa trim n
mn i pe terenul politic i pe terenul economic i mai ales pe terenul moral, care e superior tuturor.
(Aplauze prelungite.)
Atunci, domnilor, ce ne rmne de fcut?
11
Discursul oratoric romnesc. De la nceputuri i pn la instaurarea regimului comunist, 2003, p. 130.
12
tefnescu, 2008, p. 51.
ntrebarea poate fi pus sau nu, dar atunci cnd este aruncat n lupt genereaz pasiuni i dispute pe marginea
rezolvrii argumentative a alternativei. ntruct nu este nici adevrat, nici fals, ntrebarea nu implic o
opiune ferm, o tranare a problemei ntr-un sens sau altul./ The question may be asked or not, but when it is
launched in the battle, it generates passions and disputes regarding the argumentative solution of the
alternative. Since it is neither true, nor false, the question does not involve a firm option, a solution to the issue in
one sense or another. (tefnescu, 2008, p. 49)
972
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Trebuie s spunem rii c sufer; trebuie s spunem armatei care a luptat (aplauze
prelungite), trebuie s spunem tuturor sfntul adevr, c chiar dac n-am fi crezut
n victorie, noi tot am fi intrat n rzboi. Trebuie s spunem tuturor c nu a pornit
hotrrea noastr dintr-o socoteal material care poate uneori s greeasc, ci a
pornit din privirea n fa a unei probleme seculare, din supunerea la instinctul
naiunii care niciodat nu greete. (Aplauze prelungite i ndelung repetate.)/ It
is in this community of pain and suffering that our relations with the allies are
fermenting (applause), relations which will not cease when the peace is
concluded, they will go on, since well have to live with them on the political
ground and the economic ground and especially the moral ground, superior to all
of them. (Repeated applause)
Then, gentlemen, what do we have to do?
We have to tell the country that it is suffering; we have to tell the army which
fought (Repeated applause). We have to tell everybody the holy truth, that even if
we hadnt believed in victory, we would have gone to war. We have to tell
everybody that our decision didnt arise out of a material reason which might
sometimes be wrong, it started with facing a century-old problem, with the
submission before the instinct of the nation which is never wrong. (Long, repeated
applause)13.
The oratorical eloquence of Take Ionescu resembles the art of the actor in a theatre14.
The analysis of this fragment indicates a particular manner of composition: by progressive
argumentation, by questions addressed to the audience, he reaches a credible conclusion (the
instinct of the nation is never wrong). The orator uses rational proofs, i.e. in order to reveal
a truth, he refers to what the members of the audience know as well15. Since he possesses and
makes use of explicit arguments, by which he can convince those he addresses, the lawyer
avoids false arguments. The speech is clear and the order of events is observed, without
divagations.
The connection between argument and conclusion also depends on and is imposed by
certain linguistic marks; in the latter excerpt above, the linguistic marks are: cci/since, ci/but,
chiar dac/even if. The connectors16 ci/but and cci/since indicate the manner in which
certain information is expressed and how the pieces of information interfere. The arguments
and proofs are so correlated that they contribute to the unity and harmony of the discourse, to
the consolidation of the orators statements, of his thoughts.
13
Discursul oratoric romnesc. De la nceputuri i pn la instaurarea regimului comunist, 2003, p. 133.
Un comentator strin a scris c nu s-a gsit niciodat mai bine mpletit idealismul cu realismul, ca n discursul
lui Take Ionescu. Politica se mpletete cu morala, calculul cu sentimentul, istoria trecutului cu perspectivele
viitorului (...), fr ca inspiraia larg i puternic a oratorului s aib o ovire sau slbiciune. E elocvena
clasic cea mai desvrit i senin./ A foreign commentator wrote that he had never seen a better
combination of idealism and realism as reflected in Take Ionescus discourse. Politics combines with morals,
pragmatism with feelings, the history of the past with the perspectives of the future (), with no hesitation or
weakness on the part of the orator, which might influence his great and powerful inspiration. It is the most
complete and serene classical eloquence. (Hane, Solomovici, 2007, p. 149; cf. Xeni, 1933, p. 341)
14
Oratorul cuta efectul, repezea gestul i mrea timbrul vocii. De aceea era mai gustat ca alii i faima de
orator a lui Take Ionescu a depit pe a altora, tot att de talentai./ The orator was in search of effect, making
haste in his gestures and pitching his voice higher. Therefore he was better tasted and the fame of Take Ionescu
as an orator was much greater than the fame of others, equally talented. (Hane, Solomovici, 2007, p. 148)
15
Cf. Goia, 2007, p. 113.
16
The argumentative connector is a morpheme (similar to conjunctions, adverbs, interjections, etc.) which
articulates two or more utterances in a unitary argumentative strategy.
973
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
4. Therefore, a good orator must have knowledge in the field of law, as well as logical
reasoning, he must be able to understand, interpret and/or deliver a discourse. Eloquence
imposes itself through the analytical power of the one who pleads. But the purpose of
argumentation as such is persuasion; as a result, arguments should aim to establish credibility
and relevancy. From a communicational perspective, a political discourse is a linguistic act
that a speaker performs in order to convince his interlocutors (the audience) that a thesis or a
statement is true.
Together with reasoning, the art of eloquence, the good organization of the discourse,
the logical and gradual presentation of ideas, the correct use of the emotional resources of
language contribute to shaping and changing convictions. As a consequence, the logical
instruments combine with the rhetorical ones, each of them playing a certain part and
performing a certain function in the accomplishment of any type of discourse.
Bibliography
Badea, Simina, The legal text form of communication or obsessive discourse? in Annals
of the University of Craiova, Series Philology, English, Craiova, Editura Universitaria, 2008,
p. 21-30.
Bidu-Vrnceanu, Angela, Clrau, Cristina, Ionescu-Ruxndoiu, Liliana, Manca, Mihaela,
Pan Dindelegan, Gabriela, Dicionar de tiine ale limbii (DL), Bucureti, Editura Nemira,
2001.
Breton, Phillipe, LArgumentation dans la communication, Dcouverte, Paris, 2001.
Cazacu, Aurel, Teoria argumentrii, Bucureti, Romnia Press, 2007.
Goia, Vistian, Retoric i argumentare. Note de curs pentru studenii n jurnalistic i tiine
politice, Cluj-Napoca, Editura Dacia, 2007.
Gorea, Brndua, Retoric juridic, Trgu-Mure, Editura Zethus Colecia Aula, 2009.
Kalinowski, Georges, Introduction la logique juridique, Paris, Librarie gnrale de droit et
de jurisprudence, R. Pichou et R. Durand-Auzais, 1965.
Kevelson, Roberta, Language and Legal Speech Acts: Decisions in Di Pietro, Robert (ed.),
Linguistics and Professions, 1982, p. 121-131.
Levi, Judith, Linguistics, Language and Law. A Topical Bibliography, Evanston, Illinois,
1982.
Maley, Yon, The Language of the Law in Gibbons, John (ed.), Language and the Law,
London, Longman, 1994, p. 30-41.
Olariu, Florin Teodor, Dimensiunea ludic-agonal a limbajului, Iai, Editura Universitii
A.I. Cuza, 2007.
Perelman, Cham, Olbrechts-Tyteca, Lucie, Rhtorique et philosophie, Paris, Presses
Universitaires de France, 1952.
Perelman, Cham, Olbrechts-Tyteca, Lucie, Trait de largumentation: La nouvelle
rhtorique, Bruxelles, ditions de lUniversit de Bruxelles, 2009.
974
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Pitiriciu, Silvia, La plaidoirie de lavocat: du discours specializ au discourse vulgaris
(applications sur des texts en roumain), in GLAT-GENOVA 2012, Teminologie: texts,
discourse et accs aux saviors spcialiss, Italia, 2012, p. 65-70.
Reboul, Anne, Moeschler, Jacques, Pragmatca discursului: de la interpretarea enunului la
interpretarea discursului, Iai, Institutul European, 2010.
Robin, Ccile, La langue du procs, Clermont-Ferrand: Presses universitaires de Facult de
Droit de Clermont-Ferrand, Paris L.G.D.J., 2000.
Rovena-Frumuani, Daniela, Analiza discursului. Ipoteze i ipostaze, Bucureti, Editura
Tritonic, 2004.
Stoianovici, Drgan, Lecii de logic pentru juriti, Bucureti, Editura Paideia, 1992.
Stoianovici, Drgan, Dima, Teodor, Marga, Andrei, Logic general, Bucureti, Editura
Didactic i Pedagogic, 1991.
Stoichioiu-Ichim, Adriana, Semiotica discursului juridic, Bucureti, Editura Universitii din
Bucureti, 2001.
tefnescu, Loara, Retorica argumentrii n discursul politic contemporan, Bucureti, Editura
Universitii din Bucureti, 2008.
Toma, Ion, Stilistica funcional a limbii romne, Bucureti, 1999.
Topal, Drago Vlad, Sintaxa propoziiilor subordonate din codurile juridice de la 1863-
1865, Craiova, Editura Universitaria, 2004.
Xeni, C., Take Ionescu, 1858-1922, Bucureti, Editura Universul, 1933.
Sources
*** Discursul oratoric romnesc. De la nceputuri i pn la instaurarea regimului comunist,
Bucureti, Editura C.N.I. Coresi, 2003.
Hane, Vasile, Solomovici, Teu, Istoria oratoriei la romni, vol. I: De la Antim Ivireanu la
Ion Antonescu, Bucureti, Editura Teu, 2007.
http://dexonline.ro/definitie/silogism/13.03.2012.
975
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
GEOMETRIZATION OF POETIC SPACES. MATHEMATICS AS A GAME
Virginia POPOVI, PhD, University of Novi Sad, Serbia
Abstract: The paper explores and analyzes the influences of game and mathematical symbols
on the poetry of the Romanian modern poet Ion Barbu. The paper presents the analysis of the
theories of game as a poetic art as well as the analysis of the links between science and poetry
in the works of Ion Barbu - links which led to the conclusion that his poetry is imbued with
mathematical symbols. This was the reason why literary critics reviewed his work as original
and a novelty in Romanian literature. Poet and mathematician Ion Barbu (Dan Barbilian)
became known as one of the most significant modern poets of Romania, Barbus lyric went
not only through different phases distinct by various specific representations, but it also went
through language modifications. Thus the motive of the game which we encounter in Barbus
poetry changes according to the literary phase through which the poet goes. The analysis of
game as ars poetica by critics and other foreign and Romanian researchers represents the
point of departure of this paper while the goal of this researche is to identify those
components which demonstrate that game is not only a cultural and literary topic but also a
way of life. Literature itself is a game of time and space, a game of different eras and
fashions. Poetry is a game of words and a creator of a fascinating imaginary and complex
space. Life unfolds within the space of an intellectual game, in a world created by the mind
where things are different from those in real life and linked with links other than the logical
ones. Game is thus an element that belongs within the field of poetry and every poetic form
seems closely tied to the structure of the game.
Keywords: game, mathematics, poetry, Ion Barbu, symbols, modernism
Ion Barbu belongs to the period between two World Wars, and is representative of an
original literary stream: hermetism, in the same way Blaga is representative of expressionism,
V. Voiculescu of the mythic, and Bacovia the exceptional symbolist. Ion Barbu understood
the poetic reforms of Poe and Rimbaud and their attempt to "purify" the romantic soul of
poetry. This Romanian poet tried to overcome poetrys descriptive stage, envisioning a
specific kind of generality, something that would bring him multiple possibilities of
expression. Ion Barbu has been the subject of a vast and contradictory body of scholarship.
For the hermeneutic path it follows, Barbian poetics is among the most complex not only in
Romanian literature, but in European literature as a whole. Out of Romanian contributions to
the European expressionist space, only the poetics of Lucian Blaga has a similar resonance,
being supported not only by the poetry per-se, but also by theoretical writings. Lucian Blaga
defined the expressionist product as incorporating a certain value, the most elevated of which
is the absolute. Ion Barbu means no different when he speaks of "the geometrical condition,
and above it, ecstasy". The poet does not negate poetry's capacity to rise towards the absolute,
"towards healing knowledge, but only the impossibility to attain the state of grace in order to
create that type of poetry. [...] The silence, the drama of the uttered, the tragic expressed
through expression, are all encountered in great part within modern Romanian poetry" (Ruja
2008: 11).
976
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The Mirrored Play collection was published as the result of a bet with Tudor Vianu
that Barbu could write poetry (other sources tell us about an understanding between the two:
if Barbu would prove capable of publishing poetry, Vianu was to critically analyze his
works). The poems are difficult to understand, literary critics consider that Ion Barbu is
writing hermetic poetry in abstract language, while recent commentators on Barbu`s poetry
"have drawn attention to the poet's stressing his own effort to get out of the competition of
individual forms, to impersonalize expression" (Pop 1985: 148). This shift from mimesis
towards poesis is characteristic of modern lyricism, and Ion Barbu is one of its "most radical
advocates" (ibidem). The Mirrored Play cycle has been translated into numerous languages of
global circulation, and some of the poems from this cycle have been translated into Serbian as
well. Barbu makes use of mathematical concepts, the most frequently encountered one being
the notion of group (a mathematicallly structured mass, the elements of which can be brought
together according to a specific law): Out of a clock, inferred, the depth of this peaceful
peak,/Come through the mirror into the healing azure,/ Cutting through the drowned rough
herds,/ In ponds of water, an ever purer mirrored play. The understanding of Barbilian's
works infers analysis through gradation. Ion Barbu was a university professor, up until the
end of his life, teaching special courses in the finishing years of university, that only a
restricted number of very good students attended. Following his death, a large part of his
mathematical and his didactic works were published. These manuscripts had been scattered
around numerous notebooks, separate sheets of paper or along the margins of the many issues
of the Gazeta Matematic magazine from the years preceding World War I. After this date,
Ion Barbu left the literary space, and only returned to it occasionally, now fully dedicating
himself to his profession. He was considered a mathematician of European standing, imposing
the geometrical term of Barbilian spaces. There has been an interesting article on these
spaces, by Wladimir Boskoff and Bogdan Suceav, published in the magazine Observator
Cultural, nr. 286 of September 2005: The Story of Barbilian spaces, Or What Else
Happened after Mirrored Play. In our time, Barbu is appreciated for his true value, both as a
mathematician and a poet.
Knowing the Barbu`s works, perceiving the vast universe of signification, expressed in
laconic language and within such a rigorously elaborated sign system, represents a difficult
process for the modern reader: The geometrization of poetic space, the spiritualization of the
mathematical one; the essentialization of lyrical perception, the individualization of algebraic
discourse these are the coordinates that, in the Barbu`s opus, axiomatically fixate the
transcending of the real into the space of pure Knowledge. The mathematical discourse, as
well as the poetic one, both borrow from the unique beauty of Superior Knowledge. The
stylization of a poetic image, just like the stylization of a mathematical demonstration, up to
the point where they come to express an Idea in its purest and most abstract form, in the form
closest to the very essence of knowledge, is the sign that Barbi(li)an creation aspires to. The
gnostic aspiration thus puts him side by side with the great thinkers of the XIX century
(erban 2007: 229).
As a poet, Ion Barbus place appears to be singular within Romanian literature, as
well as within the European one. [...] His poetic experience through deliberate construction,
imposed by himself, is indeed unique. We know of no other poet who combined, through such
condensed lyrical synthesis, the most abstract of conceptualizations with the most
977
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
spontaneous of inspirations (Mincu 1990: 338). As a mathematician, Dan Barbilian invented
the spaces that carry his name today, thinking up other modes of mathematical existence:
The crisis of the Greek scientific civilization was the impossibility to conceive of the
irrational number. Not the Roman conquest, but their inability to overcome certain prejudices
concerning mathematical strictness, to accept other modes of mathematical existence, quickly
jaded the Greek genius (Barbilian 1988: 5). The relativization of mathematical discourse,
its opening up to new perspectives and approaches, establish the coordinates of an outstanding
mathematical mind.
The works, be they poetic or mathematic, map out the landmarks of a unique destiny,
not only in the space of Romanian culture, but within universal culture as a whole. Ion Barbu
is the most difficult poet, not only in Romanian literature (Mandics: 2001: 7), his difficulty
is found in the existence of an imaginary univocal object, unuttered though, only
circumscribed by means of a methodology peculiar to the mathematician (ibidem). This is
what Lovinescu says about Barbus poetry: From the very first verses, I sensed a remarkable
poetic talent. Sburtorul honors itself by opening up its pages to this poet whom we have
given the name of Ion Barbu. No person will miss the genetic envisioning, the intricacy of
expression, the relative sobriety of this young man, who evokes, in beautiful and cold verse,
the poetry of the powers of nature, of inert matter, of universal pretense and of the mysteries
of germination. Through geometric vigour and conceptual novelty, as much as through the
poets mastering of rough form, Romanian literature has been enriched with a new talent. Ion
Barbu opted for cryptic, essentialized poetry embued with enigmas; initiating poetry (Ruja
2008: 11).
Of the beautiful and cold verses the poet himself affirms in interviews and
correspondence that: in his versifications he wanted to bring about the equivalents of the
absolute states of intellect and vision: the geometric state and, above it, the ecstasy (Barbu
1968: 39-40). The latent nadir (Barbu 2003: 17), lost in the elevated candour of Knowledge,
the Barbian poetry becomes an Odyssey in a world of the Logos, not excluding, however, the
existence of emotion: Everybody recognized his talent; but they did not see his feeling and
his emotion. [By the critics of the time] Ion Barbu was identified as a poet of glacial forms.
Impassable Parnassianism. Confusion. A confusion provoked by the delimitation of the
notion of emotion (Mincu 1990: 338). Barbu`s lyricism is much more subtle than that, far
from the mellodic wailings of common poets: There are also emotions of an intellectual
order. But they are rare and less accessible. And therefore more precious (Mincu 1990: 24-
25). The burning and prophetic word, the lazy poetry, the banal rehabilitated (Barbu
1968: 84-87) do not make part of the Barbu`s lyric formula: There is a level of poetic
experience wherefrom the verse proves to be rigor and fervor, and not an elaborate
interjection or a more or less harmonious celebration (ibidem: 105-106). The axis of Barbu`s
poetics is constructed around a different kind of romanticism, one from the domain of
gnoseology.
Poetry, therefore, in Barbian concepts, is a play, but not one stemming from reality,
but rather from realitys reflection in the mirror, which is to say, in the spirit: it is a
mirrored, a superior play, a game of Ideas, of Essences, of pure Knowledge. Beyond the
original play of appearances, the poet seeks a mirrored play of their meaning; poetry thus
becomes a transcending of the real into archaetypal Platonic signs. Barbian poetic art starts
978
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
from an abstract understanding of the world, it does not concern itself with things, and the
immediate realities, the evident, the contingent qualities are all materials that art does not
recognize.
In order to contour a vision about universes unity, and answering the primary,
universal questions of mankind, Ion Barbu pleads for the return of poetry to the original
function that the Pindaric ode had in Antiquity. Barbu himself affirms that what could be
passed on as modernism in his poetry is nothing more than an interweaving with the very
farthest point in poetrys past: the Pindaric ode. Geometry in Barbu`s works, therefore, is
more than a scientific branch, it is a concept, a principle, a mode of perceving the world, a
stylistic category. Pindars Odes, Euclids Elements, Apollonius Stoics, Pappus
Mathematic Collections become symbols of an Apollonian Greece: After all, Greek
thought is expressed not only mythically, in fiction, but also directly, in theorems. The gate
through which the Greek world may be discussed and without the knowledge of which, in
my opinion, ones culture can not be deemed complete is not necessarily Homer. Greek
geometry is a wider gate, through which the eye might grasp an austere, yet essential
landscape (Barbilian 1967: 11-13).
The poet and mathematician proposes an original formula for this new humanism:
what differentiates classic humanism from the modern one is precisely the stress put on
mathematical formation (Barbilian 1967: 11-13). Having as its starting point the Apollonian
geometrical vision, as the expression of the intuition of the essences circumscribed to a single
synthesizing principle, Barbu`s humanism proposes a configuration of possible worlds. The
fundamental axis of this new humanism: the opening toward innovation, towards probable
interpretations: In new humanism, probability, as a dialectical opening on the plan of
method, becomes fundamental, in comparison to the hieratism of Greek geometry turned
philosophical dogma (Mincu 1990: 89): Barbu speaks of the relation between mathematical
concepts and his poetry in: We are Einsteins contemporaries, and he rivals Euclid in
imagining abstract universes, so we inevitably have to rival the demiurge in imagining
probable worlds (Barbu 1968: 39).
The Greek spirit is revealed in all its splendour in Barbus poetry, in his poems we find
a mysterious Hellas. The geometric state, the rigor and the Apollinian light are not the only
coordinates that his works gravitated towards. The bipolarity of the Greek soul also has as its
forms of expression the Dionysian lyrical aspects: catharsis, cosmic eternity, the immanent
light of dreams, which brings Barbu close to the Romantics: The cultural aspects of Hellas
are seen in the themes and motifs frequently encountered in his poetry, but also as an essential
element in the configuration of his poetics. The relation to Ancient Greece means the relation
with a tradition... (Ruja 2008: 11). The poet also openly manifested his affinity towards the
works of the great Romantics. In his own poetry, he stopped at the gnoseological aspect and at
the Greek Orpheic mysteries. Certain literary historians, like Marin Mincu, in Ion Barbus
Literary Works (Editura Cartea Romneasc, 1990), talks of the possibility to classify the poet
as an expressionist, because through a bursting of latent energy, through a tragic vision of
human destiny, expressionism becomes the last crepuscular tentative of art (Mincu 1990:
210-211) to survive the pragmatic epoch that came afterwards. Synchronically speaking, Ion
Barbu is rather an expressionist than a romantic, for his predominant aspiration to the
absolute, for the gnosticism of vision that opens up the romantic perspective over the poet.
979
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Exploring archaic mysteries (Egyptian, Greek) and the mysteries of modern mathematics, he
puts himself in Pindars hypostasis (who himself was an initiative in Hermes Trismegistus
through the re-working of Egypt by the Orphic lyra). Hermes Trismegistus (God of
Revelation, the name Neoplatonists used for the Egyptian god Toth the one holding the
mystery of Creation, of Knowledge), the poet Ion Barbu encrypts the mystery of existence
using a metaphore, a symbol (erban 2007: 233). The poets hermetism tends to realize a
unique/autonomous sign system, just like in Romanticism. Through the formula of gnostic
romanticism we understand a synthetic vision of lyricism from all the times) (ibidem: 211).
The contact with German expressionist poetry gives him a different understanding of
poetry and a different concept about the poet: The poet raises the sum/Of dispersed
harps, harps you lose in counter-flight (Out of a clock, inferred...), that
is, he becomes an archetype, making an archetypal gesture. The theme, the heroes, the
conflict, the subject, have in mind a fundamental knowledge of the world, which we can see
in the analogy with universe: And the song is hazed: hidden, as only the sea / When the
medusae walk under the green bells (Out of a clock, inferred...). Ion Barbu
himself recognizes in the poem Out of a clock, inferred... the influence of classic
poetry, of Pindars ode, through the harmony and the echilibrium of the compositions, but
also through the association of symbols: harps, bells, song, through the concept of
mimesis (mirrored play) and catharsis (healing azure), taken from Aristotles Poetics.
The need for objectivity determined the Parnassus poets to cultivate poetry of fixed form.
Precisely because of that, in the majority of poems belonging to this stage, Ion Barbu used the
fixed sonnet form.
Romantic by nature and inspiration, classic-like by concept and expression, drawing
out the shapes of a new humanism as the starting point for modern thought, the genius poet
and mathematician adds to his creation a new fundamental dimension: essentializing, the
maximum condensation of artistic expression. His opinion is that anything superfluous should
be carefully removed, because no other language is possible when talking about essence but
the elliptic language of theorems. He derives from a certain concept of the art of theorems,
which Gauss saw as a majestic text, as an inscription, the laconism of which stands itself
guarantee of its longevity (ibidem: 192). The fundamental axis of the thinking of the poet
and mathematician Barbilian becomes the formula defined as: The minimum of blind
formulae united with the maximum of visionary formulae as Minkovsky defines Gaussian
hermetism (idem).
Literary critic Marin Mincu makes a subtle difference between two concepts:
ermetism/hermetism1 (Mincu 1990: 101-105), once more underlining the uniqueness of
Barbu`s works in the context of Romanian, but also European literature. Unlike Mallarm,
whose poetic message is a purely hermetic one, and thus devoid of lyricism, Ion Barbu
created poetry that reveals the world through its own system of symbols whose signification
generates the new lyricism. Ermetism means all that is not revealed directly, the knowing of
truth supposing initiation, so that, therefore, the message of Barbian works is not
communicated directly. The perception of their semnification presupposes an initiation into
1
Ermetism is the Romanian spelling of the word hermetism, giving the mentioned critic space for a non-
translatable word-play (transl. note)
980
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
the universe of Knowledge, a universe built by the poet according to the rigorous laws of
geometry and crypted by the mathematician through a Gaussian formula for the maximum
of meaning by a minimum of signs. The hermetic message may be communicated through a
multitude of artistic forms, meaning a language open to diverse interpretations. The maximum
concentration of the poetic formula opens up multiple perspectives for deciphering the
mystery (ibidem). Although closed inside the outline of abstract knowledge, poetic
ermetism becomes the starting point of a work Open to multiple interpretations which re-
create and discover the meanings of poetic discourse. About this kind of poetry
misunderstood at first reading, Barbu himself says that if a poem admits an explanation,
rationally it admits an infinity. An exegesis can in no way be absolute. A poet provided
certain mathematics can give not one, not two, but a great number of explanations of a hidden
poem (Barbu 1968: 54-55). Ermetism proposes in this way a unique vision of universal
order, absolutely determined. The work may suggest a multitude of meanings open to creative
interpretation by the receptor, and the reader can understand it in the way that he or she feels
it.
Bibliography
Barbu, Ion (1968). Pagini de proz. Ediie, studiu introductiv i note de Dinu Pillat.
Bucureti: Editura Pentru Literatur;
Barbu, Ion Poezii, Editura Prut International, Chiinu, 2003, pag.17;
Dan Barbilian,Algebr axiomatic,Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1988, pag.5;
Barbilian, Dan (1967). Opera matematic. Vol. I. Geometrie. Bucureti: Editura
Didactic i Pedagogic;
Mandics, Gyorgy (2003). Ion Barbu, n 10 poeme. Bucureti: Editura Dacia;
Mincu, Marin (1990).Opera literar a lui Ion Barbu. Bucureti: Cartea Romneasc;
Pop, Ion (1985). Jocul poeziei. Bucureti: Editura Carta Romneasc;
Ruja, Alexandru (2008). Hermeneut n luma clasicilor. n Orizont, v. 20, 30 mai. nr. 5;
erban, Liliana (2007). Ion Barbu Dan Barbilian: maximum de gnd n minimum de
expresie. Conferina Naional de nvmnt Virtual, Ediia a V-a.
981
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS WITH ONOMASTIC ELEMENTS IN FRENCH
Drago Vlad TOPAL, Assistant Professor, PhD, University of Craiova
Abstract: The phraseological units with onomastic elements that the analysis focuses on
belong to the popular phraseological vocabulary. They reflect aspects of social and historical
life, mentalities, customs etc. They penetrated collective conscience by a deep emotional and
moral impact, occupying a significant place in popular culture and French social and
cultural history. Their semantics preserves to a lesser or greater extent the motivation of the
construction as such and the role of the onomastic element within the phraseological unit. By
the historical and geographic data, toponyms have a documentary value, and anthroponyms
are symbolic, being associated with certain moral features. Phraseological units, as language
elements, preserve a life experience, an ethical code.
Keywords: phraseological units, onomastics, semantics, popular culture, socio-cultural
history
Rod al unei experiene de via (fapte, obiceiuri, trsturi de caracter probate n anumite
situaii dificile), unitile frazeologice dintr-o limb constituie, alturi de aforisme, proverbe,
zictori, un material lingvistic, etnologic, antropologic i cultural, care poate fi cercetat sub
diferite aspecte. Analiza lingvistic se orienteaz spre lexic, semantic, sintax, etimologie
etc. Pentru aprofundarea acestor compartimente este necesar determinarea conceptului de
unitate frazeologic.
Definit drept combinaie stabil de dou sau mai multe cuvinte, avnd sens unitar i
referent unic (DL, p. 209), unitatea frazeologic este un concept complex, cercetat n
lingvistica european ncepnd cu secolul al XIX-lea. n cercetrile sale, Ferdinand de
Saussure observ felul cum se formeaz o serie de grupuri de cuvinte cu valoare denotativ 1.
Ch. Bally adaug alte elemente eseniale, considernd c, n formarea unitilor frazeologice2,
unificarea i afinitatea sunt dou trsturi caracteristice importante. Un grup de cuvinte
denumete o idee i se identific n mintea vorbitorilor cu acea idee. n lingvistica
romneasc, conceptul de unitate frazeologic (locuiune i expresie) au fost studiate de
diveri cercettori: Iorgu Iordan (1943), Florica Dimitrescu (1958), Theodor Hristea (1977 i
1978), Liviu Groza (1982, 2011)3 .a.
n uzul colectiv, unitile frazeologice au o oarecare libertate de exprimare, o
motivaie semantic sau, dimpotriv, au pierdut mult din aceast motivaie. Lexicul
polisemantic puternic metaforizat 4 i semantica indus de fapte i evenimente reale, de
caracteristici de natur moral, psihologic i social constituie o caracteristic a unitilor
frazeologice.
1
Cf. Saussure, 1922: 173, apud Groza, 2011: 17.
2
Cf. Bally, 1905: 87, apud Groza, 2011: 17.
3
Vezi bibliografia.
4
Topal, 2009: 353.
982
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Abordarea lor multipl (lexico-gramatical, sintactico-stilistic, semantico-pragmatic,
frastic etc.) poate ajuta la distincia dintre expresie i locuiune, alte dou concepte sub care
5
se prezint unitile frazeologice. Expresiile frazeologice se definesc drept grupri stabile de
cuvinte care acoper o ntreag propoziie, urmnd adesea structura gramatical a acesteia (cu
subiect, predicat, complement ) (DL, p. 210), iar locuiunile frazeologice, grupuri de
cuvinte mai mult sau mai puin sudate, care au un neles unitar i se comport din punct de
vedere gramatical ca o singur parte de vorbire (DL, p. 209). Semantica acestor construcii
are un rol important n distincia dintre locuiune i expresia frazeologic. Opacitatea este un
criteriu asupra cruia insist Liviu Groza cnd constat c sensurile elementelor alctuitoare
ale unor locuiuni pot fi opace prin raportare la sensul ntregii construcii. n alte situaii,
sensul elementelor alctuitoare este transparent n raport cu sensul ntregii construcii.
Diferena opac transparent poate face diferena ntre unele locuiuni i combinaiile de
cuvinte corespunztoare interpretabile ca libere 6. Locuiunile i expresiile frazeologice se
intersecteaz cu elementele de lexicologie i de onomastic, dar au o serie de legturi i cu
paremiologia, cu literatura aforistic.
Cercetarea semanticii a 12 uniti frazeologice cu elemente de onomastic, aa cum
exist n limba francez, demonstreaz c aceste construcii de dimensiuni reduse nu au o
valoare denotativ propriu-zis, ci una conotativ, filosofic, moralizatoare, metaforic.
Onomastica (prin toponime, hidronime, antroponime) are un rol hotrtor n fixarea sensului
construciilor7.
Uniti frazeologice construite cu toponime i hidronime
aller Canossa a-i face mea culpa, a-i recunoate vina, a-i pune cenu-n
cap (DF, p. 10).
Expresia8 dateaz din Evul Mediu i este legat de un conflict din anul 1077 d.Hr.
dintre papalitate i suveranul german, pentru dreptul de a numi episcopi9. Dup ce mpratul
Henric al IV-lea se instaleaz la Roma, papa se refugiaz la castelul de la Canossa, sat n
nordul Italiei, n provincia Emilia-Romagna, n Apenini. mpratul Henric vine mbrcat n
inut de peniten i ngenuncheaz n faa papei Grigore al VII-lea, s-i cear iertare, ntre
25-28 ianuarie 107710, cu scopul ca acesta s ridice excomunicarea mpotriva Sfntului
mprat Roman. Dup penitena de la Canossa, n schimbul acestei umiline i ofense,
mpratul primete iertare. Cearta se termin printr-un compromis, prin care teritoriul este
mprit: n nordul Alpilor regele continu s numeasc episcopii, iar n sudul Alpilor, papa.
5
Groza, 2011:21-72.
6
Groza, 2011:52.
7
Tema continu preocuprile noastre pentru frazeologisme, cum este comunicarea tiinific Phraseologismes de
la langue franaise toponymes autochtones (autori Silvia Pitiriciu, Drago Vlad Topal), inut la XXIV
Congreso internacional de icos sobre ciencias onomsticas Los nombres en la vida cotidiana, Barcelona,
Spania, 5-9 septembrie 2011; Drago Vlad Topal, Din universul proverbelor romneti: elemente de analiz
etnolingvistic, n vol. Distorsionri n comunicarea lingvistic, literar i etnofolcloric romneasc i
contextul european, Iai, Editura Alfa, 2009, p. 353-361.
8
Cf. germ. der Gang nach Canossa drumul la Canossa.
9
ncepnd cu Carol cel Mare, regele i mpraii aveau dreptul de a numi episcopii, dar n anul 1075, papa
contest aceast putere laic i hotrte s-i reia acest drept.
10
Cf. Le Robert enciclopdique des noms propres, 2009: 406.
983
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Sensul iniial, denotativ a merge la Canossa se pierde, n favoarea celui conotativ,
figurat a se umili n faa adversarului. Umilina la care este supus suveranul german are un
puternic ecou n contiina colectiv; toponimul Canossa se asociaz cu locul de umilin i de
ofens, situaii prin care trebuie s treac suveranul german pentru a-i salva interesele.
franchir le Rubicon a trece Rubiconul, fig. a se lansa ntr-o operaie riscant (DF,
p. 85).
Expresia, cu origini n secolul al XVII-lea, se refer la istoria Imperiului Roman.
Rubiconul, fluviu din nordul Italiei, joac un rol important, servind drept frontier ntre Italia
roman i Galia cisalpin, pe care o guverna Cezar. Niciun general nu avea dreptul s treac
acest fluviu. Dorina de a pune ns mna pe putere i pentru ca soldaii si s se bucure de
plcerile din capital, l determin pe Iulius Cezar s nu asculte ordinul i s treac Rubiconul.
Cu aceast ocazie, n anul 49 a.Hr., menioneaz istoricul Suetoniu, Cezar rostete celebra
formul Alea jacta est! Zarurile au fost aruncate11, moment decisiv pe care i l-a asumat,
fr s regrete, deoarece atunci a preluat puterea, Pompei fiind obligat s se refugieze. De
numele Rubiconului este legat istoria Imperiului Roman. Trecerea fluviului, a frontierei, este
o dovad de vitejie din partea lui Cezar. Curajul i asumarea faptelor constituie probe de
caracter puternic, de care Cezar d dovad pentru a prelua puterea n Imperiul Roman.
ce nest pas le Prou ! nu e chiar aa de scump, nu e o sum mare (DF, p. 35).
Peru, Eldorado, era ara foarte cutat de europeni pentru bogiile sale. n secolul al
XVI-lea, Francisco Pizzaro i descoper pe incai n Peru (1532), l captureaz pe regele
Atahualpa i masacreaz aproape 20000 de oameni care erau cu acesta. Peru devine astfel un
regat mai mic al Spaniei. Prizonier, regele d ordin s se livreze spaniolilor cantiti mari de
aur i argint, n schimbul libertii sale, dar nu reuete, pentru c este trangulat n nchisoare
n anul 1533. Aurul va fi adus n Spania de unul dintre fraii lui Pizzaro.
Un secol mai trziu, simbolul bogiei, Peru, a dus la crearea numelui comun prou,
pentru a desemna o comoar sau un noroc, numele toponimului asociindu-se n memoria
colectiv cu tot ce nseamn bogie. Azi se folosete mai mult varianta pozitiv a expresiei
familiare cest le Prou12, semnificnd bogia, cf. gagner le Prou sau riche comme un
Potosi13.
tous les trsors de Golconde comoar imens, bogie imens14, expresie care
include toponimul Golconde asociat cu bogiile de aur i pietre preioase.
n India meridional, n capitala Golconda 15 (azi Hyderabad), sultanii regatului
musulman au adunat bogii foarte mari de aur i pietre preioase, timp de aproape un secol
(1512-1687). Primii europeni, portughezii i olandezii, stabilii pe coasta Hindustanului, au
pus mna pe aceste bogii. Toponimul dobndete o nou semnificaie, pe lng bogie,
aceea de putere.
11
Cf. Les beaux textes de lAntiquit, Librairie Fernand Nathan, No 49, 1941, p. 85-86, apud
http://www.expressions-francaises.fr/annuaire-expressions-francaises/rechercher-une-expression.html; Cf. Le
Robert enciclopdique des noms propres, 2009: 1978.
12
www.expressio.fr/expressions/c/est/pas/le/perou.php
13
A se vedea i sp. es un Potosi, dup numele minei de argint de la Potosi, azi n Bolivia.
14
Cf. http://www.alyon.org/litterature/regles/origine_des_expressions.html
15
Veche cetate a Indiilor, fondat n anul 1518 de Qli Qutb Shh i ocupat n 1688 de Aurangzb, Golconda era
celebr pentru diamante i pentru coala de pictur. n present cetatea este n ruin, cf. Cf. Le Robert
enciclopdique des noms propres, 2009: 924.
984
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
cest Byzance! e superb, e lux, expresie n care bogia i luxul Bizanului sunt
proverbiale.
Bizanul sau Constantinopolul, dup numele lui Constantin, care n anul 330 d.Hr. d
numele capitalei Imperiului Roman, era un ora al opulenei. n anul 1453 este ocupat de
turci16 i, mai trziu, n anul 1930, ia numele Istanbul. Dac la nceput sensul, prin
comparaie, trimitea la toponim, astzi expresia este folosit ironic, depreciativ, pentru o
situaie contrar, de mizerie i de srcie17.
la mode Bretagne este o expresie folosit cu referire la rude ndeprtate, crora li se
dau nume ale rudelor apropiate (unchi, mtui), fig. relaie rece ntre dou lucruri 18.
Obiceiul locuitorilor strini din vestul Franei era de a-i numi o rud ndeprtat sau
un prieten bun, cu numele unei rude apropiate (cum este vrul cel mai cunoscut). Expresia
marcheaz relaiile strnse pe care le menin membrii familiilor din Bretagne, inclusiv rude
ndeprtate, prin numelor de botez: cousin/cousine la mode de Bretagne = parent ou parente
loign(e), dont la parent est difficile reconstituer sur le moment ou tablir de faon sre
(rud ndeprtat, a crei rudenie este dificil de reconstituit ), neveu/nice la mode de
Bretagne = fils, fille d'un cousin germain, ou d'une cousine germaine (fiu/fiic a unui vr
primar sau a unei verioare primare), oncle/tante la mode de Bretagne = cousin
germain/cousine germaine du pre ou de la mre (vr primar/verioar primar dup tat sau
dup mam); parent, parent la mode de Bretagne = parent lointain, parent qui n'est pas
tablie de manire certaine (rud ndeprtat, rudenie nesigur) 19.
crtin des Alpes este o locuiune cu sensul de idiot, imbecil, apelativ pentru
oamenii de la munte care, neputnd s ajung la mare, foloseau sarea din carier, srac n
iod, fapt ce avea efect asupra sntii lor, provocnd nanism i retard mintal20. Locuiunea l
definete pe omul prost, care nu se remarc prin inteligen, indiferent de locul unde triete.
avoir ses lettres de Cracovie a umbla cu minciuni (DF, p. 26).
Expresia face aluzie la persoanele care mint i nal. Toponimul amintete de
polonezii care aveau reputaia de mari mincinoi. Numele propriu se ncrc astfel cu o
conotaie negativ21. Din aceeai sfer lexico-semantic fac parte i verbul craquer a turna
gogoi, a mini, substantivul craque gogoa, minciun, craqueur mincinos22.
Uniti frazeologice cu antroponime i hagionime
coiffer Sainte-Catherine, construcie frazeologic cu sensul ironic a rmne fat
btrn, a mpleti cosi alb, a mbtrni la vatr (DF, p. 39).
16
Cf. Le Robert enciclopdique des noms propres, 2009: 378.
17
Cf. http://www.alyon.org/litterature/regles/origine_des_expressions.html
18
A se vedea http://www.expressions-francaises.fr/annuaire-expressions-francaises/rechercher-une-
expression.html
19
Cf. TLFI, http://atilf.atilf.fr/dendien/scripts/tlfiv5/affart.exe?42;s=3710007750;?b=0;
20
A se vedea http://www.expressions-francaises.fr/annuaire-expressions-francaises/rechercher-une-
expression.html
21
n alte surse toponimul este legat de Krak, numele fondatorului legendar al oraului, care a dat numele comun
krak corb, cf. pol. Krakow, prin extindere oraul corbilor, cf. Le Robert enciclopdique des noms propres,
2009: 579.
22
Cf. Dictionnaire du franais littraire mots rares et difficiles Webnext.fr, http://langue-
francaise.webnext.fr/index.php
985
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Expresia are un punct de plecare n religia catolic: Sfnta Caterina (Caterina din
Alexandria), o tnr pioas, erudit, rmas virgin, a murit n martiriul din secolul al IV-lea,
n timpul lui Maxeniu, fiind decapitat, dup ce a fost parial cioprit de roi armate cu cuie
i cu brice23.
Sfnta Caterina rmne simbolul puritii (antroponimul vine de la gr. katharos
pur) . Din Evul Mediu s-a pstrat obiceiul ca fetele care au mplinit 25 de ani i nu s-au
24
mritat s fie numite caterinete (fr. catherinettes); ele poart plrii care au culorile galben
(simbol al credinei) i verde (simbol al cunoaterii), amintind de tradiie. Statuile Sfintei
Caterina, plasate n biserici, erau ornate cu o bonet, care era nnoit la fiecare an de fetele
nemritate. Cu aceast ocazie, ele o rugau pe sfnt s le ajute s-i gseasc un so. Dac se
cstoreau, o numeau regin pe Sfnta Caterina. Astzi evenimentul se srbtorete cu veselie
n fiecare an, la 25 noiembrie.
Expresia legat de acest obicei s-a pstrat n fondul frazeologic al limbii franceze.
Conotaia ironic i depreciativ a hagionimului este dat de nclcarea unor cutume: la vrsta
de 25 de ani tinerele fete ar trebui s fie soii. Dac nu are loc evenimentul, faptul este
sancionat de colectivitate. Prin analogie, Sfnta Caterina a devenit i numele unui soi de
pruni cu fructe trzii, apropiate la gust de corcodue.
sign Canrobert este o expresie folosit pentru o situaie grav, prezentat sub forma
unui eveniment fr importan25.
Expresia dateaz din secolul al XIX-lea, cnd, n timpul rzboiului din Crimeea (1853-
1856), comandantul trupelor franceze, Franois Certain Canrobert, n ciuda dificultilor,
trimitea ntotdeauna scrisori cu finalul Tout va bien. Sign Canrobert. La ntoarcerea din
rzboi este promovat mareal, fiind un susintor al lui Bonaparte26. Antroponimul are o
conotaie pozitiv, care se refer la tria de caracter a omului puternic, ferindu-i pe cei slabi
de consecinele aflrii unor evenimente grave.
lne de Buridan este o locuiune referitoare la omul nehotrt, indecis n alegerea
unei situaii, a unui fapt.
Aforismul emis de Jean Buridan, filosof scolastic, rector la Paris n secolul al XIV-lea,
amintete despre mgarul care a murit de foame i de sete, pentru c nu tia ce s fac mai
nti: s se hrneasc cu ovz sau s bea ap dintr-o gleat27. Locuiunea face aluzie la
oamenii care ezit28 i care pierd multe oportuniti din aceast cauz. Numele lui Buridan
este popularizat prin acest aforism ca argument contra partizanilor determinismului sau contra
liberului arbitru29.
cest un Nicodme este o locuiune care definete un om bleg, un ggu (DF,
p.37).
23
A se vedea http://www.expressions-francaises.fr/annuaire-expressions-francaises/rechercher-une-
expression.html
24
Mnstirea Sfnta Caterina din Sinai este ridicat n cinstea acestei tinere pioase, cf. Le Robert enciclopdique
des noms propres, 2009: 435.
25
http://www.alyon.org/litterature/regles/origine_des_expressions.html
26
Cf. Le Robert enciclopdique des noms propres, 2009: 407.
27
http://www.alyon.org/litterature/regles/origine_des_expressions.html
28
Cf. TLFI: hsitant, perplexe comme l'ne de Buridan (indecis, mirat ca mgarul lui Buridan),
http://atilf.atilf.fr/dendien/scripts/tlfiv5/affart.exe?42; s=3710007750;? b=0;
29
Cf. Le Robert enciclopdique des noms propres, 2009: 372.
986
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Numele este legat de personajul Nicodim, care apare ntr-o pies de teatru pe o tem
religioas, Le mystre de la passion de Arnoul Grban (1420-1471). n Evul Mediu piesa,
care avea 35000 de versuri, s-a jucat timp de trei zile, de mai multe ori30. De la numele
personajului celebru Nicodim, un evreu fariseu, slab i neghiob, devenit discipol al lui Iisus,
se nate numele comun depreciativ nicodme naiv, prost, neghiob, cf. i fr. nigaud
(probabil derivat cu sufixul peiorativ -aud de la Nicodme) naiv, prost, neghiob.
Numele din locuiune indic limitarea, prostia, fiind un apelativ depreciativ, aluzie la
omul simplu, din popor. Numele personajului, la rndul lui, trimite la popor: cf. gr. nik
victorie, demos popor31.
Toponimele/hidronimele din structura unitilor frazeologice analizate au conotaii
pozitive, semnific locul bogiei materiale, al luxului: Prou, Golconde, Byzance; locul de
manifestare a curajului i a triei de caracter: Rubicon; conservarea unor relaii de familie
strnse prin reatribuirea numelor unor rude ndeprtate, prin tradiie: Bretagne; conotaii
negative, prin umilin i ofens: Canossa, prin minciun i nelciune: Cracovie. Toponimul
are un rol mai puin important n structura unitii frazeologice, rolul esenial avndu-l
defectele locuitorilor (limitarea, prostia): Alpes.
Antroponimele au conotaii pozitive, semnificnd tria de caracter (Canrobert), dar
adesea conotaii negative, prin fata rmas prizoniera mentalitilor negative, de respectare a
canoanelor bisericii catolice din Evul Mediu (sainte-Catherine), prin personajul-simbol al
omului bleg i limitat (Nicodme).
Frazeologia are un rol important n mbogirea lexicului unei limbi. Elementul
onomastic devine baz de derivare pentru numele comune: craque, craquer, craqueur, cf.
Cracovie; nicodme, nigaud, cf. Nicodme; catherinettes, cf. Catherine. Unele expresii, cum
este la mode Bretagne are o rspndire larg. Contextele n care se ntlnete sunt uniti
frazeologice nrudite: cousin/cousine/neveu/nice/oncle/tante/parent/parent la mode
Bretagne. Unitile frazeologice conin aspecte filosofice i moralizatoare. Faptele genereaz
mesaje pline de nvminte: o schimbare a lucrurilor presupune implicare n aciune i trie
de caracter (franchir le Rubicon); ironia poate contribui la schimbarea unei situaii negative n
una pozitiv (coiffer Sainte-Catherine).
Locuiunile i expresiile sunt surse de analiz lingvistic, istoric, social, psihologic;
ele constituie o parte a fondului frazeologic universal, important att pentru cunoaterea
faptelor de limb, ct i a culturii, a tradiiilor.
Bibliografie
Bidu-Vrnceanu, Angela, Clrau, Cristina, Ionescu-Ruxndoiu, Liliana, Manca, Mihaela,
Pan Dindelegan, Gabriela, Dicionar General de tiine. tiine ale limbii (DL), Bucureti,
Editura tiinific, 1997.
Dimitrescu, Florica, Locuiunile verbale n limba romn, Bucureti, Editura Academiei,
1958.
30
Cf. http://www.expressions-francaises.fr/annuaire-expressions-francaises/rechercher-une-expression.html
31
Cf. Le Robert enciclopdique des noms propres, 2009: 1618.
987
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Hristea, Theodor, Contribuii la studiul etimologic al frazeologiei romneti moderne, n
Limba romn, XXVI, nr. 6, 1977, p. 587-598.
Hristea, Theodor, Frazeologie i etimologie, n Romnia literar, X, nr. 2, 1977, p. 8.
Hristea, Theodor, Sinonimia frazeologic i lexico-frazeologic, n Romnia literar, XI, nr.
29, 1978, p. 8.
Iordan, Iorgu, Limba romn actual. O gramatic a greelilor, Bucureti, Institutul de
Arte Grafice Alex. A. Terek, Mrzescu, 1943.
Gorunescu, Elena, Dicionar frazeologic francez-romn, romn-francez (DF), Bucureti,
Editura Teora, 1997.
Groza, Liviu, Argisme frzeologice de provenien francez, n Limb i literatur, vol. I,
1982, p. 312- 317.
Groza, Liviu, Probleme de frazeologie, Bucureti, Editura Universitii din Bucureti, 2011.
Topal, Drago Vlad, Din universul proverbelor romneti: elemente de analiz
etnolingvistic, n vol. Distorsionri n comunicarea lingvistic, literar i etnofolcloric
romneasc i contextul european, Iai, Editura Alfa, 2009, p. 353-361.
*** Le Robert enciclopdique des noms propres, Paris, Dictionnaires Le Robert, 2009.
*** Dictionnaire du franais littraire mots rares et difficiles Webnext.fr, http://langue-
francaise.webnext.fr/index.php
*** Trsor de la langue franaise informatis (TLFi), http://atilf.atilf.fr/dendien/scripts/
tlfiv5/affart.exe?42;s=3710007750;?b=0;
http://www.expressions-francaises.fr/annuaire-expressions-francaises/rechercher-une-
expression.html
www.expressio.fr/expressions/c/est/pas/le/perou.php
http://www.alyon.org/litterature/regles/origine_des_expressions.html
988
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
TRAIAN CHELARIUS JOURNALS, OR WHAT DOES A NON-CANONICAL
HISTORY SPEAK OF
Dana Alexandra DOLGU URSULEANU, PhD Candidate, tefan cel Mare University
of Suceava
Abstract: This paper presents the journals of an author from Bukovina, texts which put in a
mirror two important historical periods and which manage to talk about literary, social and
mentality problems. These representative writings brought to a comparative stage that restore
personal vision of the author, trys to shape up an overview of the respective eras of literary
events.
Traian Chelariu, a writer from Bukovina from twentieth century manages to note down with a
model dutifulness, the events, thoughts and the moments lived in eleven years of existence,
fact which took shape in three volumes of memories: My days and my shadow (two volumes)
and The swan street, number 8. The first two volumes covers a part from the inter-war period
(the years 1929 1936), and the third volume presents the authors life in some years from
the post-war period (the years 1956 1960). The settlement in parallel of the two intervals
presented by the same mind, brings a image of a Bukovina which wants to ally Romania from
a cultural standpoint (not only from the territorial point of view) through a generation full of
good writing and a image of a Bucharest of the early years of communism, seen from the
perspective of a writer "expelled" by ideology from the circle of intellectuals.
Keywords: inter-war period, communism, Bukovina, journal, Traian Chelariu.
1. Exordium
There are many unknowns in the Romanian literature. Although in the large area of
the literary department each one has existed and has at one point been certified, it has soon
become the victim of time and forgetfulness. Traian Chelariu, an inhabitant of Bukovina who
wrote poetry, prose, theatre, meditations, and memoirs and who in the inter-war period has
distinguished himself among the writers, seems to be a relevant example for this situation as
he easily became a victim of history. The author of eight volumes edited during his lifetime
and five after his death, student at the University of Cernauti, but also a scholar of the parisian
and italian universities, editor-in-chief of Glasul Bucovinei periodical, consistent
contributor of the Junimea literar and Universul literar periodicals, assistant lecturer at
the psychology or pedagogy department (at Cernui, Iai and Bucharest), but also lecturer at
the Pedagogical Institute of Suceava since 1964 (after a period of profesional involution
caused by the communist ideology), Traian Chelariu is a representative of the Romanian
literary unknowns.
Out of his immense literary work, we can observe sonnets of an exemplary
correctitude and peculiar sensibility, plays with Romanian taste, allegorical fictions, deep
moral-philosophical meditations and journal files that depict the portrait of the inter-war and
communist period intellectual. The memoirs are compound of three volumes: Zilele si umbra
mea (The Days and My Shadow) (two volumes), that cover the 1929 1926 years and Strada
989
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Lebedei nr. 8 (The Street of the Swan no. 8), which present the authors life between 1956-
1960 years.
2. The Shadows from the Interwar Period
Traian Chelariu was an autodidact man who always stressed the significance of
education for self-improvement and wanted to observe his professional and personal
evolution or involution. This distinguishing feature can be seen in the way the author reduces
his acts, thoughts and feelings to writing, just because he knew these would be a written
evidence of the changes he has been through. Therefore, this man from Bukovina, a piece of
land/region from Northern Romania, aged 23 started to carefully consign daily important facts
until he was 60 years old. Traian Chelarius daily notes start in 1929 and go on a few days
until his death in Suceava, (the 4th of November 1966), where he had finally been admitted as
lecturer at a newly established Pedagogical Institute. There had been a few moments without
writing, a few notebooks had been lost, nevertheless the thousands of pages were published
into a volume which included the period between 1929-1936 (The Days and my Shadow,
Junimea, 1976)[1] and also into the volume The Street of the Swan no. 8.
The first diary The Days and my Shadow[2] catches the readers attention with unique
presentations about the University of Cernui in the 1930s, about the existence and activity
of the bukovineans writers and also about the life of a young man having a scholarship in
Paris. The second volume [3] continues the interwar story by describing his life as a scholar in
Rome, as well as the publishers intellectual life in Cernui. The end of this interwar diary is
registered on the 28th of December 1936, it sounds like this:The last page, the last regret for
not having written less pride and much wisdom [4] in a way that is specific to Chelariu.
The memorialistic pages of the volumes The Days and my Shadow can be taken for
granted as a historical confession about the interwar period, metaphorically speaking as a
glance through the keyhole towards the Romanian past. These pages build up an image of past
times by bringing together literature, society, mentality and politics. Romanian literature
history includes portraits of famous authors such as Liviu Rebreanu, Tudor Arghezi, Gala
Galaction, presentations of Bukovinean writers activity (published poems, newspapers
articles), confrontations and polemics between writers of the young generation. Social history
includes annotations about students financial problems, dancing nights, movie, theatre,
music, love and exams. The history of mentality includes conceptions about life, information
about the main subjects for discussion in the intellectual circles, notes regarding rules in
society. Political history includes data about royalty, parties, ministries and different events in
the Romanian and European space.
Seeing the Romanian interwar period through Traian Chelarius eyes we can observe
an active era, bringing together moral values and intellectual preoccupations: meetings at
Junimea literar (All evening and all nightat Junimeas general meeting just for
getting the absoluteness. They gave me cum laude [5]), visits to different art exhibitions (e.g.
Ive been at Vl. Nichitovicis vernissage [6], activity at university (From the conference
hall of the University, where there is the library of my History of Philosophy seminar, you can
see the laboratories of the academic institutes. At all times when I look out of the window,
beyond a flame is flickering more alive, yet less shining. Someone dressed in white overall
lowers above the flame and examines it closely. He gets up and writes down some notes. An
990
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
assistant, of course, or a professor. [7]), discussions with famous authors (Mr. Liviu
Rebreanu speaks slowly he seems to choose his words, he suits them fine with his mimicry
and then he simply pronounces them . [8]; At about half past six Mr. Gala Galaction
together with his daughter Mara Piculescu visited us. He is a tolstonian head, yet he didnt
impress me like Tolstoi. Because it is too joyful, I mean it hasnt got anything essentially
affected. [9])
As a matter of fact, these daily notes contain details about the modality the student
Traian Chelariu provides his existence in Cernui, as well as in the European cities where he
has had a scholarship: Today I received the papers that acknowledge my position as a
secretary at the Pedagogical Academic Seminar starting with the 1 st of October, this year.
As a secretary, I get 4,700 lei every month. 3,000 lei in addition to the salary for taking pupils
help me not thinking about tomorrow. [10]; I took today the last two scholarships: 1600
francs. I spent 600 on hygiene tools and books. I saved 100 for the probable presents, 200 to
live until I go back and 700 for the journey and the days left until the next scholarship in
November, which I am hoping to get in Rome. [11]
The political climate in the Romanian interwar takes shape in the diary both through
an internal perspective of the notes from the period of studying in Cernui and through an
external perspective of the notes from the period of studying abroad: Prince Carol at
Bucharest. The most important event ever since King Ferdinand died. The end of Vintil
Brtianu. [12]; How poorly can we govern our country. Instead of gaining the love and trust
of our neighbours and national minorities within 12 years, we raised them all against us. [13]
; The news of the day: the issue of Russian dumping, The Maniu government dismissed.
[14]; In Bucharest bloody revolts, in Cluj, Galai, Braov stir. The clerks salary is lousy.
Dirt and night everywhere and both the government and the King mock the country. [15]; It
is not responsible the Iron Guard for the abolition of the Liberal Party, but the will that
imposed this condition. [16]
The Bucovinean literature from the interwar period is considerably being detached
from the national literature, this center-marginal delimitation is visible in Traian Chelarius
annotations: Spending the evening with Barbu and Silvia. We have discussed the new
number of Viaa Romneasc. Just now I am seriously thinking of collaborating with a
major journal. Ill try to be intentured into Viaa Romneasc....[17]; Romnia literar
from Bucharest under the management of Liviu Rebreanu gives an eulogistic appreciation to
Junimea literar...[18] On the whole, the literary movement from Bucovina buildt itself on
the basis of literary magazines: Glasul Bucovinei and Junimea Literar, of the printing
house Iconar and the personalities I. Nistor, Mircea Streinul, Iulian Vesper, etc: Just like
that the waters of spring clarify the poetry in our Bucovina: M. Streinul, I. Vesper, N. Roca
(I. Roca has died), E. Ar. Zaharia. These people have something personal to bring out.
Instead of M. Streinul, they are all negativists. And Streinuls positivismul is also
lugubrious. [19]; The printing house Iconar is very useful in Cernui all who stand up
against this printing house strikes the Romanian writing from Bukovina. [20] The general
image of the literature from Bukovina also registers the polemics between the writers through
the articles of the magazines and letters. For example, in 1933 Traian Chelariu published an
article in the journal Glasul Bucovinei against the young generation and against the
991
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
lightness of conduct and insolence [21]. However, the literature from Bukovina tries to make
its own way, to assert itself as a paradigm.
3. The Streets of Comunism
The third memorialistic posthumous publication, The Street of the Swan no. 8 [22]
reproduces Traian Chelarius diary annotations from the 15th of July 1956 to the 5th of
September 1960, practically making a radiography of an intellectual writers life who has
been <purged> by the Communist regime (he makes his own living by doing desinfections
and deratizations or teaching arithmetic for the 5th grade, for example, or translating, or
stylizing, or editing for different edits, which nevertheless dont write his name on his own
texts (he begins teaching or publishing only after a slow <rehabilitation> of the
Communism) [23].
Reading the book that clearly aims to identify certain historical sections, one can
observe the intellectuals portrait, a person who accepts his adverse fate, also the image of a
Communist country with its specific mentality and the contaminated literature by the
ideological guidance. The Literary History section presents the portraits of famous authors,
such as T. Arghezi, G. Bacovia, Nicolae Labi, M. Beniuc, unknown details of the literature
world (concessions, rules, censorships) and the life of a writer unaccepted by the high society.
The Social History section includes notes about the financial problems of a family with a past
that was unaccepted by the Communist Party, about the activities that the Party was asking for
in schools, factories and as well about the Romanian educational system. The section
regarding the History of Mentalities includes both the ontological beliefs promoted by the
Communist ideology and the authors personal revolts against the new man. The Political
History presents Communist personalities, parties and specific events.
The literary life at the beginning of the Communist era excluded each and every author
that was not a member of the Writers Union or didnt understand that the vocation of
literature is to educate people politically. Furthermore, the social life in those times excluded
all individuals that were not accepted in the party and moreover they were isolated to the
periphery of the society. Because of these compulsory rules, Traian Chelariu had to work at a
deratization service for two years (7 a.m. 3 p.m. desinfestation and deratization. Afternoon
choosing lyric verses and writing the first scene of the play about Ovidiu. For now, Im
editing it in rhyme: octosilabic couplets [24]). Living a wretched life (we dont have
supplies for winter, nor money to spend on food every day. Still, they left us the underclothes,
the clothing, the footwear And no perspective of upgrading the salary! Afternoon
sketching a plan for the Celesta Farce. [25]). The play was performed in every Congress
where the writers met (talking on the phone with Eusebiu Camilar. He tells me that as soon
as the Congress begins, they will incorporate the new committee of the Writers Union. In its
first session, they will solve my new request of integrating me as a member, as Camilar
asserts. [26]), and the head names that represented the literary movement of the moment are
now unknown (When I think about Mihai Eminescu, the national poet, he is a demigod in
comparison to Mihai Beniuc [who is a pithecanthrope in comparison to Mihai Eminescu,
although he is the greatest Romanian communist writer! ] ... I am sick of the present premises
signed by M. Beniuc, M. Breslau, M. Banu and others. [27]). The same Literary History
image includes the suspect death of Nicolae Labi, the funeral events of Bacovia and Camil
992
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Petrescu or details about T. Arghezis personality, information about the literary publications
of the day (for example, M. Sebastian) and definitions about the engaged writings
(Afternoon at Viaa Romneasc - invited on the phone to write 2-5 stanzas against the
aggression in Liban. In the morning obeyed the command. [28]).
The Social History presents an engaged world where there has been a reversal of
values in order to comply with the demands of the Party: Knackery. Visiting different
departments of the factory to collect material in order to write a wall newspaper article. All
the information are precisely the following: the Autopsy Department broken ventilation
The express delivery is not ok, the meat flour takes the shape of piles in the warehouse
And, all in all, I had to hand an article the next day saying that they do a roaring business.
[29], 3 p.m. 3.30 p.m. meeting to change the story of the abjections from Budapest, as the
management of the enterprise announced[30], Besides, there are adding up events that
reinforce the rumours about the Reds. There are everywhere traitors, the Communists dont
like mysticism. This docility is continuously being supervised, although there have been
moments of rebellion: I am taking part to a dialogue at the Educational Section! What on the
Earth still want the jerks of the regime with me after all the injustices Ive suffered since
1949? [31].
The Political History reproduces information about the Soviet troops in other
countries, dialogues of the most famous communist personalities, external news about the
Middle East or the conflict between the United States of America and USSR. A shattering
fragment in the book tells about the 4th of April 1958 when Bucharest has been blitzed by the
Americans: It was awful, awful, awful!!!... I was feeling how the terror settled in my heart!
[32].
4. The Uncanonical History written by Traian Chelariu
The three volume journals emphasize two totally different periods of time through
which the writer Traian Chelariu has been going through. If in the inter-war period his studies
were mainly literary and were concerned with cultural events and many others, in the
communist period his notes show again literary concerns, but in this case, manifested in the
intimate space of his private library and often blurred by the problems caused by ideology.
The literary history written by the author from Drmneti, Suceava presents an clear
involution: from the Bukovinanian movement that tried to form an alliance with the cultural
spirit of the entire country, to the national communist movement which did not have the
philologists bohemia. Likewise, the social history emphasizes the discrepancy between the
two periods: from the scholar from Paris and Rome, to the comrade from Bucharest employee
of the Flaying House commercial firm, deratization and disinfection. The history of mentality
sketches an image of decadence lived by the people of the two periods: from the ideologies
about the possibility of change through culture and education, to the ideas according to which
only the new man education is flawless. On the contrary, the history of politics seems equally
litigious in both epochs, presenting a Romania that does not succeed to find its meaning, that
gets lost in front of other political powers and that has a lot more to learn.
In conclusion, the three memoir volumes written by Traian Chelariu represent an act
of recall for those who lived the moment of communism from Romania, a retrospective
journey on the axis of time until the inter-war moment, all these being sketched according to
993
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
four grids of reading: literary, social, politic and of mentality. Therefore, this uncanonical
history talks about a major difference between the two periods, about involution, problems,
frustrations and life.
,,I think about the meaning of this journal, I think about those more than one thousand
pages of written journaland on top of my head, off the sunny cliff a lucid demon laughs. I
remembered a versified German parable, - otherwise mediocre, - wherein an individual
suspended between the present everyday danger and the existent death, forgets a moment
about his tragic-comical situation and picks, with innocent greed, the juicy grains of a plant
suspended, just like him, above the nothingness. [33]
Notes:
1. Mircea Diaconu, Traian Chelariu n cutarea unu gest de justiie literar, introduction at
the book. Strada Lebedei nr. 8, Publishing House Paideia, Bucharest, 2002.
2. Traian Chelariu, Zilele i umbra mea, book I, Publishing House Ideea European,
Bucharest, 2007.
3. Traian Chelariu, Zilele i umbra mea, bookII, Publishing House Ideea European,
Bucharest, 2007.
4. Ibidem, p. 497.
5. Idem, Zilele i umbra mea, book I, p. 30.
6. Ibidem, p. 31.
7. Ibidem, p. 42.
8. Ibidem, p. 81.
9. Traian Chelariu, Zilele i umbra mea, book II, p. 343.
10. Traian Chelariu, Zilele i umbra mea, book I, p. 24.
11. Traian Chelariu, Zilele i umbra mea, book II, p. 106.
12. Ibidem, p. 71.
13. Ibidem, p. 83.
14. Ibidem, p. 109.
15. Ibidem, p. 255.
16. Traian Chelariu, Zilele i umbra mea, book II, p. 156.
17. Traian Chelariu, Zilele i umbra mea, book I, p. 233.
18. Ibidem, p. 341.
19. Traian Chelariu, Zilele i umbra mea, book II, p. 116.
20. Traian Chelariu, Zilele i umbra mea, book II, p. 224.
21. Traian Chelariu, Zilele i umbra mea, book I, p. 244.
22. Traian Chelariu, Strada Lebedei nr. 8, Publishing House Paideia, Bucharest, 2002.
23. Nicolae Manolescu, Istoria critic a literaturii romne, Paralela 45, Bucharest, 2008, p.
1143.
24. Ibidem, p. 103.
25. Ibidem, p. 60.
26. Ibidem, p. 14.
27. Ibidem, p.162.
28. Ibidem, p.248.
29. Ibidem, p.49.
994
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
30. Ibidem, p.55.
31. Ibidem, p. 271.
32. Ibidem, p. 204.
33. Ibidem, p. 195.
Bibliography
Chelariu, Traian, Zilele i umbra mea, vol I, II, Publishing House Ideea European,
Bucharest, 2007;
Chelariu, Traian, Strada Lebedei nr. 8, Publishing House Paideia, Bucharest, 2002;
Manolescu, Nicolae, Istoria critic a literaturii romne, Publishing House Paralela 45,
Bucharest, 2008.
995
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
REPRESENTATIONS AND FEATURES OF DESTINY IN ROMANIAN
FAIRY TALES
Claudia COSTIN, Associate Professor, PhD, tefan cel Mare University of Suceava
Abstract: Destiny, with its various representations of mythical order Luck/ Mischance, Fate,
Faith reveals in the fantastical Romanian fairy-tale the distinctive vision of the simple man
about existence, about the role of the human being in this world, about the coalescence with
nature, with the sacred. In the mythological paradigm, Destiny governs, along with other
divinities (Frtate, God), the mundane and the cosmic order. Its autority is unassailable and
can act through instances that receive the attribute of sanctity. These are imagined as
mythical beings which belong to a mysterious world and highlight the diversity of a cultural
background.
Keywords: destiny, luck, mythical being, sacredness
The mythology of Romanian people, just like any other mythology, reveals to us as a
genuine spectacle of the imagination of the human being. Because of its orality, it
materialized in superstitions and rites, in miraculous stories and legends, which disclose
keys of lecture in the history of the Romanian popular culture and mentality. The
characters, symbolical reflections, ideals of the simple man from the folk, through the
initiation in knowledge reveals fundamental aspects of human existence.
Concerning the mythology from the Romanian space, an important chapter is
represented by the mythology of fate, which emphasizes the specific perspective of life,
destiny, the meaning of the being in this world, about the bond with nature, with the sacred, of
the people from this land. The participation at the ritual of coming into being redimensions
the fate/destiny of the romanian. From birth to death, in every existential moment, he creates
and recreates the world, defines himself as individuality in a microuniverse and he assumes
his personal destiny, because he believes that he can not escape it.
In the mythological paradigm, Destiny is also called by the Romanians Fate, Fatality,
terms that express an indo-european alter-ego of destiny (Romulus Vulcnescu, 1985,
p.162), called Moira at the ancient Greek and Fatum at the romans. As the popular creations
of mythical nature accentuate, Destiny governs alongside with other divinities (Frtate, God),
the mundane and the cosmic order, its authority being unassailable. Likewise, it can act
through instruments, through instances loaded with sacred. In the popular romanian
fantastical fairy-tales, the instances that frequently appear are Ursitoarele, Luck, and,
sometimes, Mind. These are imagined as mythical, supranatural beings, without a well-
determined physical contour, belonging to the other, mysterious world, into which the
access can not be granted but to the hero, because he is the initiated one, the chosen.
Ursitoarele, that we meet at numerous ancient civilizations, present according to the
Romanian mythological imaginary to the three rituals of passing (birth, wedding and death)
but also to other important timelines (The Christmas Holiday, that of New Year when the
996
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
girls practiced certain rits of fate, with the purpose of finding out who was to become their
life-partner) establish the human fate in the first three nights from the birth, according to the
following mythical scenario: clad in white, they counsel together and then the oldest utters the
destiny. Frequently, they can be influenced by material factors (the gifts put on the table of
the Ursitoare by the child's parents, by the midwife which assisted the birth of the first-born),
by atmospheric conditions. These mythical characters, like the ritual of future-telling are,
probably, of local origin, however, the existing influences from the Greco-Roman and those
of livresque nature can not be neglected. Ursitoarele from the romanian mythological
background resemble the Naracitele from the Bulgarian mytho-folklore, the Usudele of the
Serbians or the Sudenitele of the slavic nations from the Eastern and Western part of Europe
(Ivan Evseev, 1999, p. 474).
We consider as being significant the fact that in Romanian mythology, the
establishment of the essential details of a human being is not considered as absolute,
immutable, most of the times being offered as an alternative through circumstances of
objective nature. In this respect, a relevant example is being represented by the destiny of the
hero from the fairy-tale The sturdy born with the book in his hand (from Petre Ispirescu's
collection, Legends or Romanian Fairy-tales). His birth draws attention through uncanny,
because he appears in this world with a book in his hand, this fact assigning him a different
status, privileged in the ontological universe in which he is situated. In the third day from the
birth of the stout, the three Ursitoare appear and the older one prophesizes him that he will
become rich, the middle-aged one that he will be kidnapped by the evil spirits at the age of
twelve, and the last one that he will become emperor if he escapes. This happens, after the
crossing of the first step of initiation, wedding and the sublimation of the forming process as a
complete man. The exceeding of the challenges, of all the attempts the hero is subjected to,
the transition from the mundane space to the other world and vice versa, all these are
sequences of the process of spiritual formation, proving that the whole human existence is,
basically, an initiation. This fairy-tale points out that it is in the power of man to influence the
destiny in its favor, through perfect demeanor (goodness, honor, loialty, courage) and through
knowledge.The destiny of the exceptional hero is, for that matter, anticipated by his birth
through magical, ritualistic intervention, therefore it is a miraculous birth, to which the
popular narrator adds a symbolical element, namely the book he was born with and which
he did not let go from his hands, becoming ever since his childhood, up to the age of
twelve, a book himself. The insertion of these ab initio narrative elements produces a
psychological shock to the reader, precisely to remove the confines imposed to thinking, and
determining him to perceive the trajectory of the sturdy born with the book in his hand as a
coordinate of ontological depth regarding the human aspiration of always vanquishing death
and settling its own destiny through volition and intelligence.
We meet the issue that aims at the destiny of the human being, the ideal, its appetite of
living the deathless life very well represented in the fairy-tale from Petre Ispirescu's
collection Legends or Romanian Fairy-tales, metaphorically entitled Tineree fr btrnee
i via fr de moarte (Youthfulness without caducity and life without death), a unusual
fairy-tale through its sad and not happy ending that it offers to the reader, because the hero
dies. The narrative text of mythical nature reveals the ideal of reaching immortality and the
impossibility of keeping it, an universal theme, recurrent in the Chinese, Japanese, Celtic
997
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
(The Adventures of Brain, son of Febail) myths, in The epic of Gilgamesh or in The Book
of Enoch. The hero, Prince Charming, is born through the magic intervention of a
nuncle/greybeard, a correspondent of the mythical ancestor from the Romanian cultural
space, character which introduces us in the mythical space. He anticipates Prince Charming's
destiny, warning that his parents won't have their share of him. The child which is born,
thanks to this nuncle, by an empress that did not succeed to give birth to a child for a long
time, comes from a sacred place and rejects the common human condition. Therefore, he does
not come in this world but just after his father, the emperor, promises him youthfulness
without caducity and life without death. In the moment of the inauguration of his fifteenth
birthday he solicits his parents to give him what they promised they will, he fully assumes his
destiny, because he will go on a great journey of initiation, willing to find something that no
one can offer him. Traversing an earthly space, and then a quasi-mythical one (in which he
meets Gheonoaia and the Virago), he reaches in a mythical space, of youthfulness without
caducity and life without death. His attempt of overcoming human condition succeeds,
because he marries the young fairy, she symbolizing, too, youthfulness without caducity,
not only the crono-spatial zone in which he arrived. However, neither from here does an
echelon from the terrestrial, profane space miss, this being The Valley of Weeping (the
appelation sends us directly to the Bible), a transitory place between the mundane realm to the
sacred one, that of life without death, in which he will see a rabbit, symbol of caducity,
perishability. Through a ritualic act (hunting) he will return from the world of the myth into
the earthly world, because the longing of the native places, of the parents, becomes
irresistible. The return to the empire from which he went away means the meeting with his
own death, because once he is out of the mythical, ahistorical time, he reintegrates into the
biological dimesion, physical, irreversible, irrecuperable time. This is the kind of destiny that
pulls and lures Prince Charming, starting from the infinite to the limit, to duration, because
the human being is born with the germs dead, and, per se, can not become immortal.
Contrariwise, the hero, just like any other mythical hero, even though somehow manages to
achieve immortality, does not feel fulfilled because he can not live this unique state in a
solitary mode, without his close ones. Therefore, factors, interior brakes that do not permit
deviation from the circumscription in the laws of nature, intervene in the human destiny.
The other mythical instance acting as a protector or discretionary in the existential
labyrinth is Luck, instrument that assures the bond between the real world and the fabulous
one. Luck represents, in general in the Romanian mythology and, especially, in the Romanian
fairy-tale, the positive side of the sacred. Terms and expressions like Luck, Mischance, Luck
and Mind, the world of Noroace, Human Fate, the flower of luck, The luck of Noroace etc.,
highlight an extremely rich mythical imaginary and sublimate a forma mentis seeker of the
deep meanings of life, in a dynamic often concentrated on provoking the divinity, in the
attempt to understand and change what seems irrational in its behavior (often prefferential)
through which it acts.
Between man and God, man and Luck, a relation of dependence is established,
emphasized with craftmanship by the anonymous creator, otherwise like man's dialogue,
sometimes enigmatic, with these instances on which the quality of his life depends on.
The popular fairy-tales from the Romanian cultural space underline man's special
relation with Luck, because the former is under the dominion of the other, a dominion
998
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
which is looked upon with calm, seen as a common fact unfolded in the transcendental
profane relation.
The spectrum of the representations of Luck is remarkably nuanced, aspect confirmed
by the mythical narratives from the collections of Petre Ispirescu, Dumitru Stncescu, Tudor
Pamfile, Al. Vasiliu, I. Oprian, Arthur and Alber Schott etc., and its attitude towards the one
that it accompanies, which sometimes seems to respect no principle. For example, in a story
from Bucovina, inserted by Tudor Pamfile in Mitologie romneasc(Romanian mythology),
is emphasized the major difference between the luck of a crone which lived very well and that
of the girl that served her. The luck of the old woman was everything wet from the
morningdew that it took from all the plains and brought on the old woman's field: and the
bread was bad at all of them, only to her it was beautiful and with down-bowed ears. Also,
whence the luck was eating back it was growing. In opposition with it, the girl's luck was
dry and although it was eating from the biggest pots, it could not quench its hunger,
requesting more food at the next meeting. At the question of the young servant -But I
wonder why my luck is not like yours?, the response offered by the old woman Because
God ordered so, for every other. Luck is not just one!, reveals the idea of the diversity of
luck on a transcendental level, correspondent with man's diversity on an earthly level. Good
or bad, young or old, active or lazy, luck dimensions the destiny of its human pair.
Another folkloric text from Tudor Pamfile's mentioned book (the sixth story)
emphasizes even more the idea of a destiny that is above luck. Its content is the following:
two brothers share the wealth inherited from their old father and, though they had the land
alongside them, the lesser brother becomes poorer and poorer as the years are passing,
whereas the big brother becomes richer and richer, because luck proves itself discretionary
and does not work the same for all people. Not understanding the reason which generated
this poverty (his cattle are dying, the crops are withering, his house burnt and he feels that he
is endlessly sad, downcast and ill), he decides that his share of the heritage be sold to his
brother, and that he must go somewhere else, with the idea that changing his place he will
change his luck. He reaches the edge of a forest, where he meets an old man that advices
him to walk on a path of that forest, to the end of which he will be able to see a mountain
summit. At the peak of the mountain he will find the house of Fate. He also advices him to
understand without being surprised of anything, to remain silent for three days and then he
will find what the fate had prepared for him. The hero reaches the palace which almost
blinded his eyes, so beautiful and shiny it was and precisely in the ninth chamber he sees
on a bed of gold, beautifully adorned, a young woman that sat with her elbow underneath
her head, dressed only in jewels and diamonds.
The hero does not react in any way at the questions and threats of the young woman
and even the extraordinary richness in the palace could not amaze him. At lunch the table set
itself with meal like in fairy-tales. The attempt of the beautiful woman to lure him, changing
in the expanse of an hour a hundred gowns one more beautiful and brighter than the other
remains unsuccessful. At midnight, the stilness of the palace is disturbed by knocks in the
window, someone unseen announcing that a baby was born!, and the second and the third
day the scenario changes, the palace being replaced with a big house, with a clean but poor
wooden bed and then a very poor cabin. The woman itself changes, appearing the second
day more rough, not so beautiful as the first, that was like an empress, and the third day
999
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
the young woman aged and withered completely, dressed in rags and barely moving , so
sick she was. The wealthy meal from the first day is poorer and poorer, thus in the last day
the two eat only onion and hominy. In reverse rapport, the number of those who come at the
house of the mysterious feminine presence during the night is increasing as many as leaves
and grass. In the next day, the hero finds out that she is Man's Fate and receives
clarifications regarding the answer offered to those who knocked at the window in those three
nights. Thus, the two that came in the first night received greatness and wealth, those over
a hundred born in the second night labor and honor, and those over a thousand from the
third night have received what she had then, namely poverty and disease. Therefore, the
way in which Fate presents at a certain moment determines the standard of living of the
human being. The hero is being told in the end that being born in the third day he will remain
poor no matter what he does, and, as an optimal solution, he must work for his brother,
because he was born in the first day, so he has luck. The conclusion of this story enframes
in a specific feeling of destiny and in a life philosophy typical of the romanian space: the
attempt of changing the fatum is just a challenge, because its dimension remains the same,
immutable.
This moment of intaking Luck in the own favor of the human being through the
marriage with another person, bearer of luck, so the realization of a magical transfer of
substantiality, also appears in other stories, popular fairy-tales from the Romanian space for
example Povestea Norocului(The story of Fortune-III) collected by Al. Vasiliu, Aflatul from
Ion Pop-Reteganul's collection revealing a concept of the simple man, living in accordance
with nature, with the cosmic, result of a life experience, concept according to which the
human being, through courage and mind power, has the freedom of trying to know the
eternity of the laws of the Universe, even though it is a being subjected to frailty and chance,
and of restoring the individual, social and spiritual equilibrium through the intervention of an
Order/ Instance that has not the greatness of the supreme divinity, but determines the destiny.
According to the scenario of mythical nature from the Romanian fairy-tales and
stories, Luck, this anthropomorphization of that positive, bright side of the sacred, determines,
for the most part, the favorable destiny of man. The collective mentality enframed it in
different representations, not very well contoured, but neither ambiguous, its functions being
extremely reduced. Not accidentaly, a feature of the epic kernels have destiny as a theme and
central personification. Luck represents the pretty reduced dimension of the occurence in
comparison with the other fantastic fairy-tales, the absence of the elements of surprize and of
the adventurous soul (Niculina Chiper, 2006, p.252). In exchange, the unbelievable dose is
augmented, numerous picturesque aspects and unexpected situation changes are inserted. The
greatly diminished aesthetical valence has as a counterweight the powerful moralizing sense,
so that often in the narrative discourse it transforms in a genuine parable. Withal, the divine
intervention in directing/redirecting the existential trajectory is met frequently, and the happy-
ending does not always respond the expectation horizon of the reader.
The Romanian popular fairy-tales, genuine mythical fragments, reveal, in their
majority, that Destiny, Luck, Ursitoarele instruments of the sacred can positively or
negatively influence man's existence since the moment of its conception or from its birth, but
their influence is not always immutable. The life of the human being appears as a ritual, being
loaded with messages that, sometimes, seem incomprehensible.
1000
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Bibliography
Chiper, Niculina, 2006, Reprezentri ale destinului n folclorul romnesc[Representations of
destiny In Romanian folklore], Editura SAECULUM I.O., Bucureti
Cordun, Val, 2005, Timpul n rspr. ncercare asupra anamnezei n basm[Time in grain.
Anamnesis in the fairy- tale testing], Editura SAECULUM I.O., Bucureti
Evseev, Ivan,1999, Enciclopedia semnelor i simbolurilor culturale[ Signs and symbols
cultural Encyclopedia], Editura Amarcord, Timioara
Ispirescu, Petre,1997,Legende sau basmele romnilor[ Legends or Romanian Fairy-tales],
Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne, Bucureti
Kernbach, Victor, f.a.,Universul mitic al romnilor[Romanian mythical universe], Editura
LUCMAN, Bucureti
Olteanu, Antoneta, 998,Metamorfozele sacrului. Dicionar de mitologie popular
[Metamorphoses of the sacred. Dictionary of popular mythology], Editura Paideia, Bucureti
Pamfile, Tudor, 1997,Mitologie romneasc[Romanian mythology], Editura ALLFA,
Bucureti
Pop Reteganul, Ion, 2010, Basmele romnilor[ Romanian Fairy- tales], vol.III, Editura
Curtea Veche, Bucureti
Vasiliu, Al., 1984, Literatur popular din Moldova[Folk literature of Moldova], Editura
Minerva, Bucureti
Vulcnescu, Romulus,1985, Mitologie romn[Romanian mythology], Editura Academiei
Romne, Bucureti
1001
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
PRAGMATIC COMPETENCE IN THE USE OF DISCOURSE MARKING AND BY
ROMANIAN EFL LEARNERS
Mdlina Georgiana MATEI, Assistant Professor, PhD, Transilvania University of
Braov
Abstract: The acquisition of pragmatic competence is an essential result in the study of
English as a foreign language and the grasp of the accurate functions and roles of English
discourse markers in conversation is a challenge for most Romanian EFL learners. In order
to discover the mechanism of acquiring pragmatic competence, several discursive roles and
functions of the English discourse marker and used by Romanian students in classroom
interactions are analyzed from pragmatic and functional perspectives. The aim of this
comparative analysis is to see whether Romanian learners of English are aware of the
functional roles that native English speakers ascribe to and and whether they use the
marker accordingly. What is also very interesting to discover is whether there are similarities
or overlaps between the functions of the English discourse marking and and its Romanian
equivalent i.
Keywords: discourse markers, pragmatic competence, conversation, discursive functions, EFL
1. Introduction
This article is based on the research conducted in my doctoral thesis which dealt with the
study of discourse markers in conversation. In this article, the results obtained in the above
mentioned research were applied to classroom interactions and the goal was to see the manner
in which Romanian EFL learners use English discourse markers. In all the recorded
conversations in English (for research methodology and data collection see 2.) it appears that
the use of English discourse markers by Romanian students shows a clear understanding of
their pragmatic meaning and discourse management roles. It is very interesting to see that
even though the respondents are not native speakers of English therefore sometimes the level
of English, especially in point of grammatical accuracy, is not very elevated, the discourse
markers are correctly used in both formal and informal conversational contexts.
The explanation for this interesting phenomenon is provided by Cots (in Mller 2005: 14)
who claims that when a learner becomes successful in a foreign language it means that his/her
linguistic behaviour has become very similar to that of the native speakers. In other words, it
is not only grammatical structures and semantics that are actually taken into account and
acquired by learners but also the pragmatic and functional patterns that words have in
conversation/discourse.
Jaworski (in Mller 2005) reunites the acquisition of pragmatic and functional patterns
of language use under the umbrella term pragmatic competence which is defined as a type of
communication competence that presupposes the speakers ability to communicate
appropriately in specific contexts of use.
Mller (Mller 2005: 18) mentions sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competence
that should be taken into account when analyzing the particular uses of discourse markers.
She explains these three terms in the following:
1002
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Sociolinguistic knowledge is necessary for the negotiation of the relationship
between speaker and hearer during a conversation, which can be done through,
for example, the use of well or you know; a range of discourse markers are said to
create coherence in discourse, the knowledge of which is part of discourse
competence; and strategic competence manifests itself when non-native speakers
use discourse markers to express or to introduce the expression of lexical
difficulties (finding the appropriate intended word or phrase) or to appeal to the
hearers understanding. (Mller 2005: 18)
The fact that Romanian speakers of English as a foreign language have manifested
sociolinguistic and discourse competence in the use of discourse makers is probably due to
the fact that the discursive roles and functions of Romanian markers are somewhat similar to
those of the English discourse particles. For instance, the two discourse markers well and you
know that Mller provides as examples in the quotation given above are functionally similar
(including from the perspective of sociolinguistic implications) to the Romanian discourse
markers pi, functional equivalent of well, and tii, functional and semantic equivalent of you
know.
The use of discourse markers as evidence of strategic competence could be said to
pertain to native speakers as well and not only to foreign language learners. Discourse
markers, with foreign language learners, could indeed signal the speakers struggle to
construct a grammatically and lexically accurate utterance but we might also think that native
speakers could display strategic competence when using several discourse markers
consecutively to gain more time to construct a turn or to hold the floor for a longer period of
time. These are not instances of discourse competence since they are connected more to the
subjective will of the participants and much less to the objective discursive requirements of
the verbal exchange.
2. Research Methodology
For this research, Romanian students who are learners of English as a foreign language
were recorded during speaking practice exercises within their English classes. The students
who participate in the conversations are Foreign Affairs, Accounting and Finance students,
teenagers between 19 and 22 years old, their level of competence in English being Upper-
Intermediate to Advanced. Throughout the article I will use the actual names of the
respondents Gabi, Diana, Alexandru, Victor, Iuliana and Anca, as I have been granted
permission to do so.
The participants were given either a conversation topic or a list of questions; the discussions
were always moderated by the teacher. Mention should be made of the fact that, in order to
increase the reliability of the recorded material, the respondents were not aware of the items
that were to be analyzed in their conversations and the only explanation provided was that the
interest would be the manner in which people interact in conversation.
In the following sections, several discursive roles and functions of the English discourse
marker and used by Romanian speakers will be analyzed from pragmatic and functional
perspectives in order to see whether the foreign language learners are aware of the functional
1003
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
roles that native speakers ascribe to the above mentioned discourse marker and whether they
use the marker accordingly.
Another aim of this research is to discover any functional similarities or overlaps that might
exist between the English discourse marker and its Romanian equivalent i.
3. Discursive Roles and Functions
The analysis of discourse markers in conversation requires a pragmatic-functional
perspective. Hence, I suggest a different classification of the discursive attributions that
discourse markers have in conversation by advocating the pragmatic-functional categories of
discursive roles and discursive functions.
In the category of discursive functions I place all the specific functions of discourse
markers that are situated at the interactional level, namely prefacing answers, the expression of
opinions or evaluations, repairs, politeness, mitigation, face-saving or face-threatening acts,
hesitation (for the definition of these terms see Sacks, 1992; Blakemore, 2006; Mey, 2009.), etc.
Discursive roles are all the discourse organization procedures that are situated at the textual
level and which concern the speakers technical construction of the discourse unit. The
discursive roles that markers can fulfill are: turn-claiming marker, interruption prefacing
marker or it could signal speaker self-selection when no interruption is performed, turn-
construction markers, and so forth.
Therefore, my claim is that the discursive functions are a set of specific and recurrent
functions of a particular discourse marker, a set of functions that constitutes the discourse
markers functional individuality whereas the discursive roles of markers are non-specific and
circumstantial textual attributions that any discourse marker would be able to fulfill.
This pattern of analysis will be used in the study of the discursive attributions that and could
have in formal conversations between non-native speakers of English namely Romanian EFL
learners.
4. Discourse marking functions and roles of and with non-native speakers
If the discourse marking well and you know were not very much used by the EFL
learners, things are different for the discourse marking and, which is among the most frequent
markers in all the recorded conversations. And can fulfill various functions which are very
similar to the discursive roles and functions that its Romanian equivalent i fulfills.
One of the discursive roles that and could have is that of turn-claiming marker and
unit insertion marker. In the conversation below Gabi reclaims the turn:
(1) 1. Gabi: em I think that em: both persons have to trust each other (...) Its only
2. about trust
3. Teacher: yeah, its about trust
4. Gabi: and I dont borrow money to people who I dont trust [sic]
5. Teacher: thats a good point
After stating a general point of view about how friends should trust each other in line 1,
Gabi reclaims the floor in line 4 using and as a discourse marker functioning at the textual
level and oriented towards the prefacing of turn-claiming by the same speaker who adds
1004
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
another unit to her argumentation process. So it can be safely claimed that and has two
discursive roles namely that of prefacing turn-claiming and of inserting another unit in a
larger argumentative structure. Both roles operate at the textual level and it is very difficult to
determine the most salient one but as it has been mentioned before, one of the most important
characteristics of discourse markers is their polyfunctionality.
Although and is a marker of continuation, there might be contexts in which its role is
that of prefacing contrast with one or several previous statements. An illustration of this
discursive function is the following class discussion:
(2) 1. Teacher: on the other hand, do we lend money to people we dont trust?
2. Students: no
3. Teacher: not really, so?
4. Diana: and thats when you get embarrassed because you lend money to a
5. person you trust and then you see they are not trustwor::=
6. Teacher: =thy=
7. Diana: = thy
8. Teacher: right. And angry because you trusted them, right?
9. Alexandru: and then hes trying to convince you that its nothing but money
(laughter)
In the first part of (2), the idea that we only lend money to people that we trust was
agreed upon by all students. In line 4, Diana presents a scenario that departs from the previous
assumption and actually contradicts it; the implication of Dianas statement in lines 4 and 5, is
that even though people might seem worthy of our trust, most times they demonstrate the
contrary. In this conversation, the discourse marking and prefaces contrast in such a way as to
give the impression that it only provides another argument in favour of the previous idea. It is
possible that even though she has a different point of view on the matter, Diana does not
want to place her contribution in disagreement with previous opinions. Therefore, it is not the
marker that signals contrast but it is the actual content of her utterance that guides the other
participants towards the right interpretation.
The other participants take the correct inferential path and, in line 8, the teacher adds
another idea in support of Dianas statement. The discourse marking and is again used to
preface the insertion of an additional argument that coherently continues Dianas line of
argumentation. Moreover, in line 9, Alexandru continues the discursive support for Dianas
direction by providing, again with the help of discourse marking and, a possible outcome of
the situation presented by Diana. Alexandru uses the discourse marking and as a preface for
result.
The discourse marking and fulfilling the discursive function of preface for result is
also illustrated in the following verbal exchange:
(3) 1. Teacher: other opinions
2. Victor: never borrow money
3. Teacher: never bo- Ok, why?
4. Victor: em: because thinking of the current em: society em: the jobs are not
5. very sure
1005
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
6. Teacher: right
7. Victor: and you dont know if you can afford to repay
In (3), Victor structures his argumentation on three parts; first, in line 2, he presents
the postulate, then, in line 4 and 5 he provides a motivation for the postulate and finally, in
line 7 he introduces the result of the situation presented in lines 4, 5 (jobs are uncertain you
might not afford to pay back the loan). And prefaces the expression of a result but it also
coordinates the parts of the same argumentative unit which extends over several turns. With
the proposition prefaced by and Victors argumentative unit comes full circle because the
result presented in line 7 is also a motivation for the initially expressed postulate in line 2.
The discourse marker and can also bracket the expression of condition such as in the
following verbal interaction:
(4) 1. Teacher: why is it important to socialize with managers?
2. Iuliana: because communication is the key in every single situation
3. Teacher: yeah, that is a good point, communication is the key. And maybe it
4. works better when you are having a beer or a cup of coffee
5. Anca: and youre relaxed
In line 3, and prefaces the provision of comment which refers to the felicity
conditions of communicating with the manager. In line 5, Anca introduces another condition
for better communication which is bracketed by the discourse marking and. The functional
role of and in line 5 is twofold: it fulfills the discursive functions of prefacing condition and it
has the discursive role of coordinating two units of a joint response to Iulianas comment (line
2) but of the two functional roles that and fulfills in line 5, the most salient is that of condition
prefacing marker.
The fact that and is mainly used for coordination (taking into account its grammatical
status of coordinating conjunction) qualifies this marker for the discursive role of prefacing
the insertion of a new term in an enumeration started by a previous speaker. The following
example is an illustration:
(5) 1. Teacher: in fact, not necessarily distance but decency, right?
2. Iuliana: and a pure balance between work and love.
The topic of (5) is that employees involved in a romantic relationship with a co-
worker, have to keep their distance from each other at work. The discourse marking and, in
line 2, is a preface for the insertion of additional items in an enumeration. What is interesting
is that no enumeration was started by the first speaker but Iulianas insertion of another
element of the same category turned it into one. In order to see the logic the enumeration, we
must state that the general departure point of the enumeration would be things that people
who are romantically involved with their co-workers have to preserve. The first element was
provided in line 1 (decency) and the second followed in line 2 (balance between work and
love). In this example we are dealing with and functioning at the interactional level because
Iuliana uses this marker to display cooperation and to construct discourse in a very
collaborative manner.
1006
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
5. And vs. i comparison of discourse marking functions
The two discourse markers are, with but, the most frequently used in both casual and
formal conversations by male and female respondents and by all age categories without any
exception. They do not ensure the particularity or individuality of the speakers but they are
just means to a textual or interactional goal. In Table 1.4, I draw a comparison between the
discourse marking functions and roles that the two markers can fulfill. The functions of the
discourse marking and in the literature were put forward by Svartvik (1980), Norrick (2001),
Blakemore (2002), Mller (2005), and Schiffrin (1987, 2006) and.
Table 1.4
Functions of and in the Discursive roles and functions Discursive roles and functions
literature of and with non-native of the Romanian discourse
Blakemore (2002), Mller (2005), speakers of English marker i
Norrick (2001), Schiffrin (1987, Matei (2012)
2006), Svartvik (1980)
Coordinates idea units Coordinates units
Continues another speakers Continuation of other speakers
ideas and transforms talk into a ideas (frequent in classroom
product of mutual effort talk)
Soliciting a speakers End positioned summoning
continuation another participant to provide
clarification, answers,
justification, additional
information
Adding reasons to another Prefaces the provision of
speakers explanation comment
Prefaces questions Question prefacing marker Question prefacing marker
Turn-claiming marker Turn claiming marker Turn-claiming and turn-keeping
device
Marks a different topic segment Marker of topic shift
/ topic shift Prefaces the insertion of a new
story into the frame story
Displays an upcoming utterance Inserting another unit in a larger Speakers return to a previous
as part of a not yet completed argumentative structure topic
interactional unit In insertion sequences with
adjacency pairs
Prefacing list items Prefaces the insertion of items
into an enumeration
Prefaces condition, contrast and
result
Prefaces reported speech
This table shows that the acquisition of pragmatic competence in the use of and as
discourse marker by the Romanian learners of English is facilitated by the considerable
functional overlap between i and the English marker and. The grammatical status of
conjunction that both markers have in English and Romanian helped the speakers in the
process of attaching pragmatic meanings and using the discourse marking and in correct
1007
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
discursive contexts with functions and roles which are consistent to the specificity of the
English language.
6. Conclusion
Discourse marking by and is very frequent both with native and with non-native
speakers because it can fulfill a large number of discursive roles and functions and, at the
same time, give the other participants in the conversation the impression that there is
continuity in discourse. Therefore, even in cases in which the discourse marker and expresses
contrast, the appearance of continuation is still given.
And could operate both at the textual and interactional level; the versatile nature of this
marker would thus allow it to contribute to discourse management in a technical way
(claiming of turns, coordination of units, etc) while also helping speakers to display
awareness of their conversational partners and build their contributions in a polite manner.
The fact that there is a high degree of overlap between the functions and roles of i and
of the corresponding English marker and, facilitates an easier process of acquiring pragmatic
competence in the use of and by Romanian EFL learners.
Perhaps the exposure to media in English also contributes to a better grasp of the
discursive functions of and at the textual level. Therefore, it would be beneficial, with a view
to understanding of the discursive roles and functions of all discourse markers in
conversation, to include as many listening and speaking activities in the English courses for
EFL learners.
Transcription conventions
? - rising intonation followed by pause
! - animated tone
(.) - pause without falling intonation
- - self interruption with glottal stop
italics - emphatic stress
CAPS - very emphatic stress
Bold - used to highlight the discourse markers that are to be analyzed
: - prolonged final vowel or syllable
text= - no discernible pause between the end of a turn and the beginning of another
=text speakers turn
[ - the starting point of speech overlap
] - the end point of speech overlap
(text) - authors comments and specifications adapted from Schiffrin (1987: ix, x)
Bibliography
Blakemore, Diane. 2002. Relevance and linguistic meaning: The semantics and pragmatics
of' discourse markers. Cambridge: CUP.
Blakemore, Diane. 2006. Discourse Markers in The Handbook of Pragmatics edited by
Laurence R. Horn and Gregory Ward, 221-240. Oxford&Malden: Blackwell Publishing.
1008
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Matei, Mdlina-Georgiana. 2012. A (re)modeled pragmatic-functional pattern of analysis for
the study of discourse markers in conversation: discursive roles and functions of discourse
marking deci and i in Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences 63(2012) 250-262.
Oxford: Elsevier.
Mey, Jacob L., ed. 2009. Concise Encyclopedia of Pragmatics. Second Edition,
Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins
Mller, Simone. 2005. Discourse Markers in Native and Non-native English Discourse.
Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins B.V.
Norrick, Neal R. 2001, Discourse markers in oral narrative, Journal of Pragmatics 33: 849-
878.
Sacks, Harvey. 1992. Lectures on Conversation. Oxford: Blackwell.
Schiffrin, Deborah. 1987. Discourse Markers. Cambridge: CUP.
Schiffrin, Deborah. 2006. Discourse marker research and theory: revisiting and in
Approaches to discourse particles edited by Kerstin Fischer, 315-338. Oxford: Elsevier.
1009
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
INTERCULTURAL FORMATIVE METHODS IN THE ROMANIAN UNIVERSITY
Andrei-Lucian MARIAN, Assistant Professor, PhD, Alexandru Ioan Cuza University
of Iai
Abstract: While the predictions on future are always difficult, one can be certainly made.
People will be in the middle of a great number of interactions in which intercultural
communication abilities are essential. In the last 50th years were brought many dates about
the types of intercultural contacts, so that individuals to become now much more efficient and
curious in their interactions with strangers. As the knowledge about improving ways of
intercultural contact grew up, a lot of people felt the need for formative programs.
The present research goals are to emphasis new relevant topics in understanding and
agreeing cultural diversity perspective, to consider intercultural approach a source of
behaviour changing, and to study intercultural training as an efficient strategy in encourage
and develop intercultural skills. This empirical study has designed and applied an
intercultural formative program which finality was the participants adaptation at a new
culture. The research has three experimental conditions depending on formative methods
manipulation: in the first condition there is a combination of didactic and experiential
methods, the second condition proposing only experiential method, and in the third there is
use only didactic method. The positive effects on cultural awareness, knowledge, emotional
challenges (inclusive attitudes), and intercultural abilities (involving specific behaviours) are
obtained from this hybrid model of intercultural formative methods.
Keywords: formative methods, intercultural training, intercultural attitudes, mutual
perception changes.
1. Theoretical background
Intercultural training refers to efforts made in a formal setting to prepare people to relate more
efficiently with members of other cultures (Paige, 1993). These efforts are often seen as part
of intercultural training programs or formal programs, well-planned, financed with a design
intended to develop people's ability to adapt to a new culture (Brislin, 1994). Studies on
intercultural training have shown that such a program can produce changes in the cognitive,
affective and behavioral level.
We can argue strongly that intercultural training involves a inherent transformation in
intention and potential of individuals and groups. At the individual level, the training is
designed to promote several traits and skills oriented towards an effective personal
transformation. Training for these qualities (eg. tolerance of ambiguity, ethno-relativism,
cognitive and behavioral flexibility) requires the educational actors taking new ways of
thinking, values and behavior.
The study of intercultural training has grown in the last decade. There is a varied
audience targeted by the programs: students seeking educational opportunities in other
countries than in the home, adolescents who spend a significant period of time with family in
another culture, volunteers engaged in various projects in other countries, medical staff,
immigrants and refugees on the move, students having difficulty in interaction with other
colleagues from different countries, teachers and support staff in multicultural schools, people
1010
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
looking for a job and have limited language skills in the host society, individuals seeking a
careful management of gender and ethnicity differences, diplomats and other government
officials in certain countries.
Brislin and Yoshida (1994) argues that intercultural training must lead to cultural
awareness, provide knowledge about culture and highlight its influence on the behaviors
necessary skills and emotional challenges that individuals experience in communicating with
members of other cultures. On this basis, the present study proposes a hybrid model of
intercultural formative strategies aimed at achieving positive effects on the following
dimensions: a) awareness, b) knowledge, c) emotional challenges (including attitudes), d)
intercultural skills (involving specific behaviors).
What distinguishes an intercultural training program for other types of training (such
as for computer use or piloting airplanes) is that the need to develop skills is not so obvious.
Since many students do not feel pressure to learn effective intercultural communication skills,
it is often necessary to spend a significant period of time to increase awareness of the
importance of these skills. If students skip the awareness stage their chances for success in
intercultural training will be limited.
Once activated state of awareness of the culture, the next step is to give students
appropriate cultural knowledge. Following awareness and simulation exercises, participants
become more aware of how their past actions were ethnocentric and intensively cultured. This
would lead to a degree of embarrassment and a desire to learn more about culture and cultural
differences.
Based on influence of interpersonal interactions, another feature of intercultural
training is the emotional challenge of participants, dimension which must occupy a sufficient
space in the program.
Lastly, the final stage is that of acquisition skills. At this point, the students are,
metaphorically speaking, similar to those who have admitted that they need swimming
lessons; they have learned the elementary theoretical notions about swimming, have
overcome the fear of water, but they have not practiced the movements of the arms and legs,
not to mention the swimming pool entrance. Without practical swimming lessons, earlier
steps have been shown to be a waste of time. Unfortunately, intercultural trainers are
themselves in a triple problem: a) limited time and budget constrained, b) greater extent of
processes in the preceding steps (eg. awareness and emotional challenges), c) stages are
sequential and cannot be omitted.
2. Method
2.1. Research objectives
The present study has proposed two categories of objectives results, on the one hand, in
the context of intercultural training reality of Romanian students and, on the other hand, the
theoretical models mentioned.
Thus, the first objective is to form the Romanian students in the idea of a future
intercultural contact, amid growing international mobility.
The second objective is the design and implementation of an intercultural training
program with the following design: a) cultural awareness and the acquisition of knowledge
and information about culture, cultural differences and cultural specificity; b) the
1011
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
development of intercultural sensitivity in dealing with cultural differences (Bennett, 1986);
c) acquisition of new skills and behaviors that will increase the chances of effective
communication with individuals with different cultural setting.
The third objective is to validate didactic and experiential (Kolb, 1984) intercultural
formative methods.
2.2. Research hypotheses
This paper aims to examine some hypotheses, set out hereafter:
H1 In a homogeneous cultural context, an intercultural training program, combining didactic
and experiential methods exercises a significant influence on the development of intercultural
awareness, acquiring intercultural knowledge and skills.
H2 Formative experimental methods, in conditions of the lack of intercultural experience of
students, significantly influence their intercultural skills. No effect is expected, in this regard,
from the formative didactic methods.
H3 Intercultural training is a significant predictor of increasing intercultural sensitivity.
H4 The use of experiential methods in an intercultural training program under the conditions
of a low level of ethnocentrism, lead to attitudinal changes of students towards strangers,
compared to didactic methods that do not generate an attitudinal dynamics.
H5 Intercultural training and the ethnocentrism of students significantly influence
intercultural adaptability.
2.3. Participants
The study was conducted on a sample of 242 Romanian students (33% male and 67% female
gender) from the "Al. I. Cuza Iasi University, with an average age of 21 years, five
experimental groups, 3 of 30 subjects and 2 of 31 and 3 groups of 30 control subjects.
2.4. Instruments
The scale of Consciousness, knowledge, multicultural skills, developed and adapted after the
inventory of M. d'Andrea, J. Daniels and R. Heck, (1991), was designed to measure the
current level of intercultural competence of the participants. The instrument used in this study
has 54 items divided into 3 subscale: 18 items for consciousness, 15 items for knowledge and
21 items for intercultural skills. For each subscale and for the entire questionnaire were
calculated Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient and the data indicate good internal
consistency of the instrument. Thus, for consciousness subscale = .74, for the Knowledge
subscale = .70, for the skills subscale = .77 and for overall questionnaire = .81.
Intercultural Development Inventory used in this study was adapted from the original
version proposed by M. Bennett and M. Hammer (1986, 2003), based on the theoretical
background of Bennett's model of intercultural sensitivity (Bennett, 1986). Thus, after pre-
testing the instrument on a sample of 100 Romanian subjects and calculation Cronbach alpha
coefficient for internal consistency, from the 42 items in original inventory were removed 2
items to get a better coherence between items , = .71.
Attitude towards strangers was measured by prejudice scale of Pettigrew (1995) and
adapted for the Romanian context. Scale is constructed of 19 items and measures both types
1012
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
of prejudice, nine items for the explicit and 10 for the subtle, with a Cronbach alpha reliability
coefficient, = 0.76.
Intercultural adaptability was measured using a questionnaire built on the following
dimensions: (a) emotional balance, (b) flexibility and openness, (c) perceptual acuity, (d)
personal autonomy proposed by Kelley and Meyers (1992) in Intercultural adaptability
inventory. Thus, resulted in an instrument consisting of 32 items, with a Cronbach alpha
reliability coefficient, = .74.
Ethnocentrism scale was modeled by Neuliep, J.W. and McCroskey, J.C. (1997),
consisting of 22 items, Cronbach alpha reliability coefficient obtained was = .72.
2.5. Procedure
The context in which intercultural training program was carried out was a formal, facilitated
by academic activity with students of the first year and second year, at pedagogy seminars
within the framework of psycho-pedagogical module, the "Al I. Cuza" University, in an
intensive format, with daily meetings for three weeks.
The research design involves three experimental conditions represented by
intercultural training program and three corresponding control groups. Experimental
conditions were created by manipulating types and formative methods introduced in the
program. Thus, in the experimental condition 1, made up of three groups of participants were
project combined didactic and experiential methods. In the experimental condition 2,
consisting of a group of participants, were exclusively developed experiential formative
methods and in experimental condition 3, also formed from a group of participants were used
exclusively on didactic formative methods.
Phase I - Exploratory study in experimental groups and the control group test
In the experimental groups, research began with a session exploring the culture of origin of
participants to see cultural homogeneity or heterogeneity of students, being important in
designing the training if it will work only the members of one culture or is there a
multicultural group. Moreover, it was verified and intercultural experience of the subjects,
specifically, the extent to which they had the opportunity to sit in a variable period of time in
a different country. During these early discussions, each participant was asked to write down
his cultural affiliation and degree of intercultural experience; subsequently, the descriptive
statistical analysis of the data led us to the following results: groups that would intercultural
training design were culturally homogeneous, while intercultural experience was present at
few subjects. This conclusion was not entitled to use the independent variable, the
intercultural experience, as a grouping variable for a research design between subjects, but
allowed us to consider the lack of experience as a condition, as a ground on which we can
intervene through an intercultural training for intercultural skills training. Distribution of
intercultural experience to the students was: without intercultural experience-187, between 0-
6 months-44, over 6 months 11.
In the control groups, students completed scales to assess consciousness, knowledge,
sensitivity, skills, intercultural adaptability, intercultural attitudes and ethnocentrism provided
by the researchers. We should note that these groups would not be subjected to the formative
intervention; their results obtained from instruments used were to be compared with those of
groups that will experience the activities proposed during the intercultural training.
1013
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Phase II - Experimental intervention - intercultural training
It was mounted training program in experimental groups, 5 related to experimental conditions,
in 3 of them were distributed 30 participants per group (experimental condition 1), and in 2
groups were distributed 31 participants per group (experimental condition 2 and 3). The
training was conducted in sessions of 2 hours a day for three weeks, during which were used
for didactic and experiential methods, such differentiated: in the three experimental groups
were combined the two types of methods (experimental condition 1), in an experimental
group worked only with experiential methods (experimental condition 2), and in another
experimental group were introduced only teaching methods (experimental condition 3).
Phase III - Assessment of intercultural training
At the end of the training, it was measured the level of cultural awareness, knowledge,
sensitivity, skills, intercultural attitudes, intercultural adaptability and level of ethnocentrism
of subjects who attended for three weeks in the activities under the programme,
complementing the inventories offered by researchers.
In graphics, design can be described as follows:
Observation 1 Time 1 Observation 2
Group 1 X O
Group 2 O O
In this table, "X" refers to the training program, "O" to measure the effects of the programme,
the "Time 1" at those 3 weeks of intercultural formative activities, and "1 and 2" observations
represent moments in which are collected the information about the two groups. It should be
mentioned that the experimental group is Group 1, and Group 2 is control group. At the time
called "observation 2", there is complete information about both groups and under the
conditions in which the training is effective, the experimental group members will get higher
scores at the instruments proposed by researchers, compared to those in the control group.
2.6. Results
The present study examined the effects of an intercultural training programme, combining
didactic and experiential educational methods in a culturally homogeneous, exploring
interaction flexibility, intercultural experience, cultural centrism and culture of origin, has on
the development of cultural awareness and intercultural sensitivity, the acquisition of
intercultural knowledge and skills, attitudinal dynamics and intercultural adaptability of
students.
The results of experimental manipulations have suggested differential presence of
positive effects for predictors of dependent variables involved in the analysis model. Thus,
intercultural training is essentially effective and it can achieve its objectives at the level of
cultural awareness, intercultural knowledge and skills in a mixed design that incorporates the
combined methods, didactic and experiential. Equally true is that a training program
exclusively structured on experiential methods proved to be useful, emphasizing once again
the deep involvement and exploring in detail the scope of the participants. How an effective
training adapts to audience preferences, students participating in our study had validated,
1014
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
rather, experiential methods. Not the same thing we can say about a program designed
exclusively didactic methods. He has not significant formative effects among students, but the
option for didactic methods is motivated by familiar character of activities, lower risk of error,
that of self-disclosure, lack of feelings of embarrassment.
Passing over the lack of intercultural experience of students, active methods such as
simulations, role plays, intercultural games proved, once again, to be more effective than
passive methods such readings, critical incidents, presentation videos, case studies in
development of intercultural skills, in the acquisition of intercultural behavior concrete. The
result suggests directions for teachers or specialists in intercultural contexts, who placed in the
situation of working with mono-cultural audience and unprecedented relational with
strangers, they will be able to focus in the design of the training program on activities that
provide an opportunity to reflect on the experience, broadening the conceptual learning, active
testing the ideas and skills and participation in a structured experience that allows a discussion
of feelings, thoughts and ideas.
A differential approach to formative experiential or didactic methods in a training
program, without denying the importance of each one separately, was considered
inappropriate by some authors (Landis, D., Bennett, J., Bennett, M., 2004). Our research,
through the third hypothesis, confirmed the author's thesis, intercultural training program has
proven to be efficiency in the development of intercultural sensitivity only in the experimental
condition were included combined didactic and experiential educational methods. Exclusive
confidence in either one or the other, did not lead to the objective of training, moving from
etnocentrice to the etnorelative stages and increase sensitivity towards cultural differences are
difficult, if not impossible. Whereas the dynamics of intercultural sensitivity development
process involves passing through several stages: denial defense minimization
acceptance cognitive and behavioral adaptation integration, the data suggests the
complementarity of the two methods, forming a corpus of common activities that have helped
students to relativize their own cultural references, causing them to become interested in
cultural differences, to seek out interactions with individuals from different cultural point of
view, to no longer be inclined to have polarised the cultures in "us" and "them," not to
experience their own culture more positively than they experience other cultures, to recognize
cultural differences between their culture and the other cultures and have the ability to change
perspective and behavior depending on the cultural context, have no difficulty in identifying
cultural or feel comfortable with a multicultural identity and to move between different
cultural identities.
In terms of attitudinal dynamics of students on a background of low ethnocentrism,
experiential methods proved again to have a positive effect in alleviating prejudice against
people with different cultural backgrounds compared with didactic methods that do not had
the power to produce attitudinal changes. Being active methods, experiential methods
proposed unfamiliar and intense activities with a cognitive and affective content, as well. In
this formative context, there is a risk of embarrassment that can help students experience how
their culture of origin activates stereotypes and negative attitudes towards members of a
different culture. How a negative attitude often is formed in the absence of target object,
without understanding its genesis, placement within an abstract conceptualizations, involving
lectures, written materials, analogies, theories, problem-solving, is not sufficient to relieve a
1015
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
prejudice. Attitudinal object must be made salient, have placed the consciousness through
simulations and role plays, practical assimilation and demonstrations. Thus, the results come
to confirm this.
Intercultural adaptability can be predicted by a good intercultural training program and
the level of ethnocentrism of students. The statement is half true, since only intercultural
training had the desired effect, while ethnocentrism does not seem to play a decisive role in
this equation. Furthermore, there is no interaction between the two factors brought into
discussion. In other words, intercultural adaptability is not influenced by high or low levels of
ethnocentrism, but rather formative methods embedded in an intercultural training program.
Our research has emphasized the need to combine the two types of methods for achieving
intercultural adaptability, except that in a group of subjects they have proven inefficient. It
was also highlighted significant effect of experiential methods and the need to supplement the
didactic methods which used separately may not achieve the proposed objective. Instructional
activities that support different learning components of the program illustrate the interrelation
methods for adaptability. Thus, the "concrete experience" implies in the group of students the
emergence of discussions, examples, autobiography, movies, exercises, and guided imagery.
In the "reflexive observation" is used logs, discussion, brainstorming, questions, reflection
worksheets, checklists pages work, and structured tasks. "Abstract conceptualization"
involves reading, projects, analogies, references and construction theory and research. "Active
experimentation" required projects, assignments, case studies, simulations and role plays,
practical assimilation and demonstrations.
2.7. Discussions
We believe that only a formative program layered on several dimensions - consciousness,
knowledge, sensitivity and intercultural skills - combining didactic and experiential methods,
can achieve the objectives of the intercultural school as they were mentioned by Hannoun,
(1987, ap Cuco, 2000), the preservation and protection of cultural diversity of the school
population and the fact that intercultural school declines to be closed in false alternatives,
promulgating a joint culture, cultural interaction.
Even if cultural diversity in contemporary Romanian university is still low, in many
regions, groups of students presenting common cultural memberships, intercultural contacts
missing, the need for training in the direction of future encounters with alterity is undeniable,
and only if we think about the higher mobility of education actors to study in other countries,
or if we remember the school's mission to promote the socialization and integration of
students with diverse cultural origins, causing them to become aware of the uniqueness of
their enculturation. In addition to learning the group's diversity, emphasizes, in this way,
learning tolerance and ability to live with cultural differences. Cognitive aspects are
supplemented and reinforced by the social and affective education ones. In designing a
training in this way, teachers or specialists in intercultural settings should propose a fund of
theoretical models, well argued, to prepare the students in streamlining interactions with
others different from them under the cultural aspect, and for not remaining at the stage of
abstract conceptualizations. Thus, in order to achieve the objectives of the formative program
it is necessary to use active learning methods, experential type. Intercultural training in order
to be considered a relevant approach and to generate positive effects, more than any other
1016
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
type of training, calls the methods with a high level of involvement of participants in the
activities. Even more in the contexts in which the audience is culturally homogeneous, the
students must internalize through simulations and role-play different cultural perspectives and
to relativize their own cultural reference.
Being an intercultural training programme addressed to an audience cultural
homogeneous, our study, through experimental manipulations and control variables, put the
light on a series of positive effects of formative methods on multiple dimensions, in designing
of a future contact with cultural differences. The construction of the experimental conditions
of the study supported, on the one hand, the idea that exclusive use or didactic methods, or
experiential ones may not be the most appropriate for an effective intercultural training,
looking for a hybrid, holistic approach, but one the other hand, the study has sought to isolate
each type of formative method for better validation and to highlight the power to achieve the
proposed objectives. Thus, it could see a good efficacy of experimental condition in which
they were incorporated both methods on specific dimensions, awareness, knowledge, skills,
sensitivity, intercultural adaptability, and and significant positive effects of experiential
methods compared to the didactic methods in forming skills amid the lack of intercultural
experience in alleviating negative attitudes towards cultural differences in the conditions of a
low ethnocentrism.
The prevalence of experiential methods in interculturalism, their effectiveness, can be
substantiated also by the specifics of the intercultural learning, which is a practical learning,
focused on a specific theme and centered on the education actor, which means that learning
takes place with a special concern for those involved in the process. The students respond to a
situation, which is familiar or not, in a certain way, and assess specific effects to determine
future actions in the same situations or in similar situations. There is not enough reading
books about a culture, listening to lectures about another culture or working with such a topic
at a purely cognitive, intellectual level. It is necessary to dealing with new and unknown
situations, experiencing insecurity, fear, rejection, as well as security, trust, sympathy and to
aproach the intercultural issues at emotional level. Through a set of simulations, role plays
and intercultural exercises proposed students involved in intercultural training program, we
followed the relativism of own culture and developing intercultural competence, the guarantee
of the success of interaction in intercultural encounters.
In a culturally homogenous environment, reporting to their own culture is natural,
normal, default and only prolonged and positive interaction with strangers makes us aware of
cultural differences.
Searching intercultural interactions and affirming cultural memberships come to
support Dasens assertion (1999), according to which the teacher who applies the principles of
intercultural education will actually benefit from the presence of students from different
cultural backgrounds to (re) evaluate their culture of origin and, at the same time, will raise
awareness to others about cultural diversity, but it will avoid having to impose a certain
identity, it will avoid stereotypes, presenting a static cultures. The University offers an
appropriate framework for intercultural meetings on the background of affirmation,
recognition and mutual respect between students.
1017
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Bibliography
Bennett, M. J. (1986). A development approach to training for intercultural sensitivity.
International Journal of Intercultural Relation, 10.
Bennett, M. J., Hammer, M. R. Wiseman, R. (2003). Measuring intercultural sensitivity: The
intercultural development inventory, International Journal of Intercultural Relations, No. 27.
Berry, J. W., Poortinga, Ype H., Segall, Marshall H., Dasen, Pierre R. (2002). Cross-cultural
Psychology: research and aplication 2nd ed., Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Berry, J. W. (2003). Fundamental psychological processes in intercultural relations. In D.
Landis, J.Bennett (Eds.). Handbook of Intercultural Research, 3rd edition, Sage Publication
Inc.
Brislin, R., Pedersen, P. (1976). Cross-cultural orientation programs. New York: Gardner
Press.
Brislin, R., Yoshida, T. (1994). Intercultural communication training: an introduction, Sage
Publication.
Cuco, C. (2000). Educaia Dimensiuni culturale i interculturale, Polirom, Iai.
Dasen, P., Perregaux, C., Rey, M. (1999). Educaia intercultural, Polirom, Iai.
Gudykunst, W.B., Hammer, M.R., Wiseman, R.L. (1977). An analysis of an integrated
approach to cross-cultural training. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 1, 99-
110.
Gudykunst, W., Hammer, M. (1984). Basic training design: Approches to intercultural
training. In D. Landis & R. Brislin (Eds), Handbook of intercultural training, Thousand Oaks,
Calif: Sage
Gudykunst, W.B., Guzley, R. M., Hammer, M. R. (1996). Designing intercultural training. In
D. Landis & R. Bhagat (Eds.). Handbook of intercultural training (2nd ed) (pp. 61-80).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Gudykunst, W. B., & Kim, Y. Y. (2003). Communicating with strangers: an approach to
intercultural communication, Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Harrison, R., Hopkins, R. (1967). The design of cross-cultural training, Journal of Applied
Behavioural Science, Vol. 3 pp.431-60.
Kim, Y. Y. (2001). Becoming intercultural: an integrative theory of communication an cross
culture adaptation, Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage.
Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and
development. Englewood Cliffs, Nj: Prentice Hall.
Landis, D., Bhagat, R. (1996). Handbook of intercultural training, 2 nd edition, Thousand
Oaks, Calif.: Sage.
Landis, D., Bennett, J., Bennett, M. (2004). Handbook of intercultural training, 3 rd edition,
Sage
Publication.
Paige, R. M. (1993). On the nature of intercultural experience and intercultural education. In
R. M. Paige (Ed.) Education for intercultural experience. Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press.
Pettigrew, T. F. (1995). Intergroup contact theory, Annual Review of Psychology, Vol. 49.
1018
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
CREATION A REFLEX OF THE TRAGIC (VIEW OVER THE ROMANIAN
INTER-WAR POETRY)
Mina-Maria RUSU, Associate Professor, PhD, Apollonia University of Iai
Abstract: By definition, creation focuses on the feeling of tragedy and the space of human
consciousness in relation to the limit, being the expression of surpassing the limit by the one
who, as a creature, exercises the prerogatives of the creator. The creation itself thus becomes
an expression of the consciousness of tragedy and, at the same time, an exercise for the
access in the perennial, a "breaking at an ontological level" and the gaining of another state
of destiny. At the same time, the creator's being becomes the geometrical place of the process
of creation, ennobling it, through sacrifice and repeated distillations of the inherent, until the
access to the transcendental is obtained. This is why creation is an existential metaphor,
offering an alternative reception of reality from the perspective of divine perfection, as a
reference point for creating a parallel, ideal world, but one that is inserted in the drama of
the human being that is defined by perishability. Divinity (The Creator) becomes an
ontological reference point and an aspiration, which determines a profound symbolization of
common places and the distillation of the profane up to the point of obtaining sacred
essences. Seen from this perspective, poetry, as a distilled and metaphorical expression of
creation, is the best argument in supporting the idea that its nobleness is situated in the heart
of the consciousness of tragedy.
Keywords: poetry, tragedy, creation, transcendental, ontology
Vocaia transgresrii
Evocatoare, oarecum aforistic, este afirmaia lui Eminescu din ms.2262, definitorie
pentru condiia creatorului de art n raport cu Creatorul universal: "Trecutul cnd n-am fost,
viitorul cnd n-oi fi, fiindc eu nu exist, sufletul lumii este eu. Fr eu nu exist timp, nu
exist spaiu, nu exist Dumnezeu; fr ochi nu e lumin, fr auz nu e cntec; ochiul e
lumin, auzul e cntecul, eu e Dumnezeu." (s.n.) Poetul triete cu dorina transgresrii de la
finitudinea umanului la autoritatea divinului, suferind dirijat o mutaie ontologic, produs al
unei nalte contiine a tragicului. Rezultatul aciunii de identificare a omului cu Creatorul su
este trecerea de la ordinea uman la ordinea transcendent; fiina capt dou dimensiuni, una
divin i alta natural, tinznd spre anularea n acelai timp a celei umane. n contiina
eminescian, omul i Dumnezeu colaboreaz, crend o nou ipostaz a Fiinei, ca aceea din
meditaia postum Dumnezeu i om. La Platon, n ordine transcendent, locul central l ocup
Adevrul, iar n ordine uman, Frumosul. La Kant, acestor categorii le corespund Intelectul,
respectiv Sentimentul. Hegel prefer s le denumeasc simplu, Dumnezeu i omul. n
primul nglobeaz Adevrul platonic i Intelectul kantian iar n al doilea se regsesc
Frumosul i Sentimentul. Noua dimensiune a Fiinei, cu cele dou laturidivinul i umanul
este produsul mbinrii Adevrului, Intelectului, Frumosului i Sentimentului n creatura
devenit Creator. Opera de art este replica omului Creator, care astfel gsete "calea profan
de acces la nemurire"1. Se produce astfel miracolul convertirii tragiculuicategorie
1
Gabriel Liiceanu, Tragiculo fenomenologie a limitei i depirii, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, p.278.
1019
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
fundamental umann sublim, ca expresie estetic a divinului. Prin relativizarea limitei
("sufletul lumii sunt eu"), apoi prin depirea acesteia ("eu e Dumnezeu), Eminescu i
creeaz un nou univers, unul al contiinei pure, care i are ns sorgintea n trirea deplin a
sentimentului tragic al vieii2. n cazul poetului-nepereche, acest sentiment se nate din
contradicia dintre nemurire, ca ideal ontologic i moarte, ca premis a ndeplinirii acestuia.
Dac finalul secolului al XIX-lea a fost profund marcat de spiritul eminescian, secolul
n care trim poate fi pus, n dimensiunea lui cultural, sub semnul filosofului, poetului i
dramaturgului Lucian Blaga 3. n opera acestuia, Noica observa c destinul omului de a fi
ngrdit este i de a fi creator"4. Astfel, Marele Anonim ofer fiinei o existen ntre mister
i revelare; n calitate de colaborator la Creaie, omul blagian i ndeplinete menirea prin
acceptarea ngrdirii, aa cum reiese din cea de-a patra trilogie, cea cosmologic.
Diferenialele divine dezvolt ideea relaiei Creatorcreatur, acccentund asupra demnitii
omului de a accepta cenzura transcendent, n fapt ngrdirea. n Eonul dogmatic, se
vorbete despre dou tipuri de intelect: unul enstatic, propriu logicii obinuite i altul
ecstatic, capabil de a regsi ordinea originar, prin oscilarea contiinei ntre pluscunoatere
i minuscunoatere. Pe scurt, este contiina cderii, realitate tragic ce stimuleaz voina
cunoaterii ca renlare. Lucifer nsui, evocat n fragmentul despre cunoaterea luciferic
este un nger czut. Lucrurile capt astfel dou fee: una deschis, fanic, alta ascuns,
tinuit, criptic, ambele dictate de Marele Anonim, care devine factorul metafizic ce
frneaz cunoaterea uman n interesul meinerii poziiei sale centrale n raport cu lumea. El
nsui se comport ca o rentrupare a demonicului n divinitate. Asimilnd fiina lui
Dumnezeu cu a Marelui Anonim, n 1923, Blaga l considera pe al doilea un fel de poet
romantic, nzestrat cu o imaginaie neastmprat, iubitor de libertate, plin de surprize,
exuberant, sau, dac vrei, un Dumnezeu pe baricad, un distrugtor, dar gata n orice clip de
o nou creaiune5. Distanarea monarhic a Marelui Anonim de om l stimuleaz pe acesta
din urm, revigorndu-i capacitatea de creaie. Astfel, matricea stilistic romneasc poart
pecetea ngrdirilor impuse de aceast ipostaz a divinitii. Filosoful identific dou tipuri de
art, una paradisiac, n care triumf latura fanic a lumii i alta luciferic, nscut din starea
de nger czut, limitat. Ultima este produsul destinelor creatoare, expresie a dezmrginirii
prin opera izvort din contiina limitei i din efortul depirii acesteia ;cu toate c-i
cunoate limitele, omul tinde, prin creaie, spre secretele Demiurgului, nfrngnd, fie i
parial, tragicul, solitudinea, diversele interdicii"6, dovedind deplina ei comprehensiune. n
ipostaza de poet, Blaga mrturisete c este "un picur de dumnezeire pe pmnt, gsind astfel
o metafor original, n replic la aforismul eminescian (eu e Dumnezeu)i o soluie
viznd relaia Creatorcreatur. nsi divinitatea apare ca o creaie afectiv, nscut din mit i
antropomorfizat, cu rdcini profane. Puterea Marelui Anonim este anihilat de elanul
creator izvort din ngrdirile stimulative, care le demonstrez astfel ambivalena.
Componenta uman a fiinei este condus ctre progres,
2
Miguel de Unamuno, Despre sentimentul tragic al vieii, Ed. Institutului European, Iai, 1995, p.227.
3
Cf. Constantin Noica, Simple introduceri la buntatea timpului nostru, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1992
4
Ibidem, p. 165.
5
Lucian Blaga, art. Pe urmele romantismului, n Lamura, V, nr. 12, 1923, reeditat n Ceasornicul de
nisip,1973, p.69.
6
Constantin Ciopraga, Personalitatea literaturii romne, Iai, Ed. Institutului European, Iai, ed. a II-a 1997,
p.99.
1020
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
autodesvrire i autosalvare7. Condiia omului este propice creaiei, prin anexarea la
ontologic a sentimentului limitei; finitudinea impune aspiraia i stimuleaz evoluia pn la
schimbarea de stare, n vreme ce divinul poart n sine pecetea libertii absolute a ilimitrii i
nu are nimic stimulativ. Comentnd registrul transcendentului,G. Liiceanu descoper o
topografie ce conduce la imaginea raiului, acesta definit ca lume a libertilor moarte,
lipsite de viaa devenirii8. n spaiul transcendent, libertatea devine nonsens, iar lipsa
ngrdirilor anuleaz elanul creator. Acelai comentator al conceptului de limitgenerator al
sentimetului tragic i implicit al creaiei salvatoaredistinge n geografia fiinei trei trepte
animalitatea, omul i supra-omulpe care le analizeaz pornind de la relaia dintre contiin
i limit.
Prin evadarea ntr-un paradis terestru, se ajunge la o absolutizare a limitei, la o
nchidere generatoare de spaii n care timpul este convertit n durat. Lumea originar
re-creat prin har primete conotaii noi ce intesc perfeciunea antropomorf. Opera unui
astfel de creator este de factur raional, iar raiul antropomorf este produsul unei exaltri
morale, n faa binelui i frumosului absolut, ca cel al legendarului Olimp. Este cunoscut
aspiraia vechilor greci de a atinge perfeciunea olimpian; efebul corinten se voia un
Adonis, adolescenta atenian se visa negreit o Artemis ori o Aphrodita9. Cnd omul
evadeaz ntr-un paradis extramundan, reuete anularea tragicului, prin relativizarea limitei
absolute. Acest paradis are o perfeciune teomorf, potenat de ritmurile cosmice. Aici i
conduce nzuina pe mistici, care dobndesc prin fiorul tririlor, ceea ce Blaga numete un
nou eu definit ca echivalentul ontic al marii opere de creaie, pe care o gsim n planul
miticreligiosmetafizic 10. Misticul va percepe puterea proprie de creaie ca pe un har, de
aceea n opera sa, de obicei de factur imnic, descoperim plcerea subordonrii supra
omului fa de divinitate. Harul nu este interpretat ca ans de a crea, ci ca ans de a accede
n sfera transcendentului. Opera vine ca o consecin a acestei ascensiuni umane i deseori are
caracterul unei confesiuni izvorte din extazul revelaiei. Creaia este pus sub semnul
iraionalului. Timpul i pierde identitatea, pn la anulare. Raiul teomorf e doar un spaiu
ilimitat, scos de sub incidena curgerii temporale. Asistm la o evadare din lumea profan n
ncremenirea celest, unde inexistena limitei anuleaz sentimentul tragic al vieii. De aceea,
creaiile marilor mistici mrturisesc o umil atitudine fa de divinitatea omnipotent.
Imploratoare i extaziat, privirea li se nal n vreme ce genunchii plecai exprim teama, ca
n faa unui miracol. Rudolf Otto numete aceast trire sentimentul strii de creatur11
nsumat n recunotin, ncredere, iubire, siguran, umil supunere i resemnare. Dup
prerea lui Schliermacher, aceast stare se traduce prin sentimentul de dependen nscut
din contiina propriei insuficiene. Obiectul numinos este perceput ca urmare a unui alt
sentiment, pe care autorul l numete sentimentul realitii. Teologul distinge ntre aspectul
obiectiv al numinosului i cel subiectiv al dependenei de acesta. Sistemul deduciilor propuse
ne ndeamn la o fugar reamintire a esenei sistemului filozofic hegelian care considera
7
Cf. Gabriel Liiceanu, op. cit.
8
Ibidem, p.47.
9
Constantin Ciopraga, op. cit., pag.96.
10
Lucian Blaga, Gndire magic i religie, n cap.Certitudine i supracontiin, Ed. Albatros, Bucureti,
1996, pp.373-375.
11
Rudolf Otto, Sacrul, Ed. Dacia, Cluj 1996, p.15
1021
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
lumea ca o expresie a raiunii, compus din trei mari realiti: divinul, natura i umanul,
conchiznd c tot ce este real este i raional. Astfel, raiunea poate fi liber (n divin),
ncorporat (n natur) i regsit (la om); aceasta este un produs al mitului cderii.
Efectele numinosului n fiina creaturii
Dac pentru Hegel divinul este expresia raiunii libere, pentru Rudolf Otto, latura
aceasta numinoas a Fiinei este de esen iraional. De aceea el invoc reaciile sentimentale
subiective la prezena numinosului, spre a-l defini cu atributele sale fundamentale. nainte de
toate, acea anume trire este potenat de un mysterium tremendum, taina nfricotoare
care determin instalarea n suflet a unei pioase reculegeri. Dup prerea lui Rudolf Otto,
aceast stare trit intens nu are un caracter durativ, ci instantaneu i conduce inevitabil la
extaz, lsnd apoi din nou sufletul prad profanului. 12 Atributul tremendum poate
determina i nvestirea divinului cu accente demonice, traduse n arhifolosita sintagm
cretin frica de Dumnezeu, pe care teologul o vedea ca un reflex al fantomaticului, capabil
a-i genera o degradare apocrif13. Se impune distincia ntre team i groaz; primul
sentiment este unul natural i exclude misterul, n vreme ce al doilea este un produs al intuirii
acestuia, dovedindu-se astfel mai complex i mai aproape de rdcinile miticului, magicului i
religiosului. Groaza, spaima genereaz imaginea misterului numinos, ca produs al
componentei malefice a Fiinei. n magie, omul practica jertfa i invocarea ca mijloace
apotropaice folosite n scopul anulrii aciunii nefaste a maleficului; acestea sunt nlocuite n
marile religii de rugciune. Ptrunznd n miticul originar, descoperim la romni i nu
numai o cosmogonie original, care unete Frtatul cu Nefrtatul, n actul Genezei,
conceput ca un proces antagonic ce implic deopotriv beneficul i maleficul. Forele
contrare i conjug vocaia i creeaz lumea dinti.
Tributar aceleiai concepii, Sfntul Augustin construiete imaginea celor dou Ceti,
ntr-o viziune istoric i cretin. Imaginea lumii are o structur polifonic n concepia
autorului, n care dou elemente adverse Civitas Dei i Civitas terrena se suprapun, se
ncrucieaz i se confrunt. Dac prima cetate este modelul lumii celeste, cu toate atributele
spaiotemporale ale sacrului, a doua este cetatea omeneasc, prea omeneasc, n care omul,
uitndu-i vocaia eternitii, se nchide n finitudinea sa 14, crend un model ontologic al
profanului, pe care va ncerca s-l sacralizeze. Sfntul Augustin definete relaia dintre cele
dou ceti i implicaiile facturii umane a Fiinei: facerunt itaque civitates duas amores duo
(dou iubiri fac dou ceti, una a iubirii de Dumnezeu, dus pn la uitarea de sine, celalt,
a iubirii de sine, dus pn la uitarea lui Dumnezeu15). Omul poate migra n modelul celest al
lumii, transgresnd hotarele profanului, pn la dobndirea spiritual a divinului prin
nfiorare mistic. Se produce o conversiune prin reciprocitate, care creeaz cadrul concepiei
iudeocretine. O mrturisire a sentimentului ne ofer poeta mistic hispanic Teresa de
vila16: Dios mo, el perderte temo.(Cun trise es, dios mo!).
12
Ibidem.
13
Ibidem, p.21.
14
Cf. Henri Marrou, Teologia istoriei, Ed. Institutului European, Iai, 1995, p.44.
15
apud Henri Marrou, , op. cit., p.43
16
Teresa de vila, Poesas/Poezii, ediie bilingv, traducere, prefa i note de Viorica S. Constantinescu, Ed.
Institutului European, Iai, 1996. Mi-e team mereu, Domnul meu, / c-a putea s Te pierd. (Ce trist-i, Domnul
meu!)
1022
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
n concepia lui Rudolf Otto, un alt reflex al tririi numinosului este sentimentul
superioritii absolute pe care exegetul l numete majestas. Aceast latur a numinosului
determin o aneantizare, care-i imprim omului atitudinea de umilin i sentimentul
distanrii, din care deriv deseori deprecierea mistic a eu-lui. Latura transcendent a
Fiinei devine astfel corelativ laturii umane i determin o evaluare subiectiv a omului de
ctre sine, de tipul Eu nu sunt nimic, Tu eti totul!. Teologul consider trirea sentimentul
de a nu fi dect o creatur 17, care imprim fiinei umane, prin determinantul adverbial
restrictiv dect, contiina limitei acceptate n faa maiestii ce nu cunoate limita. Luther
numete aceast nsuire a divinului omnipotentia dei. n esen, atributul tremendum este
compus din elementele nfricoare i majestate; primul definete trirea omului, al doilea,
starea divinului. Astfel misterul apare ca un concept complex care-i adaug atributul
mirum, cu dou manifestri: fascinans i augustum. nsi rdcina sanscrit mu a lui
mysterium conduce spre sensul de aciune tainic, discret, capabil s produc mirarea n
faa a ceea ce nu este inteligibil i obinuit, numit de Rudolf Otto Ganz anderes. Atitudinea
mistic percepe obiectul numinos ca nimicul nsui, imprimndu-i un caracter nihilist,
echivalent cu vidul i vacuitatea din concepia misticilor budhiti. Rudolf Otto consider
acest nimic sau vid ideogram numinoas a lui cu totul altul care transcende categoriile
noastre, este mai presus de orice raiune i alctuete antiteze ireconciliabile i
ireductibile18. Mysterium d form numinosului, n vreme ce tremendum, cu variantele
sale de manifestare i asigur coninutul. Omul religios caut s prind numinosul fie ca s
se umple de el fie ca s se identifice cu acesta. Se poate vorbi despre o posedare
numinoas derivat a puterii miraculoase a numenului19 care conduce spre rdcinile
magice ale religiei. n magie, prin practici specifice, se intea obinerea binelui profan, n
vreme ce religia cultiva latura sublim a unor astfel de demersuri, al cror scop era dobndirea
binelui sacru, prin ascez, perceput de homo religiosus ca reculegere i nlare individual
a sufletului spre sacru20 determinat de solemnitatea numinosului. Accesul la sacru pe cale
magic are ca rezultat bucuria raional, n vreme ce perceperea acestuia pe calea religioas
a ascezei i a revelaiei ofer beatitudinea prin atingerea a ceea ce misticii numesc
strfundul sufletului. De la magie la ascez se parcurge o maturizare a tririi pn la
dobndirea strii sublime a misticului, aceea de a fi n spirit. Mysterium i asociaz n
planul aciunii verbul a mistui; aceeai Teresa de vila mrturisete21:Si el padecer con
amor/ puede dar tan gran deleite,/ qu gozo nos dar el verte! (Si el padecer con amor)
Ea recunoate astfel dependena i slbiciunea uman n raport cu valoarea numinoas.
Valena sacr a numinosului
n relaie cu Theos agnostos, omul triete sentimentul strii de creatur, care
determin un discurs apofatic, propriu teologiei negative practicate de un Dionisie
Areopagitul; se nasc astfel epifaniile sacrului nspimnttor (tremendum). Misticul este
sedus ns de un Dumnezeu bun, milos i iubitor; discursul nscut sub semnul lui fascinans
17
Henri Marrou, , op. cit., p.27.
18
Rudolf Otto, op. cit., p.38.
19
Idem, p.46
20
Ibidem, p.50.
21
Cf. Teresa de vila, op. cit. Dac suferina din iubire / poart-atta plcere n ea,/ ce fericire cnd Te vom
vedea! (Dac suferina).
1023
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
capt o structur catafatic ce dimensioneaz subiectiv sacrul. Din dorina omului de a
poseda divinul i a fi totodat posedat de el"22, esena tririlor se compune din mplinirea
acesteia n linitea isihast izvort tocmai din contiina ambivalenei sacrului. Perceperea
lui augustum ca dimensiune a numinosului creeaz n contiina creaturii sentimentul acut al
deprecierii eului, devenind o referin obiectiv la noiunea de sacru. Sacrul transcende
numinosul prin facultatea proprie de a lega semnificatul de un semn i de a utiliza un limbaj
care, pornind de la ideogram, construiete expresii literare ca reprezentri ale divinului.
Astfel sacrul nu este doar o experien trit individual, o epifanie a divinului, instantanee i
trectoare sau un teopanism mistic. El se manifest ambivalent, totodat pur i impur,
benefic i nefast23 i trebuie s produc o contientizare a vieii individuale. Dac
numinosului i este proprie doar dimensiunea iraional, sacrul este o manifestare deopotriv a
raionalului i a iraionalului. Elementele raionale care l definesc (iubirea, mila,
comptimirea, ntrajutorarea) schematizeaz structura laturii iraionale, ale crei
componente in de aspectul dionisiac al numenului, reprezentat de acel inexplicabil fascinans.
n componena sacrului, elementul iraional se comport ca un reflex al suportului raional al
conceptului. Astfel, fermectorul, ciudatul, ncnttorul, delirul, sunt produse de calitile
numenului de a iubi, a comptimi, a ajuta omul. Considernd sacrul ca un produs al
convergeei raionalului cu iraionalul, i descoperim sorgintea n real i implicit observm
justeea concluziilor lui Mircea Eliade n urma complexelor sale studii asupra conceptului n
discuie.
Sacru i profan. Semnificaii i interferene
Demersurile lui Eliade spunea Constantin Noica "gsesc mai mult dect simpla
revelare a sacrului; descopr sacralitatea aceea care se ntinde peste toate zonele profanului" 24.
Judecnd natura lucrurilor din aceast perspectiv, ne ndeprtm de sensul dogmatic i
iraional al termenului de sacru i-i dezvluim sensul real, raional, deductibil din evoluia
istoric a fiinei umane. Religia atribuia sacrului o dimensiune temporal etern i un spaiu
teomorf, care-l distaneaz ireconcilabil de fiina uman. Profanul se dezvolt n varianta
istoric a timpului liniar, eroziv n diacronia lui, ntr-un spaiu antropomorf. Omul arhaic
convertete sacrul n norm, cci pentru comunitile patriarhale elementele prohibite din
viaa social aveau solemnitatea maiestii i miracolui acelui cu totul altul dect concretul
imediat. Sfidarea normei echivala cu pngrirea valorilor sacre ale tab-ului. n societatea
noastr tradiional, Sadoveanu a descoperit cel mai adnc sacralitatea gesturilor obinuite,
actul de sacralizare a acestor segmente ale profanului care asigurau obtei sentimentul
stabilitii i care urmreau convertirea timpului liniar n timp liturgic. El observ veneraia cu
care ranul vorbea despre srbtoare ca expresie a unui timp ciclic aflat ntr-o etern
rentoarcere. n acest ritual, prozatorul sesiza spiritul omului care are drept el nvestirea cu
sens superior a nivelului ontologic al Fiinei. Un singur exemplu convige. n Baltagul,
"soarele e obiect sacru, ntr-un trm sacru, imagine plastic a unui miracol perpetuu" i de
22
Michel Meslin, tiina religiei, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1993, p.79.
23
Ibidem, p. 82.
24
Constantin Noica, Cuvnt mpreun despre rostirea romneasc, Ed. Eminescu, Bucureti, 1978, p.76.
1024
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
aceea, Vitoria i dojenete fiica atunci cnd arunc "gunoiul afar n fa soarelui"25. Gestul
este perceput ca o pngrire a sacrului.
Ca i Blaga, Eliade nu comenteaz sacrul ca expresie a unei religii anume, de aceea
operele lor au strnit fie o reacie de respingere din partea teologilor (a se vedea studiul lui
Dumitru Stniloaie despre Blaga i ortodoxism26), fie au propus cadrul general care permite
nelegerea oricrui sistem religios. ntre sacru i religiozitate, Mircea Eliade determin relaia
fireasc dintre concept i forma lui de manifestare. Opera istoricului religiilor este o ampl
justificare ontologic a lucrurilor care le dezvluie originea sacr, din acel illo tempore
unde omul deczut se regsete n raiul arhetipal sondnd abisurile. Preocupat de progresul
infinit, autodesvrire i autosalvare, omul istoric caut n profan segmentele sacre, avnd,
prin extindere, tentaia sacralizrii integrale a profanului. n esen, aceeai contiin a
tragicului stimuleaz la acesta gustul dezmrginirii, izvort din convingerea c istoria este "o
pacoste" (Nietzsche) i "o rtcire" (Heidegger). Henri Marrou observa n Teologia istoriei c
"ideologia progresului, aplicat civilizaiei terestre, duce la un optimism nu numai naiv, ci i
culpabil prin mulumire de sine".
La omul modern sentimentul c devenirea care-i poteneaz destinul este "un proces
fecund, generator de plus-fiin" eueaz n axioma: "tot ceea ce accede la fiin prin devenire
se supune, n chip necesar, degradrii i morii"27. Potenat acum de contiina limitei, omul
modern transcende propriul su timp istoric, care strivete i omoar, refugiindu-se ntr-unul
estetic, primordial, atestat de mituri, timp ce are puterea eternei rentoarceri i a reactivrii
arhetipurilor originare. Eliade vorbete astfel despre nostalgia originilor ca stare ce
determin ieirea din timp i evoc perfeciunea supratemporal, fixat n afara devenirii
umane. Nostalgia originilor abandoneaz istoria i imprim omului czut o nelinite
metafizic ce va determina experiena sacrului n opoziie cu manifestrile profanului.
Studiind diverse religii, autorul constat c la baza majoritii se afl acelai sistem coerent de
hierofanii care definesc, n concepia sa, evanescena lumii profane i provoac omul la
cutarea sacrului n metaistorie, unde se manifest prin simboluri, singurele capabile s-l
salveze prin integrarea n real. Morfologia sacruluicapt, n concepia lui Mircea Eliade,
configuraia unei veritabile soteriologii, aplicat istoriei, pe care autorul o consider "un
proces ireversibil de secularizare, de fabricare a profanului, o main de expulzat sacrul"28.
Asistm la un proces de degradare a sacrului fie prin profanare, fie prin desacralizare. Grania
dintre sacru i profan este relativ i mobil i depinde de imaginea pe care o are n contiina
uman. n concepia lui Eliade, orice sistem religios trebuie s converteasc profanul n sacru
i prin inserarea acestuia din urm n contiina uman s-l plaseze pe om n cosmos.
Hermeneutica simbolului sacru. Semnificat i semnificant n structura textului poetic
n profan, sacrul se manifest prin mijlocirea simbolurilor ca realiti
deschise sau prin activarea unor realiti mundane. n actul interpretrii, simbolurile sunt
inepuizabile n conotaii i permit doar o schematizare relativ; orice descifrare a sensurilor
25
Cf. Constantin Ciopraga, op. cit.
26
Cf. Dumitru Stniloaie, Poziia domnului Blaga fa de ortodoxism i cretinism, Ed. Paidea, Bucureti,
1993.
27
Henri Marrou, op. cit., pp.42-45.
28
Cf. Michel Meslin, op. cit., p.159.
1025
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
trebuie s fie rezultatul unei stri speciale a omului, asemntoare celei de revelaie. Astfel se
activeaz zona transcontientului unde se produce orice experien religioas. Eludnd sensul
dogmatic al religiei, Eliade constat c omul nu poate fi dect religios, nelegnd prin aceasta
starea de evlavie fa de misterul nerelevat. Experiena religioas trit de el este una a
sacrului care permite ptrunderea n dialectica hierofaniei convertit n kratofanie i
demonstreaz dimensiunea simbolic a raiunii umane. Percepnd realitatea, omul recurge
involuntar sau contient la metafor, ca suport morfo-funcional al simbolului. n retorica
clasic, metafora se manifesta prin substituirea de termeni ducnd la teoria corespondenelor.
Lumea nsidup opinia lui Eliadear fi produsul unei legi magice a corespondenei,
bazat pe "omologia ntre Cer i Pmnt"29. O for magic din sfera sideral i impune
aciunea n nivelurile realiii, crend corespondene simbolice ntre macocosmos
(universul) i microcosmos (corpul uman). Lund ca reper teoriile cosmologice indiene,
Mircea Eliade constat c omul s-a nchipuit ca o hart mistic cu anumii centri i susine
prin aceasta c "obiectele nu au numai o valoare pragmatic, ci au o semnificaie de origine
magic"30. Astfel, omul i apare istoricului religiilor dirijat de legi sacre, pe care strdania de
a nu le altera le-a transformat n rituale, determinnd n societile tradiionale solidarizarea
cu norma. ntre elementele definitorii ale etnosului romnesc, Ovidiu Papadima distinge
explicarea vieii cosmice prin om, acesta centru al armoniei universale, imagine a fpturii
Creatorului pentru care rnduiala31 este mecanismul organic al cosmosului. Asistm la
convertirea profanului n sacru prin mijlocirea metaforei.n concepia Grupului aceasta este
o figur a coninutului inclus n rndul metasememelor, deoarece ntre termenii metaforei se
realizeaz o interaciune in praesentia, pe baza similitudinilor semantice. Pornind de la
aceast viziune modern, constatm c simbolismul textului are un comportament paradoxal;
nvluie secretul, n timp ce-l dezvluie. Din acest motiv, demersurile hermeneutice dau
soluii diverse i infinite susinute de unghiul sub incidea cruia cade obiectul supus analizei,
i nici o interpretare nu poate fi exhaustiv confirmnd caracterul deschis al simbolului.Orice
demers analitic se comport ca un act de iniiere n infrastructura textului, unde se creeaz
analogiile morfologice i funcionale dintre sacru i profan.Textelor religioase le este proprie
o simbolistic dogmatic, impus de rigorile conservatoare ale tradiiei. S-a i propus o
sistematizare a simbolurilor care exprim analogiile proprii sacrului instituionalizat32.
Datorit funciei cultice a acestora, complementar celei artistice, simbolistica nu se poate
desctua din dogm. Aceste simboluri le vom ntlni ns nu numai n textele biblice, ci i n
poezia ortodoxitilor, ntr-o ncercare de a revela faa sacr a transcendentului, adic
mplinirea artistic a Creatorului ca arhetip al buntii, nelepciunii i frumuseii.
Abaterea de la normele ce fixeaz statutul sacrului instituionalizat conduce inevitabil la
falsificarea sensurilor; de aceea paradigma acestui tip de simboluri este finit.
Nu la fel stau lucrurile n privina simbolurilor sacre cultivate de poeii ce nu servesc
dogma, cci prin corespondenele insolite create i prin sfidarea normei se obine
originalitatea ca dimensiune definitorie a personalitii creatoare. Puterea metaforei
transform realitatea n kratofanie conducnd referenii de la similitudine pn la identitate
29
Mircea Eliade, Alchimie babilonian, Ed. Moldova Iai, 1994, p.36.
30
Ibidem, p. 40.
31
Cf. Ovidiu Papadima, O viziune romneasc a lumii, Ed. Saeculum I. O., Bucureti, 1995.
32
Cf. Mihail Diaconescu, Prelegeri de estetica ortodoxiei II. Ipostazele artei, Ed. Porto-Franco, Galai, 1996.
1026
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
semic. Fora metaforei deriv din "experiena noastr interioar privitoare la lume" supus
potenrii de ctre "procese emotive", iar caracterul deschis al metaforei este dat de "strategia
textual" n care textul metaforic este supus unei interpretri metaforice, dependente de cel
ce o face. Lectorul sesizeaz conotaiile metaforei n raport cu un sistem propriu de referin
ale crui dimensiuni fundamentale sunt cultura i sensibilitatea; opernd decodificarea
mesajului, se procedeaz mai nti la stabilirea valorii literale i conotative a metaforei i
numai dup lmurirea sensurilor, se exploreaz contextul de referin, pn acesta atinge sfera
intertextualitii. Sondarea intertextului are ca rezultat deschiderea metaforelor prin
interferene care "fac s interacioneze dou sisteme de idei"; se obine ceea ce Umberto Eco
numete "metafora unor alte metafore"33. Avnd ca sistem de referin simbolistica sacrului
instituionalizat, prin studierea intertextualitii, exegeii propun o schematizare relativ i
deschis a metaforei n beletristic; discursul poetic este marcat, dup cum susine Roman
Jakobson, de ambiguitate i autoreflexivitate. n planul simbolisticii, conotaiile prolifereaz,
prsind treptat sensul iniial i alunecnd voit ntr-o cltorie labirintic ce susine puterea
limbajului, ad infinitum.
Pentru a preciza valorile semnificantului, Clinescu propune n lucrarea sa Universul
poeziei nvestirea semnificatului cu un Eu care s sugereze Spiritul universal, sufletul
cosmic. El observ c n societile tradiionale, "pentru omul vechi, apa, focul, aerul erau
lucruri primordiale, adevrate fore numenale"34. Produse de interferena cu sensurile biblice,
se nasc i alte simboluri, distribuite prin corespondene, n toate regnurile; "crinul penduleaz
ntre serafic i demonic", iar ngerul este "o fptur ce aparine regnului superior al spiritelor
celeste"35; conotaiile acestuia n sfera umanului conduc spre senintatea serfic a Fiinei.
Sacralizarea elementului natural n simboluri se obine numai cnd acesta reprezint altceva,
iese din el nsui i se revel ca hierofanie. ntre simbol i hierofanie, Eliade stabilete o
relaie strns, pn la identificarea celor dou concepte. Rolul simbolului, scrie el n
Tratatul de istoria religiilor, este de a exprima solidaritatea permanent a omului cu
sacralitatea. Spre exemplu, bogata simbolistic a scrii are la origine ideea de schimbare n
ontologia fiinei. Pornind de la imaginea fundamental, biblic, rezultat al tradiiilor
religioase, scara reprezint deopotriv ascensiunea spre o realitate spiritual, al crei sens este
ndumnezeirea, dar i trecerea de la existena profan la o stare superioar, ca "ascensiunea
celest" specific miturilor de iniiere. Studiindu-i simbolismul extrem de bogat, Mircea
Eliade conchide c "ea ntruchipeaz plastic ruptura de nivel care face posibil trecerea de la
un mod de existen la altul"36. Ca mijloc de comunicare ntre Cer, Pmnt i Infern,
simbolului scrii i activeaz latura funcional, n vreme ce latura morfologic o substituie
arborelui cosmic, axei lumii, leagnd dou spaii virtualecel de sus (al sacrului) cu cel de
jos (al profanului) i ntotdeauna evoc centrul lumii n care trebuie s se afle, spre a-i
manifesta toate valenele simbolice. Imposibilitatea sau interzicerea accederii la sacru ar
nsemna prbuirea scrii i este o ngrdire a omului viznd trirea vieii n orizontul
tragicului.
33
Cf. Umberto Eco, Limitele interpretrii, Ed. Pontica, Colecia Biblioteca italian, Constana, 1996, p.172.
34
G. Clinescu, Universul poeziei, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1973, p.119.
35
Ibidem, p. 146.
36
Cf. Mircea Eliade, Imagini i simboluri, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1994, p.59.
1027
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
n cercetrile hermeneutice ale lui Ren Gunon, Centrul lumii apare n Paradisul
terestru, care este ara Sfnt a fiecrei societi tradiionale. Orice excurs prin acest spaiu
are un sens iniiatic i vizeaz descoperirea locului unde se produce inseria sacrului n profan.
Ca dovad, autorul i descoper o multitudine de denumiri, toate avnd n structura semantic
ideea de Centru sacru: "Pmnt neprihnit", "Pmnt al Sfinilor", "Pmnt al
Preafericiilor", "Pmnt al celor Vii", "Pmnt al Nemuririi". Aceste nume generice sunt
universal ntlnite i se aplic "unui centru spiritual a crui localizare ntr-o regiune" () care
constituie "Inima Lumii" se leag de prezena Divinitii i implicit de ideea de Nemurire.
Acest "Paradis terestru" este construit dup modelul Paradisului ceresc i se comport ca o
adevrat proiecie a acestuia n spaiul profan prin axa Lumii. Diverse segmente ale
profanului capt valene sacre: cetatea, oraul, satul, casa, dar i muntele sau petera.
Accesul n acest perimetru impune parcurgerea unui labirint, a unui drum al iniierii.
Descoperim astfel, cu ajutorul lui Ren Gunon, tradiia primordial i manifestrile ei
particulare n tradiiile diferitelor popoare. Exegetul conchide: "Cu alte cuvinte, exist o ar
Sfnt prin excelen, prototipul i centrul spiritual cruia i se subordoneaz toate celelalte,
lca al tradiiei primordiale din care au derivat toate tradiiile specifice prin adaptarea la
anumite condiii, cum ar fi acelea oferite de un popor sau o epoc"37. Centrul Lumii ar fi,
dup opinia lui Eliade, acel spaiu privilegiat n care are loc inseria sacrului n profan. Se
evoc astfel originea, mitul cosmogonic care creeaz modelul microcosmosului i al
macrocosmosului reduse metaforic la o imago mundi. Prin conotaiile sale, Centrul
preexistent sau construitangajeaz omul prta la Creaie, capabil a sacraliza segmente ale
profanului. Astfel Casa nsi devine un spaiu sacru prin considerarea ei drept centru al
lumii; curtea, satul, mprejurimile, grupate n jurul unui punct n care sacrul se insereaz n
profan, sunt locuri consacrate, unde maleficul este anulat. Prin extinderea conotaiilor, acest
spaiu implic o colaborare cu un timp sacru mijlocind eterna rentoarcere la origini, i
experimentnd o iniiere care confirm dorina omului "de a se gsi n chiar inima realului" 38.
Prsirea casei ar fi expresia dezrdcinrii i orice rentoarcere mrturisete imposibilitatea
omului de a tri n afara unui spaiu sacru. Firete c plecarea i revenirea i afl sorgintea n
simbolurile teologiei, care evoc nostalgia adamic39 dup spaiul originar, "cel dinainte de
cderea n pcat"40. Cnd acestuiaca centru al lumiii corespund casa, satul natal, ara,
ntoarcerea omului capt sensul redobndirii condiiei divine. n afara acestui statut, omul
este o contiin dilematic, rtcitoare ntr-un labirint ce conduce spre nefiin.
Simbolistica spaiului capt consisten prin ataarea timpului-metafor. Vieii, ca
segment temporal propriu fiinei, i corespunde la nivel simbolic drumul, pe care Umberto
Eco l numete "proces constnd ntr-o translare spaial"41. Din perspectiv teologic,
drumul nseamn "o cltorie prin spaiul interior al inimii () o cltorie n afara timpului,
n venicie"42 i este produsul relaiei dintre cunoaterea catafatic i cunoaterea apofatic.
Din perspectiv poetic, parcurgerea unui drum nseamn iniierea treptat ntr-un spaiu,
37
Ren Gunon, Simboluri ale tiinei sacre, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1997, p.91.
38
Cf. Mircea Eliade, op. cit., p.59.
39
Cf. Nichifor Crainic, Nostalgia paradisului, Ed. Moldova Iai, 1995.
40
Cf. Mircea Eliade, Tratat de istorie a religiilor, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1992, p.349.
41
Cf. Umberto Eco, op. cit.
42
Mihail Diaconescu, op. cit., p.307
1028
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
aflat sau nu sub incidena timpului. Simbolismul drumului conduce la mitul orfic unde
iniierea poate culmina cu descensus ad inferos.Bogatul simbolism acvatic are la baz
valoarea religioas instaurat de cretinism; efectul soteriologic al apei reactiveaz momentul
Facerii, prin dobndirea puterilor sacre ale Sfntului Duh. Botezul pstrez misterul naterii
omului nou din omul vechi; emersiunea i imersiunea au n plan simbolic sensul morii i
al renaterii, oferind celui supus actului ritual ansa asemnrii cu Dumnezeu. nsui
Pmntul devine un altul dup Potop, pstrnd ns efectul ucigtor al apelor cruia i s-a
sustras doar un singur om, strmoul mitic al noii lumi create. n cultul naturii, rul, simbol al
apei, este ceva viu, avnd calitatea de a curge, tradus prin micare, via. El este un fel de
drum cu un singur sens, care nu permite rentoarcerea. De aceea, n jurul rului s-a creat un
bogat univers simbolic, pstrtor al unei structuri duale; tovar de drum i prieten al omului,
acesta poate s-i activeze latura malefic, distrugtoare i dornic de ofrande. n diverse
culte, rul este hotar ntre lumea vie i mori. Desprins din paradigma simbolului apei,
oglinda (suprafaa apei) pstreaz imaginea i de aceea are puterea de a reine sufletul celui
oglindit. Extinznd conotaiile simbolice ale oglinzii descoperim, prin analogie, ochiul. Dei
valoarea lui simbolic este de obicei legat de sacrul instituionalizat, prin teoria
corespondenelor, ochiul poate deveni o oglind n care se vede sufletul captiv. Un alt
simbolarpele din mitul biblicprin blestemul lui Dumnezeu, este perceput ca o
ntruchipare a Satanei. Gilbert Durand i-a descoperit corespondene cu "constelaia lunar i
cu cea feminin", care-i asigur puterea de a deine secretele vieii prin fecunditate dar i
pe cele ale morii. Prin nfiarea de monstru cosmic43, arpele mitic are deseori i puteri
oraculare manifestndu-se ca protector al casei. n simbolistica atrilor cereti, Mircea Eliade
descoper "dou tipuri de sacralitate, unul rezervat brbatului i cellalt propriu femeii"44,
aflate ntr-un raport de opoziie complementar. Luna este expresia cosmic a principiului
feminin deoarece prin fazele sale exprim la nivel simbolic ciclurile vieii umane i fertilitatea
i conduce spre simbolistica luminii i a ntunericului regsit n maniheism ca i n toate
religiile duale. Conotaiile simbolismului selenar asociaz astrul nopii cu fiina solitar i
vistoare, rtcitoare n labirintul naturii sau claustrat n spaiul odii, acordnd umanului
valene romantice, prin reverie, se poate atinge altitudinea psihic ce permite sesizarea
sacrului din profan. Re-crearea orizonturilor arhetipale prin metafora rezultat din reverie
confirm puterea fiinei vistoare i, dup prerea lui Gaston Bachelard, dezvluie
personalitatea oniric a obiectelor, perceput prin sistemul corespondenelor dintre lumea
subcontientului i realitate. Ca astru diurn bivalent, Soarele este deopotriv simbolul
maleficului (prin asociere cu puterea distrugtoare a focului), dar i al binecuvntrii i al
fertilitii.
Cele cteva exemple la care ne-am oprit demonstreaz c limbajul simbolic are att o
funcie cultic-religioas, ct i una estetic. n sfera poeticului, proliferarea sensurilor
depete grania tradiiei i mrturisete o realitate interioar incontient, reactivat n
simboluri, care impun intuiii i dau semnificaii analogice infinite, manifestate n poezia
43
Cf. Gilbert Durand, Structurile antropologice ale imaginarului, Ed. Univers, Bucureti, 1980
44
Cf. Mircea Eliade, Nostalgia originilor, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1994, p.208
1029
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
romneasc interbelic prin "considerabila diversitate figurativstilistic, prin modalitile de
imersiune n mister i abisal, implicit prin capacitatea de a produce mitologii". 45
Bibliografie
Blaga, Lucian, Gndire magic i religie, Ed. Albatros, Bucureti, 1996
Clinescu, G., Universul poeziei, Ed. Minerva, Bucureti, 1973
Ciopraga,Constantin, Amfiteatru cu poei, Ed. Junimea, Iai
Crainic, Nichifor, Nostalgia paradisului, Ed. Moldova Iai, 1995
de vila, Teresa, Poesas/Poezii, ediie bilingv, traducere, prefa i note de Viorica S.
Constantinescu, Ed. Institutului European, Iai, 1996
de Unamuno, Miguel, Despre sentimentul tragic al vieii, Ed. Institutului European, Iai,
1995
Diaconescu, Mihail, Prelegeri de estetica ortodoxiei II. Ipostazele artei, Ed. Porto-Franco,
Galai, 1996
Durand, Gilbert, Structurile antropologice ale imaginarului, Ed. Univers, Bucureti, 1980
Eco, Umberto, Limitele interpretrii, Ed. Pontica, Colecia Biblioteca italian, Constana,
1996
Eliade, Mircea, Alchimie babilonian, Ed. Moldova Iai, 1994
Eliade, Mircea, Imagini i simboluri, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1994
Eliade, Mircea, Nostalgia originilor, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1994
Eliade, Mircea, Tratat de istorie a religiilor, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1992
Gunon, Ren, Simboluri ale tiinei sacre, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1997
Liiceanu, Gabriel, Tragiculo fenomenologie a limitei i depirii, Ed. Humanitas,
Bucureti
Marrou, Henri, Teologia istoriei, Ed. Institutului European, Iai, 1995
Meslin, Michel, tiina religiei, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1993
Noica, Constantin, Cuvnt mpreun despre rostirea romneasc, Ed. Eminescu, Bucureti,
1978
Otto, Rudolf, Sacrul, Ed. Dacia, Cluj 1996
Papadima, Ovidiu, O viziune romneasc a lumii, Ed. Saeculum I. O., Bucureti, 1995
45
Constantin Ciopraga, Amfiteatru cu poei, Ed. Junimea, Iai, 1995, p.5.
1030
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
EXPLORING VIRTUAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS IN TEACHING ENGLISH
FOR TOURISM
Anioara POP, Associate Professor, PhD, Dimitrie Cantemir University of Trgu-Mure
Raluca CRIAN, Assistant professor, PhD candidate, Dimitrie Cantemir University of
Trgu-Mure
Abstract: English learning/teaching can be optimized by employment of virtual environments
where students can extend their practice outside the classroom walls towards forming and
consolidating their basic skills, in a pleasant, creative, and relevant way. The current paper
will showcase several Web 2.0 tools uploaded on Edmodo virtual learning environment in
order to enhance collaboration and communication through creation of student-centered
activities that would adapt to the students learning styles and maximize their involvement in
learning English for Tourism. Evaluation of the platform work was based on the students
unstructured feedback, which took the form of a creative Final Reflections Edmodo-
assessment survey.
Keywords: virtual learning environments, English for tourism, Edmodo
I. Introduction
Among the crucial general competences that students majoring in Tourism need to
form and consolidate during their undergraduate studies are the digital and communication in
English skills, which are likely to assist them in facing the challenges of an ever growing
competitiveness and internalization of the tourism market.
Current students are digital natives[6], exposed to an information boom and
therefore, multitasking, fast in online communication, and avid users of technology. That is
why our exploitation of social media and virtual environments [8] in English language
teaching starts from the premise of their salient digital presence on Facebook, Twitter, Yahoo
groups, etc.
Moreover, research on the impact of technology on teaching and learning shows
manifold positive results such as improvement of performance in English, development of
research skills, increase in the time devoted to reflection and task commitment [3]. Likewise,
cooperation and collaboration between students as well as teacher-student communication,
higher autonomy levels and possibility of adapting the material to the students needs are high
on the list of reported advantages [2, 4, 7, 8, 9].
The hypothesis of this class-size project-based empirical study is that exploitation of
communication in teaching English to higher education students through Edmodo virtual
learning environment is likely to maximize the students contributions, involvement and
motivation, which in turn conducts to the students positive perception and satisfaction as far
as the method of course delivery is concerned.
The next sections will focus on leveraging Edmodo virtual learning environment in
English for Tourism classes, with a presentation of the platform features as well as Edmodo-
customized activities to suit different learning styles and proficiency levels.
1031
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
1.1.Edmodo Virtual Learning Environment
Edmodo is a safe virtual environment similar to Facebook in many ways but whose features
have been enhanced, so as to comply with the requirements of a learning platform [1].
Teachers can create groups and subgroups and therefore customize the students learning,
different students being able to work on different tasks simultaneously, with the teacher
following their individual progress or obtaining statistics for the progress of the whole class.
Posts can be filtered by: latest posts, assignments, recent replies, students, teachers, alerts, and
quizzes, which make filtering an indispensable tool for ease of navigation. Assignment set-up
is easy for any type of activity, either written or oral and multimedia (links or embeddings are
supported); features such as: deadlines for turning-in with statistics (Fig.1), mentioning
whether the homework was turned-in with revisions, in due time, or late, make Edmodo a
practical, green and time-saving method, assisting teachers in a more objective, continuous
evaluation. Teachers can also send regular notes, alerts, polls, quizzes and exploit applications
for mobile learning
Fig. 1 Edmodo-generated statistics
Unlike in real classes, privacy and autonomous work are ensured since assignments
cannot be viewed by peers, unless the teacher chooses to make them public. In initial stages of
assignment turning-in this may be desirable, therefore, it is up to the teacher to make certain
contributions public by sending them to the group or by assigning them an url-address in
order to provide best practice models.
II. Case study
2.1. Course Design Elements of English for Tourism
During the first year, Tourism undergraduate students of Dimitrie Cantemir University
of Tirgu Mures have four contact hours/week (lectures + tutorials), the course purpose being
the formation of all four basic skills, stress being laid on the oral skills during first and writing
skills during the second semester. From the point of view of course design, English for
Tourism is an English-through course [5], and the context is that of a large, mixed-ability
group, leaving limited space for adjustment to the students proficiency level and learning
style as these have been evident during the introductory needs analysis.
1032
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Therefore, in order to adapt to the students proficiency levels, their preferred learning styles,
and to maximize the time spent in the foreign language environment, we introduced the
project-based evaluation, exploiting the Edmodo assignment feature, alongside a series of
speaking and writing Web 2.0-based activities, after proper teacher modeling as well as online
and class tutorials.
2.2.Edmodo Project
Students were introduced to Edmodo during the first classes and given the opportunity
to interact with one another and the teacher, have access to materials in the Edmodo library
and upload their productions as part of the final assessment. Of the 70 first year students, 37
(52.8 %) joined the platform and contributed in different proportions to the assignments
whereas 10 students joined the platform and lurked, taking part in class discussions and polls
but bringing no other significantly quantifiable contribution to be considered in the
evaluation. Each of the nine teacher-modeled assignments envisaged consolidation of all four
basic skills while exploring different Web 2.0 voice and writing tools. The next section will
showcase writing/speaking assignments on Tourism English employed with first year students
of Dimitrie Cantemir University during the academic year 2012/2013, and results of the Final
Reflection Survey.
2.3.Tourism English-specific tasks
VoiceThread, Littlebirdtale and Storyjumper, among others, were selected and
customized to the students specific learning purposes:
1. Speaking for Tourism with VoiceThread (VT) on tourism topics, bringing arguments
(destinations for Romanian tourists), explaining (trends in tourism), exemplifying
(flying experiences) and using specific vocabulary (creation of a touristic product)
while working on fluency and accuracy (Fig.2).
Fig. 2 Preparing a touristic product (https://voicethread.com/#q)
1033
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
This project generated 176 comments by 18 students, which, on a rough approximation
would mean an extension of the students talking time by at least three hours, without
taking into consideration the time involved by the students preparation and re-recording,
the latter representing premise and evidence of learning.
2. Advertising My Town with Littlebirdtale is a speaking and creative writing project.
Students were advised to speak about those aspects of the town they were familiar
with and employ commendatory language specific to advertising in order to attract
potential tourists. Besides accuracy and variation of the language used, the evaluation
grid was based on the use of discourse markers, originality, as well as exploitation of
visual and linguistic advertising techniques (e.g. repetition, invitations, etc.) (Fig.3) .
Fig. 3 Advertising my Town (by
Toni)http://www.littlebirdtales.com/tales/talePreview/story_id/224574/story_page_id/618993/
3. Students opinions as to their satisfaction with the course content and delivery were
obtained via the unstructured Reflections survey: Final Reflections with StoryJumper
(http://www.storyjumper.com) a different kind of creative unstructured survey, which
collected the students reflections on their degree of satisfaction of working with
Edmodo: how they learnt in the virtual environment, what was difficult and what was
the added value of employing tools for English writing and speaking. As the project
took the form of a digital book that was meant as a final present for the colleagues and
the teacher, students perceived it as such rather than as a rigid survey and,
accordingly, they felt less thwarted in expressing their opinions while at the same time
practising the language and creating (Fig.4).
1034
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Fig. 4 Final Reflections
(http://www.storyjumper.com/book/index/10713682/VentelAnne)
Almost invariably, students enjoyed the variety of tasks which could be solved by
beginners and advanced alike since each student had the opportunity to work autonomously
and at self-established pace and level. Students were proud about their final mini-projects and
confessed that their confidence in speaking and writing in English increased significantly.
Listening and speaking tasks were invariably considered more difficult than writing. Creation
of a different account for each assignment was an inconvenience, while in other cases
technical issues (lack of headphones for recording) prevented some students from working
more.
III. Conclusions
With Edmodo students significantly extend their English language exchanges outside the
limited contact hours and are offered a large choice of activities that stimulate creativity and
content creation, meet more learning styles and, through embeddable Web 2.0 speaking,
writing and listening assignments, engage them in attractive and meaningful communication
with one another and the teacher. Students involved in the project were extremely motivated
to keep in touch with colleagues and the teacher, to visualize each others contributions and
presence and enjoyed creating in English with the suggested tools.
While teachers may appreciate the convenience of just-in-time evidence of class progress and
continuous backchannel communication with their students, the latter, as evident from the
final survey, express enthusiasm at the novelty of the approach, pride in their creations and
more confidence in their ability to communicate in English.
Although our empirical findings are limited and need to be substantiated by further larger-
scale studies, it is evident that Edmodo is a great learning management system that can be
employed in stimulating student-centered foreign language communication
1035
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Bibliography
Bryne R., (2011) Edmodo The Total Classroom Solution
http://www.freetech4teachers.com/2011/05/edmodothe-total-classroom-
solution.html#.Um0xUXBRA8k, 2011
Chisalita, O.A. (2013) Analysis of the ICT impact on students, teachers, and school practices
Proceedings of ICVL 2013, pp.331-336
Harrison, C., Comber, C., Fisher, T., Haw K., Lewin, C., Lunzer E., McFarlane A., Mayers
D., Scrimshaw P., Somekh B., Watling R. (2002) ImpaCT2: The impact of information and
communication technologies on pupil learning and attainment. ICT in Schools Research and
Evaluation Series, no.7
Istance D., Kools M., (2013) OECD Work on Technology in Education: innovative learning
environments as an integrating framework, European Journal of Education, 48 (1), pp.43-57
Day, J., (2010) Approaches to Course Design http://specific-english.blogspot.de/2010/01/two-
approaches-to-esp-course-design.html, 2010
Prensky, M (2001) Digital natives, digital immigrants. On the Horizon, NCB University Press
Redecker, C. (2009) Review of Learning 2.0 Practices: Study on the Impact of Web 2.0
Innovations on Education and Training in Europe, Joint Research Centre Institute for
Prospective Technological Studies
Stiles, M.J., (2000) Effective Learning and the Virtual Learning Environment, in
Proceedings EUNIS 2000 Towards Virtual Universities,
http://www.staffs.ac.uk/COSE/cose10/posnan.html
Vuorikori, R., Garoia V., Baranskat, A. (2011) Introducing Netbook Pedagogies in Schools.
Acer-European Schoolnet Educational Netbook Pilot, European SchoolNet, Brussels
1036
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
TRADUIRE POUR REDECOUVRIR LEXPRESSIVITE DE SA PROPRE LANGUE
(APPLICATION SUR LA TRADUCTION DE SAN-ANTONIO EN ROUMAIN)
Monica IOVNESCU, Assistant Professor, University of Craiova
PhD, Anda RDULESCU, Professor, PhD University of Craiova
Abstract: Our article aims at paying homage both to San-Antonio, this remarkable writer,
creator of a peculiar form of expression, and to his Romanian translators, who revealed the
capacity of the Romanian language to create new words and phrases so that the translation
would follow as close as possible the French text. We start form the premises that the
expressivity of a language should be searched for into its lower styles, such as slang and
familiar language. This is the reason why we examine how Romanian translators managed to
render some cultural hints, proper names, play on words and lexical creation based on
derivation with suffixes and prefixes, composition, syllable reduplication and borrowing.
Keywords: lower style translation, cultural hints, play on words, lexical creation, language
expressivity
1. Argument
Le franais, en tant que langue romane, dispose dune multitude de registres et de
parlers concurrents et parallles, ce qui lui confre une remarquable expressivit, souligne
par Claude Duneton (1998 : 14) : La langue franaise comporte bien des particularits,
mais il en est une qui la caractrise presque essentiellement, cest la varit de registres que
les autres langues ne possdent pas un degr quivalent.
Plus un texte abonde en structures qui relvent de registres considrs infrieurs et
tenus pour vulgaires, tels que largot et la langue populaire, plus il est difficile de le transfrer
dans une autre langue, mme apparente.
Nous considrons que le roumain a la possibilit dexprimer et de rattraper en
traduction la force expressive du franais, notamment dans ces registres. Cest la raison pour
laquelle nous nous sommes arrtes sur un corpus danalyse constitu par les traductions en
roumain de deux romans de San-Antonio1, cet auteur prolifique et crateur dun style indit.
En lisant ces romans, on a limpression que le franais jouit dun renouvellement continu,
quil senrichit avec chaque mot et chaque structure que San-Antonio dforme, dconstruit,
juxtapose ou emprunte langlais. Chez lui, la langue acquiert des valences singulires et
indites, de sorte que Les mots nous intimident, ils sont l, mais semblent dpasser nos
penses, nos motions, nos sensations []. Pour les apprivoiser il faut les soupeser, les
regarder, apprendre leur histoire et puis jouer avec eux, sourire avec eux. (Philippe
Delerm, 2006 : Avant-propos).
Nous sommes parties de deux hypothses :
1
Si ma tante en avait / Dac tanti le avea (traduction roumaine de George Anania) que nous avons not T1 et
Jai essay : on peut ! / Am ncercat : se poate (traduction roumaine de Matilda Banu et George Anania) que
nous avons not T2.
1037
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
H1 : Le roumain se prte aux jeux de mots savoureux, aux doubles sens, aux crations
lexicales, aux allusions, etc., et le traducteur se sert des mmes procds lexicaux que le
franais (suffixation, prfixation, redoublement des syllabes, composition, etc.) pour rendre
en roumain les crations de San-Antonio.
H2 : Le traducteur doit parfois dtourner le sens de certaines structures pour adapter San-
Antonio au contexte roumain.
Nous nous proposons danalyser les problmes que soulvent pour les traducteurs les
structures culturellement connotes et les allusions culturelles, les calembours, les lments
argotiques et ceux qui relvent du franais familier et populaire, de mme que les noms
propres. Notre dmarche envisage galement une analyse de la cration et de linnovation
lexicale dans les deux langues, afin de voir dans quelle mesure le roumain peut accueillir la
cration langagire de San-Antonio, son gnie linguistique, sa spontanit et son imagination.
Car chez lui lintrigue policire sert de prtexte au plaisir immense de jouer avec les mots et
cest justement ce ct ludique qui est un vritable dfi pour le traducteur.
2. Rendre en roumain les crations lexicales de San-Antonio
Source inpuisable denrichissement du vocabulaire dune langue, la cration lexicale
devient le cachet du sujet parlant, dans notre cas de lauteur. Cest une entreprise fort difficile,
pour tout traducteur de San-Antonio, de suivre limagination et la capacit crative de cet
crivain insolite. Dominique Lagorgette (2005 : 25) laffirme : Un lment qui saute aux
yeux du lecteur, mme novice, est limmense virtuosit linguistique et la grande crativit
lexicale de la srie San-Antonio.
Dans ses romans, la plupart des mots sont construits laide de dformations,
drivations avec suffixation simple ou double, suffixes de largot ou invents, compositions le
plus souvent inattendues, de mme que des juxtapositions fantaisistes.
Le roumain dispose lui aussi dune expressivit et dune richesse lexicale qui permet
la transposition des subtilits et des innovations lexicales, fait soulign par Iorgu Iordan
(1975 : 311) : ...graie unui sufix ori prefix, unei intonaii speciale, unei modificri fonetice
etc., orice cuvnt poate cpta o expresivitate pe care altul n-o are. Din acest punct de
vedere, nu-i exagerat afirmaia c ntregul material lexical posed virtual aptitudinea de a
deveni expresiv cu ajutorul procedeelor numeroase pe care ni le pune la dispoziie limba
nsi. 2
2.1. La suffixation
San-Antonio utilise un grand nombre de mots suffixs qui relvent de largot et du
franais familier et populaire, tels : anche, oche, ouse / ouze, trs productifs, qui
jouissent dun usage intensif. La suffixation lemporte dailleurs sur la prfixation et ce trait
est valable pour le roumain aussi, o les suffixes an, ar, os sont favoris pour la drivation
de termes argotiques comme : batan [litt. grosse lgume]3, menar [trad. quiv. arnaqueur],
plngcios [trad. quiv. chialeux].
2
... grce un suffixe ou prfixe, une intonation particulire, une modification phontique, etc., tout mot
peut acqurir une expressivit quun autre mot ne possde pas. De ce point de vue, il nest pas exagr daffirmer
que le lexique entier pourrait, virtuellement, devenir expressif travers les nombreux procds que la langue
elle-mme met notre disposition. (notre traduction)
3
Nous avons donn entre les parenthses droites soit la traduction littrale, soit la traduction quivalente.
1038
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Le traducteur roumain a gard le mme suffixe (oche / o) pour dformer le mot
cardinal. Ainsi, le cardinoche de San-Antonio (T2, p.22) devient cardiloul (p.20) chez Banu
et Anania, mot form probablement sur le modle de cocolo [litt. boulette], cette
combinaison de sons tant particulirement expressive en roumain. Dans le cas de boutanche
(T2, p.16) / sticloana (p.12) [trad. quiv. grosse bouteille], le suffixe clon / cloan
renvoie en roumain un objet de grandes dimensions et fonctionne comme un suffixe
parasitaire, le nom clon signifiant bec (cf. Iorgu Iordan 1975 : 204).
Le suffixe ouse, typique pour la drivation argotique, dont San-Antonio se sert dans
jai t en virouse (T2, p.29) / am fost la plimbric (p.28) [litt. Jai fait une petite
promenade] et dans une bagouse (T2, p.20) / ghiulametist (p.18) [litt. bague damthyste],
nest pas gard en roumain, o lon a choisi un suffixe diminutif valeur affective, ic, pour
le premier cas, et un mot-valise form par la juxtaposition de ghiul [litt. bague] et dametist
[litt. amthyste] dans le deuxime.
Un cas intressant de cration lexicale en roumain constitue la traduction de beaujolpif
(T2, p.16) / beaujulei (p.12). Le franais beaujolpif, qui nest pas une cration de San-
Antonio, est un mot-valise form par croisement de beaujolais + ladjectif olpif au sens
dexcellent, (cf. Colin 1992 : 46). Les traducteurs roumains utilisent leur tour un mot-valise
beaujulei (p.12) compos de beau [litt. je bois] + j euphonique + ulei [litt. huile] qui est
phontiquement proche du franais et qui, par lemploi du verbe a bea [litt. boire], rend le
trait smantique [+boisson] du franais.
2.2. La prfixation
Mme si les deux langues se servent de ce procd dans la langue standard, il est
moins employ dans largot. On constate que les traducteurs roumains ne lemploient pas
dans les mmes situations que San-Antonio. Ce sont Banu et Anania qui crent le verbe
prfix a deschiloi [litt. enlever les culottes], form laide du prfixe privatif des- ajout au
nom chiloi [litt. culottes], transform en verbe : o deschiloeam pe domnioara (p.14), une
cration lexicale ironique, qui correspond on calait la fille (T2, p.17), utilis en argot dans
le sens de faire lamour qqn. De mme, Anania cre le mot telezban (p.23) du prfixe tele-
et de linterjection zban qui exprime un mouvement rapide, saccad, dsordonn, qui
correspond bigophone (T1, p.28) avec sa variante bignou (T1, p.36). Les crations
roumaines de mots par prfixation sont ralises l o le contexte le permet, mais parfois, les
traducteurs restent en de. Ainsi, dans lexemple cet enviand de Morticol (T1, p.30) /
nemernicul de Morticol (p. 19) [litt. le salaud de Morticol], le mot argotique prfix en-
viand au sens de sodomis est neutralis dans la traduction roumaine par lemploi dun nom
pjoratif.
2.3. La composition
Elle apparait dans des structures soudes ou non soudes, relies par des tirets ou
crites en un seul mot. Par exemple, San-Antonio emploie lexpression pincebroque (T1,
p.42) / pe picioare (p.28) [litt. pied], form sur le nom pinces qui dsigne en argot les
jambes ou les mains + laphrse de pbroque qui signifie parapluie. Le traducteur emploie
une locution adverbiale et non pas une composition, pe picioare, locution appartenant la
langue populaire qui remplace pe jos [trad. quiv. pied], qui, par dsignation analogique,
renvoie aux jambes. Lexpression brle-justaucorps (T2, p. 19), combine en franais les
deux types de juxtapositions, soude et non soude, alors quen roumain le traducteur utilise
1039
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
toujours une locution adverbiale, pe nepus mas (p. 16) [litt. table non dresse] qui
appartient au langage courant. En gnral, ce procd est richement illustr par des syntagmes
entiers dont les termes sont juxtaposs dans les deux langues et relis par des tirets : Le prince
secoue sa-coque-de-navire-vue-de-face (T2, p.20) / Prinul i clatin coca-de-vapor-vzut-
din-fa (p.17) ; penseur-qui-ne-pense-plus (T2, p.26) / gnditor-care-nu-mai-cuget (p.24) ;
prestation de beau-temps-probable (T2, p.36) / prestaia pe timpul probabil-n-nclzire
(p.35) [litt. prestation pendant le temps-probable-en-rchauffement].
2.4. Le redoublement syllabique
La gmination des syllabes a gnralement une valeur hypocoristique et ludique,
largement employe par San-Antonio : un soutien-loloche4 (T2, p.27) / un sutien (p.26) [litt.
un soutien-gorge] ; un gros mimi (T2, p.20) / un pupic (p.18) [litt. un bisou] ; se placarder le
frifri (T2, p.13) / s-i pun la stlpul infamiei tii voi ce (p.7) [litt. mettre au pilori vous savez
quoi] ; jy serais devenue neuneu (T2, p.33) / a fi ajuns soni (p.33) [litt. Je serais devenu
dingue]. Dans la traduction roumaine, on remarque une expression euphmistique pour le mot
frifri, cre laide du syntagme tii voi ce [litt. vous savez quoi] qui est opaque pour les
natifs roumains, parce quil renvoie un rfrent qui nest pas connu, alors que neuneu, bien
que smantiquement pjoratif, acquiert en roumain une valeur de sympathie bienveillante
dans soni [litt. dingue, fl].
2.5. Les emprunts
Ils se font principalement langlais britannique et amricain chez San-Antonio.
Parfois ils sont transfrs tels quels en roumain : le mandriver (T1, p.28) / mandriver (p.17),
un petit pocket fermeture Eclair (T2, p.36) / un mic pocket cu fermoar (p.36). Dans dautres
cas, ils sont explicits par le traducteur roumain : un peu de footinge (T1, p.42) / un pic de
mers pe jos (p. 28) [litt. un peu de marche pied].
3. Traduire les allusions culturelles et les structures culturellement connotes
Fondes sur limplicite et sur lanalogie par rapport une chose connue, les allusions
culturelles exigent la reconstitution du sens et de la porte de la figure de style, de mme
quun partage des mme rfrents culturels. Leur rle est donc dattirer lattention du
lecteur sur un savoir partag ; elle permet de nouvelles associations dides ou des
rapprochements (dimages, dauteurs) inattendues ; elle peut favoriser un trait dhumour ;
elle renforce les connotations habituelles dun groupe (Gambier, 2008 :183).
La prsence dune allusion culturelle ou dun mot culturellement connot enferme le
traducteur dans un dilemme : explicits, ils altrent ou dnaturent le fonctionnement discursif
dans le passage o ils figurent ; laisss intacts, leur sens risque dchapper au lecteur non
avis. Cest pourquoi, les ajustements traductifs auxquels le traducteur peut recourir reposent
sur sa capacit valuer ltat des changes entre deux cultures dans lespace-temps qui est le
sien et sur sa capacit rendre les allusions culturelles et tablir des ponts entre les cultures,
comme le souligne Bensimon, 1998 :12 : Le souci de prserver le statut et la fonction de
limplicite culturel oblige ainsi le traducteur naviguer entre deux cueils : dun ct, un
4
Au redoublement, San-Antonio a ajout le suffixe -oche, qui est hypocoristique mais dans le contexte il est
lgrement pjoratif.
1040
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
texte obscur, voire sibyllin : de lautre, un texte limpide, mais priv de sa spcificit, de son
altrit, de son exotisme, de son essentielle tranget .
En examinant le corpus de notre analyse, nous avons constat que les traducteurs
oscillent entre lexplicitation dun syntagme connot culturellement, la cration lexicale et le
calembour. Ainsi, dans lexemple les fourchettes fondue qui lui servent de jambes (T1,
p.15), une cration de San-Antonio qui ne figure pas dans les dictionnaires dargot consults,
on remarque quAnania la rendue par furculia cu doi dini care i servete drept umbltori
(p.7) [trad. quiv. la fourchette deux dents qui lui sert de bquilles] qui dcrit la fourchette
fondue ( deux dents) en roumain. On remarque galement son effort pour rcuprer la
cration lexicale de San-Antonio, fourchettes fondue, un autre endroit, parce quau mot
neutre jambes choisi par San-Antonio, Anania propose comme quivalent umbltori [trad.
quiv. bquilles, fltes, trotteuses], etc. De mme, la clbre danse franaise des cabarets, le
French cancan, devient chez San-Antonio gambiller le french concon (T1, p.16), avec
redoublement du mot con, forte nuance pjorative, transfre en roumain s dansez french
cacan (p.8) [litt. que je danse le french cacan], laide dun autre redoublement syllabique,
caca [trad. quiv. merde], mot qui garde la mme valeur pjorative.
La tourte-rhubarbe ( papa) (T2, p. 21) devient dans la traduction roumaine o tortur
rubrboas (p.19) [litt. une torture rhubarbeuse], allusion au fait que la tarte la rhubarbe de
Mme Brurier tait trop laxative pour les invits, qui ne trouvaient aucun plaisir y goter. Le
jeu de mots que San-Antonio ralise grce au calembour sur rhubarbe / barbe papa [litt.
vat de zahr] se perd en roumain, o le traducteur opte pour une cration lexicale ladjectif
rubrboas [litt. rhubarbeuse] est une drivation du nom rubarb [rhubarbe]. Mais, dans le
cadre du syntagme, rubrboas est une bonne traduction, digne de San-Antonio, parce quelle
tient compte du contexte.
Les allusions culturelles sont souvent doubles de calembours, daltrations
phontiques et de paronymes qui changent considrablement le sens des mots. Ainsi, agnus
dei devient chez San-Antonio anus dei : [] je dois tappeler Prominence et te baiser
lanus-dei (T2, p.17). Les traducteurs roumains gardent les deux structures culturellement
connotes5, sous la mme forme dforme, mais semblent gommer lorientation vers la sphre
du sexuel de la traduction, le verbe baiser pouvant se prter une double lecture : a)
embrasser ; b) possder sexuellement : [] trebuie s-i spun cumva Proeminen i s-i
bat mtnii la anus dei (p.14) [litt. dois-je tappeler Prominence et faire des gnuflexions
lanus dei].
Mais, ce qui frappe par ailleurs dans la traduction roumaine des deux romans, est
labsence des mots scatologiques ou grossiers employs couramment et pas seulement dans
les jurons, pour dsigner les organes gnitaux. Comme si les deux traducteurs nosaient pas
adopter le style direct et dsinhib de San-Antonio. Dans dautres cas, la solution de
traduction est limite par le fait que le roumain ne retient pas tous les sens quun mot franais
peut avoir. Par exemple, le macchab, forme rduite de macchabe, dsigne le cadavre en
langage argotique et populaire. En roumain le mot dsigne une famille de patriotes juifs, son
sens premier. Cest pourquoi les traducteurs ont d se servir du mot hoit [litt. charogne] pour
5
(Votre) minence est la formule courante par laquelle on sadresse un cardinal.
1041
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
transfrer le sens du syntagme branle-macchab (T2, p.29) et ils ont ralis une cration
lexicale indite par le mot compos trie-hoit (p.27) [litt. branle-charogne].
4. Traduire les noms propres
En gnral, le nom propre ne se traduit pas parce quil renvoie directement un
objet extralinguistique (individu, lieu, rfrent culturel) spcifique et unique, cest--dire que
cest un dsignateur rigide, qui, en principe, ne reprsente pas de faon abstraite son
rfrent (Ballard, 2003 : 169).
Dans le cas de San-Antonio la traduction devient presquobligatoire, car pour lui les
anthroponymes renvoient des traits de caractre et constituent lune des sources de son
humour et de son ironie parfois malicieuse.
Ainsi, les femmes de ses romans portent-elles des surnoms qui rvlent leur mtier :
Mlle Marchandise (T2, p. 17), Marie Couchtouala (T2, p.19) et la Mre Passepoil (T1, p.19).
Le premier, qui fait allusion une demoiselle qui vend ses charmes, une sorte de Mlle paquet-
cadeau, a t transfr en roumain laide dune analogie avec le pnis, Domnioara
Lumnare (p.14) [litt. Mlle Bougie], donc loin du sens de loriginal, mais toujours dans la
sphre du sexuel. Le traducteur aurait pu choisir un terme argotique plus suggestif en roumain
pour dsigner lorgane sexuel masculin, comme maraciuc (Bobrniche, 1996:120), salam
(id, 168) ou tremeleag [trad. quiv. bite, braguette, dard]. Le deuxime nom, (dformation
de Marie-couche-toi-l) a t rendu par Maria Puntejos6 (p.14) [litt. Marie mets-toi-par-terre]
qui garde non seulement le sens du franais, mais qui imite galement lorthographe
phontique du franais. Quant au troisime, aa Lapieleagoal (T1, p.11) [litt. La Mre
poil], nous considrons que la solution roumaine est tout aussi suggestive que loriginal,
parce que la dame en question tait la tenancire dun bordel.
La femme de Bru, Mme Brurier, est appele La Brurire (T2, p22), en respectant
ainsi les rgles de la formation du fminin et donnant une teinte de franais parl au texte. En
roumain on respecte le niveau de langue, de mme que la valeur dprciative, assure par le
suffixe easca, Bruriasca (p.19).
Les noms des saintes qui figurent galement dans les romans gardent les mmes
connotations ironiques, lgrement vulgaires, car elles rfrent diffrents actes :
a) sexuels, comme NotDame de la Sellette (T2, p.19), rendu en roumain par Maica
Domnului de la Deelata (p.17) [litt. Notre Dame de lEchine], un effet possible des
excs sexuels, parce que les besogneuses se cassent les reins au travail ;
b) dfcatoires, comme Sainte Berthe-de-la-Purgation (T2, p.22), rendu par Sfnta Berta
a Cureniilor (p.20) [litt. Sainte Berthe-des-Excrments] et Notre-Dame-des-Gogues
(T2, p.22) par Maica Domnului-a-celor-patru-vnturi (p.20) [litt. Notre-Dame-des-
quatre-vents], qui voque les bruits caractristiques produits dans les toilettes
(gogues).
Les anthroponymes utiliss pour les hommes ont des quivalents directs, comme
Msieur lAvoine (T2, p.30), domn Ovz (p.28), personnage terne et insignifiant, terrifi par
ses maladies plus ou moins imaginaires. Dans dautres situations, le traducteur recourt une
adaptation, beaucoup plus riche smantiquement que loriginal, dans le cas du mage
6
La forme roumaine correcte est Pun-te jos.
1042
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Trucmuche (T2, p.35), qui devient en roumain magul napanoff (p.35) [litt. le mage
Chenapanoff] le mot roumain napan dsignant un escroc, avec double suffixation :
laugmentatif an et le suffixe slave of / ov.
La stupidit de Zbu (T2, p.30), qui, pour le lecteur roumain, voque la btise et le
ridicule, est suggre en roumain par lquivalent Gu (p.29), o le traducteur pratique une
aphrse sur le mot Ggu, nom donn une personne niaise. Certaines connotations
chappent pourtant au traducteur, qui omet de donner un quivalent roumain comme rahat
[litt. merde] au commissaire Ltron7 (T1, p.19) et le laisse tel quel, comisarul Ltron (p.11).
La mme omission est pratique pour le nom de Madame Lamadou8 (T1, p. 36) / Doamna
Lamadou (p. 27) qui suggre une femme qui aime se laisser flatter, amadouer.
Le nom du chanteur amricain Elvis Presley est altr par San-Antonio en Elvouis
Pricelet (T1, p.16), et il est rendu en roumain par Alvi Prslea (p.8) [litt. nougat turc]. Le
traducteur a opt pour un syntagme qui prserve plus ou moins la forme sonore du franais,
mais, pour le lecteur roumain, cette combinaison est opaque et ne renvoie nullement au nom
du chanteur. Malgr la valeur diminutive du suffixe i, qui dhabitude exprime laffection,
la construction a une forte valeur dprciative, souligne par lajout de Prslea [litt. le Cadet]
qui minimise lanthroponyme.
Les toponymes constituent non seulement un moyen de cration lexicale, mais aussi
une source de drivation. Ainsi, Brurier et le faux cardinal Antoine Duplessis, son ami, sont
originaires de Saint-Locdu-le-Vieux (T2, p.22), et sont fiers dtre des saint-locduciens (id.).
Le traducteur roumain joue le jeu et cre le toponyme Jerpeliii Vechi (p.20) [litt. Les Anciens
Loqueteux] o chacun est un important jerpelitean (id.) [litt. rp], mais perd le sens de
pauvtype du mot locducien.
5. Traduire les jeux de mots
Les jeux de mots et les calembours sont difficiles transfrer. Dhabitude, les
traducteurs sont obligs de les changer ou de les neutraliser, faute dun correspondant en
roumain. Mais, dans nos deux traductions certains sont russis, favoriss par des assonances
proches dans les deux langues : le calembour Le prlat se prlasse (T2, p.25) donne lieu un
calembour tout aussi russi en roumain Prelatul se prelete (p.23) [trad. quiv. Le prlat
spanouit]. De mme, viol / violet (T1, 20) donne en roumain violat / violet (p.12), ayant
le mme sens quen franais. Dans la structure o le personnage fait un usage fautif du mot
partisan : Elle est farouchement partisane (bien quelle emploie partisante) (T2, p.21), le
traducteur joue sur les noms partizan / pactizant : E o nverunat partizan (dei ea spune
pactizant) (p.19) [litt. Elle est une acharne partisane (mme si elle dit pactisante)].
On constate galement que le traducteur, sur le modle du mdicament roumain
Panadol cre un nom moqueur, Prohodol, construit sur prohod [litt. oraison funbre], pour
restituer le syntagme de San-Antonio, le traitement Olida9 (T2, p.30) / tratament cu Prohodol
(p.29), qui na pourtant rien voir avec Olida.
Une transformation qui joue sur leuphonie apparat dans le proverbe Tant va la
cruche qui va leau qu la fin elle se casse qui devient chez San-Antonio Tant va le
7
Matire fcale.
8
Flatt par les belles paroles, (arg.) sduit.
9
Nom dun producteur de jambon et de pts en France.
1043
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
cachalot qu la fin il se casse (T2, p.30). En roumain le traducteur a choisi de faire allusion
lalcool ou leau-de-vie Ulciorul nu merge de multe ori la ap (tare) (p.29) [litt. La cruche
qui ne va pas trop souvent leau (forte)].
Dans dautres situations, les pertes sont notables, parce que le roumain ne se prte pas
aux mmes allitrations et homophonies : Ctait du dlirium trs mince (T2, p.27) / Era un
delirium foarte firav (p.25), le syntagme tant traduit littralement. Lex-condisciple
(beaucoup plus con que disciple) (T2, p.20) entrane une modification en roumain, o le mot
con est rendu par coad [litt. queue], qui perd le jeu de mots, mais garde pourtant la valeur
pjorative : Ex-codiscipolul (cu mai mult coad dect discipol) (p.17) [litt. lex-queuedisciple
avec beaucoup plus de queue que de diciple).
Tout lhumour du syntagme changes cul-turaux (T1, p.24) se dilue dans la version
roumaine que le contexte ne russit pas dsambiguser et faire comprendre : schimburi de
substane, energie i informaie (p.15) [litt. Des changes de substances, nergie et
information].
Les pertes sont pourtant significatives, le roumain ne disposant pas de paires
paronymiques qui pourraient donner loccasion de jeux de mots savoureux comme en franais
: satin viol / violet (T1, p.19) ; La sainte-paire et le saint-pre (T2, p.19) devient en roumain
Sfntul Printe (p.16) [le Saint-Pre] ; Ils sont tous lafft du raffut (T2, p.12) donne Stau toi
la pnd [litt. Tous sont lafft] ; Je suis cardinal de curie. Jai ide que lcurie du Pape...
(T2, p.21) rendu par Sunt cardinal de curie. Dup cum vd grajdul Papei... (p.18) [litt. Je suis
cardinal de curie. ce que je vois lcurie du Pape] ; a ferait un pi dmis de dingues (T2,
p.26) o pi et dmis en deux mots se comprend oralement comme pidmie, devient en
roumain aduntur [litt. ramassis], mot forte connotation pjorative : Asta nseamn o
adevrat aduntur de glumei (p.24) [litt. a signifie un ramassis de fous].
Parfois, la traduction roumaine essaie de rcuprer, sans succs, le jeu de mots,
comme dans lexemple : Ignorant le Pre-Siffleur persifleur (T2, p.27) / Ignornd intervenia
btuului de joc (p.25) [litt. railleur de jeu]. En roumain, la locution verbale a-i bate joc
[litt. railler] nengendre pas de locution nominale btu de joc, le nom btu ayant le sens
de bagarreur, personne violente. Le calembour couleur dgueulis de noce (T1, p.19) donne
en roumain culoare scrboae (p.11) [litt. une couleur dgueuleuse], un mot-valise form de
scrb et boae [litt. une couleur nause et couilles], qui joue sur une euphonie.
Le traducteur roumain cre dans certains cas des syntagmes tout aussi suggestifs pour
les mots argotiques classiques tels : cloporte des ministres (T1, p.28) / obolan de
ministere (p.18) [litt. rat des ministres] ou maison poulman (T1, p.28) (cf. Colin 1992 : 381),
bas sur lhomophonie avec (les wagons) Pullman, ce qui engendre une antiphrase, pour
dsigner la police ; lquivalent roumain Casa Inimilor Sfrmate (p.18) [litt. La Maison des
Curs Briss] joue, ironiquement, sur une allusion aux os (pas aux curs !) que les fliques
brisaient pour faire avouer des mfaits commis ou non. Souvent, la traduction des jeux de
mots est facilite par les emprunts au franais, trs importants en roumain ds le XIXe sicle,
comme dans lexemple Seigneur prothsez-nous (T1, p.37) / protezeaz-ne Doamne (p.24)
[litt. prothse-nous, Seigneur].
1044
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
6. Conclusions
Dans notre analyse des corpus choisis nous avons essay de mettre en exergue le fait
que la traduction est une mta-communication qui, mme si elle implique lentrechoc des
cultures et des codes de communication diffrents, aboutit un dialogue interculturel et une
harmonisation grce aux comptences du traducteur. La langue-cible en sort parfois enrichie
et acquiert un nouveau potentiel expressif. Le mrite de San-Antonio est non seulement
davoir invent un lexique nouveau, mais dinvestir le vocabulaire franais dj existant de
nouveaux sens, ce qui offre ses traducteurs lopportunit dexprimer leur propre gnie
linguistique et de mesurer leurs forces avec ce matre incontestable de la littrature argotique
franaise moderne.
Cette entreprise est dautant plus difficile que largot franais met en jeu une srie de
procds (changement de forme, changement de sens, emprunt, sources techniques) entre
lesquels il ny a pas de cloison tanche, deux ou mme plusieurs procds pouvant coexister
lintrieur dune mme cration. Ce phnomne a t analys par Iorgu Iordan qui considre
que les crations lexicales stricto sensu sont peu nombreuses et que les argotiers modifient le
sens des mots de la langue commune. Les procds qui oprent sur la forme des mots se
retrouvent dailleurs dans largot : modifications phontiques plus ou moins rgulires,
abrviations, crations lexicales. Cette affirmation reste vraie dans la mesure o il sagit de
largot commun, qui se prime vite justement parce quil est destin tre dcod par un
certain milieu social. Dans le cas de San-Antonio les crations lexicales proprement dites sont
des crations volontaires, intentionnelles, des fins ludiques.
Limpression gnrale est que les traducteurs roumains des deux romans analyss ont
assez bien russi emboter le pas au talent crateur de San-Antonio, malgr quelques pertes
stylistiques et culturelles dues notamment aux particularits phontiques, lexicales et
culturelles des deux langues en contact. La traduction rpond aux attentes du lecteur roumain
habitu au style de San-Antonio, mais dsireux de voir comment le roumain pourrait sy
adapter. Pour ceux qui dcouvrent San-Antonio uniquement par les traductions, la surprise
sera dautant plus grande que ce type dcriture nest pas courant dans la littrature roumaine,
mme si largot est une manation indiscutable de la cration potique (George Astalo
1996 : 123).
Bibliographie
Astalo, George, 1996, Fie pinea ct de rea, tot mai bine-i la Paris, Bucureti : Editura
Fundaiei Culturale Romne.
Ballard, Michel, 2003, Versus : La version rflchie, vol.1, Paris : Ohrys.
Bensimon, Paul, 1998, Prsentation , in Palimsestes 11. Traduire la culture, Paris : Presses
de la Nouvelle Sorbonne, pp.9-14.
Bobrniche Croitoru, Nina, 1996, Dicionar de argou al limbii romne, Slobozia : Editura
Arnina.
Colin, Jean-Paul et al., 1992, Dictionnaire de largot, Paris : Larousse.
Delerm, Philippe, 2006, Avant propos de la collection Le got des mots. Un bouquin nest
pas un livre de Rmi Bertrand, Paris : Editions Points.
Duneton, Claude, 2006, Petit dictionnaire du franais familier, Paris : Editions du Seuil.
1045
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Gambier, Yves, 2008, Traduire lautre : Une sub-version , in Ela 150/2008, Identits
affiches, identits rvles, Paris : Klincksieck / Didier Erudition, pp.177-194.
Iordan, Iorgu, 1975, Stilistica Limbii romne, Bucureti : Editura tiinific.
Lagorgette, Domnique, 2005 -2006, Se-laisser-traiter-de-pas-Victor-Hugo : les insultes de
San- Antonio , Le Monde de San Antonio, n 35, pp. 22-28 et n 36, pp. 21-28.
Volceanov, Anca, Volceanov, George, 1998, Dicionar de argou i expresii familiare ale
limbii romne, Bucureti : Livpress.
Corpus
San-Antonio
1973, Jai essay : on peut !, in uvres compltes de San-Antonio, Paris : Editions Fleuve
noir ; traduction en roumain de Matilda Banu et George Anania, Bucureti : Editura Forum
SRL, 1992.
1978, Si ma tante en avait, Paris : Editions Fleuve noir ; traduction en roumain de George
Anania, Bucureti : Editura Forum SRL, 1996.
1046
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
LEXICAL AMBIGUITY REVISITED: ON HOMONYMY AND POLYSEMY
Alina PREDA, Assistant Professor, PhD, Babe-Boyai University of Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: The aim of this paper is to assess the two descriptively controversial cases of lexical
ambiguity known as polysemy and homonymy in an attempt to illustrate a practical solution
to the lexicographic treatment of these phenomena based on Pierre Fraths referential
approach and on Ingrid Lossius Falkums pragmatic approach. Both accounts rest on the
mind-world relations that characterise the representation of polysemy and ultimately point to
a combination between conceptual atomism and pragmatic-focused analysis as the framework
most likely to solve the paradox of polysemy.
Keywords: polysemy, homonymy, reference, pragmatics, conceptual atomism
Lexical ambiguity is considered the most common form that this phenomenon
characteristic of natural languages tends to take, due to the numerous occurrences of
polysemous words and to the various cases of homonymy featuring in many of the worlds
languages. However, it is also the most controversial, both theoretically and practically, since
speakers of a language cope with polysemy with little, if any, effort, whereas scholars find it
difficult to define and account for this linguistic phenomenon, which has caused some
linguists to talk about a polysemy paradox (Ravin and Leacock, as well as Taylor). This
paradoxical situation results from the problems linguists have encountered in their attempts to
clearly distinguish between polysemy and homonymy proper, on the one hand, and to offer a
transparent but clear-cut description of lexical ambiguity on the other.
The word polysemous is far from being polysemous: it has been given only one
definition, namely having multiple meanings or interpretations, as opposed to having only
one meaning or interpretation and, thus, being monosemous e.g. the word walk is
polysemous, as proven by the following examples:
Jane preferred to walk alone. (to go on foot)
Do you walk the dog twice a day? (to escort on foot)
This armchair is too heavy for them to lift; theyll probably choose to
walk it into the living room (to move a large object by rocking it).
He who dies a violent death in this church is sure to walk the tower. (to
move about a place, haunting it as a ghost).
The workers threatened to walk. (to move about instead of working at the
workplace because one is on strike).
Walk with God! (to walk the paths of life by acting in a moral way)
The first known use of the word polysemous dates back to 1884, but the notion was
made popular by Michel Bral in 1897. Merriam-Webster Dictionary traces the origin of the
term, to the Late Latin polysemus, from the Greek polysmos (-poly- many + -sma- sign).
Thus, polysemy is a characteristic displayed by some words and phrases that may enjoy
multiple yet somehow related interpretations.
1047
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
The word homonymous, first recorded in 1621, came via the Latin homonymus,
from the Greek homnymos, meaning of the same name, -homo- same + -nymos- named).
In its strictest sense, a homonym is a word that not only sounds the same, but is also spelled
the same as another word which has a different meaning: fluke a parasitic flatworm of the
class Trematoda, fluke part of a whales tail or the barbed head of on an arrow or a harpoon
or an anchor, and fluke a chance occurrence, a fortunate accident, a stroke of good luck
(The Free Dictionary). There is, however, a looser sense of this term: a word that sounds or
is spelled the same as another word but has a different meaning, technically called a
homophone (same sound: e.g. die and dye) or a homograph (same spelling: e.g. the metal lead
and the present tense of the verb lead) (Wiktionary). Thus, homonymy is a feature displayed
by a word that sounds the same and/or is spelled the same as another word, but has a
different, unrelated meaning. This linguistic relation may either be complete (full
homonymy) or partial (homophony or homography).
According to the above-mentioned definitions, if a word displays multiple rather
similar meanings as part of a large semantic field, it is a case of polysemy:
get can mean - procure (Ill get the money.)
-fetch (Ill get the kids.)
-become (Hell get angry.)
- understand (I get it.)
fleet can mean - all the ships of a countrys navy
(The Spanish fleet appeared from behind the dark clouds.)
- a number of ships, aircraft or road vehicles managed as a unit
(My uncles transport company has a large fleet of service vehicles.)
Conversely, if two or more distinct concepts share the same name, it is a case of homonymy:
To sow the seeds of revolt is all that he wanted. (the verb to plant) versus Have you found
the sow? (the noun female pig).
Not all cases are clear-cut, however, since relatedness is clearly a rather vague notion
and, as such, does not constitute an infallible test for polysemy. Leech (227) shows that this
concept is two-fold: two or more meanings are historically related if they originated from the
same source, but they may also be psychologically related if speakers of a language
intuitively feel that there is a link between those meanings. Moreover, historical relatedness
does not imply psychological relatedness, and vice-versa1284. Fillmore and Atkinss definition
of polysemy (100) is three-fold: 1. the various senses of a polysemous word have a central
origin; 2. the links between these senses form a network, and 3. understanding the inner one
contributes to the understanding of the outer one. Since etymology may help, but is not a
definitive test, lexicographers also rely on native speakers intuition and judgement when
1284
Leech (1990: 228) quotes Stephen Ullmanns example: ear = "organ of hearing" Old English are, from
Proto-Germanic *auzon (cf. Old Norse eyra, Danish re, Old Frisian are, Old Saxon ore, Middle Dutch ore,
Dutch oor, Old High German ora, German Ohr, Gothic auso), from PIE *ous- with a sense of "perception" (cf.
Greek aus, Latin auris, Lithuanian ausis, Old Church Slavonic ucho, Old Irish au "ear," Avestan usi "the two
ears") versus ear = "grain part of corn" from Old English ar, (West Saxon), her (Northumbrian) "spike, ear
of grain," from Proto-Germanic *akhaz (genitive *akhizaz; cf. Dutch aar, Old High German ehir, German hre,
Old Norse ax, Gothic ahs "ear of corn"), from PIE root *ak- "sharp, pointed" (cf. Latin acus "husk of corn,"
Greek akoste "barley;" see acrid). See the Online Etymology Dictionary available at:
http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=ear Although historically they are homonyms, present-day
speakers view them as polysemous words.
1048
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
deciding whether to assign different entries or only one to words whose status is ambiguous.
The solution that Leech (228) advances to the polysemy - homonymy problem depends on
acknowledging the psychological reality of lexical rules: if people identify a metaphorical
connection between meanings, what from a historical point of view is a homonymy,
resulting from an accidental convergence of forms, becomes reinterpreted in the context of
present-day English as a case of polysemy. The classification of words as polysemous rather
than homonymous based on the intuition criterion is bound to be subjective. We might be
dealing with polysemy, even though the various meanings are relatively far apart, or with
homonymy, despite the overlap between different meanings. As a result, some speakers may
treat the respective item as one word, whilst others might think that there are two or more
different words. Thus, even though the different meanings of polysemous words should be
treated under a single dictionary lemma, whereas homonyms should feature as separate
lemmata, this is not always the case: in some dictionaries even polysemes are listed as
different entries, whereas in others homonyms feature together, under a single entry. This
situation is, explains Frath (50-51), in dire need of an exhaustive semiotic and cultural
analysis basically, the confusion springs from our tendency to view language and reality as
isomorphic, which is, obviously, a fallacy:
Mankind has kept trying, at least since Aristotle, to organise and comprehend the
real world, essentially by matching it with language. Language is a repository of
knowledge gained by naming and relating objects. [] When words refer to
separate objects, we quite naturally believe that the objects and the words must
share some features. Yet it fails with homonyms, because of some real world
discrepancies or because we have forgotten why our forebears named these
objects so. And we wonder: why are these two very different things referred to by
the same word? We name the mystery homonymy, and add it to the repository.
Homonymy is disappointed polysemy; we resort to it reluctantly.
To the human mind, even historically unrelated items can appear to be somewhat
related. A connection can be found, with a stretch of imagination, by invoking some
subsuming cognitive elements likely to construe an undeniable link between two or more
meanings. Thus coerced into resemblance, historical homonyms are turned into polysemous
words, due to our overwhelming preference for polysemy and distaste for homonymy.
The boundaries between polysemy and homonymy seem to be characterised by flux,
rather than fix, as a result of semantic shift, referential dispersion, semantic closeness, human
subjectivity and, first and foremost, a lack of firm ground-rules on the basis of which the
distinction between the two is to be drawn.
As Frath (44) shows, the lexicographic treatment of polysemy and homonymy is
bound to be problematic, since a dictionary is not meant to explain language, but rather to
provide a snapshot of usage at one particular moment. The semantic treatment of polysemy,
however, should not normally be hindered to the same extent, as it may offer an accurate and
detailed description of language from a theoretical point of view. Two different approaches
have been identified: one that operates with literal versus figurative meanings, with
metonymical versus metaphorical connections, and another that operates with core versus
specific meanings triggered by context or by generative rules. Frath (47-48) argues that the
1049
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
former, known as the linear theory, fails to work because, on the one hand, there is no clear-
cut method of identifying which the literal meaning is and, on the other hand, the link
between literal and derived meanings cannot always be specified with certainty, even when it
is established. The latter, known as the subsuming theory, also fails on two counts: firstly,
it is unable to explain exactly how speakers use the context to carry out the selection process
and, secondly, it can neither define the original (literal or subsuming) semantic entity, nor
explain the links between the original and (derived or subsumed) meanings of a word.
Showing that polysemy is not a single homogeneous phenomenon, Frath (55-56)
attempts to explain it in terms of reference. Thus, if a word can be used to refer to various
aspects of the same object, the case is that of referential polysemy; if a word is employed to
refer to a number of similar objects, the case is that of lexical polysemy; and, finally, if words
identical in some respect are used to refer to unconnected objects, the case is that of
homonymy:
Polysemy and homonymy are the names of ingrained discrepancies in our
referring activity: polysemy is referential when one object is linked to several
usages of a word; polysemy is lexical when several resembling objects are linked
to several usages of a word; the phenomenon is called homonymy when several
non resembling objects are linked to several usages of a word.
One of the most frequently quoted and discussed cases is that of the word bank. There
are several reasons for its popularity. Firstly, ones intuition might dictate that the same
combination of letters/sounds cannot possibly be treated both as one word with several related
meanings and as two different words with unrelated meanings (web York handout).
Nevertheless, if one employs the criterion of psychological relatedness with words like
bank, one needs to distinguish between the apparently different meanings financial
institution versus slope adjoining a river versus row of similar things whilst acknowledging
that for each of these homonyms there are also polysemous uses, as the following entries
featured in Collins English Dictionary clearly show:
bank1
n
1. (Economics, Accounting & Finance / Banking & Finance) an institution offering
certain financial services, such as the safekeeping of money, conversion of domestic
into and from foreign currencies, lending of money at interest, and acceptance of bills of
exchange
2. (Economics, Accounting & Finance / Banking & Finance) the building used by such
an institution
3. a small container used at home for keeping money
4. (Group Games / Gambling, except Cards) the funds held by a gaming house or a
banker or dealer in some gambling games
5. (Group Games / Card Games) (in various games)
a. the stock, as of money, pieces, tokens, etc., on which players may draw
b. the player holding this stock
6. any supply, store, or reserve, for future use a data bank a blood bank
1050
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
bank2
n
1. a long raised mass, esp. of earth; mound; ridge
2. (Earth Sciences / Physical Geography) a slope, as of a hill
3. (Earth Sciences / Physical Geography) the sloping side of any hollow in the ground,
esp. when bordering a river the left bank of a river is on a spectator's left looking
downstream
4. (Earth Sciences / Physical Geography)
a. an elevated section, rising to near the surface, of the bed of a sea, lake, or river
b. (in combination) sandbank, mudbank
5. (Mining & Quarrying)
a. the area around the mouth of the shaft of a mine
b. the face of a body of ore
6. (Engineering / Aeronautics) the lateral inclination of an aircraft about its longitudinal
axis during a turn
7. (Engineering / Civil Engineering)
Also called banking, camber, cant, superelevation: a bend on a road or on a railway,
athletics, cycling, or other track having the outside built higher than the inside in order
to reduce the effects of centrifugal force on vehicles, runners, etc., rounding it at speed
and in some cases to facilitate drainage
8. (Group Games / Billiards & Snooker) the cushion of a billiard table
bank3
n
1. an arrangement of objects, esp. similar objects, in a row or in tiers a bank of dials
2. (Transport / Nautical Terms)
a. a tier of oars in a galley
b. a bench for the rowers in a galley
3. (Communication Arts / Printing, Lithography & Bookbinding) a grade of lightweight
writing and printing paper used for airmail letters, etc
4. (Electronics & Computer Science / Telecommunications) Telephony (in automatic
switching) an assembly of fixed electrical contacts forming a rigid unit in a selector or
similar device
Secondly, according to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the first two entries are, indeed, to
be viewed as homonyms:
financial institution, late 15c., from either Old Italian banca or Middle
French banque (itself from the Italian word), both meaning table (the notion is of the
moneylenders exchange table), from a Germanic source (cf. Old High
German bank bench).
1051
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
earthen incline, edge of a river, c.1200, probably in Old English but not attested in
surviving documents, from a Scandinavian source such as Old Norse banki, Old
Danish banke sandbank, from Proto-Germanic bangkon slope, cognate
with bankiz shelf.
Nevertheless, more recent etymological information about the lexical item in question
actually suggests that the two should feature under one lexical entry, since, as Frath (50-51)
explains, Bank-mound, bank-financial institution and river bank actually have a common
origin, the Gothic word benc, which originally referred to a small mound. Then it was also
used metaphorically for river bank, and also as a metaphor for a low table, especially those
where bankers used to exchange money, which gave Italian banca, French banque, and
English bank.
Lyons (28) also points out that the two senses of the word bank did coincide, at one
point in the evolution of the Italian language, as bankers used to sit on the riverbanks when
conducting business. Thus, going to the financial institution was tantamount to going to the
margin of the river, hence to the bank. Consequently, historical linguistics research revealed
an actual link between the two modern senses of bank. Yet most people are not aware of this
link and fail to see the connection, viewing the two as homonyms. Still, it seems that not all
the meanings of bank are related (the meanings in 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and, respectively, 7, 8, 9 are
two somewhat distinct groups of examples linked to one another, whilst 6 could be seen as
remotely linked to either of the groups, but, as mentioned above, the connection between the
meanings of the words used in the two separate groups is, nowadays, rather blurry):
1. They demolished the bank yesterday. (noun building)
2. Lets go to the bank to get a loan. (noun financial institution)
3. This morning the bank called about our mortgage. (noun personnel)
4. Now you are the bank. (noun when playing Monopoly)
5. Lets go to the bank to donate some blood. (noun storage facility)
6. The typical operator used to sit in front of a bank of switches. (noun row of similar
things)
7. Lets go to the bank to watch the fishermen. (noun sloping land beside a body of
water)
8. I had just finished piling up the snow, when he ruined it all by reversing into the bank.
(noun large pile of snow, sand, earth, etc.)
9. The divers hid behind a bank of about two feet high, hoping to get away from the
shark. (noun a ridge, an undersea elevation) (web afv.gr homonymy and polysemy)
To reanalyse the word bank by applying Fraths typology, we may state that 1, 2, 3,
illustrate referential polysemy (bank being one object that encompasses not only the building
but also its role as a financial institution, as well as the accompanying personnel), whilst [1, 2,
3], 4 and 5 are examples of lexical polysemy (the various objects referred to obviously display
some resemblance, being connected by the concept of safely storing important items), and so
are 7, 8 and 9 (similar in that they are all mound-like elevations either on land or under
water). The examples can also be grouped as follows [1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 6, [7, 8, 9] to show
1052
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
homonymy (the different usages of the word refer to distinct objects: some kind of storage
facility, row of similar items and pile of snow, sand or earth).
Fraths account of polysemy and homonymy (54-55) is based on two premises: that
words have us surmise that the objects they refer to are somehow related and that the
subsuming entity is deduced from usage, it is not cause of usage (emphasis mine). The
former premise implies that if various objects are referred to by employing different words the
speakers do not surmise the existence of an obvious relation between those objects. The latter
implies that words are not receptacles in which conceptual sub-entities are lying in wait only
to later be actualised, rather words can be used to refer to one or more objects. If one word is
used to make reference to clearly related objects this is to be viewed as a case of referential
polysemy. When one word refers to objects that we perceive as related, though their senses
may not be directly linked, the polysemy is lexical. In those cases where no connection is
identified by the speakers between the two or more referents, yet they are conveyed by one
and the same word, the phenomenon is labelled homonymy, whether the objects happen to
share a signifier by mere accident, or the link existed once but is now lost due to the fact that
the object that had provided the link no longer exists, or owing to the fact that the connection
itself was forgotten and, hence, lost.
Falkums pragmatic approach points to a combination between the atomist account of
lexical semantics and a pragmatic-focused analysis as the framework most likely to solve the
paradox of polysemy. In order to bypass the fallacies characterising the existing
decompositional theories of word meaning, Falkum (3) shows how a conceptual atomist
approach combined with the treatment of polysemy as a basically communicative occurrence
yields an approach able to offer a descriptively valid account of this phenomenon. Working
within the context of Sperber and Wilsons relevance theory, Falkum (265) explains that,
since speakers possess an independently motivated pragmatic interpretation system,
automatically activated by verbal utterances, which is capable of rapidly generating new
senses in contexts, a cognitive linguistic approach is better suited than a purely semantic one
when it comes to the interpretation of polysemous words. Thus, when the senses of a word are
conventionalised, and there exist more semantic encodings, they should be rendered as
separate lexical entries, being homonyms, whilst in the other cases, where there exists a single
encoded meaning that, in distinct contexts, can be interpreted slightly differently, the
interpretations being derived or constructed through pragmatic adjustment during the on-line
processing of the encoded meaning, the various senses should feature under one and the same
lexical entry. The representation of the word banks senses will, if Falkums theory is
applied, look the same as the one devised according to Fraths approach: namely three
separate entries for the homonyms meaning some kind of storage facility, row of similar
items and pile of snow, sand or earth, and for the first and last entry there will feature, as
polysemes, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and, respectively 7, 8 and 9.
The two theories outlined above yield similar typologies that, on the one hand, might
effectively be employed by lexicographers when drawing the distinction between polysemous
lexical items and homonyms, and, on the other hand, can offer a more accurate description of
how polysemous words and, respectively, homonyms may be represented in the mental
lexicon. Both approaches have thus succeeded in steering clear of the problematic issues
traditionally associated with decompositional theories of word meaning by treating polysemy
1053
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
cases as aspects of language meaning in use. Falkum views word meanings as unstructured
atomic concepts and emphasises the essential contribution of pragmatics in the derivation of
word senses, whilst Frath pertinently differentiates between referential and lexical polysemy,
a crucial distinction that felicitously completes Falkums account. In conclusion, since both
Fraths reference-centred approach and Falkums pragmatic-focused theory of polysemy rest
on the mind-world relations that characterise the representation of polysemy, a combination
of these two accounts could well provide an apposite framework for the interpretation of this
controversial linguistic phenomenon.
Bibliography
Falkum, Lossius Ingrid The Semantics and Pragmatics of Polysemy: A RelevanceTheoretic
Account. PhD thesis submitted at University College London, 2011. <
http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1139079/1/1139079.pdf >
Fillmore, Charles J. and Beryl T. S. Atkins. Describing polysemy: The case of crawl. Ed.
ClaudiaLeacock. Polysemy: Theoretical and Computational Approaches. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2000. 91110.
Frath, Pierre. Polysemy, Homonymy and Reference. Proceedings of the JASGIL Seminar,
Strasbourg 5-6 May 2000. Ed. Albert Hamm. Strasbourg: RANAM (Recherches Anglaises et
Nord-Amricaines), n 34, 2001. 43-56.
Leech, Geoffrey. Semantics. The Study of Meaning. London: Penguin Books Limited, 1990.
Lyons, John. Linguistic Semantics: An Introduction. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1995.
Ravin, Yael, and Claudia Leacock. Polysemy: An overview. Eds. Yael Ravin and Claudia
Leacock. Polysemy: Theoretical and Computational Approaches. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 2000. 1-29.
Sperber, Dan, and Deirdre Wilson. Relevance: Communication and Cognition. Oxford:
Blackwell, 1986/1995.
Taylor, John R. Polysemys paradoxes. Language Sciences 25 (6), 2003: 637-655.
Collins English Dictionary Complete and Unabridged HarperCollins Publishers 2003
[1991]
The Online Etymology Dictionary. Available at:
http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=ear October, 2013.
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/fluke October, 2013.
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/polysemous October, 2013.
http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/homonym October, 2013.
http://www-users.york.ac.uk/~ez506/downloads/L140%20Handout%20-%20homonyms.pdf
October, 2013.
http://www.afv.gr/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=16:polysemy-a-
homonymy &catid= 121:miscellaneous&Itemid=352 October, 2013.
1054
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
SHADES OF BLACK AND WHITE.
ALTERITY, IDENTITY, MULTICULTURALITY IN CONTEMPORARY MEDIA
AND LITERATURE
Jlia VALLASEK, Assistant Professor, PhD, Babe-Bolyai University of Cluj-Napoca
Abstract: Zadie Smith, a prominent figure of contemporary British literature in her 2013
novel, NV offers a metaphorical mapping of 21 century London. Through the life of the
protagonists coming from different social, ethnical, racial backgrounds she describes
Willesden, a district of a multicultural city.
In my essay I will present the different ways alterity and identity (cultural, racial etc.) are
constructed and deconstructed using the earlier novels of the author, White Teeth and On
beauty as well. In the multicultural context of metroplitan London ones identity is
permanently changing, the conflict with the Other and the need for cooperation leeds to a
heterogenous identity in which the neighbourhood, the place one is living, and the Joycean
use of language becomes a force of identity forming.
Keywords: alterity, identity, multicultural, urban
1. White Teeth
Shes young, black, British and the first publishing sensation of the millennium.
The Guardian presented the twenty-four year old Zadie Smith, freshly graduated from
Cambridge, with this title on January 16, 2000. The journalistic title is a genuinely good
summary of the reality, as the then-forthcoming debut novel White Teeth (published in 2000)
was indeed one of the great sensations of the new millenniums British literature.
The career start of Zadie Smith is every young writers dream: her first (practically
unwritten) novel was bought at auction by the Hamish Hamilton publishing house in 1997,
based on a narrow 80 page fragment, allegedly for a quite high price. The novel, ample as it
is, to some extent reminiscent of Salman Rushdie regarding its atmosphere, capturing at the
same time the present-day multicultural, multiracial and linguistically diverse London, lived
up to the expectations. The story of the nearly fifty-year-long friendship of Archie, the
working man from London, and Samad Iqbal, the Muslim of Bengali origins, deals with the
formation of inevitably given and consciously chosen identities.
The leitmotif of white teeth represents a cohesive force in the story: irrespectively of
the characters skin colour, religion, country of origin and the values they embrace, their teeth
have the same white shine. They keep drawing attention to the fact that the human emotions
(love, friendship, anger, jealousy, etc.) that move certain characters are much more powerful
than their (racial, religious, etc.) attributes. To the fact that one cannot get to know a person
based on his/her belonging to a certain group, moreover, unreflectively adopting the
stereotypes specific to a particular group expressly leads astray. If we did so, we would end
up in a situation similar to that of the worthy Samad Iqbal who disillusioned with western
society sends Magid, the smarter and more gifted one of his ten year old twin sons back to
Bangladesh so that he would grow up among relatives passing over the spirit of Islamic
1055
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
teachings, while Millat, the restless eternal troublemaker stays in London. A decade later,
when done with the juvenile unquietness, packs and chasing girls, Millat participates in a
demonstration against Salman Rushdies The Satanic Verses as a member of a conservative
Islamic fundamentalist organization, while Magid, to his fathers despair, returns to London
as an atheist biologist, and he is more English than the English.
White Teeth is the novel of assimilation and identities in formation, written with
slightly comical and ironic overtones. While the parents generation thinks that their different
nature manifested in contrast to the dominant white culture is an inevitable attribute, their
children fight it at first. What was wrong with all these children, what had gone wrong with
these first descendents of the great ocean-crossing experiment? asks the novel. (Smith,
2000, 218.) The half Jamaican, half British girl dreams of having a white body and smooth
straight hair, while the son of Bengali parents rejects his parents religion. However, by the
end of the novel, the members of the second generation realize that neither the unreflective
acceptance of traditions, nor the assimilation to the white culture would lead to success, thus
they themselves must decide on which aspects of the different (inherited, receptive, desired,
etc.) cultures they embrace. At the same time, there is a greater distance between the
deliberately formed, customized identities, than between the traditional identities that are
inherited and considered to be unquestionable. Archie and Samad manage to stay friends for a
lifetime even though the rapprochements of their families, value systems and cultures often
fail. Among the members of the new generation there is an insuperable, consciously chosen
distance connected to their innermost values.
2. New British literature
White Teeth naturally fit into the range that in the 50s and 60s was still called black
British literature, not differentiating between British Caribbean, British Asian, or British
African authors and subjects. Salman Rushdie and V. S. Naipaul were primarily the reason
why the culture of immigrants received more and more attention and appreciation through the
works and personalities of immigrant authors from different South Asian countries. Among
the authors and works that fall into this category Hanif Kureishis The Buddha of the Suburbia
(1990) or My beautiful Launderette (1985), Monica Alis Brick Lane (2003) and Nadeem
Aslams Maps for Lost Lovers (2004) can be mentioned, of course, without striving for
completeness. It should be added that, besides redefining the concept of Britishness, these
works focus on several aspects of alterity: homosexuality in Kureishis works, the role of
women in Monica Alis works or the working class in Aslams works emphatically appear as
such aspects.
The term black Britishness is inherently complicated, as Jim Pines states that such
an unified sense of cultural identity can only be achieved when the black element in the
equation has been secured. (Pines, 2001, 61.)
Britishness itself is a term with constantly changing content undergoing carious
changes through the decades of the 20th century. After the experience of two Word Wars that
a New World Order shall come, in which all the world would follow America and the West
into the end of History characterized by hegemony of liberalism and market capitalism
(Fukuyama 1993), at the beginnings of the 21st century became ethnocentric fantasies.
1056
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
According to David Morley and Kevin Robins as western culture comes to be
recognized as but one particular form of modernity, rather than some universal template for
humankind, and as Britain attempts to adapt to its sense of displacement from the centre of the
world stage and at the same time, tries to come to terms with its own ethnic and cultural
complexity a whole new scenario begins to emerge. (Morley, Robins, 2001, 3.)
This new scenario manifests itself in the construction of cultural memories, as much of
the western multicultural diversity goes back to previous colonial sway, causing an
asymetrical relation to an apparently shared history (Sharratt, 2001, 314), as each
ex.colony s relation to the global history was connected to the metropolitan power but not
necessarily shared in any specific way with those other histories.
At the end of the 1980-s we can notice a shift of emphasis away from the dominant
discourses of black/immigrant experience which tended to identify this experience with social
problems towards a perspective which presents instead the way first and second generation
black people experienced settlement in the United Kingdom and how the second generation
young black people were not accepted as British, despite the fact that they were born in
Britain.
This emphasis on the immerse differences between the historical, social and cultural
experiences of black people also marks the end of what Stuart Hall called the innocent notion
of the essential black subject.. (Hall, 1989.)
Zadie Smiths creations can be seamlessly integrated into this range of works, as her
later novels (The Autograph Man, 2002; On Beauty, 2005) capture the same colourful,
culturally and linguistically diverse, socially multilayered and, at the same time, ever-
evolving multicultural metropolitan world. However, perhaps in contrast to the
aforementioned authors (Kureishi, Ali or Aslam) , she emphatically seeks dialogue with the
classical, modernist English literary traditions at the level of language. On Beauty, for
example, is a tribute to E. M. Forsters novel, Howards End.
It should be obvious from the first line that this is a novel inspired by a love of E. M.
Forster, to whom all my fiction is indebted, one way or the other. This time I wanted to repay
the debt with hommage says Smith in the preface of her novel. (Smith, 2005.7.) On Beauty
does not depict the London known from her previous works anymore; instead it captures
Bostons academic world through the family histories that reflect and reformulate the plot of
the aforementioned Forster novel. The pretentious liberal professor of West Indian origin,
Howard Belsey from Boston and Sir Montague Kipps, the conservative and homophobic
Christian from London are academic adversaries, both being recognized Rembrandt-experts.
Just like in Forsters work, the two families come into contact through love affairs and
friendships during the Kipps familys stay in Boston. The conflict of their different value
systems and the family members own, personally motivated actions inevitably affect both
families. In addition to painting, music plays an important identity-forming role in the novel.
The youngest Belsey child tries to build his own black identity by fraternizing with Haitian
rappers and denying his middle-class intellectual background. For his sister, rap is a project of
career-building and love; to her, it is a matter of prestige to be included into the circles of an
acclaimed poetess, a group with whom she attends slam-poetry evenings where she falls in
love with Carl, the suburban rapper, who is seen by her as the way towards music/poetry, self-
expression and (an eventually failed) advancement.
1057
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Thus, the novel makes many references to art and beauty, however, we can constantly
feel the analytical rigidness of the perspective. The characters (especially the two opposing
professors) know much about the aesthetic approach of the concept of beauty, but they are
less familiar with its manifestations in everyday life. What happens around them
adolescents in search of their identities, marriages collapsing, deadly diseases, a series of
social injustices is anything but beautiful, though Smith describes these occurrences in a
balanced calm tone, setting off comic scenes, not denying us humorous remarks either.
In her new 2012 novel, NW, Zadie Smith returns to the location already known from
White Teeth: the London district Willesden.
With a postal code in its title, the London novel NW is an urban novel, although it
would be more appropriate to call it an urban district novel, the novel of a micro-world, as to
the characters nothing is significant but what happens in their immediate environment, the rest
of London being alien, practically unknown and completely uninteresting to them.
While in Zadie Smiths earlier novels self-definition was the concern of adolescent
characters, here we come across the identity crisis of characters in their thirties. The four main
characters of the novel, Leah Hanwell, Keisha/Natalie Blake, Felix Cooper and Nathan
Boggle grew up in the same suburban residential area, and the common physical space of
their interconnected and occasionally intersected life paths is Caldwell. The white, Irish-born
Leah is an underpaid social worker; her childhood friend, Keisha/Natalie is a lawyer due to
her diligence and perseverance; Felix is an unsuccessful film director and former drug addict
who is trying to find a new foundation to his failed life; and finally, Nathan, once the girls
favourite, is a homeless drug addict pimp in the residential district of their childhood.
Thus, NW is an urban novel in terms of the endangered species (as it is also shown
by the predominantly black main characters). This is what one of the characters, Frank De
Angelis, the son of a Caribbean railway employee and a rich Italian woman, calls himself (and
other blacks in a similar position). He feels like they are the target of a well-meaning social
plan of Britain, a plan that aims at virtually cancelling out racial identities using the disguise
of globalism and multiculturalism.
The process of consciously constructing identities, the constant comparisons with the
Other/others plays an important role throughout the novel. Below I examine the processes of
identity formation from two perspectives: first from the point of view of racial identity and
strongly related to it gender identity, then by reflecting upon the identity forming role of the
location.
3. Questions of racial/gender identity
We have a very effective diversity scheme here said Dr. Singh primly and turned to
speak to the blonde girl on her left. (Smith, 2012,191.)
The above cited conversation takes place at an academic event, in an atmosphere set
by youth and professionalism, which is not only about equality, equal opportunities, but more
than that, as the character Natalie Blake puts it, it is friendship. Natalies original name is
Keisha, but she changes her name bearing black associations as soon as she leaves the
suburban residential district she grew up in to become a college student. The post-colonial
eras great struggles for equality are over (a suggestive indication of this is the fact that one of
the students is dressed as Frantz Fanon at a costume party), and apparently full equality has
1058
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
been reached. However, this idyllic image turns out to be the illusion of a twenty-year-old
searching for her place in the world (and occasionally consuming party-drugs).
When Natalie now thought of adult life (she hardly ever thought of it), she envisioned
a long corridor, off which opened many rooms each with a friend in it a communal
kitchen, a single gigantic bed in which all would sleep and screw, a world governed by the
principles of friendship. For how can you oppress a friend? How can you cheat on a friend?
How can you ask a friend to suffer while you thrive? In this simple way - without marches
and slogans, without politics, without any of the mess you get ripping paving stones out of the
ground - the revolution had arrived. () I will be a lawyer and you will be a doctor and he
will be a teacher and she will be a banker and we will be artists and they will be soldiers, and
I will be the first black woman and you will be the first Arab and she will be the first Chinese
and everyone will be friends, everyone will understand each other. (Smith, 2012, 187.)
Most of the characters in the novel are black, among the main characters only the
weak and vulnerable Leah is white. She is the one who as a child nearly drowns in the pool
and gets grabbed by her red tresses and pulled out by Keisha (this is how their friendship
begins); she is the gullible good-hearted person who is deceived and taken advantage of in the
first part, and who, by the end of the novel, gets in an almost catatonic state, her friend being
called for help again. In contrast, Keisha/Natalie is already single-minded as a child, she
builds herself up, she graduates law school and thereby breaks out from the environment she
was born into and which the others (her siblings, former classmates, etc.) were unable to
escape from.
The fracture lines, the differences are not so much formed based on race or skin
colour, as they develop based on social classes.
Leah is well aware of the fact that as compared to her college degree (she studied
philosophy, that is learning how to die) she works as an underpaid social worker, and she
considers her situation of being the only white employee at her workplace somewhat
uncomfortable. In this context, white skin is associated with weakness and lesser physical
attractiveness. At the end of the workday in the corridor the women spill out of every room,
into the heat, cocoa buttered, ready for a warm night out on the Edgware Road. From St.
Kitts, Trinidad, Barbados, Grenada, Jamaica, India, Pakistan, in their forties, fifties, sixties,
and yet busts and butts and shiny legs and arms still open to the sexiness of an early summer
in a manner that the women of Leahs family can never be. For them the sun is fatal. So red,
so pale. Leah is wearing long white linen everything. Looks like a minor saint (Smith, 2012,
32.)
The differences between social classes are not necessarily articulated based on skin
colour in the turn-of-the-century metropolis, however they strongly determine the characters
judgements on themselves and others. The role of family background in identity formation
played an important role in Smiths previous novels, as well; here, it becomes clear especially
in the third part of the novel focusing on Keisha/Natalie. It is at the Hanwells where Keisha
first sees tea served on a tray and listens to a public radio show, as at home she was used to
tea poured directly into the mug and commercial radio shows. Keisha/Natalie, having seceded
from her environment through her extraordinary sense of purpose, even as an adult has to
constantly face the seemingly minor differences which are nevertheless able to determine
ones worldview and outlook on life. Her university of choice was once determined based on
1059
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
the travel costs of the preliminary examination; then as an adult the only thing indicating her
ghetto upbringing is the fact that she eats the dubious-looking cheap food bought from
street vendors without hesitation. As an adult woman she realizes that she had completely
forgotten what it was like to be poor. It was a language shed stopped being able to speak, or
even understand. (Smith, 2012, 243.)
It seems that the question of identity as formulated through its racial aspect is much
more powerful in the case of Keisha/Natalie, who aspires to rise, than in the case of her later
husband, the half-caste Frank De Angelis, who through his mother belongs to the Italian
upper middle class. On their first night spent together, Natalie feels extremely tense and
strange in Franks bourgeois home, and she is glad to discover James Baldwins book, The
Fire Next Time. The American social critics book on the relation between races played an
important role in the 60s, primarily in the movement for black emancipation in the United
States. Natalies wondering/hopeful question whether he has read the book is casually
answered by Frank: I think he knew my grandmother in Paris. (Smith, 2012,193.)
The development of her lawyer career, forgetting the language of poverty, however,
does not happen smoothly. From the perspective of the socially less successful Leah or the
other former schoolmates who perform physical work or have even become homeless,
Natalies life is a success story. However, Zadie Smith emphasizes the specific difficulties
this character has to go through as a black woman, in two scenes. One of these is the story of
the math genius Michelle Holland, who had an even worse background than Natalie (with
her parents in prison, and with the complete lack of a religious culture or the warmth and
support of a familiar neighbourhood), and who drops out of college in her last year without
any rational explanation.
Avoid ghetto work an older colleague advises Natalie, the young lawyer. When I
first started appearing before a judge, I kept being reprimanded from the bench. I was losing
my cases and I couldnt understand why. Then I realized the following: when some floppy-
haired chap from Surrey stands before these judges, all his passionate arguments read as pure
advocacy. He and the Judge recognize each other. They are understood by each other. Very
likely went to the same school. But Whaleys passion, or mine, or yours, reads as
aggression. To the judge. This is his house and you are an interloper within it. And let me
tell you, with a woman its worse: Aggressive hysteria. The first lesson is: turn yourself
down. One notch. Two. (Smith, 2012, 210.)
4. Location as an identity-constructing force
Leah is as faithful in her allegiance to this two-mile square of the city as other people
are to their families, or their countries. She knows the way people speak around here, that
fuckin, around here, is only a rhythm in a sentence. (Smith, 2012, 52)
Willesden appears in the novel as Dublin in James Joyces Ulysses or London in
Virginia Woolfs Mrs. Dalloway. This similarity is not a coincidence; as her previous novel,
On Beauty was written in the spirit of E.M. Forster, here, these two outstanding works of
modern literature stood as examples. The motif of human life compressed into a single day
favoured by modernism also appears in the second part of NW which is an account of Felixs
one day, a day that begins vigorously, with the hope of change, and ends with the pointless
1060
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
death of the character. (He is robbed, then gets stabbed on the street. Additionally, this
happens in the exact neighbourhood where he was born and where he spent his childhood, the
neighbourhood he has held on to.)
Whether they spend their thirties there, or they try to avoid it, the residential district of
Caldwell determines each protagonists life. If there is beauty in this world, then it lies in its
vibrant diversity and its receptive openness. At first sight, it is a typical urban residential
district: five blocks connected by walkways and bridges and staircases, and lifts that were to
be avoided almost as soon as they were built.
The location has a strong appeal to the characters: Leah is unable to leave it, while
Natalie automatically starts walking towards the streets known from her childhood when
trying to walk away from her collapsing marriage, her problems. The professional/personal
crisis that suddenly questions everything she has achieved and dissolves her identity
perceived as coherent up till then, forces her to return to the origins and try to rebuild this
identity by, in a way, collecting strength from the power of this location.
Walking down Kilburn High Road Natalie Blake had a strong desire to slip into the
lives of other people. It was hard to see how this desire could be practicably satisfied or what,
if anything, it really meant. Slip into is an imprecise thought. Follow the Somali kid home?
Sit with the old Russian lady at the bus stop outside Poundland? Join the Ukrainian gangster
at his table in the cake shop? Listening was not enough. Natalie Blake wanted to know
people. To be intimately involved with them. (Smith, 2012, 225.)
The characters behaviour is lead by their loyalty to this location, to the
neighbourhood. This is what makes Leah let herself be fooled in the opening chapter; this is
what Natalie is unable to break away from, when ignoring her superiors advice she takes
cases pro bono for her old acquaintances; the specific language of this world is captured when
Felix visits her father; and this is the environment where Nathan, the drug addict and former
womanizer disappears after ending up on the periphery of society.
Caldwell is home to a multiracial, multicultural community with a relatively uniform
economic status, a community whose members practically all know each other, as members of
isolated communities do.
Out of the set of characters facing different problems living in an urban collective
solitude, the author presents the friendship of Leah and Natalie as one reminiscent of a gay
relationship. The two women are not only connected by their current problems. (Neither of
them gets along with their mother, they both find their jobs, marriages and their attitudes
towards motherhood to be problematic. Leah does not want children, but she is afraid to
confess it to her husband, while Natalie cannot handle her children, they tire and annoy her.)
They do not talk about them. Their childhood and the memories they share of Willesden and
Caldwell are the things through which they are able to capture everything that is important to
them. While reading the novel, we constantly feel the magic of names: names of streets,
buildings, institutions and stores are listed. Kennedy Fried Chicken. Polish Bar and Pool.
Euphoria Massage. Glad we took the scenic route. This cant still be Willesden. Feels like
were in Neasden already (Smith, 2012,59.) says Natalie with a sigh while carrying her
children around on a trip.
In one of the most powerful scenes of the novel, the two women come across a hidden,
old little church in the neighbourhood they thought they knew perfectly. The statue of Virgin
1061
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Mary in Willesden becomes the symbol of home and childhood to them, the symbol of
themselves, acceptable without fractures and question marks.
How have you lived your whole life in these streets and never known me? How long
did you think you could avoid me? (...) Dont you know that I have been here as long as
people cried out for help? (...) I am older than this place! Older even than the faith that takes
my name in vain! Spirit of these beech woods and phone boxes, hedgerows and lamp posts,
freshwater springs and tube stations, ancient yews and one-stop-shops, grazing land and 3D
multiplexes. (...) Could things have been differently arranged, in a different order, in a
different place? (Smith, 2012, 64.)
The metropolitan London is an obvious choice to project in space the existential
questions of multicultural, post national cultures. According Kevin Robins, London has
always been left out of discussions on British national culture and identity as if not genuinely
British. The city is the hub for all the global flows that are now profoundly
complicating our established models of cultural coherence and order. London is where the
processes of global change that now appear to be subverting the integrity of the nation have
their most intense and dynamic existence. (Robins, 2001, 486.)
The metropolitan London becoming almost a fictional character in Zadies Smith NW
underlines that urban cultures and identities are more provisional, more transitory and
negotiable less constraining and less sustained than national ones. (Robins, 2001, 491.)
5. Multikulti light?
Instead of a large overall multicultural diversity or structures based on cultural self-
expression, Smith appears to emphasize the principles of small communities, personal
decisions and community cohesion. Beginning from the 2000s, spreading awareness of
community cohesion has played an increasingly important role in British politics, in
contrast to the principle of multiculturalism, which is hard to define and hard to put into
practice.
Critics have repeatedly held against Smiths novels that they have some sort of
didactic feature, nevertheless, her works often present a light and digestible version of
multiculturalism (multiculty light) with a tendency of sweeping problems under the rug.
In turn, multiculturalism is a concept hard to define: it can be used descriptively as an
attempt to describe cultural diversity, but it can also be used normatively/prescriptively as
referring to a set of ideologies and measures promoting diversity. In this sense, a society is
multicultural if it is at ease with the rich tapestry of human life and the desire amongst
people to express their own identity in the manner they see fit. (Bloor, 2010)
Zadie Smith' daring debut novel, White Teeth can be interpreted as a literary attempt to
embrace the Cool Britannia-project launched by the New Labour after the election of Tony
Blair in 1997. Before the turn of the millennium from the Spice Girls to British Airways
() British industries and institutions alike seemed interested in actively participating in the
production of new national identities. In its own way, this too was a response to not only to a
fracture in the connection between unspoken normative whiteness and British nationality, but
also to a fracture in the assumed relationship between ethnicity and cultural identity. The
gates were suddenly open to a broad and lively project of identity formation. (Turner, 2003,
212.)
1062
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
However problems that remained unspoken and unsolved persist, and a decade later
NW can be interpreted as an attempt of painful awakening from the dream of Cool
Britannia, and an attempt to capture the formation of fragmented identity.
NW is free from monolithically capturing the complicated concept of multiculturalism,
say, at least due to the modernist stream of consciousness technique used by the author. We
see the individual and his/her momentary impressions and feelings; there is no omniscient
narrator who could summarize, interpret or control the process of reading.
Perhaps this is why the most powerful parts of the novel are the scenes partly
reminiscent of Joyce and partly of Virginia Woolf where a preoccupied character wanders
the streets of north-west London, instead of the second chapter which makes up one third of
the novel with its 184 parts (each with a title), where the process of Keisha becoming Natalie
is described in a distant manner.
We get a kaleidoscope-like image of the world made up of fragments like colours,
smells, names and impressions. The characters do not interpret this world as being
multicultural, they just experience it and its diversity while focusing on their personal
problems and feelings.
They perceive a path from A to B as follows:
Sweet stink of the hookah, couscous, kebab, exhaust fumes of a bus deadlock. 98,
16,32, standing room only - quicker to walk. Escapees from St. Mary's, Paddington: expectant
father smoking, old lady wheeling herself in a wheelchair smoking, die-hard holding urine
sack, blood sack, smoking. () Polish paper, Turkish paper, Arabic, Irish, French, Russian,
Spanish, News of the World. Unlock your (stolen) phone, buy a battery pack, a lighter pack, a
perfume pack, sunglasses, three for a fiver, a life-size porcelain tiger, gold taps. (Smith,
2012, 34. )
The multiculturalism-image of White Teeth was nuanced by some optimism, a belief
that cultural differences can be preserved without conflict based on common interests and
some sort of natural benevolence. On beauty revealed that identities and differences appear
much more pronouncedly at the boundaries of social classes than related to racial differences.
NW takes on the basic ideas of both books, but it assumes human personality to be too
complex to be describable in terms of race, culture or social class. Despite the adult
characters rather nostalgic attachment to the scenes of their childhood, especially during the
critical periods of their lives, the novel itself suggests with some kind of tired, nostalgia-
rejecting maturity: maybe it doesnt matter that life never blossomed into something larger
than itself. (Smith, 2012, 132.)
Bibliography
BLOOR, Kevin: The definitive guide to political ideologies. Authors House, London. 2010.
http://books.google.ro/books?id=R-cRCD-
QBVYC&pg=PA272&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false. (Accessed: 04.14.2013.)
FUKUYAMA, Francis: The End of History and the Last Man, Penguin Books, 1993.
HALL, Stuart: New Ethnicities, Kobena Mercer (ed.) Black Film, British Cinema, London,
ICA.
1063
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
MORLEY David, ROBINS Kevin: The National Culture in its New Global Context, In. David
Morley, Kevin Robins (ed) British Cultural Studies, Geography, Nationality and Identity,
Oxford University Press, New York, 2oo1.
PINES, Jim: Rituals and Representations of Black Britishness, In. David Morley, Kevin
Robins (ed) British Cultural Studies, Geography, Nationality and Identity, Oxford University
Press, New York, 2oo1.
Robins, Kevin: On London, In. David Morley, Kevin Robins (ed) British Cultural Studies,
Geography, Nationality and Identity, Oxford University Press, New York, 2oo1.
SHARRATT, Bernard: Writing Britains, In. David Morley, Kevin Robins (ed) British
Cultural Studies, Geography, Nationality and Identity, Oxford University Press, New York,
2oo1.
SMITH, Zadie: White Teeth. Penguin Books, London, 2001.
SMITH, Zadie: Preface to On Beauty. Hamish Hamilton, London, 2005.
SMITH, Zadie: NW. Hamish Hamilton, 2012.
TURNER, Graeme: British Cultural Studies, An intorduction. , 3d edition, Routledge,
London, 2oo3.
1064
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
I THINK, THEREFORE I AM DANGEROUS - DEVELOPING CRITICAL
THINKING AT THE ENGLISH CLASS- FOR ROMANIAN AND HUNGARIAN
STUDENTS
PUSKS-BAJK Albina, PhD Candidate, Petru MaiorUniversity of Trgu-Mure
Abstract: The term creative writing often puts people off both teachers and students alike;
it is often regarded as being reserved for gifted writers. This article reports on a collaborative
endeavour initiated by a teacher of English in order to nurture, spread and celebrate a spirit
of creativity and creative writing among teachers and for young EFL/ESL readers and
students in Romania.
Keywords: English- Romanian translation, phraseological value, stories, anecdotes, traps,
mot-a-mot, mother tongue, culture, local, teacher, student
Belief in the value of creative writing
As compared to the other language skills, writing has a more limited role for most
people outside an educational setting. It is important to consider writing activities in EFL/ESL
classrooms not only from the instrumental perspective of what is useful for external
purposes, but also in terms of their educational function. Apart from the communicative or
social function, writing serves the educational purposes of developing students cognitive
and affective abilities (see Harris, 1993; Campbell, 1998). While the social and the cognitive
roles of writing are reflected in many EFL/ESL teaching materials, the affective function of
writing is often neglected. It is important to consider the affective role of writing, a neglected
area in many EFL/ESL writing materials and programmes in Romania. In this view, writing is
a tool for expressing oneself, ones personal feelings, and is associated with creative writing.
Creative writing gives learners a chance to write about things that are important and
interesting to them, and a chance to share personal aspects of their lives with other members
of the class. It enables learners to become themselves in their new language and to take
control over their language by governing its product. In creative writing activities, students
push past their current language abilities. When feelings are evoked, students write above
their language abilities, so that writing becomes an enjoyable and pleasant task for both
students and teachers.
Creative writing is often restricted to literature classes and many EFL/ESL teachers, in
particular non-native English speaking teachers, often do not feel competent and confident
enough to exploit creative writing in their classrooms. The term creative writing often
appears daunting for EFL/ESL teachers and students alike. In the reported endeavour, the
group explore the various features of creativity and creative writing and share their
experiences of promoting creative writing. At any proficiency level, there may be places in an
EFL/ESL curriculum where writing creatively can provide breadth and interest to the
programme. Creative writing gives learners a chance to write about things that are important
and interesting to them, and a chance to share personal aspects of their lives with other
members of the class. Creative writing activities can change students perceptions not only
1065
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
about writing but also about themselves and the world they live in. It can lower their anxiety.
It can develop their writing proficiency, cognitive fluency, personalities and abilities of
noticing the familiar in an unfamiliar way or vice versa.
Belief in the learning community
The importance of creating a learning community in teaching and learning has been
noted by many educators (e.g. Lenning and Ebbers 1999). A learning community is an
intentionally developed community that promotes, stimulates and maximizes the groups and
group members learning. It is a place where members learn from and with others, incorporate
and value diversity, share a culture, encourage participation and sharing of leadership, and
engage in product-oriented activities, i.e. activities which are related to their immediate
surroundings, real needs and issues (see Lenning and Ebbers 1999).
The reported endeavour encourages the group to become a learning community. They have an
opportunity to practise shared leadership and responsibility. They are responsible for
participating in multiple tasks producing creative work, peer editing, presenting ideas,
writing for publication, disseminating ideas and networking. The endeavour also enables them
to learn from each other, discover and value the expertise of their peers.
Belief in teacher-made language teaching materials
In recent years, issues such as localisation, humanisation and appropriateness of
language teaching materials and curriculum have received increasing attention as opposed to
earlier emphases on globalisation, standardisation, and authenticity. Many scholars have
recently begun to highlight the need to bring language teaching materials closer to local
cultures and local values. (Day 2003) emphasises the importance of appropriateness rather
than authenticity of texts used in language teaching. Day and Bamford (1998) use the term
language learner literature to refer to material (both fiction and non-fiction) specifically
written for language learners. They claim that language learner literature is a genuine genre
like other genres such as science fiction, childrens literature, mysteries, etc. It is written for
an identifiable audience (language learners) and its primary purpose is to communicate a
message and not to teach language.
The objective of the group, which is not sponsored by any single institution but
operates on an entirely voluntary basis, is to produce original stories and poems in English
which can be used in the teaching of English in Romanian and Hungarian communities in
Transylvania. Due to the fact that I am from the region, I strongly believe that we have a
better intuitive grasp of what will appeal to young and adult readers in that region.
Apart from the development of different language skills, one major goal of a language
programme is to help pupils gain knowledge and respect for other cultures and values, and to
provide room for them to develop their creativity. Storytelling is a perfect tool to achieve
these goals.
Well-written stories provide significant content and a "what happens next" sequence
allows children and beginning readers of any age to attend to the continuous building of
meaning in a story. Studies over the years indicate that most children, including those who
have difficulties in learning, seem to learn to listen, read, and respond better to exciting
narratives.
1066
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
There is a bit of magic in every good story. Good stories, no matter how long or short,
can enchant listeners/readers and stretch their imaginations. A short story, when used in the
classroom, can serve many purposes, e.g. as a discussion starter, rounding off a special unit or
topic, as an interesting practice in reading aloud and predicting, or just as pure entertainment.
You can use short stories in the classroom as "stepping stones" to help students think
critically, to increase their awareness of another culture, to offer opportunities for them to use
the language in role plays, and eventually, to encourage them to develop their creativity by
writing their own short stories.
Components of a story
Plot
This is the "skeleton" of the story. It may include a problem to be solved, a roadblock/an
obstacle for the central characters, its solution, a conflict, a climax, etc. It has a beginning, a
middle and an end which show the sequence of events that occurs to the characters of the
story.
Setting
This is the "where and when" of the story, or the time and place and situation in which the
story occurs. This can be real or imaginary. The setting can be an integral part to the story, or
just a backdrop that is relatively unimportant.
Characters
Characters are usually people or personified animals/objects. They may take the form of
heroes and villains. Main characters are usually "round" characters because they are well-
developed and they grow and change during the story. They are usually active participants in
the actions of the story. Secondary/supporting characters are rather "flat" since they are not
well-developed and readers know and care little about them.
Theme
The theme is the "heart" of the story or the "knot" that ties the events together. It can be the
underlying meaning of the story or the moral lesson to be taught (if any). Themes can be
explicit or implicit, so younger children may not be able to grasp the theme of the story
readily.
Style
The style is the form an author uses, or "how" things are said. It can involve word choice and
language usage that convey the writer's ideas in a particular way: imagery, metaphor, symbol
and sound devices such as alliteration, rhyme, rhythm, etc, may be used.
Choosing a story
There is one trick to the magic of storytelling: Find the right story for the right students and
the right occasions.
Some considerations for choosing stories:
1. Age of pupils
2. Interests of pupils
3. Experience of pupils
4. Maturity of pupils
5. Language ability of pupils
6. Length of the story
1067
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
7. Degree of difficulty of the story (in ideas and/or in language)
Things to watch out:
Some families or religions disapprove of the use of fairies, witchcraft, ghosts and
violence as the themes of stories.
Beware of copyright issues.
Stories which are about real life tragedies should be handled with care or simply
avoided if a pupil in the class is experiencing a similar emotion or tragedy in his/her life (e.g.
divorce of parents, death of a family member, death of pets, loss of property in a fire, personal
injury).
Strategies for reading and responding to short stories
1. Visualizing - help pupils "see" the scenes, characters and actions of
the story
2. Predicting - help pupils make logical guesses about what will happen
next
3. Engaging - get pupils involved in the plot, action and characters in
the story
4. Empathizing - help pupils identify with the feelings of the characters in
the story
5. Elaborating - enable pupils to enrich the setting, plot, characters as
well as the details of the story
6. Relating to real life - place the story in the real world so that pupils can relate
the storyline to the incidents and people in their everyday
lives
1. Rewriting the ending of the story
After pupils finish reading a story (or the teacher finishes reading a story to the class),
pupils can be asked to rewrite the ending of the story, i.e. happy to sad, sad to happy, or with a
totally different ending. It is unavoidable that some other parts of the story may have to be
changed as well. Of course this writing activity has to be preceded by some class discussion
first. New vocabulary may have to be introduced to enable pupils to do a satisfactory job..
Critical Thinking and Creativity: Suggest reasons for changing or improving the ending,
identify other parts that need to be changed as well after the ending has been rewritten, create
a different scenario, explore different solutions for the same problem, etc.
Cultural Awareness: Understand why the ending can be changed if the ethnic
background of the story is changed, what behaviour is unacceptable in the original story but is
acceptable if the cultural background is changed, etc.
In the same way, students could write stories independently, in order to develop their critical
thinking. This is exactly what I asked my students to do. As one can see further, they came up
1068
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
with some brilliant open ended stories. I categorized the stories dependig on students levels
of English:
Pre-Intermediate
1. A man is discovered dead sitting at his desk in a locked office. There is an envelope in
front of him in which a check is enclosed. How did he die?
Answer: The envelope glue was poisoned and as he wanted to seal it, he licked it. Shortly
afterwards he died. (Class VII.C, School Romulus Guga, Trgu Mure, 2005.)
2. Legend has it that a rich but wicked man once offered a poor beggar an earthenware
jug containing a sweet-smelling liquid that the wicked man swore would turn everything it
came into contact with into pure gold. Why didnt the poor beggar believe him?
Answer: If the wicked man tells the truth, then the jug must be of gold,too (Class VIII. A,
School Romulus Guga, 2005.)
3. In a balloon, over the sea , I dropped two wine bottles over the sie. If one was full and
the other empty, which hit the ground first?
Answer: Neither, as I was over the sea. ( Pre- Intermediate Group, English for Secretaries,
Linguaprof Language School, Trgu Mure, 2007.)
4. A man is awake night after night without getting a wink of sleep, yet he doesnt feel
tired. Why?
Answer: He is a nightshift worker, he gets some rest during the day. (Pre-Intermediate Group,
Public Health, Sapientia University,Trgu Mure, 2012.)
5. Two men get lost while walking in the woods. One starts walking north, while the
other goes south. They bump into each other a quarter of an hour later. How is that possible?
Answer: The two men initially went for a walk separately, not together. ( IX. B, Liceul
Tehnologic Sfntul Gheorghe, Sngeorgiu de Pdure, 2009.)
6. A farmer places two 25 kg bags of apples over his shoulders and carries them to his
truck. The bags of apples are to be taken into town to be sold. The farmhand carries three bags
to the trucks. Who is the stronger, the farmer or the farmhand?
Answer: The farmer, as the farmhand carries empty bags. ( X.C, Liceul Tehnologic Sfntul
Gheorghe, Sngeorgiu de Pdure, 2009.)
7. Who played for both Italy and Russia at the Olympic Games in the same year?
Answer: The musicians, playing the national anthems for both countries ( X. B, Liceul
Tehnologic Sfntul Gheorghe, Sngeorgiu de Pdure, 2009.)
8. Two sons and two fathers plan to go and see the new blockbuster film at their local
cinema. They all see the same 8pm showing together and each has a seat in the front row, yet
they had only reserved three tickets. Explain.
Answer: Only three men went to the cinema : a son, a father and a grandfather. ( IX. C, Liceul
Tehnologic Sfntul Gheorghe, Sngeorgiu de Pdure, 2009.)
9. Why do some people dial 911 or 999 with their index finger and some with their third
finger?
Answer: To call the emergency services. ( IX. B, Liceul Tehnologic Sfntul Gheorghe,
Sngeorgiu de Pdure, 2009.)
1069
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
10. Hiding under a table at his sisters birthday party, Ben can see eight pairs of legs
walking around in the living room. After a while, he watches everybody go into the next
room to eat some food. How is it that there are still six legs in the living room?
Answer: there are Bens two legs and the tables four legs. (Class VIII. A, School Romulus
Guga, 2005.)
INTERMEDIATE
1. The west coast of Scotland is renowned for being very rainy. All the locals wear
raincoats, but holidaymaker Mick has no coat, hat or umbrella. He sits in a caf drinking a
steamy mug of hot coffee. He reads a newspaper to pass the time but eventually decides he
should be on his way. To get back to his hotel he needs to walk through a treeless park, yet he
arrives back at his hotel dry bone. How could he have avoided getting wet?
Answer: It wasnt raining. (Intermediate Group, Public Health, Sapientia University,Trgu
Mure, 2012.)
2. To refresh his senses after a wild party, a man goes out for a walk across a wet and
windswept moor. There is a low cloud cover and not a single star can be seen in the sky. The
man is new to the area and doesnt know the geography of the moor. He has no torch or
compass and there is no moonlight to guide his path. How does he avoid getting lost?
Answer: The man had stayed at the party all night. It was morning when he decided to go
home. ( Intermediate Group, Public Health, Sapientia University,Trgu Mure, 2012.)
3. Mr. and Mrs. Simpson, their two daughters and a niece are waiting outside a
photographic studio for another member of their family before having their family portrait
taken. A man walks past and both Mrs. Simpson and her niece greet him simultaneeously.
Hello, father!. Explain.
Answer: The man was a priest( XI.C, Liceul Tehnologic Sfntul Gheorghe, Sngeorgiu de
Pdure, 2009.)
4. Mr. Jones plays polo on Good Friday and injures his leg. He is taken directly to
hospital from the polo field and spends two nights in hospital, leaving on Monday. Explain.
Answer: Mr.Jones horse was called Good Friday. He was playing polo on Saturday.
( XI.C, Liceul Tehnologic Sfntul Gheorghe, Sngeorgiu de Pdure, 2009.)
5. Eddie bets Richard $10 that he can jump from a ten-storey building to the concrete
street below and somehow escape injury. How did Eddie manage to be $10 better off?
Answer: He jumped from a ground floor window. ( Intermediate Group, English for Doctors,
Linguaprof Language School, Trgu Mure, 2008.)
6. A boy is captured by a cruel master who tells him he will have to become a servant to
one of his two sons: Henry the Horrible or Sam the Scary. The boy is determined to escape
the punishment. He gets one chance to utter a statement that will decide his future. If what he
says is true he will serve Henry the Horrible, but if what he says is false he will serve Sam the
Scary. What does the boy state that can save his life and set him free?
Answer: I will serve Sam the Scary. If the master were to make the boy serve Sam the
Scary, his statement will have been true; in this case though he should have benn made
servant to Henry the Horrible, but if he was serving Henry the Horrible, then his statement
will have been false. The master cannot win, so he has to set the boy free. ( Pre- Intermediate
Group, English for Engineers, Linguaprof Language School, Trgu Mure, 2008.)
1070
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
7. A man walks into a bar and immediately falls unconscious. Why?
Answer: It was an iron bar! ( Pre- Intermediate Group, English for Engineers, Linguaprof
Language School, Trgu Mure, 2007
8. A man took the decision of moving his car from Pall Mall to a hotel on the Strand. He
soon realised the move would bankrupt him. How?
Answer: He was playing Monopoly and realised he didnt have enough money to pay the rent.
( XI.C, Liceul Tehnologic Sfntul Gheorghe, Sngeorgiu de Pdure, 2009.)
9. How does Adams favourite team always stay at the top when they never score any
goals, and lots of people have seen the players touching the ball by hand?
Answer: It was a basketball team. ( XI.C, Liceul Tehnologic Sfntul Gheorghe, Sngeorgiu
de Pdure, 2011.)
Upper-intermediate/advanced
1. Amanda was a passionate spinster who was well-known for her conservative views,
yet on hearing that O Reilley had married two women, without divorcing either of them, and
with neither woman divorcing him or dying, she was neither shocked nor outraged. How
come?
Answer: OReilley was the priest who had conducted two marriage ceremonies.
(Upper-Intermediate Group, Public Health, Sapientia University,Trgu Mure, 2012.)
2. A man wearing a black hat and scarf parked outside an expensive jewellers shop, held
up a dozen people and walked out of the shop a couple of minutes later with $1000 worth of
jewellery. Although one or two people were peering through the windows of the jewelers
shop at the time, none of them batted en eyelid, and a nearby driver merely gave a honk of his
horn. How could this have happened?
Answer: the man had gone to the jewellers shop to collect an engagement ring for his fiancee
and had parked his car in a such a way that it blocked the road, thus holding up the traffic.
(Upper-Intermediate Group, Public Health, Sapientia University,Trgu Mure, 2012.)
3. A tourist, thinking he was late, rushes from his hotel, and runs to the quayside where
he sees his ferry at some distance from the docks. He pushes his way through the crowds, and
precariously leaps onto the ferry with his suitcase. Miraculously, he is unharmed; he sighs
with relief and begins to make himself comfortable on the ferry. A moment later he glances
back at the quayside and his heart sinks. Why?
Answer: He realises that the ferry is about to dock. It hadnt just left port as he had surmised.
(Upper-Intermediate Group, Public Health, Sapientia University,Trgu Mure, 2012.)
4. A man gets into a taxi and names his destination, with the whole address. No more is
said between them. The driver takes the man,whom he has never met before, to secluded spot,
lures him out of the taxi and brutally kills him. This behaviour is completely uncharacteristic
of the usually placid taxi driver. What was his motive?
Answer: The taxi driver had found out that his wife was having an affair, so when the man got
into his taxi and said the drivers home address, he assumed he had to be the guilty party.
(Intermediate Group, Public Health, Sapientia University,Trgu Mure, 2012.)
1071
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Bibliography
The Norton Anthology of Short Fiction, Shorter Seventh Edition, Ed. Richard Bausch and
R.V. Cassill ,(New York: Norton, 2006).
Raymond Carver, What We Talk About When We Talk About Love (New York: Vintage, 1989
H. Porter Abbott, The Cambridge Introduction to Narrative, Second Edition Paperback]
(Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2008)
Christopher Brumfit, Jayne Moon and Ray Tongue, Teaching English to Children from
Practice to Principle, Longman 1991
Campbell, C. (1998). Teaching Second-language Writing: Interacting with Text. Boston:
Heinle & Heinle Publishers.
Day, R. R. (2003). Authenticity in the design and development of materials. In W. A.
Renandya (ed.) (pp. 1-11).
Day, R. R. and Bamford, J. (1998). Extensive Reading in the Second Language Classroom.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Gail Ellis and Jean Brewster, Tell it Again!, Penguin 2002
Jeremy Harmer, The Practice of English Language Teaching, Longman, 2005
Harris, T. (1993). Introducing Writing. London: Penguin English.
Lenning, O. T. and L. H. Ebbers. (1999). The powerful potential of learning communities:
improving education for the future. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Reports 26/6: 1-137.
1072
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE PRESENT STAGE OF LEXICAL NEOLOGISMS ADAPTATION (WITH
REFERENCE TO ANGLICISMS AND AMERICANISMS)
Vlad PREDA, Assistant Professor, PhD, University of Craiova
Abstract: Our paper deals with describing and commenting on the process of phonetical,
graphical and morphological adaptation of Anglicisms to the system of the Romanian
language, with reference to its lexicographical approach.
Keywords Anglicism, adaptation, phonetical, graphical, morphological
1. n prezenta comunicare, voi descrie i voi comenta procesul de adaptare al
mprumuturilor recente, n special al anglicismelor la sistemul limbii romne. Voi exprima
totodat un punct de vedere asupra modului de nregistare a termenilor receni n DOOM2,
referindu-m la cazurile de nesistematizare a informaiilor grafice, de pronunie, morfologice.
Voi ncerca s ofer unele modele de nregistrare a mprumuturilor recente.
2. Cuvntul anglicism este explicat n dicionarele romneti drept expresie specific
limbii engleze sau cuvnt de origine englez. DEX-ul precizeaz c anglicismul este
mprumutat fr necesitate, de o alt limb i neintegrat n aceasta. Precizarea cu privire la
neintegrarea n limba-int apare i n DN, MDN. Singurul dicionar care precizeaz
domeniul (lingvistic) n care se utilizeaz acest termen este Dicionarul de neologisme.
Termenul nu apare n DSL.
3. n Merriam-Webster, anglicism are dou sensuri: 1. a characteristic feature of English
occurring in another language i 2. adherence or attachment to English customs or ideas.
4. Ptrunderea mprumuturilor din engleza britanic sau american aparinnd diferitelor
terminologii, mai ales n ultimii douzeci de ani, s-a datorat, n bun parte, necesitii de a
denumi realiti noi, pentru care romna nu avea termeni proprii: byte, browser, cip, desktop,
e-mail, link, modem, mouse, scanner, site, a se loga, a se deloga, a reseta, a upgrada .a.
Autoarele noii ediii a DOOM-ului nu pot explica modul de selecie a termenilor nregistrai n
DOOM2. Am n vedere, de pild, faptul c apar termeni ca: brain-drain, curling, cybercafe,
dar nu apar termeni ca: stick, memory-stick, (ultra-)all-inclusive, wireless, a blura, blurat,
blog, blogger / bloger, burger, offshore, folder, printer, target, browser, scaner /
scanner,speaker, spam, a se loga, logout, a se deloga, receiver, trainer, voucher, workshop
.a.
5. Termeni ca adaptare, acomodare, asimilare fie lipsesc din DSL, fie explicaiile date se
refer la alte chestiuni dect la aspectele integrrii unui mprumut (n cazul nostru, anglicism)
n sistemul limbii romne. Potrivit lui Theodor Hristea, romna a dovedit o remarcabil
capacitate de asimilare a neologismelor [...], iar aceast nsuire esenial continu s o
pstreze i n zilele noastre. (Hristea 2004: 29).
6. Stoichioiu afirm Calificarea de anglicism ni se pare nepotrivit n cazul unor
mprumuturi deja asimilate i frecvent utilizate, inclusiv n limba vorbit, precum fan, job, hit,
star, stres, ort, top. (Stoichioiu 2001:81). n comuncarea prezent, voi utiliza anglicism (i,
1073
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
rar, americanism) pentru mprumuturile mai mult sau mai puin recente din engleza britanic
i din cea american, indiferent de nivelul adaptrii lor la normele limbii romne. Am n
vedere att anglicismele necesare, adic acelea care nu au corespondent romnesc sau, chiar
dac au, sunt mai economice, mai elocvente i se bucur de o mai larg circulaie dect
echivalentele lor romneti, existente ori create ulterior: stres, clip, grant, master, rating,
OK, second hand, banner, brand, lobby, mall .a., ct i pe cele numite de lux, care sunt
nejustificate, deoarece concureaz fr rost termeni romneti: advertising publicitate, team
echip, consulting consultan, visiting professor profesor invitat, cutter cuit, drink
butur, driver ofer .a. Observaiile pe care le prezint se bazeaz pe anglicismele
nregistrate de DOOM2.
7. n ce privete adaptarea anglicismelor, trebuie fcut distincia ntre anglicismele din
diferite terminologii (tiinifice sau netiinifice) i anglicismele de uz general. Pentru
anglicismele din prima categorie, n general, se poate vorbi despre pstrarea lor [...] n forma
originar (Stoichioiu 2001: 96). Precizez ns c doar forma grafic i, parial, cea fonetic
sunt cele din englez: background, banking, brainstorming, bypass, copy-paste, copyrighter,
crossing-shot .a. Din punct de vedere morfosintactic, mrcile de plural, cele cazuale,
articularea, ncadrarea verbelor n categoria verbelor cu sufix de indicativ prezent ez/-eaz-,
topica postpus a adjectivelor fa de substantivul regent, dublul statut morfologic,
substantivizarea, adjectivizarea, locuionalizarea sunt rezultatele adaptrii lor: backgroundul,
a face banking, brainstormingul, un bypass, copy-paste-ului, copyrighterul, crossing-shoturi,
printeaz .a. Pentru celelalte anglicisme, adaptarea are n vedere aspecte fonetice, grafice,
morfosintactice, pe care DOOM-ul trebuie s le consemneze sau s le consfineasc prin
reguli.
8. La nivel fonetic, adaptarea nseamn un fel de pronunare aproximativ, adugnd
astfel inventarului fonologic al romnei uniti nespecifice, preluate din englez: thriller,
think-tank , breaking news, advertising, attachment .a.
9. La substantivele de origine englez, adaptarea lor la sistemul morfologic romnesc se
face prin utilizarea acestora cu articole, cu desinene de plural romneti, care fac posibil
ncadrarea n categoria de gen. Majoritatea celor care denumesc inanimate sunt ncadrate la
genul neutru i primesc una dintre cele dou desinene de plural, - uri: deckuri, desktopuri,
discounturi, dressinguri, drinkuri, e-mailuri, duty-free-uri, exit-polluri, fast-fooduri,
feedbackuri, flashbackuri, forehanduri, gadgeturi, grilluri, harduri, softuri, inputuri, mouse-
uri, sms-uri sau -e: bannere, blistere, chartere, cuttere, flippere, computere, drivere,
markere, mastere, pagere, playere, procesoare, promptere, servere, startere, testere, thrillere,
toastere.
Mai rar, acestea primesc desinena i: hamburgeri, crenvurti, burgeri (nenregistrat n
DOOM2), hotdogi (adaptarea la gen urmnd modelul crnai), jeani, byi, inchi (adaptarea la
gen urmnd modelul: metri, litri, amperi).
Cele care denumesc persoane sunt ncadrate, cu puine excepii, la masculin i primesc
desinena de plural i: boy-i, dandy-i, dealeri, brokeri, hackeri, driveri, gay-i, designeri,
outsideri, globe-trotteri,manageri, rockeri, rapperi.
Foarte puine dintre acestea sunt invariabile n raport cu numrul: homeless, cover-girl, call-
girl sau formeaz excepii de la cazurile semnalate mai sus: bestselleruri; megastaruri,
1074
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
superstaruri, VIP-uri. Exist i cazul lui baby-sitter, variabil n raport cu genul, la plural:
baby-sitteri / baby-sittere.
Observaiile Monici Ardeleanu Cruceru referitoare la ncadrarea n gen a anglicismelor, prin
cvasigeneralizarea desinenei de plural uri i prin prezena desinenei e la substantivele
terminate la singular n e (Ardeleanu 2003: 102-103) trebuie completate cu cteva precizri.
Una dintre acestea se refer la permanenta tendin de autosistematizare a limbii, n care
analogia joac un rol important. Cele dou desinene ale neutrului, pe care le primesc
anglicismele, se datoreaz analogiei formale cu celelalte neutre vechi n limb: aluaturi,
comploturi, paturi, gemuri, trmuri, chibrituri, roluri sau cu cele vechi terminate n (e)r:
pulovere, ateliere, calorifere, cartiere, fluiere, frigidere .a. n plus, desinena uri, datorit
lungimii n raport cu e i specializrii pentru marcarea pluralului neutrelor (cu excepii
justificate, de tipul: crnuri, mtsuri, dulceuri), marcheaz mult mai clar neutrul dect o
face desinena e, specific pluralului la feminine.
Blanca Croitor prezint comportamentul morfologic al substantivelor romneti introduse n
DOOM2, dintr-o perspectiv statistic (Croitor 2009: p. 33). Consider c unele substantive
de genul neutru primesc desinena -uri pentru c nu se pot combina cu desinena e din
motive fonetice [...] n aceast situaie sunt [...] mprumuturi recente terminate n vocal [...]
boogie, brandy, duty-free, one-man show, pary, story, talk-show (n.n. am selectat din lista
autoarei anglicisme) (Croitor 2009: 41). Din exemplele mele de mai sus, rezult c aceast
explicaie e parial adevrat (reamintesc: deckuri, desktopuri, discounturi, dressinguri,
drinkuri, e-mailuri, exit-polluri, fast-fooduri, feedbackuri, flashbackuri, forehanduri,
gadgeturi, grilluri, harduri, softuri, inputuri .a.).
nc o observaie: cu ct acomodarea anglicismului e mai avansat, acioneaz i regulile
alternaelor vocalice sau / i consonantice: procesor / procesoare, crenvurst / crenvurti, jeans
/ jeani, byte / byi.
n ce privete scrierea formei articulate hotrt i a celei de plural, se observ diferena ntre
uz i norm: big band-ul i big band-uri / big bandul i big banduri; desktop-ul i desktop-uri
/ desktopul i desktopuri; e-mail-ul i e-mail-uri / e-mailul i e-mailuri; fitness-ul / fitnessul
.a., dar i scrierea identic: bungalow-ul, bungalow-uri; site-ul, site-uri; high-life-ul; ice-tea-
ul .a.
Informaiile morfologice date la termenii noi nu sunt ntotdeauna sistematizate. De pild, la
airbag i airbus apare ncadrarea lor n clasa substantivelor neutre i forma nearticulat de
plural. Lipsete ns forma articulat de singular: airbagul, airbusul i de plural: airbagurile,
airbusurile. La termenul audit, nu apare dect informaia de gen a substantivului, nu i forma
de plural care este frecvent folosit: audituri. Lisesc formele articulate hotrt ale
substantivelor: background, banking, bypass, e-mail, link, babyschi, babyschilift, babysitter
(masculin i feminin) .a.m.d. Consider c la substantivele-mprumuturi recente sau relativ
recente, forma articulat de singular i de plural n-ar trebui s lipseasc, deoarece regula
articulrii acestora este dificil pentru o categorie larg de utilizatori. Autoarele noului
DOOM pot rspunde c regula trebuie neleas i urmat ntocmai, dar atunci de ce se dau
doar formele articulate hotrt ale unor substantive care sunt terminate ntr-o liter strin sau
cu pronunare strin, ct vreme i acestea sunt cuprinse n regula respectiv?
10. O alt serie de substantive mprumutate din englez sunt cele care au n compunere
formantul man: chairman (nenregistrat n DOOM), recordmen, superman, yesman,
1075
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
cameraman, tenismen, gentleman, showman (nenregistrat n DOOM), care formeaz diferit
pluralul: recordmeni, supermeni, yesmeni, tenismeni, gentelmeni vs cameramani. Forma de
plural n meni este pleonastic, deoarece men este, n englez, pluralul lui man, iar i este
desinena romneasc de plural, de aceea, preferabil ar fi pluralul n mani.
11. Liliana Florina Cojocaru Andronache se refer diferite aspecte ale adaptrii i
asimilrii morfologice a anglicismelor n romn i italian. Printre situaiile semnalate, este
i aceea a siglrii, constatnd c siglele [] vor fi ncadrate ntr-una din categoriile de gen
[] masculin, feminin sau neutru (pentru romn) (Cojocaru 2010: 236) Toate exemplele
sunt ns ale unor sigle de genul neutru: SUV-uri, WC-uri, GPS-uri, CD-uri, DVD-uri, sms-
uri, FBI, NATO, ONU, la care adaug alte exemple din noul DOOM: BBC, CD, CD-ROM,
EKG, VIP, IQ, LP .a.
12. ntr-un alt articol, Liliana Florina Cojocaru Andronache (Cojocaru 2012: 7) se refer la
adaptarea grafic a anglicismelor i pune problema real a cazurilor de oscilaii la nivelul
grafiei, fapt care genereaz apariia variantelor lexicale (ibidem, 14).
13. Ct privete adaptarea morfologic a verbelor recent intrate din engleza britanic i cea
american, fac cteva precizri. n primul rnd, cele mai multe sunt din domeniul informaticii:
a formata, a clicka / a clica, a downloada, a lista, a se loga, a printa, a starta, a procesa, a
scana, a tasta .a. Acestea se conjug la indicativ prezent cu sufixul ez / -eaz-: listez,
formatez, printeaz, scaneaz .a.m.d, mai rar, cu sufixul esc / -et-: heckrete, chatuiete
.a. Unele din substantivele-baz derivativ ale acestor verbe colocheaz cu proforme verbale:
a da click, a da start, a da zoom.
14. Adaptarea grafic e ulterioar celei fonetice. Prin grafia original, se manifest dorina
de a evidenia forma din limba-surs. Prin pronunarea adaptat, -er a devenit i continu s
se rosteasc -r: blazer, blister, CD-player, CD-writter, charter, cutter, driver, flipper,
marker, over, pager, player, plotter, receiver (nenregistrat n DOOM), remember, rapper,
scanner (nenregistrat n DOOM). Fac excepie de la aceast regul, potrivit indicaiilor
DOOM-ului: computer,poster, prompter, server, starter, taster.
Concluzii
1. Termenul anglicism denumete mprumutul din engleza britanic sau american, a crui
adaptare la sistemul limbii romne nu e desvrit.
2. Adaptarea fonetic nseamn o reproducere mai mult sau mai puin reuit a pronunrii
englezeti, dependent i de gradul de cunoatere a acestei limbi.
3. Adaptarea grafic este, probabil, cea mai ntrziat. Pstrnd grafia original, romnii
dau impresia c nu vor s romnizeze ntru totul anglicismele respective, ci accept
identitatea lor.
4. Adaptarea morfologic pune mai multe probleme la substantive, dect la verbe. Aceasta
presupune ncadrarea n clase de flexiune, n tiparele existente, prin corelri desineniale,
prin alternane fonetice, reflectate ntr-o scriere normat, adeseori dificil pentru
utilizatorul cu cunotine lingvistice de nivel mediu.
5. E nevoie ca selectarea termenilor noi din dicionarele romneti s se bazeze pe metode
statistice, la ndemn acum, graie tehnologiei avansate. La fel, e nevoie ca informaiile
date s urmeze acelai parcurs: scriere, pronunare, silabisire, accentuare, variante grafice,
ncadrare morfologic, urmat de toate elementele necesare utilizrii lor corecte.
1076
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Bibliografie
Ardeleanu Cruceru Monica, Comportamentul morfologic al termenilor din domeniul
informaticii, n Aspecte ale dinamicii limbii romne actuale, Bucureti, Editura Universitii
din Bucureti, 2003, p. 99-107.
Cojocaru Andronache, Liliana Florentina, Asimilarea categoriei de gen a anglicismelor n
limbile romn i italian, n Limba romn. Controverse, delimitri, noi ipoteze, Bucureti,
Editura Universitii din Bucureti, 2010, p. 231-239.
Cojocaru Andronache, Liliana Florentina, Dinamica adaptrii grafice a anglicismelor n
presa romneasc i italian, n Limba romn. Direcii actuale n cercetarea lingvistic II,
Bucureti, Editura Universitii din Bucureti, 2012, p. 7-17.
Croitor, Blanca, Dinamica flexiunii substantivale, reflectat n DOOM2, n Dinamica limbii
romne actuale, Bucureti, Editura Academiei Romne, 2009, p. 33-59.
DOOM2 = Dicionar ortografic, ortoepic i morfologic al limbii romne, ediia a II-a revzut
i adugit, Bucureti, Editura Univers Enciclopedic Gold, 2010.
DN = Florin Marcu, Constant Maneca, Dicionar de neologisme, Bucureti, Editura
Academiei, 1986.
DSL = Angela Bidu-Vrnceanu, Cristina Clrau, Liliana Ionescu-Ruxndoiu, Mihaela
Manca, Gabriela Pan Dindelegan, Dicionar de tiine ale limbii, Bucureti, Editura
Bnemira, 2001.
Hristea, Theodor, Conceptul de neologism, n Tradiie i inovaie n studiul limbii romne,
Bucureti, Editura Universitii din Bucureti, 2004, p. 23-37
Stoichioiu-Ichim, Adriana, Vocabularul limbii romne actuale. Dinamic, influen,
creativitate, Bucureti, Editura All, 2001.
1077
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ARTICULATION OF REFERENTIAL QUANTA THROUGH TEXTEMES IN
MIHAIL SADOVEANUS NOVEL THE GOLDEN BOUGH
Simina TERIAN, Assistant Professor, Ph.D., Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu
Abstract: This study analyses the articulation of referential quanta (i.e., text units made from
at least two terms, which enter an equational metaphoric relationship, according to Mircea
Borcil) through textemes (i.e., units of repeated discourse that can be substituted through
another text or text fragment, according to Eugeniu Coeriu) in Sadoveanus novel Creanga
de aur [The Golden Bough]. My analysis focuses on 32 textemes, the majority of which have
an intertextual standing; they are taken from the Bible, from the Kabbala tradition, from the
Greek-Latin culture or from works by modern authors, such as Mihai Eminescu. The
conclusion of this study is that the particular manner of referential quanta articulation in
Mihail Sadoveanus novel is both a technique of organizing the novel on the whole and a
device for the creation of meaning.
Keywords: textemes, referential quanta, integral linguistics, Mihail Sadoveanu, creation of
meaning
Aprut n 1933, romanul Creanga de aur este considerat una dintre capodoperele
prozei sadoveniene i ale literaturii romne n general. Reuita romanului a fost explicat de
ctre critica literar prin coerena sa compoziional ireproabil, prin proiecia mitic a
faptelor relatate i prin profunzimea sensurilor sale. n cele ce urmeaz, ne propunem s
explorm modul n care textemele 1 prezente n roman contribuie la construcia sensului su i,
implicit, la impunerea valorii sale artistice 2. Prin urmare, avem n vedere o tripl lectur, care
s urmreasc, pe rnd, (a) microarticularea cuantelor refereniale prin intermediul
textemelor, (b) macroarticularea cmpurilor refereniale i construcia sensului textual de
ansamblu, respectiv (c) funciile textemelor n contrucia cmpurilor i a sensului global3. Dar,
nainte de a ncepe investigaia, considerm c e util s grupm mai nti cele 17 capitole ale
crii n nite macro-cadre narative. Astfel, putem spune c n romanul sadovenian exist
ase asemenea macro-cadre, care pot fi delimitate dup nite criterii spaio-temporale (sau
cronotopice, n terminologia lui Mihail Bahtin). Primul cadru (cap. I) este acela al
prezentului narativ (Romnia anului 1926) i el constituie o ram a evenimentelor de
demult, adic a povetii de dragoste pe care o ncifreaz romanul. n cel de-al doilea
(macro)cadru (cap. II-III), suntem proiectai n trecut, adic n Dacia anului 780 e.n., unde ni
se prezint o ceremonie iniiatic la care particip tnrul ucenic Kesarion Breb. Cel de-al
treilea (macro)cadru, care acoper perioada 780-787 e.n., cnd Breb se iniiaz n Egipt, nu ne
1
Pentru noiunea de textem (ca uniti ale discursului repetat substituibile prin alte texte sau fragmente de
text), v. Eugeniu Coeriu, Vers ltude des structures lexicales [Structure lexicale et enseignement du
vocabulaire, 1966], n Eugeniu Coeriu, Lhomme et son langage, textes runis par H. Dupuy-Engelhardt, J.-P.
Durafour et F. Rastier, ditions Peeters, Louvain Paris Sterling, Virginia, 2001, p. 235-239.
2
Referitor la potenialul creator al textemelor, v. Simina Terian, Premise pentru o poetic a textemelor, n Iulian
Boldea, Cornel Sigmirean (eds.), Contemporary Perspectives on European Integration - between Tradition and
Modernity, Petru Maior University Press, Trgu-Mure, 2013.
3
n studiul de fa, vom acoperi doar obiectivul (a); celelalte dou obiective vor sta n atenia altor studii.
1078
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
este descris n mod direct, ci doar indirect, prin intermediul precizrilor cuprinse n celelalte
capitole ale romanului. Cel de-al patrulea i cel mai amplu (macro)cadru (cap. III-XV) are
n vedere Bizanul anilor 787-790, cuprinznd povestea de dragoste propriu-zis, precum i
fundalul politic al vremii. Al cincilea (macro)cadru condensat printr-o singur epistol (cap.
XVI) cuprinde evenimentele care au avut loc n Bizan n intervalul 790-797. n sfrit, al
aselea (macro)cadru al romanului vizeaz ceremonia de nvestire a lui Kesarion Breb ca
Decheneu n Dacia anului 797.
1.1. Primul (macro)cadru al romanului se deschide sub semnul repetiiei: n august
1926, profesorul nostru a organizat caravana ca i-n ceilali ani, cu aceiai oameni i aceleai
animale. (74) Ulterior, aflm c profesorul se numea, de fapt, Domnu Stamatin i c
expediia respectiv avea o finalitate tiinific (probabil arheologic). Cea dinti mostr de
discurs repetat apare nc din primul schimb de replici al romanului: [1] Era cam sltat,
cum spuneau desigur muntenii care ne ntovreau./ [2] E venit de pe ceea lume, am auzit
eu pe unul optind i ghiontind cu cotul pe cel de alturea. (7) Cele dou expresii idiomatice
alctuiesc deja o prim cuant referenial5, care ne poate servi pentru a pune aici n relief
procesul microarticulrii sensului. Astfel, semnificaia celor dou configuraii subliniate (a fi
sltat i a fi (venit) de pe ceea lume 6) este a fi nebun; numai c, n acelai timp, norma
limbii romne conine i sintagma ceea lume, al crei semnificat (sinonim cu acela al
sintagmelor lumea de apoi sau lumea cealalt) este acela de trm transcendent7. Prin
urmare, plasarea textemului a fi (venit) de pe ceea lume n preambulul prelegerii pe care
urmeaz s o in Domnu Stamatin echivaleaz cu o strategie diaforic8 menit s scoat n
relief opoziia ireductibil nebunie (= imanen) vs. moarte (= transcenden). Aceast
dizanalogie este mediat apoi, n mod endoforic, prin intermediul primei expresii, n cadrul
creia culturemul sltat deschide o nou dimensiune, a verticalitii ontologice, prin
intermediul schemei imagistice a ASCENSIUNII. n fine, strategia epiforic a construciei de
sens (pe care suntem capabili s o sesizm abia retroactiv, pe msur ce lum contact cu
adevrurile fundamentale expuse de Domnu Stamatin) const n depirea tensiunii nebunie
vs. moarte prin proiecia sensului ntr-un plan superior: a fi de pe ceea lume nu nseamn, n
romanul sadovenian, nici a fi nebun, nici a fi mort, ci a fi iniiat, a avea acces la
adevrurile sacre care se refuz cunoaterii profane.
4
Indicaiile de pagin lipsite de numele autorului se refer la ediia Mihail Sadoveanu, Creanga de aur. Mria
Sa, Puiul Pdurii. Nunta Domniei Ruxanda, Bucureti: Editura pentru Literatur, 1969.
5
Pentru distincia ntre cuante refereniale i cmpuri refereniale n viziunea lui Mircea Borcil i Benjamin
Harshav, v. Lolita Zagaevschi Cornelius, Funciile metaforice n Luntrea lui Caron de Lucian Blaga.
Abordare n perspectiv integralist, prefa de Mircea Borcil. Cluj-Napoca: Editura Clusium, 2005, pp. 55-56.
6
Cu privire la semnificatele idiomatice ale expresiilor respective, v. alte dou exemple: Cum asta, mi Chiric?
Parc vorbeti de pe ceea lume. Crezi tu c vom putea noi singuri secera i strnge atta amar de gru, c doar
sute i mii de brae trebuiesc acolo, nu ag! -apoi, numai pentru dou sarcini de gru? Ce nebun ai crede tu c-
ar fi acela? (Ion Creang, Povestea lui Stan Pitul); Dar Chiric era acum tocmai n iad i se desfta la snul
lui Scaraoschi, iar codoca de bab gemea sub talpa-iadului i numai motanul ei cel din ceea lume i plngea de
mil, pentru c l-a cocolit aa de bine. (idem); Pe dinaintea lui treceau fiine ciudate pe care nu le vzuse
niciodat. Ah! gndi el n curnd voi muri, astes deja umbre de pe ceea lume. Numai umbra lui proprie
sttea dreapt n prete, parc surdea i ciudat! avea ochi albatri. Dracul s te ia, gndi el, i umbra mea
i bate joc de mine acuma. (Mihai Eminescu, Srmanul Dionis)
7
DEX 98 ofer urmtoarele semnificate: a) (n concepiile religioase) viaa de dincolo de moarte; b) (n basme)
regiune imaginat dincolo de acest pmnt, cellalt trm.
8
Pentru distincia ntre strategiile dia-, endo- i epiforic de articulare a sensului, v. Lolita Zagaevschi Cornelius,
Op. cit., p. 56.
1079
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
1.2. Din raiuni lesne de neles, nu ne vom putea permite s urmrim aceste moduri de
microarticulare n cazul tuturor textemelor cuprinse n romanul sadovenian. Prin urmare, n
cadrul studiului de fa ne vom mulumi s identificm cteva dintre textemele proeminente
ale romanului i s degajm succint cteva dintre sensurile lor, care pregtesc astfel terenul
pentru macroarticularea cmpurilor refereniale pe care o vom avea n vedere ntr-un alt
studiu. n aceast ordine de idei, suntem nevoii s observm c primul capitol i.e., primul
(macro)cadru al romanului cuprinde nc dou texteme, mai dificil de sesizat. Primul dintre
acestea este descrierea magului strvechi de la care Domnu Stamatin pretinde c ar fi nvat
calea de a ptrunde nesilit n miezul lucrurilor, prin intermediul cunoaterii spirituale, i.e.
simbolice (10). Fragmentul este urmtorul: Ascultai ce-am vzut. [3] Cenua veche sta nc
n vatra prsit; ltra n adncime celul pmntului; am intrat i l-am gsit palid i seme
n jilul tiat n stnc. Cu dreapta inea toiagul de filde. Avea muchi n plete i pe sn; i
ajungea barba la pmnt i genele la piept; deasupr-i flfia, gonindu-se n roate,
Cu-aripile-ostenite, un alb i-un negru corb...
Subt povara acestui semn al zilelor i nopilor sttea orb, ns [4] numerele de aur
continuau s clipeasc subt bolta frunii lui, scriind misterios timpurile [s.n.]. (9-10)
Numeroi exegei ai operei sadoveniene au remarcat faptul c portretul magului
sadovenian are la baz descrierea unui (alt) preot btrn, care se ntlnete n Strigoii lui
Mihai Eminescu: Ajuns-a el la poala de codru-n munii vechi,/ Isvoar vii murmur i salt
de sub piatr,/ Colo cenua sur n prsita vatr,/ n codri-adnci celul pmntului tot latr,/
Ltrat cu glas de zimbru rsun n urechi.// Pe-un jil tiat n stnc st apn, palid, drept,/ Cu
crja lui n mn, preotul cel pgn;/ De-un veac el ede astfel de moarte-uitat, btrn,/ n
plete-i crete muchiul, i muchi pe a lui sn,/ Barba-n pmnt i-ajunge i genele la piept...//
Aa fel zi i noapte de veacuri el st orb,/ Picioarele lui vechie cu piatra-mpreunate,/ El
numr n gndu-i zile nenumrate,/ i flfie deasupra-i, gonindu-se n roate,/ Cu-aripile-
ostenite un alb -un negru corb. Dup cum se poate constata, pasajul sadovenian e un macro-
textem care reia punct cu punct elementele poemului eminescian. Funcia semnic a acestei
reluri e dubl. Pe de o parte, prozatorul sugereaz ideea c, n esen, cunoaterea simbolic
le este rezervat doar iniiailor, ntre care poeii alctuiesc o categorie privilegiat (de unde i
recursul la textul ilustrului su precursor). Pe de alt parte, ntr-un plan mai larg, macro-
textemul sadovenian trimite la o form de organizare a lumii, n care timpurile sunt deja
scrise, n mod misterios, de ctre o for superioar. Acest sens pare a fi ntrit de ctre
micro-textemul [5] (numerele de aur), care constituie una dintre puinele abateri ale
fragmentului de la modelul eminescian i care indic un motiv ocult (pythagoreic, kabbalistic
i masonic), de circulaie universal. Potrivit lui Radu Cerntescu 9, aceste numere de aur au
fost nvestite de tradiia Kabbalei cu ciudate i disimulate proprieti terapeutice, dar i cu
altele menite s rmn n veci ascunse pentru profanum vulgum.
1.3. Cellalt textem cu implicaii de profunzime n articularea romanului care apare n
primul capitol/(macro)cadru este chiar tabelul astral pe care l schieaz Domnu Stamatin:
[5] Luna Mercur Venus Soarele;
Mart Joe Saturn Luna;
9
Radu Cerntescu, Literatura luciferic. O istorie ocult a literaturii romne, Cartea Romneasc, Bucureti,
2010, p. 299.
1080
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Mercur Venus Soarele Mart;
Joe Saturn Luna Mercur;
Venus Soarele Mart Joe;
Saturn Luna Mercur Venus;
Soarele Mart Joe Saturn.
Majoritatea exegeilor sadovenieni nu au acordat prea mare importan acestei scheme,
ns o interpretare recent10 a relevat importana acestui Tabel al orelor planetare, prezent
n toate manualele de magie popular (grimoare), precum celebra Clavicula Solomonis11. La
un prim palier, tabelul desemna o strveche mprire a zilei n cele patru importante strji
jurnaliere, fiecare segment de timp fiind consemnat aici prin ascendentul su astral; de fapt,
la acest orar, care s-a pstrat pn n era cretin, cnd noul sistem a preluat vechile
raporturi astrale i le-a extins la nivelul orelor, pare a se referi i Stamatin atunci cnd
afirm: Calendarul lumii nou a rmas al astrologului i al magului de altdat. (11) ns,
dincolo de acest sens de suprafa, Cerntescu identific n tabelul lui Stamatin i un plan
secund, esoteric, care trimite la Kabbala (cu precdere la Sepher Ietzirah, Cartea
Creaiunii). Or, n acest fel, tabelul sadovenian pe care kabbalitii cretini l-au denumit
Schi hermetic a Totului-universal comport, n viziunea exegetului su, o finalitate
magic aplicativ: el funcioneaz [...] aici ca o punere n abis a operaiilor numerice cu
operatori literali [...], care, corect nelese, [...] l pot pune pe om n legtur direct cu acea
ratio activa vizibil n inteligibilitatea manifest a Universului. Iar, n aceast accepiune,
schema lui Stamatin se leag n mod direct cu textemul/simbolul crengii de aur.
2.1. Urmtorul textem al romanului deschide cel de-al doilea (macro)cadru al
naraiunii, proiectnd evenimentele ntr-un trecut imemorial: [6] Era, de la fericitul
Zalmoxis, cursul vremii ntr-al cincilea ciclu, socotind ciclul ct numrul zilelor anului, adic
trei sute aizeci i cinci de ani. Iar dintr-al cincilea ciclu, credincioii vechi de la Carpai
numrau ani o sut douzeci. n vile deprtate, unde izvoarele i puhoaiele nlimilor se
prefac n praie i lacuri, iar oamenii i cldesc case de brne n aezri statornice, lumea i
ntorsese faa ctr o lege nou i numra anul 780 de la izbvitorul Hristos. (14-15) Chiar
dac textemul diasemic de la nceputul paragrafului citat e specific mai degrab naraiunii
istoriografice (cronicii) dect celei mitice (basmului), dedublarea mitico-religioas a
temporalitii (timpul lui Zalmolxis timpul lui Hristos) evoc o Dacie cvasi-mitic,
cufundat n sacralitate. Totodat, folosirea unei cronologii plurale, care admite implicit
existena mai multor diviniti, trimite ctre acelai simbol al crengii de aur (= Unicul de
dincolo de Multiplu), pe care se articuleaz ntreg romanul sadovenian.
2.2. O reprezentare similar apare i n replica btrnului mag, care afl vestea
rspndirii cretinismului printre noroadele de la cmpie: [7] Vetile pe care mi le aducei
nu m pot mhni, cci tot ce se ntmpl e rnduial a Celui prea nalt pe care noi l servim.
Mi-ai vorbit de mult de legea nou ctr care noroadele se ndreapt; dar sub cuvintele ei
proaspete eu vd aceleai semne vechi, cci Domnul Dumnezeu are o mie de nume i o mie de
forme. Poate ochii oamenilor de rnd au nevoie de altceva i sufletul lor dorete alt joc de
colori, dar cel ales trebuie s rmie ntr-acelai loc al su, ndreptat cu toat puterea spiritului
10
Idem, p. 266-273.
11
Totui, Radu Cerntescu emite ipoteza c Sadoveanu ar fi preluat acest textem din tratatul La Cabbale
(1903) de Papus [Dr. Grard Encausse].
1081
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
spre nelepciunea cea mai presus de toate. Cel pe care l servim e unul, nscut din el nsui; i
din acest unul toate au ieit i el e n toate i le nvluie pe toate. Nimene dintre muritori nu l-a
vzut dect n valuri i vnturi, i-n raza care strpunge moartea trezind colul gruntelui.
Pentru oamenii de rnd e trebuin s se gseasc cea mai potrivit alctuire ca s se team i
s nu se mnnce unii pe alii ca fiarele. Dar pentru noi ceea ce e venic nu se poate clti.
(20) n ciuda retoricii aparent cretine care nvluie nvturile Magului, textemul-cheie al
fragmentului citat transmite, de fapt, o reprezentare hindus, de vreme ce Domnul
Dumnezeu cu o mie de nume i o mie de forme trimite la Vishnu Sahasranama (Vishnu cu o
mie de nume), cea mai cunoscut reprezentare a principalei diviniti a hinduismului, care e
menionat de numeroase ori cu acest atribut n Mahabharata. Altfel spus, magul vede mereu
dincolo de formele divinitii, sesiznd adevrata ei unitate de substan.
3. Cel de-al treilea (macro)cadru al romanului sadovenian cltoria lui Kesarion
Breb n Egipet, cu scopul de a afla rspunsul la ntrebarea magului (dac popoarele lor sunt
mai fericite i dac preoii legii nou au sporit cu un dram nelepciunea) rmne singurul
care nu e povestit ca atare n roman, fiind recuperat ulterior, prin faptele i vorbele
fostului ucenic. Cu toate acestea, evenimentul este pre-scris ntr-un fragment fundamental nu
doar pentru nelegerea iniierii lui Kesarion, dar i a operei sadoveniene n ansamblul ei: [8]
Deci, fiule al meu, va trebui s faci lung cltorie n Egipet. Dup ce vei cunoate Nilul, care
este tatl i hrnitorul rii i al oamenilor de acolo, te vei mira de toate zidirile mprailor de
odinioar. i vei vedea i pe unii din acei mprai nfurai n scrisoarea vieii lor, dormind
cu trupurile n cripte, pe cnd sufletele lor ateapt nvierea pe rmul care se cheam Amenti.
Te vei opri la columnele templelor, comunicnd prin semnele lor i prin ochii ti cu oamenii
i cu faptele de odinioar. Vei vedea piramidele cele mari, n care se afl nsemnate timpurile
i semnele dumnezeirii. Vei sta cu mirare lng leul uria de piatr, cu cap de muiere, care
strjuiete ctr hotarul pustiilor Libiei i, ca s-i afli taina, te vei cobor ctr apa Nilului i
vei bate la ua templului pe care i-l voi numi i unde am btut i eu cnd eram ca tine. Vei
spune cuvntul i vei face semnele pe care i le voi mprti i, ngenunchind n faa preotului
cel mare de acolo, i vei nfia inelul meu. Vei vorbi puin i vei rspunde n limba elin la
ntrebri. i astfel vei intra la nvtura ta cea din urm i desvrit, slluind n acel
templu apte ani. (22) Cu privire la pasajul anterior, e de remarcat c, fr a constitui, sub
raport lingvistic, un textem propriu-zis, replica magului funcioneaz ca un textem n
ansamblul romanului sadovenian. n plan compoziional, fragmentul citat reprezint ceea ce
naratologii numesc proleps, adic o relatare a unui eveniment ulterior momentului enunrii
sale. Acest eveniment se va desfura aflm din viitoarele capitole ntocmai cum a fost
pre-zis, fr nicio abatere de la scenariul tipic al iniierii. Din acest motiv, replica magului
este, aidoma altor ziceri din romanul sadovenian, un discurs anticipat care acioneaz ca
un discurs repetat, iar aceast proprietate relev un aspect definitoriu att pentru discursul,
ct i pentru lumea descris n carte.
4. Capitolele IV-XV contureaz cel de-al patrulea (macro)cadru al romanului,
cuprinznd povestea de dragoste propriu-zis. Aici, Bizanul pe care l exploreaz Kesarion
Breb nu mai este doar un cadru narativ, ci i un cadru cultural (n sens coerian). Aceast
caracteristic se verific inclusiv n ceea ce privete discursul repetat, prin faptul c
majoritatea covritoare a textemelor ntlnite n capitolele respective sunt de provenien
biblic. Din acest motiv, ele vizeaz, de obicei, sfere nrudite ale existenei, n special
1082
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
primatul spiritualului asupra materialului.
4.1.1. Astfel, n capitolele IV-VIII, corespunznd rstimpului pe care Kesarion Breb l
consacr pentru a afla adevrata natur a mpriei bizantine, ntlnim numeroase texteme
care semnaleaz superioritatea sufletului i mizeria trupului. Amintim cteva dintre acestea:
[9] toate cele omeneti sunt prere i sub lumin viermuiesc putreziciunile (27)
textem diatropic, adaptare dup Toate cele omeneti sunt deertciune. Cte ne rmn dup
moarte! (Octoihul, Glasul al III-lea, Vecernia de Smbt, Stihoavn) sau poate chiar dup
Ecclesiast;
[10] vorbele i faptele noastre bune vor da rod nsutit, atunci cnd trupul nostru nu va
mai fi dect pulbere (41) aluzie la Pilda Semntorului (Luca, 8:8);
[11] Aceti strini, barbari de la miaznoapte i miazzi, urmeaz nluciri i patimi
ale clipei; n sufletul lor nu triete un Bizan al tuturor veacurilor, ci un Bizan de o zi, cnd
pot s ctige sigle i s bea vin, dup ce vor luneca prin snge. (50) textem diatropic,
provenit din adaptarea expresiei Dumnezeul tuturor veacurilor la motivul Ierusalimului
ceresc;
[12] este o corabie care se chiam pmnt i plutete spre venicie (53) textem
provenit dintr-o cugetare a Sfntului Nicodim (Biserica este o corabie, iar cretinii care merg
la Sfnta Biseric i intr n ea sunt izbvii din furtuna pcatelor.), dar care nu exclude alte
surse biblice configurate prin metafora conceptual VIAA ESTE O CLTORIE;
[13] asupra prea bunilor i asupra rilor, st totui Cel care cntrete dreptile.
Simbria st n fapta noastr, ca pulberea rodului n floare. (62) aluzie la El rsare soarele
Su i peste cei ri i peste cei buni, i plou i peste cei drepi, i peste cei nedrepi (Matei,
5:45);
[14] Cei muli, sraci i proti [...] sunt sarea pmntului; pe acetia i asupresc
puterile lumii; mrile, munii i rurile nu le-ar putea da ct li se cuvine. (67) avnd ca
model celebra afirmaie din Predica de pe Munte: Voi suntei sarea pmntului. Dar dac
sarea i pierde gustul, prin ce i va cpta iari puterea de a sra? Atunci nu mai este bun
la nimic dect s fie lepdat afar, i clcat n picioare de oameni. (Matei, 5:13);
[15] deoarece intrm goi n lume, tot asemenea trebuie s ieim. Cu nimic altceva nu
trebuie s se ndeletniceasc omul n aceast via dect cu milostenia. (69) prelucrare dup
Precum a ieit din pntecele maicii sale, gol se va duce, aa cum a venit, i pentru munca lui
el nu va primi nimic, ca s poat lua cu mna lui 12 (Ecclesiatul, 5:14) etc.
2.4.1.2. n aceast parte a romanului apar dou texteme de o importan capital.
Primul dintre ele este o replic a hadmbului Stavrikie, primul sfetnic al mprtesei Irina:
[16] Dup socotina acestui mare sfetnic, alctuirile legii lui Dumnezeu sunt una iar cele
ale stpnirii pmnteti alta. Domnul i mpratul lui i face [sic] legea lui pentru buna
rnduial a norodului i a lumii. ine pe om supus n credina ctr Dumnezeul cel drept
pentru a-i agonisi izbvirea; iar ca s ndeplineasc tot binele ntre cele pmnteti are drept s
12
Nu e exclus aici o surs de inspiraie indirect: Dar poate c cugei lucruri mari din pricina averii tale? De
ce? Te rog; nu ai auzit c goi am intrat n lume, goi ne vom i duce? Mai mult nc: n-ai vzut pe cei dinaintea ta
cum au plecat goi de aici? Dar cine oare avnd lucru strin, cuget pentru aceasta lucruri mari? C cei ce voiesc
a ntrebuina averile numai pentru mulumirea lor proprie, li se iau acestea i fr voia lor mai nainte de moarte
chiar, dar la moarte numaidect. (Sf. Ioan Gur de Aur, Comentariile sau Explicarea Epistolei ctre Evrei,
Omilia II)
1083
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ntrebuineze ori sabia, ori aurul, ori veninul, ori viclenia. Fericit crmuitorul care tie s
mnuiasc toate acestea! (43) Dei trimite la unul dintre cele mai cunoscute texteme biblice
(Dai Cezarului ce este al Cezarului, i lui Dumnezeu ce este al lui Dumnezeu. Matei,
22:21), discursul marelui dregtor bizantin constituie, n realitate, o rstlmcire a spiritului
evanghelic. Iisus afirm doar c un cretin trebuie s se supun n problemele lumeti
puterilor lumeti, dar nu i c acele puteri sunt ndreptite s ntrebuineze sabia, aurul,
veninul i viclenia.
4.1.3. Cellalt textem, la fel de cunoscut, i nu mai puin relevant n arhitectura crii,
este invocat de ctre nsui protagonistul romanului: [17] Att e de puin mintea
muritorilor... zmbea Kesarion ctr prietinul su episcopul; i cu aceast minte cuteaz s
descurce alt adevr cu mult mai tinuit. De aceea pentru lumea de rnd Dumnezeu va rmnea
nchis pn la istovirea veacurilor. Cu drept cuvnt lumea aceasta trebuie s cread fr a
cerceta. (49) Cu toate c opinia curent atribuie adeseori aceste cuvinte Bibliei, o asemenea
asociere este profund eronat. n realitate, cuvintele au fost rostite de ctre filozoful pgn
Celsus (sec. II e.n.), n lucrarea sa (Adevrata Credin), ca modalitate de a
ridiculiza presupusa ignoran a cretinilor, i pstrate prin intermediul lucrrii Contra
Celsum, n care Origen a rspuns acestor acuzaii: Nu cerceta, ci crede; credina este cea care
te va mntui13. Faptul c un astfel de precept este rostit i asumat de ctre Kesarion Breb nu
constituie, desigur, o ntmplare: pe lng faptul c nvatul dac i dovedete nc o dat
ecumenismul su larg (capabil s-i includ pn i pe opozanii cretinismului), aluzia la
Celsus cuprinde i un sens mai profund. Filozoful grec a fost primul care a semnalat nrudirea
dintre cretinism i alte doctrine bazate pe procesul moarte resurecie (Cybele, Mithra,
Sabasios etc.), ba chiar a afirmat c, n comparaie cu alte filozofii, ea [morala cretin] nu
propovduiete nimic demn i nou14. Chiar dac nu-i putem atribui un asemenea radicalism
anticretin i lui Kesarion Breb, e evident c atitudinea sa privind unitatea de profunzime a
tuturor credinelor nu e fr legtur cu filozofia lui Celsus.
4.2. Sfritul capitolului VIII (Aici Kesarion Breb afl bucuriile cuviosului Filaret i
ale doamnei Teosva, precum i o bucurie a sa proprie) i capitolul IX (Aici lucrurile se petrec
ca n vremea cea de demult a basmelor mamei) din roman relateaz unul dintre evenimentele-
cheie ale crii: peirea Mariei din Amnia de ctre Kesarion Breb (n numele episcopului
Platon din Sakkoudion i, indirect, al mprtesei Irina) pentru ca tnra s devin mireasa
tnrului basileu Constantin Isaurianul. ntreg acest episod se subordoneaz unui [18] hiper-
textem care ar putea fi considerat acela al basmului Cenuresei15. Cteva dintre elementele
tematice ale textemului (ntlnirea, motivul condurului) apar nc din capitolul VIII, ns
deznodmntul (recunoaterea) se consum abia n capitolul urmtor. Tot aici apar i
formulele specifice basmului, care cuprind, pe lng titlul capitolului i formula vestea-
poveste (71) de la nceputul su, o reprezentare feeric (de basm) a Bizanului ca figur
a Raiului pmntesc: [19] Acolo-i raiul lumii i buricul pmntului, acolo sunt livezi cu
13
Origen, Scrieri alese, vol. IV: mpotriva lui Celsus [Contra Celsum, 248], studiu introductiv, traducere i note
de Pr. Prof. T. Bodogae. Bucureti: Editura Institutului Biblic i de Misiune al B.O.R., 1984, p. 36.
14
Idem, p. 32.
15
Dei Cenureasa i-a ctigat celebritatea mondial mai ales datorit basmelor scrise de Giambattista Basile,
Charles Perrault, respectiv Jacob i Wilhelm Grimm, versiuni folclorice i culte ale acestei poveti se ntlnesc
nc din Antichitate, att n spaiul cultural greco-roman, ct i n cel iudaic (cf. Graham Anderson, Fairytale in
the Ancient World, Routledge, London/New York, 2000, p. 24-42).
1084
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
mere de aur i cnt pasrea miastr la ferestre mpodobite cu mrgritare. (71) nvestite
cu sensuri hiperbolice, cele patru elemente de discurs repetat din fraza anterioar sunt
extrase, de fapt, nu din repertoriul imagistic canonic al Bibliei, ci din cultura popular
romneasc; iar aglomerarea i emergena lor brusc semnific o rupere de nivel nu doar n
existena protagonitilor (Kesarion i Maria), ci n ntreaga desfurare a romanului.
4.3. n celelalte capitole desfurate n cadrul bizantin (X-XV), discursul romanesc e
dominat iari de textemele biblice care ndeamn la cumptare i pocin. Emblematic n
acest sens e replica episcopului Platon ([20] Lumea a fost dintotdeauna aa, supus ispitelor
i rutii. De aceea spiritul i caut ostroavele. ntr-adevr, aceast trectoare via e plin
de dureri i de mhnire. 95), care amintete de una dintre cugetrile lui Solomon: Ca
umbra de trectoare este viaa noastr i sfritul ei este fr napoiere, c s-a pecetluit i
nimeni nu mai vine napoi. (Cartea nelepciunii lui Solomon, 2:5). Cu toate acestea, exist
n cadrul acestei pri a romanului dou tipuri de texteme care beneficiaz de un statut aparte.
4.3.1. n primul rnd, este vorba despre textemele titulare, precum [21] mpria
i tihna stau n hotare deosebite. (73), reluat apoi, sub o form uor modificat, ca titlu al
capitolului X (Mrirea i tihna stau n hotare deosebite 80), respectiv [22] Soarta celor
mari ai lumii e una cu soarta mieilor (cum se intituleaz capitolul XIII 111). Ambele
texteme, inspirate din viziunea Ecclesiastului, accentueaz distana ireductibil ce pare s
separe numenalul de fenomenal.
4.3.2. n al doilea rnd, acestor texteme titulare li se opun o serie de texteme-
pereche, n cadrul crora textemul secund reprezint o reconfigurare polemic a textemului
prim, indiferent de sursa acestuia. Dintr-o asemenea categorie fac parte replici precum:
[23] [Platon:] Lumea uit ades c tot ce-i pmntesc i omenesc se ofilete.
[Maria:] Prea sfinite printe, [...] toate cele pmnteti i omeneti ar trebui s aib
o nflorire. (109)
[24] Slav lui Dumnezeu! a zis n acea zi cuviosul Filaret, ctr prietinul su
egipteanul, primindu-l cu bucurie n pridvor; toate cte le ornduiete El sunt bune, i iat o
minune care nu se vede ades.
Slav lui Dumnezeu, rspunse Kesarion. Stelele stau n alctuirile lor i soarele e
acelai. (119)
[25] [Filaret:] Sunt muli?
[Breb:] Prea muli, domnul meu; srcimea Bizanului e o oaste fr numr.
[Filaret:] Mrire lui Dumnezeu: grdinile raiului sunt destul de largi ca s-i
adposteasc. (120)
Dincolo de disonana (intelectual i/sau afectiv) dintre personaje, aceste texteme
indic n acelai timp nencrederea unuia dintre interlocutori n pertinena discursului
repetat. ntr-o vreme de tulburri politice (care coincide, de altfel, cu intensificarea
dramatismului romanului), unele personaje pun la ndoial fie nelepciunea divin, fie pe cea
omeneasc.
4.3.3. Un statut apare n acest context l au cuvintele printelui Amos, care cad ca o
sentin irevocabil asupra lumii ficionale a romanului: [26] Adevrate sunt cele bune [...];
adevrate sunt i cele rele. Dumnezeu pe toate le pune n cumpn i le cntrete, pltind
fiecruia dup marfa pe care a adus-o. Faptele smintite ale prietenilor notri sunt pentru noi
pasat dulce, cci tim c va sta asupra lor un jude nfricoat. (134) Inspirate de cntarea
1085
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Anei, mama lui Samuel (Domnul este Dumnezeu a toat cunotina i lucrurile la Dnsul
sunt cntrite Regi 1, 2:3), sau poate chiar de celebrul verdict adresat mpratului Belaar
(Iat inscripia care a fost scris: M e n e , m e n e , t e c h e l u f a r s i n . Aceasta este
tlcuirea cuvntului mene: Dumnezeu a numrat zilele regatului tu i i-a pus capt. Techel: l-
a cntrit n cntar i l-a gsit uor. Peres: a mprit regatul tu i l-a dat Mezilor i Perilor.
Daniel, 5:25-28), refleciile printelui Amos i vor gsi curnd confirmarea n destinul
unora dintre personajele romanului.
5. Acest destin ne este cunoscut dintr-o scrisoare pe care cuviosul Teodor de la
Sakkoudion i-o trimite n anul 797 lui Kesarion Breb. Epistola comprim astfel cel de-al
cincilea (macro)cadru al romanului, care cuprinde evenimentele petrecute n Bizan n anii
de dup plecarea nvatului dac. Sub raport expresiv, scrisoarea lui Teodor conine cea mai
mare concentraie de texteme (toate de sorginte biblic) de pe ntreg cuprinsul crii. De
exemplu:
[27] Vorba dreapt cu care episcopul Platon i ncepe cuvntarea mpotriva
Isaurianului (Vai celui ce zice bunului c este ru i rului c este bun. 146) este un
extras din Isaia 5:20: Vai de cei ce zic rului bine i binelui ru; care numesc lumina
ntuneric i ntunericul lumin; care socotesc amarul dulce i dulcele amar!
[28] Replica prin care Maria i se plnge lui Platon (e mai bun ziua morii dect ziua
naterii 146) trimite la un pasaj din Ecclesiastul (7:1): Mai de pre este un nume bun dect
untdelemnul cel binemirositor i ziua morii dect ziua naterii.
[29] Rspunsul episcopului la textemul anterior (mpria divin nu e mncare i
butur, ci dreptate, pace i bucurie ntru spirit 146) const ntr-un avertisment al Sf.
Apostol Pavel: Cci mpria lui Dumnezeu nu este mncare i butur, ci dreptate i pace
i bucurie n Duhul Sfnt (Romani, 14:17).
[30] Acelai episcop l ceart pe Isaurian (O, mprate, carnea i sngele tu nu vor
putea s moteneasc mpria lui Dumnezeu; ci vor putrezi ntru scrnvia de jos! 147)
cu nite vorbe inspirate de acelai Apostol Pavel: Nu tii, oare, c nedrepii nu vor moteni
mpria lui Dumnezeu? Nu v amgii: Nici desfrnaii, nici nchintorii la idoli, nici
adulterii, nici malahienii, nici sodomiii, nici furii, nici lacomii, nici beivii, nici batjocoritorii,
nici rpitorii nu vor moteni mpria lui Dumnezeu. (Corinteni 1, 6: 9-10)
[31] Definiia divinului via negationis, pe care Teodor i-o ofer lui Kesarion (Pre
Dumnezeu nimene nu l-a vzut niciodinioar, scrie evanghelistul nostru Ioan: ntr-adevr, mi-
ai ntors dumneata cuvnt, cci Dumnezeu nu este zoomorfie. i ai mai adugit c vorbele
meteugite nu pot nlocui substana, adic fapta bun. 147) e preluat, dup cum
recunoate chiar semnatarul scrisorii, de la Sf. Apostol Ioan: Pe Dumnezeu nimeni nu L-a
vzut vreodat; Fiul cel Unul-Nscut, Care este n snul Tatlui, Acela L-a fcut cunoscut.
(Ioan, 1:18)
[32] Spre final, asemenea lui Iov (Cci noi suntem de ieri i nu tim nimic, cci zilele
noastre pe pmnt nu sunt dect o umbr. Iov 8:9), autorul epistolei reafirm nimicnicia
vieii omeneti: Noi suntem de ieri i umbr pe pmnt e viaa noastr. (148)
6. Toate aceste texteme, care asociaz sensuri privind pedeapsa divin, efemeritatea
trupului i mntuirea spiritului, sunt rostite n contextul detronrii Isaurianului i al
reinstaurrii Binelui (sau, cel puin, a unui Ru-mai-mic). Un asemenea eveniment conduce,
practic, la soluionarea intrigii politice a romanului (intriga erotic fiind deja rezolvat n
1086
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
capitolul precedent). Or, n aceste condiii, capitolul XVII, care descrie nvestirea lui Kesarion
Breb ca Decheneu i configureaz, implicit, ultimul macro(cadru) al romanului , se
deruleaz fr peripeii, ca o simpl reiterare a unui ritual imuabil.
Bibliografie
ANDERSON, Graham: Fairytale in the Ancient World, Routledge, London/New York, 2000.
CERNTESCU, Radu: Literatura luciferic. O istorie ocult a literaturii romne, Cartea
Romneasc, Bucureti, 2010.
COERIU, Eugeniu: Vers ltude des structures lexicales [Structure lexicale et enseignement
du vocabulaire, 1966], n Eugeniu Coeriu, Lhomme et son langage, textes runis par H.
Dupuy-Engelhardt, J.-P. Durafour et F. Rastier, ditions Peeters, Louvain Paris Sterling,
Virginia, 2001, p. 215-252.
ORIGEN: Scrieri alese, vol. IV: mpotriva lui Celsus [Contra Celsum, 248], studiu
introductiv, traducere i note de Pr. Prof. T. Bodogae. Bucureti: Editura Institutului Biblic i
de Misiune al B.O.R., 1984.
SADOVEANU, Mihail: Creanga de aur. Mria Sa, Puiul Pdurii. Nunta Domniei Ruxanda,
Editura pentru Literatur, Bucureti, 1969.
TERIAN, Simina: Premise pentru o poetic a textemelor, n Iulian Boldea, Cornel Sigmirean
(eds.), Contemporary Perspectives on European Integration - between Tradition and
Modernity, Petru Maior University Press, Trgu-Mure, 2013.
ZAGAEVSCHI CORNELIUS, Lolita: Funciile metaforice n Luntrea lui Caron de Lucian
Blaga. Abordare n perspectiv integralist, prefa de Mircea Borcil. Editura Clusium,
Cluj-Napoca, 2005.
1087
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ILLOCUTIONARY FORCE IN CRIMINAL JUDGMENTS
Alina GIOROCEANU, Assistant Professor, PhD, University of Craiova
Abstract: The present study aims to analyze the illocutionary force within the framework of a
criminal judgment. According to legal dictionaries, a criminal judgment is the decision of a
legally constituted criminal court, taken in conformity with the legal dispositions and
principles of the law.
A judgment contains three parts; the final part is a decisional one that reveals the force and
the effect of the law and that accomplishes the purpose of the criminal proceedings. In this
part of the judgment, the illocutionary force becomes evident and could be identified by using
the classical Speech Acts theory and the instruments of linguistics.
Keywords: linguistics, illocutionary force, speech acts, criminal law, judgment
I. Preliminarii teoretice: fora ilocuionar
La mijlocul secolului trecut, John Austin (1962) punea bazele pragmaticii lingvistice
(neleas i ca lingvistic a uzului cf. DSL: pragmatic) , introducnd cteva noiuni n
sprijinul tezei potrivit creia limbajul nu are doar o funcie descriptiv: prin intermediul
limbajului, emitorul, cel care produce un enun, are posibilitatea de a ndeplini o aciune.
Teoria actelor de vorbire 1 propus de Austin se ntemeiaz pe funcia limbajului de a aciona
asupra realitii, de a ncorpora o anume for, numit for ilocuionar.
Conceptul este preluat de continuatorii proiectului pragmaticii propus de Austin, fiind
generator de importante dezbateri teoretice. n esen, fora ilocuionar este considerat
drept trstur a unui enun, care se afl sau nu n relaie cu receptorul. John Searle i Daniel
Vanderveken (1985) au corelat fora ilocuionar cu mecanisme lingvistice, considernd c,
prin aceast corelare, pot fi identificate enunurile performate cu o anume for ilocuionar.
ntr-o lucrare anterioar, John Searle (1969) a oferit cteva criterii pe baza crora se poate
contura o tipologie a actelor ilocuionare, respectiv: scopul actului (illocutionary point of
utterance), direcia de ajustare (direction of fit), starea psihologic (psychological state),
intensitate (intensity), statutul sau poziia relativ a interlocutorilor, modul n care actul se
leag de interesele emitorului sau le receptorului, relaia cu ansamblul discursului,
coninutul propoziional, statutul obligatoriu sau opional de act de vorbire, necesitatea unei
instituii extralingvistice pentru performare, existena sau nonexistena unui verb performativ
care s poat funciona ca verb ilocuionar, stilul de performare a actului ilocuionar etc. (cf.
Ionescu-Ruxndoiu 2003 : 36-37).
n teoria propus att de J. Austin, ct i de J. Searle, verbele performative reprezint
forma tipic de expresie a forei ilocuionare. Utilizate la forma de persoana I, singular,
indicativ prezent, diateza activ, singura cu valoare performativ, ele implic nu numai
1
n lingvistica romneasc, conceptul iniial speech acts a fost tradus i preluat n diferite moduri: acte verbale
(Ionescu-Ruxndoiu 2003), acte de limbaj (Moeschler, Auchlin 2005), acte ale vorbirii (Blnescu 2005), acte
ale discursului (Adam 2008). Prin raportare la modelul structuralist saussurian, respectiv la criteriile care
deosebesc limba de vorbire, am optat pentru utilizarea termenului acte de vorbire.
1088
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
desemnarea unei aciuni, ci i realizarea acesteia. Clasa performativelor este reprezentat de
verbe ca: a afirma, a ordona, a porunci, a se scuza, a invita, a promite, a mulumi. (Ionescu-
Ruxndoiu 2003: 24).
Avnd drept criteriu verbele performative n contextul limbii engleze, J. Austin
diferenia cinci clase de acte ilocuionare. i n concepia lui J. Searle, actele ilocuionare se
grupeaz n cinci clase: acte reprezentative, acte directive, acte comisive, acte expresive i
acte declarative, care se disting n funcie de trsturile comune privind modalitile
lingvistice i extralingvistice de transmitere a forei ilocuionare.
ntr-o perspectiv integratoare, G. Leech a observat ns c verbele performative se
analizeaz n termeni categoriali, fiind concepte gramaticale, n timp ce fora ilocuionar
trebuie analizat n termeni noncategoriali, retorici, ca noiune a pragmaticii. n concecin,
fora ilocuionar, datorit naturii sale nedeterminabile i variabile, cu greu poate fi surprins
de inventarul curent al verbelor performative 2 (1983: 174-175).
Clasificrile realizate de J. Austin i J. Searle asupra actelor de vorbire sunt puse n
discuie de D. Sperber i D. Wilson (1986), promotori ai pragmaticii cognitive, care contest
nsi pertinena taxonomic, propunnd reducerea claselor de acte de vorbire la trei, respectiv
la actele de a spune c, a spune s i a spune dac. Deoarece cercetarea se limiteaz la reguli
logice i lingvistice, actele instituionale sunt incluse de autori n rndul actelor a spune c.
Obiecia care i se aduce acestei abordri a pragmaticii cognitive privete reiterarea
unei noi versiuni a performadoxului, respectiv faptul c demersul conduce la producerea unor
false condiii de adevr. Astfel, un enun asertiv de tipul: Martorul infirm afirmaia
inculpatului., nu poate fi considerat cu aceeai valoare de adevr ca cel rescris cu verb
performativ Spun c martorul infirm afirmaia inculpatului. Pentru evitarea acestei false
echivalene, J. Moeschler i A Auchlin propun admiterea ipotezei c atribuirea forei
ilocuionare trece printr-un proces pragmatic care ne d nu interpretarea semantic complet a
enunului, ci doar o mbogire a accestei interpretri care nu determin condiiile de adevr
ale enunului (Moeschler, Aushlin 2005: 197).
n demersul pragmatic asupra hotrrii judectoreti penale, prezena forei
ilocuionare va fi analizat prin raportare att la observaiile lui G. Leech, care consider c
fora ilocuionar este caracterizat de nedeterminare i variabilitate (indeterminacy and
scalar variability), ct i la clasificarea actelor de vorbire propus de J. Searle, n special
datorit relevanei criteriilor utilizate pentru materia n care va opera analiza.
II. Scurte consideraii asupra hotrrii judectoreti penale
Hotrrea judectoreasc penal (HJP) este o unitate logico-lingvistic, structurat
astfel nct s transmit ct mai clar soluia luat de o instan judectoreasc nvestit
conform legii, ct i motivele care au stat la baza acestei soluii. Ca i discursul juridic
normativ, HJP este, n acelai timp, act lingvistic i act juridic (Stoichioiu-Ichim 2006).
2
When we are analyzing illocutionary verb, we are dealing with grammar, whereas when we are analyzing the
illocutionary force of utterances, we are dealing with pragmatics. It is easily to confuse these two things, because
one is part of metalanguage for the other: that is, when we discuss or report to the illocutionary acts in ordinary
discourse (eg in saying John asked Theodore to open the window) we inevitably find ourselves doing so in terms
of illocutionary verbs which the English language provides us for this purpose, such as ask and report. I have,
however, made it clear that illocutionary force, particularly because of its indeterminacy and scalar variability, is
more subtle that can be easily accommodated by our everyday vocabulary of speech-act verbs.
1089
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Procesul penal se raporteaz la o fapt care va trebui judecat potrivit normelor
juridice penale; n acest sens, o instan legal nvestit este chemat s aprecieze fie asupra
obligaiilor ori pedepsei pe care trebuie s o suporte un inculpat, n raport de dispoziiile
legale care determin condamnarea, fie s dispun n consecin atunci cnd se pronun
achitarea ori ncetarea procesului penal fa de acesta.
n art. 354 Codul de procedur penal (CPP), legiuitorul romn a stabilit structura
HJP, aratnd c hotrrea prin care instana penal soluioneaz fondul cauzei trebuie s
conin trei seciuni: partea introductiv, expunerea i dispozitivul. Articolele urmtoare
dezvolt indicaiile cu privire la coninutul fiecrei pri.
Segmentarea HJP n trei pri distincte n vederea atingerii obiectivului su
jurisdicional se realzeaz vizual i lingvistic, prin spaiere, aliniere a textului, diferene de
font, precum i prin inserarea unor formule specifice.
Art. 309 CPP prevede c rezultatul deliberrii se consemneaz ntr-o minut. Astfel,
dup deliberare, completul de judecat ia o hotrre, n sensul art. 308 alin. 1 CPP., adic
adopt o soluie, care va fi redat n minut. Identitatea dintre minut i dispozitivul
hotrrii rezult din corelarea art. 358 alin. 1 CPP i art. 310 alin. 1 CPP.
Minuta (soluia pe scurt, pronunat de instan imediat dup deliberare), respectiv
dispozitivul hotrrii redau adevrat for juridic - for ilocuionar, n context pragmatic -
a hotrrii judectoreti i mplinesc raionamentul logico-juridic surprins n cea de-a doua
parte a hotrrii, numit de practic i doctrin considerente (expunerea, n termenii CPP),
parte n care se face analiza probelor prezentate, prin raportare la dispoziiile legale. E
necesar, aadar, ca soluia prezentat n minut s fie consecina logic a celor constatate i
reinute n considerente.
Dispozitivul trebuie s cuprind datele prevzute n art. 70 CPP, adic acelea
privitoare la persoana inculpatului, prin care se permite identificarea cu exactitate a acestuia,
soluia dat de instan cu privire la infraciune, indicndu-se, n caz de condamnare,
denumirea acesteia i textul de lege n care se ncadreaz, iar n caz de achitare sau de ncetare
a procesului penal, cauza pe care se ntemeiaz, n funcie de dspoziiile legale (art. 11 CPP),
precum i soluia dat cu privire la repararea pagubei.
Aplicarea celorlalte norme de drept substanial se indic prin meniuni procedurale
specifice, respectiv pentru aplicarea art. 867 C.P., dispozitivul va meniona dac cel
condamnat va executa pedeapsa n unitatea unde i desfoar activitatea sau la alt unitate.
Cnd instana face aplicarea art. 861 CP, dispozitivul va meniona msurile de supraveghere,
prevzute n art. 863 alin. 1, la care trebuie s se supun condamnatul, precum i obligaiile
stabilite de instan, potrivit art. 863 alin. 3.
Dispozitivul trebuie s cuprind cteva meniuni obligatorii, ntr-o anumit
succesiune: meniunea c hotrrea este supus apelului sau, dup caz, recursului, cu artarea
termenului n care poate fi exercitat i menionarea datei cnd hotrrea a fost pronunat,
precum i faptul c pronunarea s-a fcut n edin public.
III. Modaliti de manifestare a forei ilocuionare n textul HJP
Construcia analitic asupra modului de manifestare a forei ilocuionare n textul HJP
s-a realizat prin raportare la clasificarea actelor de vorbire realizat de J. Searle, n special
pentru faptul c taxonomia a fost realizat pornind de la criteriile scopul actului (illocutionary
1090
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
point of utterance) i direcia de ajustare (direction of fit), aceasta din urm reprezentnd
modalitatea prin care se realizeaz o concordan ntre cuvinte i realitate, eseniale pentru
actul jurisdicional reprezentat de HJP.
III.1. Actele asertive i distribuia acestora n cuprinsul HJP
Asertivele/reprezentativele sunt, n concepia majoritii pragmaticienilor, acte care au
ca obiectiv angajarea emitorului, chiar i n grade diverse, fa de adevrul enunului
exprimat (Ionescu-Ruxndoiu, 2003: 38). Orientarea comunicrii se face pornind de la
cuvinte spre realitate, cuvintele fiind cele ajustate/adecvate la realitate (la direction
dajustement des mots aux choses cf. Vanderveken, 1992: 16)
Asertivele se identific n partea introductiv (practicaua), precum i n mare parte din
considerentele HJP, semnalate, n practica judiciar, prin centrarea unuia din nominalele
INSTANA/JUDECATA, urmat de textul Delibernd asupra cauzei de fa / Asupra cauzei
deduse judecii / Asupra cauzei penale de fa, constat urmtoarele, pn la dispozitivul
semnalizat prin centrarea textului PENTRU ACESTE MOTIVE, N NUMELE LEGII,
HOTRTE/DECIDE.
Prin actele de vorbire asertive care se succed n partea introductiv i considerente se
exprim att constatri imediate, ct i convingeri formate cu privire la ansamblul faptic
asupra cruia trebuie s se hotrasc, prin raportare la lege. Practicaua conine constatrile
imediate ale intanei, respectiv informii cu privire la LOCUL, TIMPUL cercetrii procesului,
SUCCESIUNEA evenimentelor din sala de edin, prin notarea tuturor elementelor care
jaloneaz desfurarea judecii. Considerentele conin convingerea instanei asupra a tot ceea
ce rezult din actele dosarului.
Dei mai puin prezente, actele asertive pot fi reperate i n dispozitivul HJP:
Constat recuperat prejudiciul de ctre partea civil SPITALULUI CLINIC
JUDEEAN DE URGEN CRAIOVA.
Ia act de faptul c partea vtmat nu s-a constituit parte civil
Ia act de faptul c prejudiciul a fost recuperat
III.2. Actele comisive i distribuia acestora n cuprinsul HJP
n teoria actelor de limbaj, comisivele exprim angajarea emitorului la realizarea
unei anumite aciuni, fiind acte care orienteaz dinspre realitate spre cuvinte, ca i actele
directive (Ionescu-Ruxndoiu, 2003: 38; la direction dajustement des choses aux mots, cf.
Vanderveken 1992: 16). Acestea in de atitudinea i de intenia emitorului, iar coninutul
propoziional este reprezentat de o aciune viitoare a emitorului.
Angajarea autorului HJP (instana) la o aciune viitoare apare, de regul, n a
doua parte a considerentelor, n enunuri de tipul:
La individualizarea judiciar a pedepsei, instana va ine seama de criteriile
generale de individualizare prevzute de art. 72 C.pen., respectiv de
circumstanele reale de svrire a faptelor, dar i de circumstanele persoanele
ale inculpatului..
innd cont de infraciunile reinute n sarcina sa, n baza art. 181 alin. 1 C.p.,
urmeaz a-l condamna pe inculpatul..
1091
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Deoarece faptele au fost svrite n concurs real, toate nainte ca inculpatul s
fie condamnat pentru vreuna dintre ele, n temeiul art. 33 lit. i a art. 34 lit. b
C.p., instana urmeaz a contopi pedepsele stabilite anterior, inculpatul trebuind
s execute pedeapsa cea mai grea, aceea de...
De asemenea, se va face aplicarea dispoziiilor art. 71 C.pen.; instana
apreciaz c pentru a interzice drepturile accesorii prevzute de textul de lege
trebuie s existe o nedemnitate n exercitarea acestora.
Constatnd c prevederile art. 81 CP sunt ndeplinite n cauz, va suspenda
condiionat executarea pedepsei aplicate pe durata termenului de ncercare de 2
ani i 9 luni, calculat potrivit art. 82 C.p. n consecin, n temeiul art. 71 alin. 5
C.p. va suspenda executarea pedepselor accesorii pe durata suspendrii
condiionate a executrii pedepsei nchisorii. De asemenea, va atrage atenia
inculpatului asupra disp. art. 83 C.p.
n baza art. 14, 346 C.p.p. urmeaz s admit n parte aciunea civil formulat
de partea civil i s oblige inculpatul la plata ctre acesta a sumei de...
De asemenea, n baza art. 14, 346 C.p.p. va admite aciunea civil formulat de
partea civil Spitalul Clinic Judeean de Urgen Craiova i va obliga inculpatul
la plata sumei de 890, 80 lei ctre aceasta.
n temeiul art. 118 lit. b C.p. va dispune confiscarea armei utilizate la svrirea
faptei, respectiv puca cu aer comprimat marca Norconia B2, calibrul 4, 5
mm, precum i a celor trei proiectile de calibrul 4, 5 mm, depuse la camera de
corpuri delicte a IPJ Dolj.
Angajarea entitii emitente la o aciune se realizeaz, n toate situaiile, nu n situaia
tipic a persoanei I, singular a indicativului prezent, ci n prezena persoanei a III-a singular,
sugernd, astfel, ideea unei instane supra-personale i impariale. Aceast idee este ntrit de
raportarea permanent la texte de lege. De altfel, utilizarea persoanei a III-a este comun
tuturor actelor verbale performate n cuprinsul HJP.
III.3. Actele declarative i actele directive din dispozitivul HJP
Actele declarative i actele directive mplinesc rolul pe care aciunea penal l are, de
tragere la rspundere penal a persoanelor care au svrit infraciuni (art. 9 CPP).
Pronunnd soluia, (spunnd dreptul- Nicolae 2008), instana judectoreasc are i acele
mijloace de a obliga la respectarea lui, iar premisele spunerii dreptului au fost deja realizate
n considerente, urmnd ca dispozitivul s conin i acele mijloace prin care s se asigure
respectarea dreptului.
Comisivele din cuprisul expunerii se vor regsi ca directive i ca declarative n
dispozitivul HJP.
n vreme ce directivele se caracterizeaz prin orientarea dinspre realitate spre cuvinte,
declarativele implic instaurarea unei corespondene voite ntre cuvinte i realitate (une
double directon dajustement cf. Vanderveken, 1992: 12, 16). Acestea din urm au fost cu
prioritate cercetate de J. Austin, care a considerat c pentru realizarea lor este necesar un
cadru instituional. Cadrul instituional garanteaz modificarea realitii sau punerea n
executare a ceea ce s-a stabilit prin actul de vorbire specific performat de autoritatea
judectoreasc, adic prin cuvntul asumat de instan.
Dispozitivul HJP, respectiv partea care cuprinde dispoziiile date de completul de judecat
n vederea tragerii la rspundere penal a unei persoane sau remedierea unei situaii juridice,
1092
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
este cel care surprinde i actele de vorbire directive ori declarative. Acestea sunt, n cazul n
care este vorba de trimiterea n judecat a unei persoane fa de care s-a pus n micare
aciunea penal, obligatoriu precedate de: n baza art. X (condamn inculpatul/achit
inculpatul / nceteaz procesul penal fa de inculpatul) i urmate de textele care indic
modul n care se va realiza ori dac se va realiza tragerea la rspundere penal a inculpatului.
Directivele sunt acele acte prin care emitorul ncerc s l determine pe destinatar s fac
sau s nu fac o anumit aciune, vizndu-l explicit pe acesta (cf. Adam 2008: 149, Ionescu-
Ruxndoiu 2003: 38). Predicatele semantice utilizate pentru a indica actul directiv, fie el
pozitiv sau negativ, din cuprinsul dispozitivului HJP sunt oblig/obligare sau intezice:
Oblig inculpatul la plata a 12 000 cu titlu de daune morale ctre partea civil.
Oblig inculpatul la plata a 500 de lei cheltuieli de judecat ctre partea civil.
Dispune obligarea inculpatului la plata a 100 lei cheltuieli judiciare ctre stat.
n temeiul art. 71 C.p. interzice inculpatului exercitarea drepturilor prev. de art.
64 lit. a teza a II-a i lit. b C.p. pe durata executrii pedepsei.
Chiar dac verbele a obliga sau a interzice nu sunt prezente n toate construciile
sintactice, intenia rmne directiv. Uneori este preferat doar dispune, care pstreaz
valoarea directiv de ordin:
Dispune ca inculpatul s plteasc 100 lei cheltuieli de judecat.
n temeiul art. 118 lit. b C.p. dispune confiscarea armei utilizate la svrirea
faptei, respectiv puca cu aer comprimat marca Norconia B2, calibrul 4, 5
mm, precum i a celor trei proiectile de calibrul 4, 5 mm, depuse la camera de
corpuri delicte a IPJ Dolj.
Alteori, este omis i acesta, fiind suficient ca obligaiile inculpatului s fie pur i simplu
enunate:
n temeiul art. 118 lit. b C.p., pune n vedere inculpatului s respecte
urmtoarele obligaii: ....
Declarativele exprim faptul c situaia specificat de coninutul propoziional este
realizat prin indicatorul forei ilocuionare, iar a spune este echivalentul lui a face. Prin
performarea acestor acte, cuvntul devine echivalentul realitii, iar instana emitent are ca
scop instaurarea unei corespondene intenionate ntre cele dou universuri. n aceest sens, s
enuni nseamn s provoci simultan schimbri n lume (Adam 2008: 150).
Condamnarea, achitarea, ncetarea procesului penal sunt acte declarative. i celelalte
msuri, precum contopirea pedepselor urmate de indicare perioadei pedepsei pe care o are de
executat inculpatul, precum i suspendarea executrii pedepsei ori suspendarea executrii
pedepsei sub supraveghere, respectiv revocarea suspendrii i cumularea pedepselor, ori
anularea suspendrii i cotopirea pedepselor sunt redate tot declarativ. Schimbarea pe care o
aduce actul performat este iclusiv o schimbare calitativ. Astfel, la rmnerea definitiv a
hotrrii de condamnare, inculpatul devine condamnat sau nceteaz s mai fie inculpat, la
pronunarea hotrrii de achitare sau de ncetare a procesului penal.
1093
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
n temeiul art. 33 lit. a, art. 34 lit. b C.p. contopete pedepsele stabilite anterior,
urmnd ca inculpatul s execute pedeapsa cea mai grea, aceea de 9 luni
nchisoare.
n baza art. 81 C.p. suspend condiionat executarea pedepsei aplicate pe durata
termenului de ncercare de 2 ani i 9 luni, calculat potrivit art. 82 C.p.
n temeiul art. 71 alin. 5 C.p. suspend executarea pedepselor accesorii pe
durata suspendrii condiionate a executrii pedepsei nchisorii.
IV. Concluzii
Ca i hotrrea judectoreasc civil, HJP reprezint o suit de acte de limbaj, de la
asertiv, la directiv i declarativ, finalizat apoi asertiv. Dei ultimul paragraf al textului
(Pronunat n edin public azi, 25.11.2013.), privit separat, impune, cel mai probabil, o
interpretare reprezentativ, n corelaie cu penultimul paragraf - n cazul n care mai exist o
cale de atac a soluiei (Cu recurs n termen de 10 zile de la pronunare pentru procuror, i
de la comunicare, pentru inculpat i partea civil.) - acesta poate fi privit ca o invitaie la
aciune (directiv); n acest formulare eliptic i arid exist toate elementele care i permit,
n calitate de parte interesat, exercitarea cii de atac: data de la care curge perioada de
exercitare, durata n care se poate promova calea de atac, locul depunerii acesteia.
n condiiile n care soluia pronunat este definitiv, aceast ultim parte trebuie
interpretat diferit, n funcie de receptor i de tipul de HJP. n cazul unei hotrri de
condamnare, este data de la care calitatea inculpatului se modific (devine condamnat) i de la
care ncepe executarea pedepsei (marcat de emiterea mandatului de arestare). Tot n aceste
condiii, de la data artat, directivele i declarativele performate n dispozitivul HJP devin
actuale i impun autoritilor chemate s pun hotrrea n executare anumite obligaii legale.
n acelai timp, aceasta este i data la care instana se deznvestete, nemaiputnd face niciun
act de procedur.
Pentru restul publicului, ultimul paragraf al HJP nu poate fi dect asertiv.
Bibliografie
***, Codul de procedur penal, Bucureti: Hamangiu, 2013.
Austin, John, How to do things with Word, Oxford: Clarendon, 1962.
Adam, Jean Michel, Lingvistic textual, Iai: Institutul European, 2008.
Blnescu Olga, Texte i pre-text. Introducere n pragmatic, Bucureti: Editura Ariadna 98,
2005.
Bidu-Vrnceanu et al., Dicionarul de tiine ale limbii (DSL), Bucureti: Nemira, 2001.
Drago, Elena, Introducere n pragmatic, Cluj: Casa Crii de tiin, 2000.
Ionescu Ruxndoiu, Liliana, Limbaj i comunicare. Elemente de pragmatic lingvistic,
Bucureti, ALL Universitar, 2003.
Leech, Geoffrey, Principles of pragmatics, London: Longman, 1983.
Maingueneau, Dominique, Analiza textelor de comunicare, Iai: Institutul European, 2007.
Moeschler, Aushlin , Introducere n lingvistica contemporan, Cluj Napoca: Echinox, 2005.
Nicolae, Adina, Hotrrea judectoreasc. Relativitatea i opozabilitatea efectelor acesteia,
tez de doctorat, Universitatea din Bucureti, 2008.
1094
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Searle, John, Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of language, Cambridge: Cambridge
University, 1969.
Stoichioiu-Ichim, Adriana, Semiotica limbajului juridic, Bucureti. Editura Universitii
Bucureti, 2006.
Searle, John and Daniel Vanderveken, Foundations of illocutionary logic, Cambridge:
Cambridge University, 1985
Vanderveken, Daniel, La theorie des actes de discours et lanalyse de la conversation,
Cahiers de linguistique francaise,13, pp. 9-61, 1992.
1095
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
UTOPIA OR THE IDEAL STATE THE CASE OF NEWS FROM NOWHERE
Andreea Mihaela MARDAR (STANCU), Phd Candidate, Alexandru Ioan Cuza
University of Iai
Abstract: Fully functioning multicultural states are sometimes termed utopian. However,
utopia is actually a denial of multiculturalism due to the fact that uniformity is essential to its
functioning. The very isolation of utopia and its rejection of influence and change are some of
its key features, easily bordering on the dystopian. William Morris utopian romance, News
from Nowhere (1890), is a special type of utopia, a rosy utopia as Alexandru Ciornescu
calls it, one of the few in which it would actually be pleasant to live, at least for a while. The
present paper analyses the solutions forwarded in Morris utopia in an attempt to explain its
relevance for the twenty-first century as well as its failures. William Morris entreats us to
imagine what it would be like to live in an idealised society which nonetheless acknowledges
conflict and difference. The world of Nowhere is not uniform: in a society which has a cult for
work there are characters who go against the general trend, who choose not to work, or who
refuse to join the common work programme. The characters with an interest in the past are
seen as eccentrics, but their eccentricity is not only tolerated, it makes Nowhere a more
interesting place. Surprisingly or not, not everybody in Nowhere is happy. People are only
happier than their Victorian counterparts.
Keywords: utopia, earthly Paradise, unreliable narrator, romance, education of desire
Initially, Utopia was a name coined by Thomas More in order to designate the island
in the book of the same title published in 1516. By adding a Latin ending (ia) to a
combination of a Greek adverb for not (ou) and a noun for place (topos), More managed
to create a word for nowhere which also suggested a happy or fortunate (eu) place.
Subsequently, utopia became a literary genre and then the name given to several attempts to
transform these islands of bliss into reality. Derived from this fact, utopia began to signify any
impossible project made by humans. Ruth Levitas gives a broad definition of utopia, based on
its essential features: utopia is the expression of the desire for a better way of being or of
living (2005: 5) Most utopias are situated on islands, being isolated from exterior influences
and therefore uncorrupted.
Thomas More is the one who set the conventions for utopia as a literary genre;
however, descriptions of ideal states appeared long before the 16 th century. Popular culture
knows many hypostases of good places, such as the Land of Cokaygne. A.L. Morton
discusses the precursors of Utopia in popular imagination, some of these types of good places
being reminiscent of the Garden of Eden. The Land of Cockaygne is an earthly and earthy
paradise, an island of magical abundance, of eternal summer, of joy, fellowship and peace.
(Morton, 1969: 17) As opposed to the Garden of Eden situated in the East, Cockaygne is a
Western island. It is the place where all wishes come true, the dream of hard-working serfs, a
land of plenty in which no effort is needed for the production of goods. In this land,
abundance is the key to material happiness it is a paradise for the belly. What is more, it is
1096
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
a land of peace, happiness and social justice (ibid.: 24) Flourishing in the Middle Ages, this
myth contained the seed of revolt, even though toned down and mellowed, and its popular
manifestation were street carnivals. Condemned by the middle class who believed in the
importance of work and despised the slothful, Cokaygne was a much more attractive place
than Paradise for simple people.
It is in the 19th century, as a consequence of the Industrial Revolution, that utopia
knows a remarkable popularity. News from Nowhere, William Morris utopian romance, was
written in response to Edward Bellamys de-humanised society in Looking Backward: 2000
1887, and to his vision of Boston where everyone is drafted to serve in an industrial army.
Despite some definitely positive innovations, there is no place for art or individuality in this
highly mechanised society and every aspect of peoples lives is pre-determined by the state. In
a review of Bellamys work, Morris declared that he would not care to live in such a Cockney
paradise and that if somebody forced him to work he would only lay on his back and kick. In
the same review he began to frame the central threads of his own utopia, advancing his own
solutions: reducing the pain of labour and replacing it with pleasure in work, variety of life
combined with equality, and art envisioned as the necessary expression and indispensable
instrument of human happiness (Morris, 1889). As he believed that utopias are best
interpreted as an expression of their authors temperament, in 1890 he decides to provide his
own version of the story. News from Nowhere was thus written for the readers of his journal,
The Commonweal, in the space of less than six months, being published in serial form. It was
offered as an alternative to Bellamys dream, a depiction of a society which contrasts with
every aspect of Bellamys Boston.
William Morris (1834-1896) is little known in Romania and even his home country
remembers him for his artistic endeavours rather than for his literary activity. There has been
an attempt to recuperate his literary works by linking him to C.S. Lewis and J.R.R. Tolkien
and naming him one of the founding fathers of the heroic fantasy. His first volume of poems
is sometimes appreciated for its intense visions but the majority of his other works have fallen
into disrepute. However, in his own time William Morris was considered to be a major
Victorian poet, author of prose romances, pioneering designer, and leader of the early British
socialist movement. He was also a cofounder of the firm for interior decoration Morris and
Co., founder of the Kelmscott Press and of the Society for the Protection of Ancient
Buildings, and writer of many essays on social issues, book design, and the decorative arts.
His work was a source of inspiration for the Arts and Crafts movement, the activity of
ecologists, preservationists and fantasy writers. What is most impressive about Morriss work
is the wide range of domains he approached and especially the honesty and zeal with which
he invested his efforts in a utopian attempt to make the world a better place.
If Bellamys utopia was translated into Romanian a few months after it was published
in America, News from Nowhere was considerably less popular. Morris advocated for a return
to nature, for simplicity but never for austerity. He was a rich man and he enjoyed good food
and tasty wine as well as beautiful houses. He inherited his fortune from his father who had
made a successful investment in copper mining and it was this fortune which allowed him to
pursue his dreams. He was acutely aware that it was only his good luck of being born in a
respectable family that ensured his good start in life. However, he was not exempt of money
1097
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
concerns and his business had to be successful in order to ensure a good standard of living for
his family. Morris was never idle he was rather a workaholic.
In Morriss News from Nowhere, or, An Epoch of Rest: Being Some Chapters from a
Utopian Romance, the narrator makes a voyage to Nowhere, or more precisely to England in
the 21st century. It is after this visit that he will return home filled with a new hope. He will
spread the word about the wonderful society he discovered there, bringing people a new type
of good news. After wishing intensely to see what a developed socialist society would look
like, this desire being presented from the first page of the book, the narrator travels to
Nowhere in his dream. The new Edenic world is born out of childhood memories and
fascination with the Middle Ages. Little is invented, such as a new type of energy used for
transportation and industry, much is recycled or reshaped. This is what makes Morris utopia
seem tangible and easy to achieve. The central image of the utopia, the house protected by a
beautiful lush garden, represents Morris own Heaven, the place of rest found in reality,
namely Kelmscott Manor. The heart of Paradise is a self-sufficient house, well-protected,
surrounded by a garden, but never a fortress Morris ideal house opens its windows to the
world, welcoming visitors.
The narrator of the utopian romance tells the story of his friend, William Guest, who
falls asleep after returning from a meeting at the Socialist League which made him long to see
a day of the future society. When he wakes up, he discovers that the world is truly changed.
The first person he meets, Dick, is both a waterman and a gentleman wearing refined clothes.
Guest sees a bridge which was built in 2003, notices that the landscape is completely
transformed, and that money seems to have no value. People dress in rich clothes, and the
dustman wears the most pompous costume made almost entirely of gold. If in Mores utopia
gold is used for making chamber pots and the chains of slaves, in the world of Nowhere
sumptuous clothes are appreciated for their beauty and they bear no other significance.
Constantly surprised at the beauty of the architecture and of the people he meets,
transported to a London where there is no pollution, no traffic congestion, and where people
can fish for salmon in the Thames, William Guest does not understand how the world became
so much transformed. Therefore, his guide to the new world, Dick, offers to take him to his
great-grandfather, the only one who can give him satisfactory answers. There are few
technical innovations in Nowhere and the means of transport on land is the horse-drawn
carriage. Peoples houses and clothing are inspired from the 14 th century. There are markets in
the middle of London with fresh products brought from the countryside by carts. Guest learns
that there is no official system of education, as people place less emphasis on what is learned
from books and they try to develop all the sides of their personality instead, that the goods
which are displayed in shops and markets are all of the best quality and given for free, and
that the only punishment for crimes, which are now non-intentional, is the remorse of the
wrongdoer. Idleness is considered to be a disease which has luckily been cured. People are
encouraged all their lives to read about what interests them and children learn foreign
languages, especially French and German, by means of direct contact with foreign visitors,
and Welsh and Irish as these are frequently spoken in the British Isles: our guests from over
sea often bring their children with them, and the little ones get together, and rub their speech
into one another. (Morris, 1992: 57)
1098
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
At the British Museum, Guest meets old Hammond who informs Guest about the
change which occurred in morality and about the disappearance of formal relationships and
divorce. Hammond proceeds to discuss the present state of London and of other English
cities, towns and villages. The slums have been replaced with meadows, the industrial cities
have disappeared and the difference between cities and the countryside has considerably
diminished. England is compared to a well-tended garden in which people thrive. Concerning
the administration, the Parliament is formed by all the people. There is no political activity
and the administration of people was replaced with an administration of goods. There are no
rich or poor people, no criminal classes and the only rule which guides peoples behaviour is
to find pleasure in work. Moreover, their only fear is that work might become scarce. All
decisions which affect the community are taken in gatherings called motes, organized on
democratic principles. For example, if a large majority favours a proposal, it is adopted; if the
majority is narrow, the decision is postponed.
Centralisation is discouraged and smaller communities in which everybody should feel
responsible for their deeds are preferred. London is still some kind of centre, with some
crowded areas, but it is rather an intellectual centre. The success of the great change, which
came slowly and painfully, was made possible by the migration from cities to the countryside.
The British are said to have also populated other countries where we were wanted and were
called for (ibid.: 58). It seems, however, that the British utopianism has spread all over the
world and equality between men has eliminated rivalry between countries. When William
Guest is concerned that this made the world a duller and more uniform place, Hammond tells
him that if he crosses the ocean there is plenty of variety in landscape, architecture, diet,
amusements, looks and habits of thought which are far more various than in the commercial
period (idem). The sage believes that nations and especially the rivalry between them are
artificial constructs: How should it add to the variety or dispel the dulness, to coerce certain
families or tribes, often heterogeneous and jarring with one another, into certain artificial and
mechanical groups, and call them nations, and stimulate their patriotismi.e., their foolish
and envious prejudices? (idem)
Hammond explains that the reward of labour is life and the realization of this truth is
the basis of all the changes which occurred in Nowhere. His criticism of the 19th century
extends to the production of poor-quality wares which served the appetite of the World
Market, transforming civilization into organized misery. The great change was produced
gradually after a violent revolution followed by a civil war which caused so much destruction
that the world had to be built anew. Little by little, people discover the goods they truly need,
and they find pleasure in work which becomes art. Thus, true equality is established and even
though people are free to do whatever they want, they always choose to do what is good. The
solution to the problems of industrialized England is found in the past, in the rural Middle
Ages, when people lived in small towns and practiced a variety of crafts.
William Guests guide offers to take him to the hay-harvesting feast and they begin
thus a voyage by boat on the Thames. This fascination with agriculture is not the enthusiasm
of peasants but the re-discovery of nature by people whose ancestors used to be estranged
from it. Harvesting becomes a feast and there is true pleasure in physical work in which the
sting of necessity is removed. At Runnymede they meet an old man, a grumbler, the first
person who is completely dissatisfied with the new society, preferring the competitive edge of
1099
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
the past. His granddaughter, Ellen, arouses Guests admiration due to her beauty and
intelligence. At Basildon, the party visit a construction site, where people are so much
absorbed by their work that they refuse to participate at the feast of gathering the hay. Beneath
the general atmosphere of calm and peacefulness there is an undercurrent of untamed passions
which becomes more and more evident. These passions and the perversity of human nature
menace the world of Nowhere, but not enough to represent a real danger. The new society is
one of abundance and well-being and there is no difficulty to do good things. There are few
open enmities and people love each other because everybody is worthy of being loved.
Peoples enthusiasm and wide ranging interests as well as the combination of physical and
intellectual work are the secret of their success. The Nowherian is a new type of man he has
been released from fear and is full of happiness and goodwill.
The party finally reach their destination and they are welcomed by Dicks friends.
After rejoicing at Kelmscott Manors organic unity with the surrounding country, Guest is
saddened by his memories of the past and he begins to fear that he will have to leave the
beautiful world he discovered. During a feast which takes place in the old church Guest is
enveloped in a black cloud, like in a childish nightmare, and he wakes up to find himself in
his bed at Hammersmith. In spite of his disappointment, he does not lose hope and he is
confident that Ellens last look encouraged him to go back and tell the others what he had
seen, inspiring them to transform the vision into reality.
In News from Nowhere the main story is embedded in another story, like a Russian
doll. The artifice introduced by Morris is meant to mingle the plans. It is also a part of the
convention, as in utopias narrators often tell the story of a meeting with a person who visited a
distant utopian society. The novelty is the fact that the entire adventure takes place in a dream.
The reader realizes this only at the end of the book, as the narrator mentions the fact that his
friend woke up before going through a surprising adventure. Dream and reality are thus
mingled and the illusion is maintained throughout the book. The narrators friend, William
Guest, dreams of a strange world which is gifted with a certain internal coherence, and he
seems to prefer it to the ugly incoherent reality. Morris refuses the supernatural in order to
suggest the possibility of turning his vision into reality.
The main narrator, William Guest, is a man imbued with all the prejudices of the 19 th
century, thus sceptical and prudent towards the innovations he discovers. He is neither an
omniscient narrator, nor an objective observer of the new world. He is only a guest, an
unreliable narrator. Moreover, several other characters will become narrators, and more than
one are projections of the narrator/ Morris himself. Because of the conventions of utopia,
everything is presented through the eyes of an outsider who is surprised at everything he
discovers. There is one thing to visit Nowhere, and another to live there permanently. By
means of his voyage in time, William Guest becomes a stranger in his own country. He is
given a warm welcome and he is treated like a guest of honour who should be introduced to
the best of what the new world has to offer. However, he himself is looked at or rather stared
at with considerable interest because he represents a source of information from past, a link
with the outside or simply a means of amusement.
Old Hammond is another narrator of significant importance as he is among the few
who know how the change came. It is not a simple coincidence that he might be the narrators
nephew. The presence of this character was called for by the use of the first person narration
1100
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
made by someone who is not familiar with the new society. By means of this artifice, we
discover little by little the new world together with the narrator. This procedure ensures the
readers involvement and sympathy. As we travel along, we sometimes know less, sometimes
more; very often we see through the narrators pretended ignorance. Old Hammond has to tell
the readers what the guest could not possibly know; his role ends with his story and he leaves
the scene soon afterwards. Ellen is another self of the narrator, becoming very often only an
echo of his thoughts. At the same time, she is an embodiment of the beauty in Nowhere a
part of the new world and its epitome. The author makes Ellen an important voice in the novel
because she is more credible, and more charming: she can easily obtain the readers
sympathy. She is a woman, because Guest had to admire and to love her, and she is at the
same time a symbol of the better world.
The use of narrators which resemble each other and their author proves the fact that
the entire novel is imbued with Morriss dissimulated image. The fact that William Guest and
William Morris have many things in common cannot be questioned. However, it would be a
mistake to place the sign equal between the two. The optimistic ending is meant to inspire
people with hope. However, the book never returns to the initial frame, and the second
narrator, the one who offers to tell the adventures of his friend using a first person narration,
never recovers his own voice. This enhances the ambiguity of the ending, which apparently is
a return to reality but in effects only prolongs the vision of a world of peace and rest. The last
sentence is the moral of the book, an incitation meant to stimulate readers to start building a
better world.
The utopian romance abounds in depictions of the beauty of nature. Morris builds
these scenes through progressive accumulation of details which suggest the wealth of the
scenery. In relation to the key words of the utopian romance, a study of the lexis reveals the
fact that the epitome of the new world is the garden. According to Hammond, all England is
now a garden, where nothing is wasted and nothing is spoilt (Morris, 1992: 61). This is a
proof of the fact that Nowhere is a return to the garden of Paradise, but this time a Paradise on
earth without any suggestion of something beyond. The pages of the book are a glorification
of the present, the happiness of the moment, and few of the characters think about the future,
being assured of peace and continuous plenty (ibid.: 45) and living life to the full. A great
emphasis is placed on the pleasure of the senses, and many depictions address not only the
sight but also the smell, the hearing, the touch. The word pleasure appears seventy-seven
times throughout the book, and in association with a smaller number of occurrences of words
such as happiness, happy, to enjoy, exultation, exhilarated and merriment, they depict a world
which is set in contrast with the unhappiness and the drudgery of the past. The world to which
William Guest is introduced is experiencing an age of plenty, in which people enjoy their
peace and plenty and happiness (ibid.: 77), which is reminiscent of the land of Cokaygne
without its gross exaggerations. Everything is shown in its best light, during the beautiful days
of midsummer.
In the new world discovered by the narrator people live in harmony with each other
and with nature, or rather as suggested by Hammond in reasonable strife with nature(ibid.:
48). This means that people have learned to enjoy what they have, without demanding the
impossible and without being self-centred. Their activities no longer harm the environment;
on the contrary, people tend the whole country-garden with a feeling of respect and love for
1101
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
its beauties. The organic relationship is expressed by the verb to grow; accordingly,
buildings grow out of the soil, and it is the narrator himself who draws attention to the
appropriateness of the verb, while people rejoice when they think of how glorious life is
grown (ibid.: 56).
Modern readers respond well to Morriss concern for the environment, his love of
nature and his rejection of any coercive system; these aspects reveal the actuality of the book.
Many readers are charmed by the atmosphere of peace and rest in the book and acknowledge
the fact that Morriss ideas are very interesting and relevant for the 21 st century. David
Latham believes that The subtext of Morris's narrative romance is not so much whether or
not a heavenly utopia could ever become a reality; rather what horrifies Morris is that we no
longer even wish for it to happen. (2007: 9) This statement explains the cynicism of people
who are unable to imagine an alternative. The utopian romance is constructed on the
opposition between the Victorian 19th century and the world of Nowhere. Alternatively, one
of the two worlds becomes more real than the other, which is seen in terms of dream,
phantasmagoria, or nightmare. In an inaugural speech at the University of Bristol, Ruth
Levitas quotes the social theorist Slavoj Zizeks opinion: for some people, what is sometimes
feels less real than what should have been. (2005: 9)
In his utopian romance Morris does not offer any programme, any direct appeal or
recipe for his revolution. He only provides a visionary image of a new society, which
enchants the reader through the atmosphere of peace and rest. His work was named by Miguel
Abensour education of desire, and this makes it universal. At the centre of Morris utopia
lies the human being, freed from all the ills of modern society, who has learned to live life to
the full. News from Nowhere is an attempt to eliminate all contradictions; however, the new
society is functional without being perfect. There are many disruptive elements and quaint
characters and William Guest himself would never fit in the new society. If the main source of
unhappiness in Nowhere is unrequited love, the greatest danger is the lack of knowledge of
the past.
Morriss utopia is discussed in Alexandru Ciornescus Viitorul trecutului Utopie i
literatur, [The Future of the Past. Utopia and Literature], a study which focuses on utopia
as a literary genre, with few references to politics. Originally written in French, this brilliant
book is considered to be a work of reference for utopian studies. Ciornescu underlines the
fact that Morriss utopian romance was meant as a response to Bellamys unconvincing
utopia, to which he opposes his own ideal society. He agrees with Morris in condemning the
solutions offered in Looking Backwards, with its perfect society for an American bourgeoisie
(Ciornescu 1996: 194), or as Morris calls it a cockney paradise. Ciornescus presentation
of the utopian romance is imbued with irony and witticism. However, his conclusion is that
Morris is the first and only writer who created the rosy utopia (ibid: 201). As Ciornescu
says, utopia should be by definition optimistic, painting the picture of a happy world, but in
reality utopias are painted mostly in greys. Morris is the only one to escape this rule. His
vision of the future is eloquent rather than coherent, imbued with nostalgia fed from the
memory of a past turned into myth. The critic admits the fact that Morris surprises due to his
kindness, his youth, and his smile that we prefer although we cannot take it into serious.
However, in reading the entire book, it is easy to notice that News from Nowhere does
not conform to the classic pattern of a utopia. In the introduction to the last chapter dedicated
1102
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
to dystopias, Ciornescu says that the utopian writer is a preacher who leads us to Paradise by
means of threats rather than by tempting us with its beauty. The utopian presents only dull,
mediocre perspectives, deprived of imagination. He denies people the liberty to sin; although
he believes that humans are good, he does not trust them. (ibid.: 202) However, Morris
prefers to seduce the reader. His world is painted in bright vivid colours and its beauty and
vitality do not fail to enchant us. The Nowherians are completely free, and they do sin. In
Nowhere, there is a place even for those who hate utopias and are nostalgic for the past.
At its time, the utopian romance it suggested a different direction: a return to the land,
to nature, the opposite of the modern civilization Morris hated so much. Although the book
is firmly tied to its specific historical moment, being important for us as a document of the
past, it speaks forcefully to issues still alive today. Morris entreats us to imagine what it
would be like to live in a society similar to the one he depicted; it questions conventions, and
it asserts the possibility of a difference. News from Nowhere was a means of reconciling all
the contradictions in Morris own life and in society in general, a glorification of the fusion
between work and art, and an expression of his love of nature. It represents both a continuity
and a break with the tradition of utopias. When reading the book carefully, one discovers that
this is a special kind of utopia: a utopia which depicts a happy and appealing society which
nonetheless acknowledges conflict and difference.
Morris declared that The only safe way of reading a Utopia is to consider it as the
expression of the temperament of its author. (1889) His own utopian romance, News from
Nowhere, contains many different threads in his life, tightly interwoven to form the substance
of an engaged literary work. Moreover, it is a book incredibly rich in substance. It is a vision,
as its author declares, of a different kind of existence. In spite of our more detached and
pessimistic visions of the future and of the growing cynicism of our modern world, we still
need utopias. In an industrialized society which does not know where it is heading, this
message might be more appealing than ever.
Bibliography
Abensour, Miguel, William Morris and the Politics of Romance, in Max Blechman (ed.)
Revolutionary Romanticism: a drunken boat anthology, City Lights Books, San Francisco,
1999
Ciornescu, Alexandru, Viitorul trecutului: utopie i literatur, translated by Ileana
Cantuniari, Cartea Romneasc, Bucharest, 1996
Latham, David, Hope and Change: Teaching News from Nowhere JWMS 17.2 (Summer
2007): 6-23.
Levitas, Ruth, The Imaginary Reconstitution of Society, Inaugural Lecture at the University
of Bristol, (24 October 2005): 1-22, available online at
<http://www.bris.ac.uk/spais/files/inaugural.pdf>
Morris, William, News from Nowhere, James Redmond (ed.), Routledge, London and New
York, 1992
Morris, William, Bellamys Looking Backward, in The Commonweal, June 22, 1889,
available online at < http://www.depauw.edu/sfs/documents/morris.htm>
Morton, A.L., The English Utopia, Lawrence and Wishart, London, 1969
1103
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
THE COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORK OF REFFERENCE FOR
LANGUAGES: MULTILINGUALISM AND COMPLEMENTARY PHENOMENA:
THE TRANSFER OF ROMANIAN LANGUAGE
Gina NIMIGEAN, Assistant Professor, PhD Candidate, University Alexandru Ioan
Cuza, Iai, Romania
Abstract: By the document entitled The Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages, the European language policy in recent years promotes improvement in the
general attitude towards the cultures and languages of Europe (and of beyond), particularly
with regard to so called 'smaller' cultures and their languages.
More than that, it provides institutional support to the intentions and intercultural
approaches between the Europes traditionnal components and more recently this support
extends to any culture, anywhere it would be located geographically. In this new attitudinal
landscape, the transmission-learning language programs, show their quality of intercultural
ambassadors, as mobile structures that promote the identitary amplification of the individual
up to a novus homo europaeus. Which one is currently in a phase of rethinking the concept of
"model" until the creation of this expanded identity, wherein everyone can find themselves
in the other, with all the consequent sociological beneficial effects.
Keywords: current Romanian language, The Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages, cognitive processes, language skills, intercultural skills, multilingualism,
creativity, paradigm shift, opportunity, reconsidering the concept of "model", identification,
identitary amplification, extended identity
Integration of language learning in the daily life, integration of various teaching
assimilation programs for the languages/ dialects of Europe is already a constituent part in the
configuration of the new European socio-cultural landscape and tends to become a fact
enrolled in the normality of the beginning of the third millennium. The phenomenon includes
established educational institutions as kindergarten, school, college, university, but it exists
also in the task lists of parallel institutions, para-system, co-educational, such as cultural
association, NGO, school of re-/ over-/ post-/ multi-skill etc. It is supported by governmental
and intergovernmental programs, is given funds and special amenities from the Council of
Europe, includes increasingly more people. The categories of learners expand continually as
age, prior training level, learning purpose. The temporary re-location of learners in order to
come in a direct contact with the liguistic enviroment (the already known linguistic immersion
or bathing) is possible in various ways, some of which are supported officially. Study
materials take all forms which may prove useful, passing through all possible technologies,
from the schoolbooks papersheet to the (eventual afferent) CD, from the inert electronic
document as .doc. pdf, to the semi-dynamic type, as .pps or .gif, with or without the audio
part, to the dynamic type as videoclip and film, with possibilities of interaction / correction /
(self)evaluation or not.
The variants are bidding and productive in many respects, as the results. Specialists
philologists, psychologists, sociologists, physicians, anthropologists, historians study the
1104
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
impact and implications of the immediate or the long run, try to identify the likely changes
that will occur in attitudes, behaviors, skills, individual neuro-psychological development,
cultural parameters at group level, etc. Nothing more normal; it is, however, a normality of
the moment. "The major challenge of the future in education is to come to reform our learning
systems so that we prepare our young people for jobs that do not yet exist, where they will use
technologies that have not yet been invented, for to solve problems that have not yet been
identified"1 says Jan Figel (as cited in "Etude sur la Contribution" 2009, 25 transl. G.N).
The globalizing, social-pragmatic perspective is easy to read in the words of the
former European Commissioner responsible for education and culture. Beyond the shaping of
the individual as a good and well-educated citizen, one can see the group in inventive
cooperation, more than ever open urbi et orbi. And, beyond the solving of hardly conceivable
problems at the present time, one can glimpse the special intercommunicative skills of these
people from the future, their increased capacities to act as a coherent group, as a team, no
matter how small or extensive this would be.
European language policy of the recent years founds assumptions to improve attitudes
towards the cultures and languages of Europe and the European Council elaborates the
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages; provides institutional support for
approaches of cultural interknowledge among the traditional components of Europe and opens
it to any other culture, no matter where it is located geographically. In this new context of
attitudes, the programs for language transfer become real intercultural ambassadors, flexible
instances that favor and support the identitary amplification of the actual European citizens to
a novus homo europaeus.
Coming to concrete things: in the Romanian language learning programs, the student
notes that between their own language and the Romanian there are some structural
similarities, elements of systemic continuity; the fastest arrive in this point the natives of
Latin area. Stopping within the Latin area, we present for illustration only some situations,
which usually are quickly noticed by the students and benefit of a rich inventory of
appearances:
a) the verb a.1) the manner in which it realizes the vowel/ consonant alternations in
the conjunctive/subjunctive verbal mood, third person singular (in certain situations plural
also) in Romanian Spanish Catalan Italian; fundamentally, the alternations are the same,
albeit with different appearance on verbal subtypes:
Romanian Spanish Catalan Italian
-e > - -e > -a -[consonant] > -a -e > -a
rdE > s rd ponE > que pongA consenT > que leggE > che leggA
consentA
coneiX > conegA
- > -e -a > -e -a > -e -a > -e
intr > s intrE llorA > que llorE provA > que provE consentA > che
consentE
1
Le dfi majeur de lavenir, dans le domaine de lducation, est darriver rformer nos systmes
dapprentissage pour prparer nos jeunes des emplois qui nexistent pas encore, o ils utiliseront des
technologies qui nont pas encore t inventes, pour rsoudre des problmes qui nont pas encore t
identifis
1105
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
-[e]te > -[ea]sc -[e]ce > -[e]zca -eix > -isca -[i]sce > -[i]sca
lmureTE > s apareCE > que inquireiX > que referiSCE > che
lmureaSC apareZCA inquiriSCA referiSCA
-[oa]TE > -[oa]SC -[o]ce > -[o]zca ungeiX > que -[o]sce > -[o]sca
cunoaTE > s conoCE > ungiSCA conoSCE > che
cunoaSC queonoZCA conoSCA
a.2) structural similarity of the conjunctive present in Romanian and Modern Greek:
with specific particle: s and inflected forms with specific desinence for person and
number, eg.: s merg, s mergi, s mearg, s mergem, s mergei, s mearg ,
, , , , .
b) the definite article: studentuL, studentA, studeniI, studenteLE which is
structurally correlated with the personal pronouns el[u*], ea, ei, ele, with the demonstrative
pronoun/adjective and of identification acel[u*](a), ace(e)a, acei(a), acele(a) acel[u*]ai,
aceeai, aceiai, aceleai, nsu(mi/i/i), ns(mi/i/i), ni(ne/v/i), nse(ne/v/i); also with
the endings of singular/plural for the nouns: student[u]- studenI; student-studentE and for
the adjectives with complete paradigm in gender and number: negru-negrI; neagr-negrE.
Being etymologically and historically motivated, the Romanian structures find their
equivalents in the other Romance languages, of course, without allways a perfect isomorphy,
with specific features for each of them: for example, in Catalan: el estudiant, la estudianta, els
estudiantes, les estudiantes; el, ella, ells, elles; aquel, aquella, aquellos, aquellas; ell mateix,
ella mateixa, ells mateixos, ells mateixes, ; etc.
The examples can continue and can create a very long list of common facts.
Sometimes (much more) away from the Latin area. Joining the latest studies in anthropology
and genetics wich prove, beyond political boundaries and continental limits, obvious
connections among ethnicities and the common origin of all humanity in East Africa 2 the
comparative, typological and structural study of languages gathers arguments more and more
numerous, confirming the same reality: the community at planetary level.
Practice has shown how, in the course of language programs (such as Erasmus,
Socrates, Leonardo, Comenius, etc.) the surprise of finding, then the acceptance and
understanding of these phenomena lead in the first instance, to the reflection upon their own
idiom and to the awareness of the subtle structures thereof, which, until the moment of
confrontation with the foreign idiom, the untrained native speaker uses naturally,
spontaneously, without problematizing them. Often I received such feedback data from
learners. But notably the philologists students or novice teachers come with such
informations. The next step, most often strongly imprinted affectively is the awareness of the
2
Launching in 2005 the "Genographic Project", the National Geographic Society, the Waitt Family Foundation
also IBM have proposed that, based on DNA samples collected from around the world, to establish a
comprehensive genetic map of the population on Earth. According to geneticists' opinion, the first components
of the species homo appeared 140000-200000 years ago in Africa. By regressive highlighting of total genetic
mutations occurred in a group of people during thousands of years, have been formed the so-called
"haplogroups", branches of the family tree of that population. Compiled on the basis of mitochondrial DNA or Y
chromosome, the discovered family trees show the genetic community of the human race also the unitary origin
of all the people on Earth.
1106
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
commnunity of origin (more or less remote, in the Romanic family or more deeply over time,
in the Indo-European family sometimes even further than that), of the linguistic and
emotional similarity among ethnic groups. From the linguistic area, the shift toward the
detection of cultural interconnections comes naturally by style figures of popular origin, by
the folkloric imagery, by proverbs, superstitions, rituals, taboos, beliefs, by mythology etc.
So that classes when such discussions occur, become and remain some of the most
lively, interesting and powerful events that subsequently turn into important and significant
memories, decisive in the rebuilding of self-image and in the image building of the other,
which an already well known thing from the stranger becomes the fellow. In the future of
each participant, they will constitute filters in the consideration and evaluation of other ethnic
groups and barriers against hasty generalization and labeling, against the indiscriminate
takeover of prejudices. As for myself, I am happy to see that a deeper knowledge of the actual
realities from Romania is going on. The identification not only emotionally with the
Romanians, with the Romanian language, with the geographical area helps imaging fair about
a real, complex, nuanced Romania, and not an unimportant thing hurries the demolition of
prejudices appeared in the recent decades, after the opening of the borders and of the labor
market in Europe. In the one who gets to know, an amplification of identity occurs, the so-
called extended identity takes form, and this relies on meaningful intercultural skills, on
acceptance, appreciation, respect.
The Romanian tradition says: as many languages you speak, so many people you are.
An ancestral intuition, which now meets a fact scientifically established and reasoned:
multilingualism broadens the access to information, stimulates brain activation and
development, increases creativity and inventive potential; by comparison and awareness of
differences between the subtle infrastructures of the mother tongue and those of the learned
language can initiate other ways of organizing the thought, of using the cognitive structures,
ultimately enhances intelligence, the data processing ability.
It seems that the coherent group, acting under standards agreed by everyone,
articulated on unanimous values, is the formula that can push the humankind to the next
stage. It also appears that (at least in Europe and the cultures spread from here on the other
continents) the individualism, brilliantly exalted in the Renaissance, got tired in the romantic
dispersion, in the existential atomization and neuroses, trying a spasmodic modernist
invigoration and, more recently, an aggressive revitalization in the deconstructivist
postmodernism; similarly, it seems that, for the sake of art for art, of the philosophy for
philosophy, of the science for science, it has consumed its resources to the last and, for the
sake of self-expression, got exhausted aberrantly and morbidly.
Developments in recent decades indicate an increasingly more evident rediscovery of
the community, of the group, of the team. It looks like a return to the values of ancient
republic-city, of the polis which is strong by virtue of the power and health of its every
citizen, which makes art and science and philosophy with tendency, id est for the person, for
every person. Wherein things as sanitas, kalokagatha, eunoa and eumorfa are available to
all, may and can be for all, and even more, enjoy institutional support.
In this new world where everyone can share their experiences with everyone, where
everyone can communicate with everyone subject to utilization of the (already!) minimal
technology called computer. Where, finally, the ancient dream of the Library of Alexandria
1107
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
containing the entire human knowledge made available to all, has become a reality: the
internet.
What is foreshadowing as the major value of the present and future time, without
wich all these facilitations and facilities can generate their own atomizations, neuroses and
spasms, it is to empower and give a sense of responsibility to every man. As a process of first
instance, which can build the responsibility, as an attitude within every human. Besides
assuming their own decisions and actions, the empowerment requires attention directed
towards the other: the attention leads to knowing each other, the knowing eliminates the fears.
Simply.
We do not know now if the things said above will be beneficial or not to the entire
humanity. Or whether or not they will include the whole humanity. We should have at hand
the perspective and conclusions of a dweller of the XXII th century, so we can assess the
consequences of this process wich now is already in gear. Or to make prophecies which the
same dweller of the XXIIth century would qualify to be inspired or inept. What we however
can do without risk (which anyway no one requires,) is to ascertain a paradigm shift in the
cognitive structures of the individual and a change of vision upon "the descriptors" (with a
buzzword) defining the individual- citizen.
But: behind these beautiful and benefit-bringing things, well disguised under good
and genuine intentions, initiatives and actions, stands the outline of a potential danger, a kind
of two-headed Hydra, which, for the time being (building our statement on already existing
data, which one can see) we can identify along these directions: 1. the enthusiastic and
aggressive self-overestimation, 2. the obsession of models. This is the "draco" that may
threaten the so-called "small" cultures, which have not (yet) stirred major echoes in the other
cultures, wich have not (yet) generated great models, exemplary and duplicable The fact that
such a broad and consistent support is practiced now, at continental level, can feed the
arrogant confidence of some communities or, at the correspondent pole, the exaggerated
caution of others.
Hydra's first "head", the enthusiastic aggressiveness, concrescent on an overvaluation
of the self, shows up when someone, individual or group, believes all of a sudden that
everything comes naturally, it is possible and permitted and therefore they can formulate
and justify any claim, simply by virtue of the fact that "it's (my) affirmation time. We may
record here as exemplary the request for language lecturers among universities: "The teaching
candidate will have professional experience of minimum three years [normally] will be an
academic or researcher [right], will speak at least one foreign language of international
circulation [once again right] will possess a PhD in the field [yet okay, although forcing to
some extent], will be Habilitate Doctor of Sciences or PhD coordinator [?!]. The necessary
and sine qua non [?] condition is the very good knowledge of the ZZZZZ [local] language.
[!?]." A totally real case. We do not disclose, out of embarrassment, what European university
is it about; the official act however exists, it is a written request, approved and sealed by a
specific rectorate, arrived at our department during the academic year of 2012-2013. With all
due subsidiary respect, but we must say: dear colleagues, in such manner you are in danger of
running out of lecturers. Or maybe... you do not want them? It's not the only situation of this
type. Of course, these cases are isolated and not all of them at a similar level of arrogance. But
they exist and already constitute a symptom that can be investigated.
1108
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
At the other extreme is positioned the obsession of models, the conviction that we, if
we are "small" and less boisterous throughout history, we stand in a permanent (and
imperatively) necessary "burning of stages" a permanent gallop to reach the others from
behind, in a kind of endless handicap that permanently requires an external skeleton if not
an external skeleton, at least a metal brace, a walker, a pair of crutches, a cane or something
so that we can keep upright. Optionally to do, also with parsimony, a few faltering steps.
We deliberately passed to the first verbal person because, unfortunately, this second
head of the hydra rises among us, among Romanians, and stares at us, hypnotically, directly
into the pupils, since more than two hundred years already. From the time of preromanticists.
The sight focus on the prolific cultures of the West found justification in the era around the
years 1830-1848. For a while, even after it. For reasons too well known and substantiated, out
of needs sufficiently discussed to resume them here. Worrisome is not the gaze towards big
cultures, which are now still big and, for all they have given will remain big even though by
an absurd scenario they will get tired and drained someday. Worrying is the fact that the gaze
no longer comes off there, undisguisedly obsessed with the taking over of the manner, in
chorus, urgently and without discernment, in the absence of a substance which would
adequate to this manner organically. We return to the "forms without grounds" of the
nineteenth century... Against which the journalist Eminescu, writing, got exhausted. More
than that, to the traditional ones we still add new ones coming from other geographical points.
To give examples solely from the latest vocabulary: we do not concentrm but we focusm,
we have not to accomplish sarcini but task-uri, do not mprtim with others experiences or
emotions but share-uim, do not ne place ceva, but dm un like, we have no more obiective
and inte but target-uri.
Why, when the Romanian language has a wealth of synonyms: ne concentrm/ ne
focalizm/ ne adunm [n sine]// sarcini/ misiuni/ cerine/ ndatoriri// mprtim/ mprim/
transmitem/ dm/ dm mai departe/ comunicm// ne place/ agrem/ acceptm/ aprobm//
obiectiv/ int? The cases when we can not find in other languages the correspondent for the
Romanian word are numerous; because the Romanian language has the talent of richness of
forms and the natural ability to create from its own genetic material a vocable for every single
nuance.
Exercise:
"1. Search in English/French the exact match (lexicalized, existing as a separate
word) for iar and ci;
2. Search in English/French the accurate correspondent and explain the semantic
difference (not formally motivated) between the cases [eu intru] n [eu ies] din / [eu intru]
la [eu ies] de la and translate exactly."
We can explain what these vocables mean, but we can not find their precise pairs in
other languages, at least not in French, English. While (1.) for the semantically intensifying
series: 'association' 'difference' 'opposition' 'contradiction' the Romanian language offers
4 distinct forms, gradual, precise, semantically specialized: i iar dar ci, the English
language and the French have only 2: and but / et mais which agglutinate the semantic
nuances, two by two. That is why the comprehenson and particularly the use of iar and ci are
difficult for foreigners. For this, they need to be given the description of the meaning:
1109
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
'difference' respectively 'contradiction'. The same occurs at the comparison with other
languages such Italian, Spanish, Greek, German etc.
These are things identified during practice and discussed widely with native speakers,
some of them linguists, branded romanists, with significant experience. The Romanian
language lexicalizes abundantly, in many cases with the thoroughness and precision of a
clockmaker. We will not give here the solutions for the exercise no. (2), but we will let it for
your ulterior meditation.
Of course, as a counterargument, one could invoke the English while and whereas,
respectively the French pendant que and cependant as equivalents for the Romanian iar. But
these involve the additional semantic nuance 'time' and also lexicalize it as such. The
Romanian language comes to meet them, this time too, with its own equivalent forms, totally
symmetrical, showing the time element at the level of expression: n timp ce, n vreme ce, pe
ct vreme, pe cnd. Unlike these, iar does not imply the time, but specifically manifests the
well detached semantically pure idea of difference. We talk about lexicalization here.
About the distinct, specific form, the one that serves the concept in the plan of Saussurean
signifiers.
I do not wish to suggest at this point any sort of hierarchy in order of abundance and
lexical expressiveness, and, with an intact respect towards other historical languages, I only
want to highlight for my nationals that we have enough material disposable for saying all we
want to say. Purely and simply, the fact is best seen by contrast, as above.
The conclusion of this philological exemplification is that, if we have sufficent
ressources to construct a historical language in such a manner, as ethnicity we have sufficient
intellectual ressources in order to not copy from other ethnicities, to not mimic and not let
ourselves overwhelmed under an exaggerate and timorous complimentariousness. The latest
american mania and the already traditional french mania will bring for us, perhaps, the
acceptance from the part of these cultures, but is not at all sure that they will guarantee for us
their aknowledge and respect.
Because they themselves have gone through mimetic periods, similar, which what
have they brought to them? Experiencing reduplication in art of the Greek and Latin
Antiquity, France only achieved the so much blamed Acadmisme and the strongly ridiculed
Pompirisme. Experiencing the hybridization, re-duplicating in politics two constitutional
systems almost incompatible, the French one and the British one, America obtained the War
of Secession. Both of these cultures have managed to avoid the imposture solely at the
moment when they gave up on hybris and returned to what was specific and indisputably
theirs.
Our ancients used to say: Est modus in rebus. How far ahead we go with the national
carnival for the 4th of July and with the hyper-amplification of the francophony is a decision
on which we decide totally and exclusively. Powerful geo-political entities like those
previously mentioned, they themselves do not want an attitude of adulation, mimetic and in
the end deplorable, from other "planetmates" but decent and dignified partnerships, and self-
aware collocutors. You cannot really associate with someone in which you do not find
grounds for respect.
We consider that for the moment this evil is only potential, and by consequence,
avoidable. Beyond of what we usually include under the sign of culture, in order to
1110
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
afterwards can abandon the responsibility in the care of diverse institutions and waiting for
someone else (the State/ the Government/ the Parliament/ the Council of Europe/ the
European Union/ the National Academy of Sciences/ the Municipality etc. etc. etc.) to do the
requisite, each of us posesses the key, personally.
Attentively, carefully surveying the circumstances, conserving with calmness, intelligence,
politeness and firmness our national specificity, by deference plus permanent respect for the
culture and individuality of the partners whom we dialogue with.
Bibliography
European public documents:
Council of Europe, Language Policy Unit, Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment, Strasbourg, 2001,
http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/cadre1_en.asp
Europublic sca/cva, Etude sur la contribution du multilinguisme la crativit. Rapport final,
tude commande par la Commission europenne, Direction gnrale Education et Culture,
Bruxelles, 2009: http://ec.europa.eu/languages/documents/report_creativity_fr.pdf
Primary sources:
*** Catalan verbs conjugator: http://www.verbscatalans.com/index.php .
*** Italian verbs conjugator: http://www.italian-verbs.com/verbi-italiani.htm .
*** Spanish verbs conjugator: http://conjugator.reverso.net/conjugation-spanish.html .
Exegetics:
Dumitrescu-Buulenga, Zoe, Ce spun cuvintele, in. Educaie i limbaj, Sorin Stati
Coordinator, Editura didactic i pedagogic, Bucureti, 1972, p. 31-34.
EuroEd Foundation, Anca Colibaba Coordinator, eEuroinclusion. Developing a pan-
European Network of Language Resource Centres for Less Widely Used Less Taught
Languages. The proceedings of the eEuroinclusion International Conference Equal Chances
for Any European Language, Iasi-Romania, 3.09-02.10.2005.
Jurcu, Dorin, Cutarea originilor odiseea genetic a populaiilor umane, 2009,
http://www.revista-informare.ro/showart.php?id=144&rev=5
Ludmila Branite, Incursions dans lhistoire de leuropenisme roumain: France et Roumanie:
erudition et sentiment dans lexistence et lecriture dun ami devoue des Roumains, in
La Francopolyphonie, 7, Nr. 2/2012, p.183-188.
https://www.box.com/s/2vhoy8pa8kvruzq4zsa8),
http://lafrancopolyphonie.blogspot.ro/2010/11/francopolyphonie-langue-ltterature.html,
(www.icfi.ulim.md).
Livescu, Jean, Funcia formativ a nvmntului filologiilor strine, in Educaie i limbaj,
Sorin Stati Coordinator, Editura didactic i pedagogic, Bucureti, 1972, p. 221-224.
1111
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
NOVEL AND CATHEDRAL:
THE CONSTRICTIVE PLURIMORPHISM OF THE UNIQUE CODE
Gina NIMIGEAN, Assistant Professor, PhD Candidate, University Alexandru Ioan
Cuza, Iai
Ioana OLARU, Lecturer, PhD, University of Arts G. Enescu, Iai
Abstract: Around 1204 the year of the Fourth Crusade we are in full era of the
Romanesque, when Western Europe is literally overwhelmed by the tectonic scale and
semantic versatility (in the vicinity of the sublime), of the cathedrals. The small
renaissances (Le rinascitta) prepare punctually the Great Renaissance (Il Rinascimento),
anticipating morphologically it's grand entrance. Literature is experiencing a new larger
amplitude, after the quasi-occultation occurred during early Middle Ages. Many narrative
nuclei of future medieval literary works have their origin in ancient Greek sources. In
Western Europe begins a tumultuous run for ancient manuscripts or just old Greek or
Latin and, thus, many forgotten works come again in the light of the public expression. The
European medieval novel is the heir of the ancient one. There are, in the set of rules and
relevant characteristics which establish the identity and specificity of the Romanesque style,
fundamental structures, synergistically coordinated, that return with perseverance and
discretion in its various concrete appearances, regardless of the forms of art wherein it
manifests itself. The study captures the subtle, hardly noticeable similarities between the
dialectics of the Romanesque mural sculpture of the ornamental art in particular, with its
central, ordinating motive, the phytomorphic palmette, in its intricate spatial game and the
dialectics of the medieval novel's structures. Everything happens by virtue of a dominant
functional code: the Romanesque aesthetic code.
Keywords:Romanesque style, dialectics of mural sculpture, dynamics of textual organization,
European medieval novel, synergistic structures, similarity, ordinator motive, the
phytomorphic palmette, spatial game, aesthetic code.
Cderii Bizanului i s-au cutat cauzele n varii i complexe fenomene ori evenimente
istorice. Exegeii au acuzat n numeroase rnduri cruciadele occidentale de slbirea Imperiului
Bizantin i, indirect, de cderea lui definitiv sub talpa turceasc. Gsindu-i pretext n
Predica lui Petru Eremitul pentru eliberarea Ierusalimului de sub turci, Occidentul dezlnuie
ntia cruciad spre Rsrit, la 1096. n 1204, cavalerii celei de-a patra ptrund n
Constantinopolul comnen. Cetatea basileului Manouil le va rmne supus pn n 1261, cnd
Mihail, vlstar din trunchiul Paleolog, va reui s le-o smulg din mini i s reinstaureze
monarhia. Doar cincizeci i apte de ani dureaz stpnirea oficial latin; sttuleele i
principatele pe care aceasta le-a ntemeiat i le-a organizat n manier feudal-apusean vor
avea ns o via mai lung, pentru cele mai multe ea ajungnd pn la a doua mare cucerire a
1112
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Oraului3, de ctre otomani, n 1453. Ori chiar dup acest moment. ntruct i dup
recucerirea Constantinopolului, la 1261, i venirea la tron a Paleologilor, Veneia i pstreaz
hegemonia asupra vechilor sale posesiuni din Creta, Peloponez, Krfou i Krigo, sporite cu
majoritatea insulelor Egeei. (Or, Veneia e marea poart pe care, n ambele sensuri, culturile
est- i vest europene, o traverseaz i ptrund unele n spaiul celorlalte.) Socotind, rezult
cam dou secole i jumtate de contact i influen, imediate i reciproce, pregtite anterior i
ntrite ulterior prin raporturi de dependen naional.
La 1204 ne aflm n epoca romanicului, a ridicrii catedralei din Chartres, epoc n
care, n literaturile naionale poezia cunoate un moment akmaic. Mrturie palpabil a ceea ce
grecii au preluat de la cotropitori stau ntre altele bisericile gotice din Creta sau din
Aravda, ornamentaia plastic a catedralei Parigrissa din Arta (aceeai Arta a celebrului
Pod, nrudit prin legend cu Mnstirea Argeului), bestiariul decorativ din biserica Agha
Paraskev (Sfnta Parascheva) de la Mtsovo; se adaug elemente, fie gliptice, fie picturale, n
diferite alte monumente, n special religioase, amplu repartizate geografic, pentru care
Krkyra i Oraul ar putea reprezenta extremele. Influene ale francokratei4 s-ar prea c se
regsesc, chiar dac paradoxal, i n multe secvene sculpturale de la Athos.
Ce a mprumutat, n mod firesc, cultura francez a epocii din zestrea Imperiului
comnen nu constituie obiectul studiului de fa. Se tie c, nc de timpuriu, prin domeniile
Bizanului din Italia i mai ales prin Veneia, elemente de art bizantin au ptruns n
Occidentul medieval. Dac ar fi s citm i exemple literare, atunci se impun Florimont
(oper a lui Aimon de Varenne), Cliges (Chrtien de Troyes), Athis et Prophilias (Alexandre),
Clomades (Adenet le Roi), Parthnope, Hippomedon et Protesilaus (Huon de Rotelande),
lucrri ce-i revendic rdcinile din literatura greceasc a perioadei antice trzii, crora li se
adaug Le roman de sept sages (care dup un stagiu petrecut n Bizan ptrunde i n
literatura noastr, ca Sindipa).
Revenind: dintre arte, nu doar arhitectura i ornamentica au preluat elemente din
civilizaia cavalerilor cu crucea pe armur. Despre literatur, Linos Politis ne informeaz:
Puternica influen occidental i aplic pecetea i pe textele literare ale secolului al XIII-lea
i pe ale urmtoarelor dou.5 Reprezentative pentru aceasta (dar i prin valoarea lor literar i
artistic) se afla aa numitele, n literatura neoelen, romane erotice i cavalereti, care
acoper ultimele dou veacuri bizantine. Literaturile romanice n limbi naionale se
contureaz ca atare emancipndu-se de sub tutela limbii latine trziu, n veacul al X-lea,
cnd Bizanul avea o tradiie literar n vrst deja de cinci secole. Astfel nct, prin
beletristica secolului al XIII-lea, o bun parte dintre romanele populare europene se rentorc,
n fapt, la punctul lor de origine.
Aceste kemena6 despre care vorbim nu rezum faptul nud, de influen. Ele
articuleaz coerent patru direcii provenite din surse distincte: a) Apusul, cu romanele
courtois (datorate n mare parte, cel puin ca nucleu narativ, unor izvoare antice, latine ori
eline) i baladele din ciclul Mesei rotunde; b) Zona Rsritean, cu, pe de o parte, basmele
3
Cf.
, numele generic dat Constantinopolului de ctre greci, utilizat cu att mai intens emoional dup
cucerirea sa de ctre turci.
4
Cf. gr. ,dominaia francez.
5
Cf. Linos Politis, , , 1993, p.35 (trad. n.).
6
Cf. gr. , texte.
1113
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
autohtone greceti i, pe de alta, cele arab-orientale din Halima; c) tradiia bizantin cult,
constituit de romanele celei de-a doua sofistici; d) tradiia bizantin religioas, coagulat n
jurul scrierilor sacre. Mai mult, sunt traduceri libere, n spiritul vremii, indiferent la ideea de
paternitate. Astfel nct Pierre de Provence et la belle Magulonne, de pild, devine
, Floire et Blanchefleur ajunge , iar Le roman de
Troie al lui Benot de Sainte-Maure ; romanul din ciclul arthurian
Gyron le courtois (parial preluat), se transform, la rndu-i, n . Prin
diferite intermedieri, vor ajunge i la nord de Dunre. Acestea nu mai sunt traduceri, ci
alctuiri originale ce pstreaz ns caracterele generate de apartenena la aceeai epoc. Nici
cunoscutul Erotocrit al lui Vincnzos Kornros nu se va putea sustrage constantelor vremii.
Iar ceea ce le apropie n mod esenial este o surprinztoare uniformitate a tramei.
Periplul prototipurilor nscute n evul de mijloc francez cunoate, aadar, un timp
transformator de aproximativ dou secole n spaiul de cultur al Bizanului. De aici,
adaptndu-se la un mental nou, dar pstrndu-i morfologia i sistemul estetic iniiale, noile
cri i continu voiajul european spre varii direcii, ntre care i aceea estic, spre rile
Romne. Unde, pe un teren pregtit spiritual cu cel puin trei secole nainte, ele ajung, prin
traduceri, n veacul al XVIII-lea, sub nume ca Istoriia lui Imberie, fecior mpratului al
Provenii; Istoriia lui Erotocrit cu Aretusa; mpriia lui Priiam, mpratul Troadei cetii
ceii mari; Istoriia a Alexandrului celui Mare din Machedoniia i a lui Darie din Persidia
mprailor etc., exegeza numindu-le ulterior romane populare.
Interesul fa de Bizan i de cultura lui se accentueaz n Europa, cu att mai mult
dup cderea Constantinopolului sub Mehmet al doilea, la 1453 (fascinaia pentru ?).
Migrarea forat a inteligenei bizantine spre restul continentului catalizeaz fenomenul, ce
coincide, nu numai temporal, cu un quattrocento aezat ab initio pe o direcie antic(izant),
latino-elin. Micarea de renatere literar se ntrete prin emigranii bizantini, care-i pun la
dispoziie cunotinele situate cu mult deasupra celor ale occidentalilor. Contribuia acestor
lgioi7 a fost att de impresionant, nct ntre teoriile privitoare la apariia Renaterii i-a
fcut loc i aceea a apariiei germenilor ei n Bizan. n Europa vestic ncepe o goan
flmnd dup manuscrisele vechi, fie ele produse clasice, id est culte sau doar antice, id est
vechi, latine ori greceti. Criteriul bibliomaniac bicefal i suficient prea a fi vechime +
provenien i, n acest fel, numeroase opere uitate sunt aduse la lumin. Nu doar pusurile
antice i fac loc n noul perimetru de interes, ci i temele literaturii conexe, iar, ca urmare
fireasc, creaiile izvorte din acestea i cuceresc un loc central.
Multe dintre ele construite prin reluri de teme i motive arhaice, aceste cri vor
suscita interesul, ca tot ceea ce poart patina Elladei antice i a Bizanului att de violent
prezent n memoria recent. Ecoul lor formidabil, cel puin n spaiul romnesc (multitudinea
de manuscrise pstrate, precum i adnca infiltrare n folclor o dovedesc), se motiveaz att
prin prestigiu, ct i prin mecanisme interne complexe. Ambii factori determin marele succes
la lectur, pe toat extensia spectrului social i cultural. n rile Romne se adaug un
element special, de natur istoric: epoca intrarii lor n circuitul literaturii autohtone este
pentru cele mai multe, nu ntmpltor, aceea a domniilor fanariote (vreme care, dup N. Iorga
7
Cf. gr. , intelectuali, crturari.
1114
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
are semnificaia unei alte Renateri, elino-bizantine8), sincron, n plan european, cu micarea
Luminilor.
Am amintit originea antic, greceasc, a multora dintre nucleele narative ale
viitoarelor creaii medievale franceze. (Un Benot de Sainte-Maure, de pild, n a sa Histoire
de Troie (1165), preia un fruct literar grecesc al sec. al IV-lea d. Chr.). Romanul medieval este
motenitor direct al celui antic, cruia i este dator nu doar cu trame i modele de personaje.
Constantele acestuia l urmresc nu doar direct, pe filier literar. Cosmosul Evului Mediu
timpuriu continu spiritual Antichitatea trzie, chiar dac noua religie cretin vine cu
putere mpotriva celei vechi, pgne, i-i impune noul sistem de imagini i exigene, chiar
dac Europa se cutremur la trecerea valurilor de migratori, chiar dac Imperiul Roman de
Apus se prbuete lsnd continentul scufundat, pentru mai multe secole, ntr-o obscuritate
rural cvasigeneralizat.
Pe lng prestigiul tradiiei, ncercm a depista ce alte prghii culturale se ntlnesc
n colaborare la apariia acestor noi romane. Adoptnd trama antic i ignornd ideea de
proprietate literar, autorii Evului Mediu pun n lucru nu voina lor personal n mod exclusiv
(ori a eventualilor lor mecena). n afara acesteia devine identificabil un alt factor, ignorat
ntruct e mai puin evident la o prim privire.
Contactul dintre ele se pstreaz subteran, n atepterea Micilor Renateri i mai ales a
Renaterii mari, propriu-zise, care s revendice n mod expres zestrea clasic antic.
Elementele proprii locale relanseaz specificitatea apusean scpat de sub autoritatea
romanilor; pe lng ele, toi aceti factori ajusteaz epoca, vin cu propria contribuie,
specific, la conturarea profilului ei i la naterea unui nou stil. Iar noii autori nu numai
literari se fac instrumentul eficient al unei noi instane, al unui paradoxal personaj, creator,
dar impersonal. Nu o simpatie special pentru sclipitoare jocuri de cuvinte a prilejuit bizara
sintagm de mai sus. Personajul este real: un anume sistem artistic. Care creeaz, se joac
prolific, i inventeaz norme. O ncercare de a circumscrie epocii de apariie a acestor
romane un fenomen cultural semnificativ l identific n ceea ce a primit numele de stil
romanic: este, ndrznim s afirmm, ntocmai sistemul-autor. Exist structuri fundamentale
coordonate n ansamblul de norme i caractere pertinente care creeaz identitatea i
specificitatea acestui stil; i care se regsesc n mod constant i subtil n apariiile sale
concrete, indiferent de arta n zona creia se manifest.
n a sa Expresivitate involuntar,9 E. Negrici ddea form verbal surprizei (ocului?)
ncercat/e la tentativa de a identifica resorturile expresivitii (i) n romanul popular
romnesc. Ceea ce realmente l asalta erau viteza narativ, succesiunea de galop a
episoadelor, fantezismul contorsionant ce anihileaz timpi, toate acestea efecte ale unui
spirit de divagaie paradoxal-aberativ care, n Alexandria de pild, ar atinge deliraia.
Involuntar, aceste scrieri ajung la nivele de expresivitate ridicat, mecanismul constnd n
slaba previzibilitate i ocarea n termeni jaussieni a orizontului de ateptare. Un mobil se
poate, totui, depista: satisfacia la lectur/audiie, imediat i maxim.
Folosind acum concluziile lui E. Negrici, care decodifica n alt cheie intenia
literar a romanelor noastre populare, am voi s avansm, fie i cu un pas, ncercnd s le
8
Cf. Nicolae Iorga, Bizan dup Bizan, Editura Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1972, p.26.
9
Eugen Negrici, Expresivitatea involuntar, vol I, 1977, Editura Cartea romneasc, Bucureti.
1115
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
vedem pe o alt dimensiune. Prospectnd manifestrile concrete, materiale, ale stilului
romanic recte arhitectura romanic, cel mai evident i reprezentativ produs al acestui stil,
bogat exemplificat n Apusul european (dar nu numai acolo), surprinde similitudinea dintre,
de pild, dialectica sculpturii murale romanice a ornamenticii, in spe i dialectica
organizrii interioare a textelor aici comentate.
Jurgis Baltruaitis, n studiul su, Formri, deformri,10 depisteaz pas cu pas i
catalogheaz elementele structurante din ornamentaia bisericilor i catedralelor romanice.
Urmrind n paralel secvena gliptic i pe aceea literar, o observaie se impune: jocul
evoluiilor romaneti urmeaz legi cel puin asemntoare acelora sculpturale. Ceea ce
gsete justificare prin comunitate de obrie i contiguitate spiritual. Astfel nct ajungem,
treptat, la identificarea unei structuri romanice, care devine funcional prin norme active n
domenii paralele. 11
i Erotocrit i Imberie, la fel cu Alexandru ori Poliion, strbat obligatoriu un drum al
iniierii, de-a lungul cruia apar necesarele episoade-motiv, probatorii.
Repetarea prin reluare, amplificare, prescurtare, adaptare a
aceluiai arhetip structurant: drumul prob / msur / dovad,
reunete liniar aceste romane, sub legea continuitaii i a varietaii pe
aceeai tem. Ceea ce la E. Negrici cpta numele de succesiune de
cliee i-i legitima existena prin recompensarea ateptrii
(cititorului / asculttorului), descifrat altfel devine o dezvoltare
ordonat, o dispunere n care suma motiv+motiv+motiv+... alctuiete
un fel de mozaic, matrice fundamental n combinatorica de tip puzzle
a romanului popular. Decupaje alternate dup o ordine-puzzle secret,
dar stabil, astfel nct, dup o contientizare la prima carte citit, ea
devine recognoscibil n urmtoarele. Va fi fiind clieul (a crui
origine folcloric nu mai cere argumentare) unitatea minimal a
efortului stilistic, numai c aici lucrurile par a sta altfel. Dragostea ce
ntmpin obstacole, nepotrivirea social dintre protagoniti, izolarea
(ntr-un fel sau altul) a eroinei, periplul primejdios al eroului,
10
Jurgis Baltruaitis, Formri, deformri, Editura Minerva, 1989.
11
Mult dup redactarea acestui material, am descoperit o ntlnire n percepia fenomenului, despre care nu
avusesem cunotin i peste a crei semnalare, acum, nu putem trece: o intuiie a acestei comuniuni a avut, n
jurul anului 1940, cercettorul srb I. Banaevi, care emitea teza filiaiei directe, susinea el a anumitor
secvene de folclor liric balcanic, n spe srbesc, din epica eroic medieval francez. Faptul genetic ar fi ntr-
att de transparent, nct chiar anumite nume de eroi legendari srbi se vd a fi construite prin calc lexical direct
din numele personajelor eposului francez. Spre pild, Vaitina, tovara de arme i vitejie eroului srb Cnejevi ar
fi corespondentul fidel al lui Olivier, secundul viteazului Rolland, ntruct numele lor manifest aceeai
semnificaie i motivare: Olivier fiind produs semantic prin alturarea voit, simbolic, a particulelor olo- (din
grecescul ntreg, cu totul) i verus (din latinescul adevrat), iar Vaitina fiind traducerea lui prin
prefixoid + radical slave, semantic analoge cu primele. O tez cu totul temerar, care ntr-att i-a suscitat
interesul dar i nedumerirea lui Eugen Coeriu, nct acesta o cerceteaz n primul su doctorat (n litere,
centrat pe literatura slav), din 1949. Concluzia lui Coeriu e c, orict de ndrznea, ideea unei proveniene
imediate nu se susine, iar speculaiile onomastice, dei interesante, nu au totui un fundament. Cu toate acestea,
o nrudire exist, ea devenind posibil ns numai prin intermediere literar bizantin. Aceasta, abia, se constituie
n aria genetic a miturilor (n termenii lui Coeriu) motive, teme comune balcanice. (vezi Eugeniu
Coeriu, Lingvistica integral (interviu cu Eugen Coeriu realizat de Nicolae Saramandu), Editura Fundaiei
Culturale Romne, Bucureti, 1996).
1116
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
nfruntrile, turnirurile, piedicile, ntlnirile fantastice sunt evenimente-motiv ce jongleaz n
permutri, combinri i aranjamente, dup o algebr dictat auster de supunerea la tema
central.
Motivul ordonator al ornamentaiei marilor catedrale
romanice este, aa cum o descoperea Baltruaitis, palmeta fitomorf:
un element decorativ n form de frunz. Manifestarea ei minimal
se constituie din apariia iterativ, iniial n postur singular; ulterior
e duplicat, reduplicat, amplificat finalmente pn la crearea de
lanuri: simple, duble, simetrice, complexe pn la aa numitele
entrelac-uri, structuri insinuant cinetice, n care palmeta se ded unor
savante figuri contorsioniste, pe cadene de sugestie aproape
muzical. Am identificat astfel prima norm din sistem.
Jocul ei spaial creeaz ritmuri i reguli crora li se vor supune, renunnd la natura
proprie, toate celelalte elemente, fie ele fito-, zoo- ori antropomorfe. Abandonndu-i
anatomia fireasc, ele intr intr-un dans mecanic al analogiilor, care le anihileaz n bun
parte individualitatea i le introduce ntr-o serie de exemplificri funcionale ale tiparului
iniial.
Ca i drumul literar, evoluia palmetei i subordoneaz cinetic
datele narative. Motivul devine tem. Similar, prin evoluie,
personajul literar se revel n dezvoltri multiforme ale unei matrici
ubicui. Imberie e simultan Erotocrit, Alexandru ori Theaghene; iar
frumoasa Margarona e una cu Militina ori Haricleea. Eroii sunt, n
identitatea lor cea mai profund, unul i acelai. 12 Se las dezvluit o
nou norm a sistemului: existena aceleiai figuri, n multiplicare i
uniformitate.
Ca i evenimentele, personajele pot fi considerate, oarecum,
dar nu n mod necesar cliee (ori caractere, de sorginte mai mult sau
mai puin folcloric), ns nu e mai puin adevrat c sunt, n acelai
timp, personaje-motiv: eroul candidat la iniiere, iubita credincioas,
regele / tatl nendurtor, etc. Nu pot fi luate n calcul ca nite
minim-uri de efort stilistic: dimpotriv, ele devin, prin dezvoltare
obligatorie, concentrri de maxim tensiune stilistic pe unitate de
msur narativ; ntruct se intr n cea de-a treia norm impus:
legea cadrului.
12
La 1883 Moses Gaster observa: n genere, snt numai puine elemente cari, combinate n diferite moduri,
constituie literatura popular (s.n.) (vezi Moses Gaster Literatura popular romn, (ed. a II-a) Editura
Minerva, Bucureti, 1983, p.7). Pstrnd distanele, nu putem trece peste faptul c fenomenul repetabilitaii n
structura bucilor literare non-culte a fost observat deja din secolul trecut. n aceeai lucrare, acelai exeget
continua: au un caracter cosmopolit, cci ne duc de la un popor la altul, colindnd de la Anglia pn la India i
Arabia, prin China i Siberia i, ce e mai curios, ne dezvelesc o srcie neateptata a fantaziei omeneti n
nscocirea de idei i de situaiuni noi. n genere, snt numai puine elemente cari, combinate n diferite moduri,
constituie literatura popular, i, prin urmare, i cercul vieei intelectuale a poporului este foarte restrns.(Idem,
p.17).
1117
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Libertatea de a tri conform unui ideal propriu este ideea pentru care se lupt
personajul central. Aceasta d fiina cadrului n care el este invitat s performeze: un
drum impus, care-i va defini coordonatele stabile i continue ale dezvoltrii.
Astfel c, aa cum palmeta se dubleaz simetric pe o abscis
virtual, se multiplic, se contorsioneaz ntr-o geometrie acrobatic, n
spaiul limitat de care dispune friza ornamental , personajul
romanesc i dobndete simetria de-a lungul axei masculin/feminin, i
ctig subirile caracteristici distinctive i i construiete cinetica
narativ ntre hotarele prea puin generoase ale temei centrale. Acesta e
cadrul lui, rigid i stabil. Pe care el l umple, chiar cu riscul unor
eforturi nemsurate. i cu rezultate ilogice, acuzate amuzat i
ngduitor, n studiul citat, de ctre acelai E. Negrici. Spiritul de
divagaie paradoxal-aberativ 13 al crilor populare care n Alexandria atinge deliraia14
ar nsemna deci desfiinarea ingenu a oricrei logici. Oare s nu existe, realmente, nici o
logic n romanul popular?
Probnd pe sensibilitatea noastr mentalul medieval, poate rezulta, firete, un mutant,
eventual monstruos i nu de puine ori hilar. Instalndu-ne, ns, (confortabil ?) n acest
mental i debarcnd adstratul de contemporaneitate, logica clamat aici se las, totui,
deconspirat. Ea e perfect coerent n sine, rspunznd unor alte canoane dominante
(dominatoare!) n Evul Mediu romanic. Este o logic a formei, a tiparului, i care ordoneaz
evoluii n rama opresiv a schemei narative. Se ntmpl, de aceea, o asemenea aglomerare
de figuri i evenimente, o forfot trepdnd de energie, o colcial de verosimil i neverosimil
(cu precdere n Alexandria!), nct orice ncercare de a vedea o ordine aparent e zadarnic.
S mai amintim viteza cu care se rotete tot acest carusel: totul se nghesuie, freamat,
gesticuleaz i se agit pn la vertij, cu o imens poft de
via i cu un voluntarism declamat i irepresibil, ntr-o foame
bulimic de timp i spaiu dintr-un unic motiv: spaima de
vid: horror vacui a patra i cea mai presant lege din codul
estetic romanic.
Ceea ce la marile catedrale e vizibil n compoziia
reprezentrii plastice, n roman se manifest prin compoziia
narativ. Delirul narativ nu e dect conformare entuziast la
aceasta regul necontientizat, dar tiranic. Presiunea ei e att de puternic nct i n
literatur are aceleai urmri: supraaglomerarea are ca necesar consecin contorsionrile:
diformul, meta-normalul, teratologicul chiar, sunt rezultatele obligatorii ale cultivrii ei
pasionate. i n gliptic, i n textul romanesc, personajele ocup tot spaiul disponibil, l
umplu cu orice riscuri fizionomice: plastic ori narativ, ele sunt comprimate n aa fel nct
canonul s fie satisfcut.
Suntem departe de msura antic bazat pe raportul dintre pri, unde toate
proporiile sunt stabilite unele prin altele, astfel nct o statuie poate fi reconstituit dup un
singur fragment comenteaz Baltruaitis. Noiunea de canon este necunoscut n sculptura
13
Cf. E. Negrici, op. cit. I, p.70.
14
Ibidem.
1118
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
romanic, unde omul e msurat prin nite moduli care nu au nici o legtur cu el.15 Iar aceti
moduli ce nu au nici o legtur cu el sunt impui de un factor nou, care-i ordoneaz ntr-un
sistem pe toi cei precedeni: legea maximului. n naraiunea de tip romanic totul funcioneaz
maximal: maxima aglomerare (a personajelor), maximul dinamism (narativ), maxima fixitate
i stabilitate (a cadrului), maxima surprindere i uluire (a cititorului), maxima satisfacie
final. Efectele se vd n naterea unui cosmos disproporionat, desfigurat, i a unei noi
umaniti: prin dezvoltare legic i contaminare cu cadrul, eroii nii devin nite montri, cu
un termen mai actual nite mutani.
Odat ce se rentorc n aria lui de dominaie, Bizanul adaug
acestor scrieri amprenta sa proprie. Ea ns vine s ating aspecte, oarecum,
de vestimentaie stilistic. Nu tenteaz o imixtiune morfologic esenial.
Romanele, redactate n Apus n form de poem epic, i pstreaz forma
versificat, cu modificri, ns, n ritmic i metric, prelucrtorii lor
bizantini prefernd iambul decapentasilabic, caracteristic grecesc. Prin
K.Th. Dimaras,16 exegeza remarca faptul printre principalele elemente de
contribuie original neoelen. Li se adaug nclinaia, permanentizat,
pentru ipocoristice (de provenien popular, fapt semnalat i de H. Pernot17), o deosebit
abilitate n crearea de lexeme sintetice (de asemenea, de sorginte popular), precum i
trecerea abrupt de la sintaxa sintetic la cea analitic 18. Acelai K.Th. Dimaras subliniaz
accentuata culoare ellen 19 ce caracterizeaz aceste prelucrri n aspectul lor estetic,
versificatorii bizantini aducndu-le, ca expresie, n vecinatatea cntecului popular liric
grecesc. Se produc, de asemenea, chiar dac inegal, modificri i adaptri ce in de sfera etic
i mentalitatea popular greceasc. Duritatea comportamental a personajelor, mulat pe
coduri sociale rigide, caracterul lor uneori violent specific feudalismului n armur ,
intrnd sub incidena oriental se ndulcesc, pierd din asperitai i ctig n umanitate.20
Literaturile est europene, ulterior receptoare, prefer n genere redactarea n proz; textele
sunt adaptate formal la tipul de sensibilitate local specific. n perimetrul literaturii romne li
se accentueaz o nuan n plus: sftoenia naratoare, plcerea povestaului colportor.
E. Negrici aeza aceste scrieri sub amprenta involuntarului. Am ncercat s mergem un
pas mai departe, cutnd ordine i regul acolo unde Domnia-sa afla doar consecine ale
funcionrii proustiene a memoriei involuntare. Nu credem n funcionarea exclusiv a unui
atare mecanism aici. Dac nu autorul ca individ sau colectivitate a avut o contribuie
voluntar i deplin controlat n elaborarea textelor, am cutat s vedem totui cine anume
manipuleaz din plan secund cinetica acestui caleidoscop volubil i nstrunic. Autorul
prim a compus astfel, ntruct, se vede, nu a avut altcum. Stilul epocii sale i-a construit un
mental n care avntatul scrietor ade precum Iona n burta chitului. Iar, dac la fiecare
traducere-adaptare considerm un alt autor, apare deosebit de expresiv (i tentant) imaginea
15
Vezi Baltruaitis, op. cit., p.206.
16
Vezi K. Th. Dimaras , ,
, , 1975, p. 27.
17
Hubert Pernot, tudes de littrature grecque moderne, 2-me srie: le roman courtois de lErotocritos, Paris,
Librairie Garnier Frres 6, Rue des Saints Peres, 1918, p.77.
18
Dimaras, op.cit., p.27.
19
Ibidem.
20
Baltruaitis, op.cit., p.206.
1119
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
unui lung ir de Iona captivi n textul-balen, condamnai, n ultim instan, la un surogat de
independen i la un itinerar al crui control le scap. Astfel nct poziia lor devine o
autentic problem de libertate.
Bibliografie
*** Crile populare, I-II, Ediie ngrijit i studiu introductiv de Ion C. Chiimia i Dan
Simonescu, Editura pentru literatur, Bucureti, 1963.
Cartojan, Nicolae, Istoria literaturii romne vechi, Editura Minerva, 1980.
Cary, George, The Medieval Alexander, Cambridge, 1956.
Coeriu, Eugeniu, Lingvistica integral, interviu cu Eugen Coeriu realizat de Nicolae S.
Saramandu, Editura Fundaiei Culturale Romne, Bucureti, 1996.
Dimaras, K. Th., ,
, , , 1975.
Duu, Al., Sintez i originalitate n cultura romn, Editura enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1972.
Gidel, Charles, tudes sur la littrature grecque moderne. Imitations en grec de nos romans
de chevalerisme depuis le XII-me sicle, Paris, 1866.
Hazard, Paul, Gndirea european n secolul al XVIII-lea, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1981.
Le Rider, Jacques, Modernitatea vienez i crizele identitaii, Editura Universitii Al.I.
Cuza", Iai, 1994.
Meyer, Paul, Alexandre le Grand dans la littrature franaise du moyen age, Paris, 1886.
Negrici, Eugen, Expresivitatea involuntar, I-1977, II-1978, III-1981, Editura Cartea
romneasc, Bucureti.
Nimigean, Gina, Branite, Ludmila, Romanul courtois n avatarurile sale, n revista
Intertext 3/4, 2009, Chiinu, 2009, p. 164-174. cf. http://icfi.ulim.md/?page_id=927
http://icfi.ulim.md/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/G.Nimigean.pdf,
Nisard, Charles, Histoire des livres populaires ou de la littrature de colportage, I,II, Paris,
1854.
Politis, Linos, , , 1993.
Velculescu, Ctlina, Cri populare i cultur romneasc, Editura Minerva, Bucureti,
1984.
1120
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
MONDIALISATION, MULTICULTURALISME ET LITTERATURES EN
FRANAIS
Efstratia OKTAPODA Prof., Ingnieur de Recherche, PhD, Universit de Paris IV-
Sorbonne, France
Abstract: Globalization has led to the discovery of new literatures that enrich the world
literature. Millions of readers discover at the end of the last and in the new millennium the
myriad distant literatures through the globalization of culture. Present on all continents, the
French language becomes exchange vehicle. It is the essential actor to an extraordinary
cultural diversity while cohabit multiple traditions. In the world literature of the emerging
Francophonie, the voice of Nancy Huston, beside Alexakis, Depestre, Maalouf, Makine and
others, feeds the discourse of the bilingual and multicultural writer. The French language and
the myth of Paris exert a great fascination in the collective consciousness for all the exiles of
literature.
Keywords: Globalization; Multiculturalism; Literature in French; bilingual writers;
Discourse; Exiles language
Si la mondialisation est un mythe, un discours puissant, une ide qui a de la force
sociale qui tend l'uniformisation, en revanche, le monde est fait de discours et de tours, dont
Babel est un emblme, engendrant toute une polyphonie multiculturelle et multilinguistique 1.
Tout en tant trs rfractaire une mondialisation dbride, dans le domaine de la
culture, ce phnomne mondial irrversible a permis la dcouverte de nouvelles littratures
qui, aujourd'hui, enrichissent grandement la littrature mondiale. En Afrique, en Amrique du
Sud, en Grce, en Turquie, au Moyen-Orient, en Inde, partout lessor du roman nous montre
la richesse et la diversit de la cration, qui ne peut se contenter d'un modle homogne. Des
millions de lecteurs dans le monde dcouvrent aujourd'hui ces littratures magnifiques grce
la mondialisation de la culture. La littrature est essentielle pour se rapprocher des autres
peuples et donner un sens notre vie. La littrature n'est pas la nouvelle instantane que nous
donne un journal ou l'analyse taye dun essai politique ou philosophique. C'est un art
ingalable qui relate la vie d'une communaut, ses murs, ses espoirs, ses tragdies, une
poque donne. Par bonheur, l'exprience que transmet un roman, une nouvelle ou un conte
acquiert ensuite une notorit universelle 2.
Et on arrive lantipode de notre problmatique : la francophonie. Si lhistoire de la
langue franaise est longue, lhistoire de la Francophonie, elle, est courte. Le mot napparat
quen 1880 et ne connat une frquence dusage qu partir des annes 1960. Il recouvre de
1
Une premire version de cette tude a t publi sous le titre Mondialisation, littrature et francophonie. Les
exils dela littrature, ou Nancy Huston : une littrature de l'exil , Mythe et mondialisation. L'exil dans les
littarures francophones, Olga Gancevici, Elena Steiciuc, Efstratia Oktapoda-Lu (Eds.), Avant-propos E.
Oktapoda, E. Steiciuc, O. Gancevici, Actes du Colloque international (Suceava 9-10 septembre 2005), Presses
Universitaires de Suceava (Romania), p. 15-23.
2
Ibid.
1121
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
lorigine nos jours, plusieurs significations : une donne brute de dmographie linguistique,
une volont collective dorganisation, un idal humaniste de dialogue et de solidarit.
Dans le flot des industries culturelles anglo-saxonnes dominantes, le mythe de la
francophonie se dresse comme le mythe universel par excellence douverture et de culture.
Prsente sur tous les continents, la langue franaise devient vhicule d'change ; elle est
lacteur essentiel dune extraordinaire diversit culturelle tout en faisant cohabiter de
multiples traditions. Donc si la mondialisation de la littrature est possible, on peut dire
quelle est facilite par l'explosion des mdias internationaux et la cration d'une culture et
dune littrature francophone internationale. Lcrivain, contraint ds le dpart, par sa langue
et ses conditions conomiques et politiques, accde, au moyen de la langue franaise,
l'universel et linternational.
Il faut dire que ces dernires dcennies, la littrature compare sest incontestablement
ouverte aux littratures du monde entier. Mais au lieu daboutir une meilleure
comprhension de ce quest la littrature en tant que telle, la reconnaissance de la diversit
des littratures a conduit les comparatistes au relativisme quant la possibilit de dfinir la
littrature dans sa spcificit. Dans le mme temps, la majorit des thories occidentales qui
ont t appliques la littrature sans avoir t conues pour elle (psychanalyse,
structuralisme, marxisme, modernisme et post-modernisme, etc.) rvlaient leurs limites et
leur incapacit saccorder sur une dfinition de la littrarit. Pour sortir de cette impasse, il
faudrait rexaminer la manire dont les crivains eux-mmes ont pens le phnomne
littraire. Comment les crivains, dans les aires culturelles diffrentes pensent-ils aujourdhui
lart littraire, ses moyens, ses formes, ses fonctions et ses effets.
Dans La Rpublique mondiale des lettres, Pascale Casanova propose de nouvelles
mthodes de lecture de la littrature mondiale. Elle en montre les effets en s'attachant ceux
qui sont parvenus s'affranchir de la loi du plus fort. Elle affirme que pour tre lue, l'crivain,
quelle que soit son appartenance, doit surmonter de multiples frontires. Il y a un travail
beaucoup plus grand, de conscration, des barrires terribles franchir. Tout est plac pour
que ceux que j'appelle les excentriques, cest--dire ceux qui sont loigns des centres par
la langue [...], voyagent de manire plus complique. Cela dit, quand ils parviennent
franchir tous ces obstacles, ils parviennent aussi tre grandement consacrs. Ceux qui ont
trouv les solutions formelles pour sortir, comme Kafka, Joyce, Beckett sont les grands
rvolutionnaires de ce temps. [...] une possibilit de produire des innovations formelles et
esthtiques extraordinaires . (Casanova, La Rpublique mondiale des lettres, 1999).
Les auteurs franais viennent du monde entier, (Ionesco est Roumain, Beckett
Irlandais, Supervielle Uruguayen, Jabs gyptien, Cohen Grec...) et les pays francophones,
partir des annes soixante, dveloppent des littratures originales, aux spcificits plus ou
moins fortes, et remportent de nombreux prix littraires en France (douard Glissant,
Antilles ; Ren Depestre, Hati ; Daniel Maximin, Guadeloupe ; Tahar Ben Jelloun, Maroc ;
Assia Djebar, Algrie ; Amin Maalouf, Liban ; Vassilis Alexakis, Grce ; Andre Makine,
Russie ; Anne Hbert, Canada). Une aura de littratures aussi diverse que le Monde 3. Le
3
Sur les crivains venus d'ailleurs, voir les excellents travaux de Anne-Rosine Delbart, Les exils du langage :
un sicle d'crivains franais venus d'ailleurs (1919-2000), Limoges, Pulim, coll. Francophonies , 2005 ; et
de Vronique Porra, Langue franaise, langue d'adoption. Une littrature invite entre cration, stratgies et
contraintes (1946-2000), Hildesheim, Georg Olms Verlag, 2011.
1122
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
paysage littraire francophone sen trouve la fois enrichi et considrablement diversifi
(Chevrier, 1999, p. 295).
Quant au choix de la langue, quils soient originaires du Maghreb, du Machrek,
dAfrique noire, des Carabes, dAmrique du Nord ou du Sud, les crivains ngocient tous
un moment ou un autre leur rapport avec la langue franaise. Et sils ne furent pas tous
dexcellents grammairiens comme le sont nos amis belges, on observe quand mme une
tendance toutes formes de subversion et de rcupration possibles : Le franais me
colonise, je le colonise mon tour , tenait rpter le pote et romancier congolais Tchicaya
(cit par Chevrier, 1999, p. 297). Mtis culturels, les crivains francophones se rclament la
fois des richesses et des paradoxes de lEurope et de lAmrique, de lOccident et de
lOrient4.
De nouvelles voix, de nouvelles sensibilits viennent largir lespace francophone ont
depuis longtemps dj suscit une formidable curiosit en France, comme latteste
lengouement pour les auteurs trangers chaque Salon du livre et les prix, dont limportant
prix Goncourt, qui couronne de plus en plus cette nouvelle littrature franaise, la littrature
de la diaspora.
Les diasporas dintellectuels et crivains expatris constituent une option nouvelle,
prometteuse mais exigeante. Le monde francophone, espace de circulation de savoirs,
constitue un milieu propice ces dynamiques originales. Un milieu qui invite penser et
repenser la littrature francophone dans le cadre de la mondialisation 5.
Lespace littraire mondial et la France
Pour bien dcrivains, pour ne citer que Danilo Kis, Nabokov, Cioran ou Panait Istrati,
lexil est avant tout un moyen de salut. Cest le chemin de lexil, du vrai. En 1980, le serbe
Danilo Kis, se voit exil en France et consacr par Paris. Dans la conscration de la littrature
mondiale, il faut passer par Paris pour exister. De par sa double fonction, littraire et
politique, Paris est aussi le dernier recours contre les censures nationales. Capitale de toutes
les liberts, Paris devient le mythe de la libert de publication. Danilo Kis sy rfugie dans les
annes 70 pour chapper aux censures belgradoises, alors que bien avant, en 1955, Nabokov,
crivain de langue anglaise, qui choisit aussi Paris pour sinstaller aprs Berlin, publiait Lolita
contre la censure amricaine. Capitale des Russes en exil dans les annes 30, Paris devient le
ple dattraction pour tous ces intellectuels littraires qui connaissent le succs international
grce la langue franaise.
Mme cas pour Makine, Kundera, Ismal Kadar, Nedim Grsel, Alexakis, Tabucchi,
et bien d'autres, tous consacrs par les instances parisiennes. Paris, en dpit de tout, est
encore et toujours la capitale de la littrature (Casanova, 1999, p. 239-240). Je rve dune
4
Sur la francophonie, voir Dominique Combe, Potiques francophones, Paris, Hachette, 1995 et Robert
Jouanny, Singularits francophones, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 2000.
5
Voir Efstratia Oktapoda (Dir.), Les Littratures francophones. Pour une littrature-monde ?, in Logosphre.
Revue du Groupe de Recherche Filologa Francesa. Estudios Lingsticos y Literarios, Issue spciale, No
7/2011, Granada (Spain), Introduction de Efstratia Oktapoda (parution 2012).
1123
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Roumanie qui aurait le destin de la France et la population de la Chine , crit Cioran dans La
Transfiguration de la Roumanie6.
Lieu rv, mythique par excellence, Paris exerce toujours une fascination dans la
conscience collective. Les crivains du monde entier, Vassilis Alexakis, douard Manet,
Andre Makine, mais aussi mile Cioran ou Eugne Ionesco, choissent d'crire en franais.
De lexil intrieur lexil tout court, il se dessine un vritable espace littraire national
revendiqu par la triangulation des grandes capitales (Paris, Londres, New York) et dans
une moindre mesure Rome, Barcelone et Francfort par Joyce et Danilo Kis Paris ou
Salman Rushdie Londres.
Littratures diasporiques et littratures en franais
Dans la littrature mondiale de la francophonie mergente, une voix canadienne va
grandissante depuis une vingtaine dannes dj en France, une notorit pour les lettres
franaises, depuis les Lettres parisiennes (1986) jusqu Visages de l'aube (2001), Lignes de
failles (2006) et Danse noire (2013) en passant par Nord perdu (1999). Le Goncourt des
lycens en 1996, le Prix du Livre Inter en 1997, le prix du Gouverneur gnral en 1993, le
Prix Canada-Suisse en 1995, Prix Femina et Prix France Tlvisions en 2006 et consacrent la
romancire. En 2001, avec Dolce agonia, l'auteure se substitue Dieu et crit la premire
personne du singulier. Auteure de treize romans, onze essais, et trois pices de thtre, Nancy
Huston non seulement prend le chemin de lexil en choisissant de sinstaller en France, mais
elle crit surtout une littrature de lexil, par le choix quelle fait dabord de la langue, mais
aussi par la thmatiquequelle privilgie dans ses romans.
Cette ide de plurilinguisme et du pluriculturalisme nourrit essentiellement le discours
que tient Nancy Huston sur la langue. crivaine canadienne d'expression anglaise ne
Calgary, en Alberta et vivant Paris depuis les annes 1970, Huston fait le choix du franais
pour crire son uvre, alors que non seulement le franais nest pas sa langue maternelle,
mais quelle na jamais t en contact auparavant avec lui. Sa premire langue trangre est
lallemand, la langue de sa mre adoptive. Lauteur en parle ouvertement dans ses Lettres
parisiennes. Autopsie d'exil (1986), change pistolaire de rflexions sur lexil avec
lAlgrienne Lela Sebbar. Lobtention dune bourse dtudes post-universitaires lamne en
France. Le mythe que nourrit Paris, capitale mondiale de la littrature, est dcisif pour Nancy
comme pour tant dcrivains venus dailleurs.
Comme Romain Gary, le protagoniste du roman ponyme7, lauteure se sent divise
entre les deux langues, le franais et l'anglais. Aprs avoir crit ses quatre premiers romans en
franais, curieusement, elle crit Cantique des plaines (1993) directement en anglais, avant de
le traduire en franais. L'auteure fait ainsi un retour sa langue maternelle et ses racines,
indispensables sa carrire d'crivaine et son existence. Cet enjambement et ce retour est
opr tt ou tard par tous les crivains d'expresison franaise, sensibles aux couleurs de leurs
pays et aux motions de leur enfance. Aujourd'hui, quarante ans aprs son arrive en France,
Nancy Huston est bien instale en langue franaise et se sert alternativement de deux langues.
6
E. M. Cioran, La Transfiguration de la Roumanie, Bucarest, 1936, p. 96 ; cit par Pascale Casanova, La
Rpublique mondiale des lettres, Paris, Seuil, 1999, p. 252.
7
Nancy Huston, Tombeau de Romain Gary, Arles, Actes Sud, Poche/Babel, 1995.
1124
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
C'est le cas de La virevolte (1994) ou Instruments des tnbres (1996), Goncourt des lycens
96. LEmpreinte de lange (1998) en revanche a t crit entirement en franais et a t
traduit par la suite en anglais par lauteure.
Nouveaux lieux, nouvelles aventures de qute didentit, dexpression et dcriture
pour la jeune anglophone curieuse et rbelle. Pour cette exile de lOuest, lexil est un choix
personnel.
aucun risque, aucun danger m'acculant l'exil, me forant fuir, m'enfonant le nez
dans une autre langue, une autre culture, un autre pays. Non. Je suis une privilgie, il
faut que les choses soient claires et claironnes ds le dbut. Je ne connais que la
souffrance prive (Dsirs et ralits. Textes choisis 1978-1994, 1995).
Le Canada et le Qubec, avec au premier plan la ville de Montral, sont le thtre du
mtissage et de lhybridation multilingue, cause justement de la co-existence de plusieurs
langues parmi lesquelles figure le franais de France. Canadienne dAlberta, pays de plaines,
terre remplie de vide et de langues trangres , Nancy Huston, crivaine aux origines
partages, incarne limage de lcrivain multiculturel et multilingue lre de la
mondialisation. Illustration frappante du bilinguisme littraire , Nancy Huston avoue avoir
crit primitivement en anglais, avant de traduire diffrents morceaux de La virevolte (1994) et
dInstruments des tnbres (1996).
Ma venue lcriture est intrinsquement lie la langue franaise. Non pas que je
la trouve plus belle ni plus expressive que la langue anglaise, mais trangre, elle est
suffisamment trange pour stimuler ma curiosit (Lettres parisiennes, 1999, p. 16).
Lauteure crit alors en franais, et chose curieuse, la maladie la fait revenir la
langue anglaise. Ainsi, son Cantique des plaines, pour lequel elle a obtenu au Qubec, en
1993, le Prix du Gouverneur gnral, ntait que la version franaise dun roman anglais
(Plainsong). Lauteure elle-mme avoue quelle a eu la souffrance davoir ce manuscrit dans
les deux langues. Une fois effectu le changement de langue, [l]es auteurs [bilingues]
hsitent souvent revenir leur ancienne langue dcriture, comme sil sagissait dun tabou.
Cest l un sentiment de culpabilit typique des crivains bilingues, qui ont tendance
comparer le commerce de deux langues au concubinage (Grutman, 2003, p. 116).
Si la version anglaise passa inaperue, la version franaise prend le grand Prix du livre
francophone. Lauteure se verra mme oblige de lire Ottawa son livre franais devant un
public anglophone, quelle avait elle-mme traduit auparavant de sa langue maternelle.
Comme Alexakis, comme tous les crivains bilingues, Nancy Huston alterne le
franais avec sa langue maternelle et passe d'une langue l'autre. Dans Nord perdu (1999),
lauteure explicite son rapport aux langues. Dans le thtre de lexil, lassimilation culturelle
se fait par la langue. Huston doit crer sa propre langue dcriture dans un contexte culturel
multilingue, souvent affect des signes de la diglossie.
Sur le choix de la langue et de lcriture, lauteure nhsite pas exposer les
interrogations qui proccupent tout crivain bilingue : Comme moi, comme Alexakis, tre
1125
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
ici, tre l, qui sadresse-t-on ? pour qui crit-on ? , sinterroge Nancy la mme anne une
confrence donne lUniversit de Tours8.
La forme polyphonique de son uvre et la fragmentation du rcit, notamment dans
Les variations Goldberg (1981) et Prodige (1999), nindique-t-elle pas en fin de compte le
dsarroi de lcrivain marque par la pense fragmentaire et lclatement du moi ?
Et je sais pourquoi le choix des Variations : parce quelle-mme est comme a. En
fragments. Ses pomes aussi. Elle na jamais crit que des pomes .
(Les variations Goldberg, 1994, p. 45)
Les thmatiques aussi de ses romans, l'enfance, la filiation, le sentiment maternel ou
encore l'hritage familial sont celles des crivains bilingues et multiculturels. Appartenant
des cultures diffrentes, Nancy Huston btit son territoire dans ce terrain vague de lentre-
deux situ entre plusieurs langues et plusieurs cultures. Le problme de lidentit se pose pour
lcrivaine canadienne comme pour tous les exils du langage qui nhsitent pas avouer leur
inconfort dans leur langue dorigine et lhospitalit de la langue dadoption. Dans une
vritable mondialisation des lettres, Nancy anglophone, relgue dans un second plan sa langue
dorigine pour en adopter une nouvelle, le franais. Mais plus que le concept binaire
identit/altrit, Nancy Huston, lcrivaine qui voulait pouvoir reprsenter le monde,
reprsente le cas par excellence du bilinguisme, du multiculturalisme et du mtissage cratif
dans la littrature francophone contemporaine.
Les Littratures en franais et le nouveau millnaire
La Francophonie offre la fin du dernier et au dbut du nouveau millnaire les
instruments permettant de construire le monde, celui des priphries. Du Nord au Sud et dEst
en Ouest, exils, migrations et prgrinations sont de plus en plus nombreux. Huston quitte le
Canada pour la France, linverse de Ljubica Milicevic et d'Aline Apostolska qui quittent les
Balkans pour faire du Canada leur terre daccueil9.
Ces prgrinations gographiques ne font quenrichir la littrature mondiale et
francophone. Par le biais de la langue franaise, lcriture voyage. Elle traverse des frontires,
fait driver des continents, survole des territoires, ne cesse de partir, de migrer, de sexiler
(Scarpetta, 1981, p. 108). Les crivains se glissent dans les mandres dune autre langue.
Dans lexprience de lexil ; crire est un acte de consolation, le seul lien avec le pays
dlaiss. Lcrit sera une sorte de mmoire, un retour vers le pays quitt, terre de mythes,
dimaginaires, dexpriences et de rves qui peuplent lme et lidentit de lexil.
Littratures du monde, mlange des genres et des cultures, il n'en fallait pas plus
certains pour rver ce quon appelle dj une world fiction , une littrature mondiale.
Lavenir sera mythique ou pas, mais les mythes demeureront sans doute universels, la
8
Nancy Huston, Confrence, Universit Franois Rabelais, Tours, le 11 dcembre 1999 ; Voir Nancy Huston,
Nord Perdu. Suivi de Douze France , in Littrature et Nation, No 24, La Langue de lAutre ou La Double
identit de lcriture, Jean-Pierre Castellani, Maria Rosa Chiapparo et Daniel Leuwers (Eds.), Actes du Colloque
international de Tours du 9-11 dcembre 1999, Tours, Publications de lUniversit Franois Rabelais, p. 5-18.
9
Efstratia Oktapoda-Lu, Mondialisation, littrature et francophonie. Les exils dela littrature, ou Nancy
Huston : une littrature de l'exil , Mythe et mondialisation. L'exil dans les littarures francophones, op. cit., p.
21-22.
1126
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Francophonie et le mythe de Paris exerceront toujours et encore une grande fascination dans
la conscience collective. Et malgr le danger de lidentification que la mondialisation peut
engendrer dans la littrature, et lchec probable de Babel, une grande posie-monde est en
train de sdifier. Finissons avec le propos de Cioran prenant revers sa vision pessimiste
dans un sens qui se veut uniquement positif et optimiste pour la langue franaise,
Aujourdhui que cette langue est en plein dclin, ce qui mattriste le plus cest de
constater que les Franais nont pas lair den souffrir. Et cest moi, rebut des Balkans,
qui me dsole de la voir sombrer. Eh bien ! Je coulerai, incosolable, avec elle !
(Cioran, Exercises dadmiration, 1986, p. 214).
Bibliographie
Casanova, Pascale, La Rpublique mondiale des lettres, Paris, Seuil, 1999.
Chevrier, Jacques, Francophonie , Dictionnaire des Mythes d'aujourd'hui, Pierre Brunel
(Dir.), avec la collaboration de Frdric Mancier et Matthieu Letourneux, Paris, ditions du
Rocher, 1999, p. 292-302.
Cioran, E. M., Exercises dadmiration, Paris, Gallimard, Arcades, 1986.
Combe, Dominique, Potiques francophones, Paris, Hachette, 1995.
Delbart, Anne-Rosine, Les exils du langage : un sicle d'crivains franais venus d'ailleurs
(1919-2000), Limoges, Pulim, coll. Francophonies , 2005.
Grutman, Rainier, Bilinguisme et diglossie: comment penser la diffrence linguistique dans
les littratures francophones? dans L. D'hulst et J.-M. Moura (Dir.), Les tudes littraires
francophones: tat des lieux, Lille, Presses Universitaires de Lille, coll. UL 3 , 2003, p.
113-126.
Huston, Nancy, Sebbar, Lela, Lettres parisiennes : autopsie de l'exil, Paris, J'ai lu, 1999.
Huston, Nancy, Tombeau de Romain Gary, Actes Sud, 1995, coll. Babel .
Huston, Nancy, Les variations Goldberg, Paris, Poche/Babel, No 101, 1994.
Huston, Nancy, Nord Perdu. Suivi de Douze France , Confrence, Universit Franois
Rabelais, Tours, le 11 dcembre 1999, publi in Littrature et Nation, No 24, La Langue de
lAutre ou La Double identit de lcriture, Jean-Pierre Castellani, Maria Rosa Chiapparo et
Daniel Leuwers (Eds.), Actes du Colloque international de Tours du 9-11 dcembre 1999,
Tours, Publications de lUniversit Franois Rabelais, p. 5-18.
Jouanny, Robert, Singularits francophones, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 2000.
Oktapoda, Efstratia (Dir.), Les Littratures francophones. Pour une littrature-monde ?, in
Logosphre. Revue du Groupe de Recherche Filologa Francesa. Estudios Lingsticos y
Literarios, Issue spciale, No 7/2011, Granada (Spain), Introduction de Efstratia Oktapoda
(parution 2012).
Oktapoda-Lu, Efstratia, Mondialisation, littrature et francophonie.Les exils dela
littarture ou Nancy Huston : une littarture de l'exil , Mythe et mondialisation. L'exil dans
les littarures francophones, Olga Gancevici, Elena Steiciuc, Efstratia Oktapoda-Lu (Eds.),
1127
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Avant-propos E. Oktapoda, E. Steiciuc, O. Gancevici, Actes du Colloque international
(Suceava 9-10 septembre 2005), Presses Universitaires de Suceava (Romania), p. 15-23.
Porra, Vronique, Langue franaise, langue d'adoption. Une littrature invite entre
cration, stratgies et contraintes (1946-2000), Hildesheim, Georg Olms Verlag, 2011.
Scarpetta, Guy, loge du cosmopolitisme, Paris, Grasset & Fasquelle, coll. Figures , 1981.
1128
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
LODYSSE DUN FOLKLORISTE ROUMAIN GIORGE PASCU
Ioan DNIL, Associate Professor, PhD, Vasile Alecsandri University of Bacu
Abstract: The Phd Thesis of Giorge Pascu,On Riddles. A Philological and Folkloric
Approach (1909), proved to be the first stylistic research on riddles, offering a model of
research of a real literary species in the Romanian folklore.
The premises that the author uses is that it would be necessary to study the intelligence and
the ingenuity of our people, with the respect for this community situated among the first in
Europe, as far as the value of anonymus creation is concerned. For the moment there should
be no correct scientific investigation studying the species of riddles without taking into
account the essential contribution of this early 20th century scientist.
Our present approach makes a synthethis of the information about the scientist with a
background either in Bacu or Iai, trying to put him into his right place within the Romanian
folklore and culture.
Keywords: stylistic research; metaphors of thinking; Latin and Tracian wisdom; the poetic of
riddles
La personnalit scientifique du philologue, historien littraire, folkloriste et journaliste
Giorge Pascu fait voir, mme lors dune analyse htive, deux aspects importants: le linguiste
(ouvrage fondamental Les suffixes roumains, 1916, que lAcadmie Roumaine a
rcompens par le prix Nsturel) et le folkloriste (tude importante dans ce domaine, Sur
les devinettes - 1909, 1911). Ces deux aspects permettent de dfinir le philologue roumain et,
en mme temps, de le placer conformment la perspective qui celle de notre temps dans
une perptuelle mulation. Si nous prenons en considration le fait que son ouvrage de
folklore est une thse de doctorat place sous la direction dAl. Philippide, nous sommes
tents daffirmer que cest le folklore qui reprsente le composant essentiel de sa personnalit
scientifique, mais cela condition de ne pas avoir en vue la valeur, encore actuelle, de son
autre contribution philologique Les suffixes roumains.
Vu les hauts et les bas qua connus laccueil de ses oeuvres, nous sommes dabord
intress la prsence/labsence du folkloriste Giorge Pascu dans les dictionnaires gnraux
ou spcialiss.
Dans les premiers ouvrages de ce type, datant de 19401), 19652), 19863), 20044), ainsi
que dans ceux intrt rgional ou local de 20035), 200816) (exception faite pour ceux de
19787) et 200828)), le folkloriste Giorge Pascu est presque absent. Dans les dictionnaires
littraires ou vise philologique il a un rgime ingal, allant de la simple mention (1978 9),
1979110)) des omissions que rien ne justifie (1979211)). Gheorghe Ivnescu, chercheur
lInstitut de Linguistique, Histoire Littraire et Folklore de lUniversit Al. I. Cuza de Iai
(1952-1955), mais aussi professeur duniversit, fixe la place de son ancien matre: ...
lexception de Giorge Pascu, qui est trs actif lui aussi, tous ces chercheurs (N. I. Popovici,
Constantin Gluc, Mihai Jacot, V. Bogrea, M. Costchescu, T. Hotnog, n.ns.) sont
surpasss par Iorgu Iordan (G. Ivnescu, art.cit.). Dans dautres ouvrages circulation locale
(200412)) ou nationale (200113), 200614)), les descriptions sont plus laborieuses et donc plus
1129
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
originales. (Sy dtache la prsentation signe Dumitru Vldu dans le Dictionnaire de 2006,
prsentation qui fait voir une lecture relle et attentive de ltude de G. Pascu.)
Il va de soi que les ouvrages qui lgitiment le statut de folkloriste de Giorge Pascu
tiennent de la stricte spcialit. Parmi eux, les histoires de la littrature et les dictionnaires
assums par des institutions denseignement ou de recherche scientifique se dtachent
visiblement. Le premier volume de lHistoire de la littrature roumaine, sous-titr Le
folklore. La littrature roumaine lpoque fodale (1400-1780) (le trait de lAcadmie),
jouit de la collaboration de lun des plus importants folkloristes roumains, Mihai Pop, mais
celui-ci nexploite point la contribution de G. Pascu la description de la devinette en tant que
forme du genre aphoristique et expdie tout dans une note de bas de page... 15) Lauteur cite
deux parutions, Iai (1909, et non 1908, comme on voit la page 200) et Bucarest (1911).
Le mme traitement apparat dans le cas du cours de spcialit de lUniversit de Bucarest.
Bien que ce cours porte le titre Folklore littraire roumain et malgr le fait quil est publi
sous lgide du Ministre de lEducation et de lEnseignement, dans le chapitre Les
devinettes il renferme neuf notes bibliographiques qui sont distribues comme il suit: trois
renvoient la littrature franaise (deux dictionnaires de 1786 et 1842 et un ouvrage
dethnologie), deux tiennent de lhistoire littraire et de la stylistique (signes N. Iorga et T.
Vianu) et trois font rfrence des recueils de folklore (appartenant T. Pamfile et A.
Gorovei et un ouvrage collectif, cit deux fois). Chez ceux-ci, Mihai Pop emprunte les
dfinitions respectives de la devinette et de la cimilitura (type de devinette dans la littrature
roumaine, note du traducteur), ainsi que la distinction entre les deux (Toute cimilitura est une
devinette, mais toute devinette nest pas une cimilitura - A. Gorovei)16).
Le lecteur de Lhistoire de la science du folklore en Roumanie dOvidiu Brlea peut
tre dcourag en lisant lintroduction au chapitre Etudes de folklore durant les premires
dcennies du XX-ime sicle. L il y a un portrait ddi Giorge Pascu o on lui reproche
de signer avec obstination Giorge17) (au lieu de George), lordre de lecture des deux volets
que comporte Sur les devinettes doit tre invers et que le caractre touffu de cet ouvrage
risque de dsarmer le lecteur amateur dessais 18). Ovidiu Brlea nhsite cependant pas
daffirmer que ltude est remarquable19). Il entreprend ensuite une analyse minutieuse de
louvrage, dans ses deux versions (de 1909 et 1911), en insistant sur la partie finale, prcieuse
pour les indications mthodologiques sur la collecte des devinettes et sur la faon den faire
la typologie bibliographique20).
Folkloristes et science du folklore en Roumanie, par I. C. Chiimia, cest une suite
darticles publis dans les revues spcialises qui ne renferme pas une seule mention G.
Pascu21). Par contre, louvrage de D. Macrea Contributions lhistoire de la linguistique et
de la philologie roumaines, en faisant le portrait dAlexandru Philippide, constate que
...lunique linguiste roumain sur lequel [A. Philippide] ait exprim par crit une apprciation
favorable a t son disciple, Giorge Pascu22). Il sagit du rapport de thse, rdig en
collaboration avec Xenofon Gheorghiu: Jai constat avec satisfaction que [Sur les
devinettes] est un ouvrage de grande valeur qui fera honneur aussi bien son auteur qu
notre universit. Cest une tude si complexe et si originale sur les devinettes roumaines,
quelle reste notre escient unique sur le sujet dans toutes les littratures23).
Les dictionnaires des folkloristes mentionnent Giorge Pascu comme lauteur des
premires exgses philologiques et stylistiques sur les devinettes roumaines24) et apprcient
1130
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
son effort de contribuer au progrs des tudes roumaines sur le folklore, dont ltat
rudimentaire est dnonc sans mnagements <<Dans les tudes roumaines de folklore svit le
dilettantisme le plus agaant>>25).
Il existe aussi des ouvrages dans le domaine du folklore o les tudes de G. Pascu
auraient d avoir une place, ft-elle toute petite26).
La premire partie de ltude de philologie et folklore Sur les devinettes, thse de
doctorat imprime laide de la Fondation Charles I (Iai, 1909), a paru aux Editions Le
livre roumain S.A. en 1922 et elle renferme ltude des devinettes au point de vue langue
(approche philologique)27). La deuxime partie soccupe de toutes les devinettes de lespace
historique roumain (dacoroumain, mglnoroumain et istro-roumain); on en analyse lorigine,
le sujet/lensemble des thmes, la forme, la circulation/la disparition, la typologie, la valeur
ethnologique, le type de collecte et de publication. G. Pascu numre honntement les sources
consultes: Artur Gorovei, Les devinettes des Roumaines (1898), Gh. Popescu-Ciocnel, E. I.
Patriciu, G. P. Salviu, Hbleries (1905) avec lindication des pages -, Mozes
Gaster, Devinettes (1891), Tudor Pamfile, Devinettes roumaines (1908) etc.
Confront labsence presque totale des tudes sur le thme propos (Ce quon a
crit chez nous jusqu prsent au sujet des devinettes est presque rien28)), plus prcisment
sur lorigine des mots (Pour ce qui est de la langue, Hasdeu a donn 3 4 tymologies dans
son Etymologicum29)) et de la cration littraire (au sujet du folklore il y a quelques bonnes
choses dues Gaster [...] et t. Oranu...30)), G. Pascu achve sa prface dans une version
rationnelle: [...] mon but a t de donner non pas un vaste ouvrage comparatif, ce qui aurait
dpass mes forces, mais une modeste monographie des devinettes roumaines31).
Comme on le voit, notre dmarche ne vise pas une valuation de la contribution de
G. Pascu au dveloppement de la science du folklore en Roumanie. (Des spcialistes du
domaine lont fait en logiant leffort du philologue de Iai de modeler le traitement dune
espce folklorique.) A leur tour, les linguistes ont identifi un intrt possible pour la
sociolinguistique, la pragmatique, lanthropologie linguistique32). Notre intention cest de
signaler la dimension notable de la personnalit scientifique que Giorge Pascu nous a rvle
dans le domaine de la science du folklore. Nous aimerions la faire dlimiter nettement de la
personne humaine, qui, trs souvent, savre tre nigmatique.
Notes bibliographiques
1. Lucian Predescu, Enciclopedia Romniei, Bucureti, Ed. Cugetarea Georgescu-
Delafras, 1940: ...professeur dhistoire de la litt. roumaine des dbuts et de dialectologie
roumaine lUniversit de Iai. Dans le compartiment Oeuvre on mentionne le titre
Devinettes roumaines, Buc. 1911, ainsi que la quasi-totalit de ses ouvrages.
2. Academia R.P.R., Dicionar enciclopedic romn, vol. III, K-P, Bucureti, Editura
Politic, 1965: ...Lingvist i istoric literar romn. Ce qui manque cest Les devinettes
roumaines.
3. *** Mic dicionar enciclopedic, ediia a III-a, revzut i adugit, Bucureti, Editura
tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1986: ...Linguiste et philologue roumain. Spcialiste de lhistoire
1131
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
de la langue [...] et de la littrature roumaine des dbuts. Ltude sur le folklore ny figure
pas.
4. *** Dicionar enciclopedic, vol. V, O-Q, Bucureti, Editura Enciclopedic, 2004:
...linguiste, historien littraire et philologue roumain. Le reste de la description est similaire
celle de 1986.
5. Mndica Mardare, Liliana Cioroianu, Geografie spiritual bcuan, ediia a II-a
revzut i adugit, Bacu, Editura Studion, 2003: Linguiste, historien littraire. Docteur
s lettres.
6. E[ugen] B[udu], I[oan] D[nil], n Enciclopedia judeului Bacu (coord., Emilian
Drehu), Bacu, Editura Agora, 2008: ...Linguiste, historien littraire, journaliste,
traducteur. Professeur duniversit. Docteur s lettres et en philologie roumaine. [...] Doctorat
s lettres avec la thse Sur les devinettes. [...] Ecrits (slectivement) [...] Despre cimilituri.
Studiu filologic i folcloric, 1909, 1911.
7. Ionel Maftei, Personaliti ieene, vol. III, Omagiu, [Iai], Comitetul de Cultur i
Educaie Socialist al judeului Iai, 1978: ...linguiste et philologue. [...] Simultanment
parat Dicionarului de lingviti i filologi romni (Ed. Albatros, 1978), o la prsentation
du chercheur de Iai est beaucoup plus ample, plus profonde et plus objective que celle des
deux auteurs bucarestoises Jana Balacciu et Rodica Chiriacescu: Chronologiquement, la
premire tude plus importante de George (sic!) Pascu est Sur les devinettes, 3 volumes
(1909-1911). Louvrage a pour point de dpart des matriaux trs vastes et trs varis et il
donne beaucoup dexplications et dinterprtations (Ionel Maftei, op. cit., s.v. Lunique
objection quon puisse faire lauteur cest la modification du prnom, de Giorge en George,
pour avoir probablement considr quil sagissait dune faute de frappe).
8. Cornel Galben, Personalitile Bacului, Bacu, Ed. Corgal Press, 2008: Lingvist. [...]
Doctorant, il soutient la thse Sur les devinettes. Etude philologique et folklorique
lUniversit <<Al. I. Cuza>> (1909)...
9. Jana Balacciu, Rodica Chiriacescu, op. cit., s.v.: ...linguiste et historien littraire [...]
Disciple dAl. Philippide, il obtirent une licence en philologie moderne (1907), le doctorat s
lettres (1909), avec ltude philologique et folklorique Sur les devinettes (2 vol., Iai,
Bucureti; 1909, 1911)... (Cest nous qui avons remplac la virgule par le point-virgule.) Au
sujet de lactivit scientifique, la plupart de ses ouvrages aussi bien de linguistique que
dhistoire littraire on a reproch le caractre factuel, labsence dune mthode rigoureuse,
la pauvret de linterprtation (op. cit., s.v.). Cette valuation est injuste, vu ltape de dbuts
de la philologie roumaine. Nous en dduisons qu propos de la thse de doctorat on a eu les
mmes reproches, tant donn que le domaine des tudes de folklore est totalement absent.
(Laccord entre le verbe s-a(u)) imputat et le sujet multiple nous appartient).
10. I. C. Chiimia, Al. Dima (coordinateurs), Literatura romn. Dicionar cronologic,
Bucureti, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1979, s.v. La personnalit culturelle de G.
Pascu est facile circonscrire, et pourtant on ne considre pas ncessaire de le mentionner
dans le compartiment des crivains ns en 1882. Par consquent, lunique prsentation de G.
Pascu est celle que donne la date de sa mort: 1951, avril 16 Mort, Zlatna, de Giorge
Pascu (n en 1882), linguiste, historien littraire et folkloriste. Par la suite, lauteur du petit
portrait (I. Oprian, responsable de la priode 1944-1979) met en exergue, de faon en
quelque sorte contradictoire, la contribution dans le domaine de ltude de la cration
1132
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
populaire: En tant que folkloriste, il sest fait connatre par sa thse de doctorat Sur les
devinettes. Approche philologique et folklorique (1909). Il y a ensuite lactivit de lhistorien
littraire, avec des exemples prcis, mais le linguiste G. Pascu reste absent.
11. Academia R.S.R., Institutul de Lingvistic, Istorie Literar i Folclor al Universitii Al.
I. Cuza Iai, Dicionarul literaturii romne de la origini pn la 1900, Bucureti, Editura
Academiei R.S.R., 1979. G. Pascu aurait d tre mentionn dans un des articles de la lettre P,
entre Pascaly, Mihail ( qui on assigne plus de deux colonnes dimprimerie) et Pastia,
Mihai (qui a 1,5 colonnes). Y faire entrer celui qui nous a laiss ltude Sur les devinettes et
plusieurs histoires littraires devenait ncessaire pour trois raisons: il faisait partie de
lintervalle de temps dont soccupaient les auteurs du Dictionnaire (G. Pascu est n avant
1900), il est connu comme historien littraire et folkloriste (les profils explicitement
recherchs par les auteurs et, respectivement, occupe une place de premier rang dans la
biographie de linstitution qui a garanti louvrage de 1979 (repris sans modification aucune en
2002). Dans un article sur Iorgu Iordan de 1978, G. Ivnescu note: Mais le professeur Iordan
a commenc jouer le rle quil mritait bien par sa formation et par son dynamisme
seulement partir de 1932, anne o la direction de lUniversit de Iai lui a confi la tche
de directeur de lInstitut de Philologie Roumaine de Iai, fond par A. Philippide et G. Pascu
en 1927 (linsistance nous appartient), et surtout aprs que, le 1 mars 1934, il soit devenu le
titulaire de la chaire de philologie roumaine (chaire qui avait t fonde par A. Philippide,
dcd le 11 august 1933) (G. Ivnescu, Iorgu Iordan, creator de coal lingvistic, dans
Cronica, Iai, anul XIII, nr. 40 (662), 6 oct. 1978, p. 1).
12. Eugen Budu, Bacul literar, Iai, Editura Universitas XXI, 2004, s.v. La deuxime
section (sur trois) o G. Pascu sest manifest remarque le meilleur historien littraire de
Bacu cest la science du folklore, avec une premire exgse philologique sur les
devinettes roumaines.
13. G[eorgeta] A[ntonescu], dans Dicionarul scriitorilor romni, III, M-Q (coordinateurs:
M. Zaciu, M. Papahagi, A. Sasu), Bucureti, Editura Albatros, 2001, s.v. Bien que
seulement deux domaines o sest affirm G. Pascu apparaissent, savoir la linguistique et
lhistoire littraire, lauteur de la prsentation, note, naturellement, en tte de liste, ltude
philologique Sur les devinettes.
14. D[umitru] V[ldu], dans Dicionarul general al literaturii romne, P-R, Bucureti,
Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 2006, s.v. Comparativement au Dictionnaire Zaciu, celui-ci,
appartenant Eugen Simion, a une visible teinte mthodologique. La composante qui prsente
de lintrt pour nous nest pas difficile identifier: en tant que folkloriste, P[ascu] est
lauteur des premires exgses philologiques et stylistiques amples sur les devinettes
roumaines. Selon lobservation dOvidiu Brlea, ltude des devinettes reprsente, aprs la
monographie que Lazr ineanu a donne sur le conte de fes, lunique ouvrage vraiment
fondamental et le plus tendu quon ait donn dune des formes du folklore roumain. Par la
suite, D. Vldu ralise une valuation concrte, qui met en vidence les qualits du contenu
et du style que les deux parties de la thse prsentent.
15. Academia R.P.R., Istoria literaturii romne, I, Bucureti, Editura Academiei R.P.R.,
1964. Au chapitre Les devinettes on assigne quatre pages (p. 190 193; en fait, il y en a
trois). On passe dabord en revue la prsence des devinettes dans le paysage ditorial (les
premires devinettes sont publies en 1851, Iai, dans Foiletonul Zimbrului, tant
1133
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
collectes par T. Stamati) et, aprs avoir justement considr louvrage dArtur Gorovei Les
devinettes des Roumains, Buc., 1898 , comme un recueil remarquable, Mihai Pop note:
Les contributions ultrieures (en bas de page: <<celles de Tudor Pamfile, George sic!
Pascu etc.>>) compltent le monde des devinettes sans en modifier la perspective gnrale
(p. 191). Distinguo est! Une distinction aurait t de mise, qui diffrencie les ouvrages des
collecteurs (fondamentaux dailleurs) de ceux des valuateurs, le seul de notable parmi eux
tant celui de G. Pascu.
16. Cf. M.E.I., Universitatea Bucureti, Folclor literar romnesc, ediia a II-a, de Mihai Pop
et Pavel Ruxndoiu, Bucureti, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 1978, p. 255. Il va se soi que
ltude philologique de G. Pascu, le seul avoir une formation philologique adquate, aurait
t beaucoup plus utile pour une prsentation de la devinette venant de lintrieur. Dailleurs,
le philologue nhsitera pas de signaler les erreurs scientifiques que renfermaient les ouvrages
des deux. La dlimitation terminologique pourrait considrer le syntagme devinettes
deviner comme renfermant un plonasme (I. C. Chiimia, Folcloriti i folcloristic
romneasc, Bucureti, Editura Academiei R.S.R., 1968, p. 259).
17. Ovidiu Brlea, Istoria folcloristicii romneti, Bucureti, Editura Enciclopedic Romn,
1974, p. 460.
18. Ibidem.
19. Ibidem.
20. Ibidem, p. 462.
21. Cf. I. C. Chiimia, op. cit. Lindice du nom est lacunaire (ex.: Gh./Gr. Creu ny figure
pas bien quil apparaisse lintrieur), et pour ce qui est des indices de motifs, oeuvres,
genres, les termes devinette et cimilitura sont absents, quoiquils soient prsents dans ltude
sur Al. Lambrior (p. 259). Lauteur mentionne-t-on dans une note sest fait aider lors de
ltablissement des indices par les membres du secteur littrature universelle de lInstitut
dHistoire Littraire et Thorie Littraire <<G. Clinescu >> que voici... (Sont numrs sept
chercheurs.)
22. D. Macrea, Contribuii la istoria lingvisticii i filologiei romneti, Bucureti, Editura
tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1978, p. 197.
23. Giorge Pascu, Despre cimilituri, Prefa, Iai, 1909, apud D. Macrea, op. cit., p. 197.
Dans ldition de 1922 de louvrage, les citations figurent la page X.
24. Iordan Datcu, S. C. Stroescu, Dicionarul folcloritilor. Folclorul literar
romnesc, prefa de Ovidiu Brlea, Bucureti, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1979, s.v.
La prsentation est rdige par I[ordan] D[atcu] et elle se retrouve dans une forme identique
dans Dicionarul etnologilor romni, de Iordan Datcu (Buc., Ed. Saeculum I.O., I-III,
1998-2001).
25. Ibidem.
26. Cf. *** Elogiu folclorului romnesc, antologie i prefa de Octav Pun, Bucureti,
Editura pentru Literatur, 1969, et Romulus Vulcnescu, Dicionar de etnologie
(terminologie, personaliti), Bucureti, Editura Albatros, 1979. Le nom de G. Pascu ne
figure dans aucun des deux ouvrages.
27. Giorge Pascu, Despre cimiliturile romneti, Bucureti, Ed. Cartea Romneasc, 1922,
p. V Prefa. Tacitement, il y aura une correction au point de vue langue. Louvrage,
1134
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
comme dailleurs dautres matriaux informatifs, nous a t fourni par la fille de G. Pascu, M-
me le professeur Corina Trnveanu, de Trgu-Mure.
28. Ibidem, p. VIII.
29. Ibidem.
30. Ibidem, pp. VII-IX.
31. Ibidem, p. IX. Cest nous qui avons soulign certains mots.
32. Rodica Zafiu, Ghicitori, dans Romnia literar, nr. 34, 27 aug. 2003. Les
considrations portent sur ltude de G. Pascu.
1135
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
NOMS PROPRES DANS LESPACE PUBLIC. PRCISIONS TRADUCTIVES SUR
LES ANTHROPONYMES NON CONVENTIONNELS 1
Georgeta RUS, PhD, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca Northern Baia-Mare
University Centre
Abstract: The present study aims at performing an update on the use and role of proper
names in Romanian public space. Some terminological clarifications need to be made,
especially in the case of onomastic classifications, in view of delineating the position
occupied by various anthroponymic subcategories between traditional and unconventional
usage. The article also pays attention to the translation devices employed in this singular
context, which is represented by the Romanian public space.
Keywords: translation practices, proper names, anthroponymics structures, media discourse,
interculturality.
La catgorie du nom propre
Etudie par lonomastique, la catgorie du nom propre a subi depuis longtemps des
controverses de par sa nature, son emploi et bien videmment de par sa capacit traductive. Sa
participation larticulation du texte qui le contient et le fait fonctionner est trs visible dans
des contextes particuliers, o son emploi sort des canons civils traditionnels. Dans la
dmarche traductive, la discussion autour de lemploi rfrentiel, de la prsence ou de
labsence de larticle ou de la majuscule a moins dimportance, le traducteur ne fait pas une
analyse onomastique proprement dite, en revanche son analyse cognitive doit avoir comme
but la restitution du sens en langue-cible2, tout en respectant lintention de lauteur et le style
du texte.
travers nos proccupations concernant le nom propre, on est arriv la conclusion,
en accord avec Vaxelaire (2005 : 11), quil ny a pas que des divergences au niveau de la
traduction du nom propre, mais une optique distincte se dessine dans la considration globale
de cette catgorie, que ce soit du point de vue grammatical, smantique ou syntaxique.
Parmi les problmes assez rcurrents au niveau du nom propre, la question du sens et
de la traduisibilit nous semble intressante tudier dans lespace public roumain actuel,
notamment pour la catgorie de lanthroponyme (nom de personne) et du toponyme (nom de
lieu)3. Ainsi, on considre la notion de sens comme tant le contenu du signe linguistique en
contexte, tandis que la signification est le contenu du signe linguistique hors contexte
(Rastier 1991 : 74-75 ; Vaxelaire 2005 : 19).
Les tudes prcdentes ont prouv que la catgorie des noms personnels (les
anthroponymes) tait la catgorie la plus diversifie des noms propres (Van Langendonck,
1
La prsente tude fait partie d'un projet de recherche CNCS (PN-II-RU-TE-2011-3-0007), contrat numro
103/2011, intitul Unconventional Romanian Anthroponyms in European Context: Formation Patterns and
Discoursive Function, remport dans une comptition internationale en 2011. Directeur de recherche : Daiana
Felecan.
2
Dsormais LC.
3
Dans la typologie du nom propre, on retrouve galement les noms de peuples, les noms de manifestations
naturelles, les noms danimaux et dobjets anthropomorphes, les enseignes, les noms de prix etc.
1136
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
2007 : 187-188). En plus dtre la mieux reprsente, on peut avancer, ds le dbut, ide
quelle comporte galement des formations dont la possibilit traductive est plus ou moins
controverse4, mais pas pour autant inenvisageable. En effet, on repre facilement dans cette
sous-catgorie des noms propres des units comprenant un degr de smantisme qui oblige
la traduction.
Parmi les sous-catgories du nom propre, lanthroponyme en tant qulment qui
dsigne un individu particulier ne pose pas forcement problme au moment de la traduction,
lors de son emploi standard. Cependant, dans des contextes particuliers, o sa structure, sa
forme et la prsence dun sens se fait remarquer en tant que drivation de la norme standard et
de ltat civil, on a faire un anthroponyme non conventionnel 5, qui subira bien entendu un
traitement non conventionnel dans la traduction galement. Ainsi, il est connu que,
ds quils intgrent un texte, les noms propres, comme toutes les autres
catgories du discours, ont un sens, qui peut diffrer selon les contextes. Pour le
traducteur, le constat est simple : ce quil doit traduire, ne relve pas de la
signification ou de ltymologie, mais du sens et les noms propres, ayant par
essence un signifi, ne peuvent tre ignores. (Vaxelaire, 2011 : 21).
La dnomination dans la presse satirique
Dans une situation de communication, le choix dnominatif a de multiples valences et
remplit des fonctions diffrentes, ce qui le transforme en lment phare des mdias, le nom
propre jouant un rle-cl dans lexpressivit du texte, la fois lexicale et dnominative-
rfrentielle. Surnoms et sobriquets pour la plupart, les units dnominatives sont clairement
des Npr mixtes ou base descriptive (constitus dun mlange de noms propres et dlments
emprunts au lexique commun) (Jonasson, 1994) :
TS/1 : Dup ce a rupt n dou Fondul Proprietatea pe mna manechinului Triceanu,
competenta Daniela Lulache a ajuns ef la Nuclearelectrica pe mna manechinului porno
Mazre.
TC : Aprs avoir coup en deux le Fond La Proprit grce Triceanu, la comptente
Daniela Lulache est devenue chef chez Nuclearelectrica grce au mannequin porno Mazre.
TS/2 : I-auzii ce zice Mihai Gdea, acest Che Gargara cu buze mai late dect prevede legea
audio-vizualului, pe pagina lui de Facebook.
TC : coutez un peu ce que dit Mihai Gdea, ce Che Gargara avec des lvres plus larges
que la loi de laudiovisuel exige, sur sa page Facebook.
TS/3 : Iar e babeta asta contemporan cu Ramses, Paula Iacob la televizor.
TC : Elle est de nouveau la tlvision, cette vieille contemporaine de Ramses, Paula Iacob.
En accord avec Manu Magda, il convient de mentionner que le nom port par un
individu est dtermin par les facteurs psychologiques impliqus dans lacte de la nomination
4
Pour le concept de (in)traductibilit des noms propres, voir Mounin 1955, Delisle 1993, Ballard 2001, 2011,
Lungu-Badea 2005, 2011, Vaxelaire 2005, 2011.
5
Pour lanalyse structurelle et fonctionnelle de certains anthroponymes non conventionnels considrs dans la
prsente tude et pour la terminologie anthroponymique non conventionnelle, voir Felecan 2011, 2012, 2013a,
2013b.
1137
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
(la configuration psychologique de ceux qui attribuent le nom), ainsi que de lappartenance
de lindividu un certain cadre historique/ une zone gographique/ une certaine classe
sociale/ une confession etc. (Manu Magda, 2011 : 504).6
Profondment motivs, les anthroponymes, ainsi que les patronymes mdiatiques sont
le plus souvent des artefacts, des constructions plus ou moins phmres en fonction de
lintention de lauteur-journaliste, et requirent un traitement particulier, qui mne
gnralement une nouvelle construction dans la LC : Vasilica Acrmaru/ Jeanne
Magasindegenivre ; Biscuiel/ Petite gterie etc.
Le nom propre7 en traduction
La pertinence dune rflexion traductive au niveau du nom propre 8 a longtemps t
mise en question, et les opinions des spcialistes ce sujet ont t plutt divergentes quant
sa possibilit traductive. Des sous-catgories du Npr, cette tude sintresse notamment aux
anthroponymes en tant que vecteurs onomastiques reprsentatifs de lespace public roumain,
et leur traduction en franais.
Souvent objet de dbat entre les spcialistes9, la traduction du Npr est passe par
plusieurs tapes avant que le Npr soit considr une vritable unit de traduction. Ainsi, dans
son argumentation contre la dmarche traductive, Kleiber affirmait que toute modification
aboutit, non une traduction dun nom propre, mais un nouveau nom propre (Kleiber
1981 : 503). Cependant, on ne peut pas ignorer le besoin dune traduction qui dcouvre au
lecteur/au public le contenu extralinguistique existent dans lunit traduire, dterminant une
incomprhension visiblement nuisible pour la rception du message si la traduction nest pas
complte. Le rle essentiel de la capacit cognitive du traducteur se rvle tre dans ce cas
une condition sine qua non dun transfert fidele du message. Il convient ainsi de dire que le
processus (cognitif) de traduction se constitue autour du choix des ressources de la langue-
source et de la langue-cible, manies habilement par le traducteur.
En accord avec Gary-Prieur, selon laquelle la faon dont la langue dsigne
lindividu mrite dtre tudie : la description des emplois du nom propre permet
denvisager une spcificit en franais. (Gary-Prieur, 1994 : 24), on pourrait tendre cette
affirmation la traduction qui, en fonction des particularits la fois linguistiques et
extralinguistiques des langues impliques dans la traduction, permet de dceler et de
transmettre des informations sans lesquelles le message est corrompu, incomplet et par
consquent erron.
Avec Algeo (1973) et Delisle (1993), le Npr voit sattribuer un statut dunit
traduisible, ce qui renforce sa fonction dans le contexte, et fournit au destinataire un outil qui
rendra plus prcis et enrichira le message dans la langue-cible. La prsente tude se construit
sur la position de Ballard (2001) et de Grass (2002), qui font du Npr une unit de traduction
part entire. Le point de dpart de la rflexion concernant la traduction anthroponymique sera
6
Traduit par nous.
7
Dsormais Npr.
8
Benveniste (1974 : 200) dfinit le nom propre comme une marque conventionnelle didentification sociale
telle quelle puisse designer constamment et de manire unique un individu unique .
9
Parmi les dfenseurs de la thse de lintraduisibilit du nom propre, voir G. Moore (1959), Mill et Dearle
(1972), Mounin (1994) etc.
1138
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
la thorie du skopos (Reiss et Vermeer 1984), conformment laquelle chacune des dcisions
du traducteur est dtermine par lintention, la finalit et la fonction du texte-cible.
Combl de rfrences culturelles, le texte satirique en tant que genre textuel enrichit
constamment le lexique et lonomastique avec des crations indites, qui dpassent le registre
formel et subissent un mtissage la fois avec les autres registres de la langue et avec les
circonstances qui ont caus leur apparition, ce qui transforme parfois les units dnominatives
en culturmes10. Le caractre descriptif nuanc de lunit dnominative dans la presse
satirique permet une fine analyse traductologique, qui donnera lieu ultrieurement la mise
en place des normes de traduction du roumain (langue-source11) vers le franais (LC).
Dans la traduction, le transcodage suit ainsi un raisonnement en fonction de la logique
interne des structures dnominatives, en se basant principalement sur deux voies.
On remarque, dans le cas du nom propre, deux types de traductions qui simposent : une
premire, intralinguale, laide du contexte extralinguistique et du smantisme engendr dans
lunit traduire, et une traduction interlinguale (traduction proprement dite).
Procd de traduction restituant une expression fixe du LS travers une autre en LC,
diffrente, mais qui correspond une mme ralit (traduit par nous, Lungu Badea 2005 :
104), lquivalence nous intresse dans la traduction du nom propre grce au contexte
particulier dans lequel les catgories dnominatives sont les plus problmatiques, savoir les
mdias. Le triangle actionnel journaliste-lecteur-traducteur nous rapproche de lquivalence
pragmatique en tant que modalit travers laquelle le traducteur a lintention de produire sur
les lecteurs un effet identique a celui provoqu par le TS sur les lecteurs-source, de telle sorte
que les relations TS-lecteurs-source et le TC-les lecteurs-cible soient symtriques (traduit par
nous, Lungu Badea 2005 : 113).
Un autre aspect important dans le registre satirique est la traduction des jeux de mots,
reprsentatifs culturels par excellence. Ainsi, la traduction des lments porteurs
dinformation culturelle est :
a la fois rvlatrice dun degr de comprhension mutuel entre deux cultures et
de la conscience (ou de la conception) qua le traducteur de son rle comme
mdiateur. Il y a un donn linguistico-culturel qui est fait des spcificits plus ou
moins partages par le public des deux communauts, et ce donn est lobjet de
stratgie qui tantt se repartissent entre des priorits contrastes (prservation
de ltrangit des significations et explicitation des signifis) qui tantt
pratiquent une sorte de transmission ngocie (M. Ballard, 2001 :108).
En plus des jeux de mots, de nombreux procds de formation peuvent tre identifis
au niveau du nom propre satirique,
Dans ce contexte particulier qui est le texte satirique, une des remarques qui simpose
est que la personnalisation de lunit dnominative ne signifie pas en mme temps un report
direct ou une traduction zro dans la LC. Cela sexplique par le fait que, la plupart des fois, le
prnom drive vers le sobriquet et/ou le surnom, ce qui provoque des variations formelles et
smantiques dans lunit de traduction. Le critre concernant la frquence, nonc par
10
Il reprsente une caractristique de la communication qui se manifeste dans lacte de traduction lors du
transfert des [pratiques monoculturelles et des faits culturels lintrieur de la langue-source et, secondairement
de celle-ci vers la langue-cible (Lungu Badea 2005 : 277).
11
Dsormais LS.
1139
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Vaxelaire : il nous semble quil faut une certaine rcurrence pour que le surnom ne soit
plus une des multiples appellations possibles, mais une dsignation qui ne concerne quune
personne (Vaxelaire 2005 : 319), ne change rien pour la traduction, la tche du traducteur
existe et il faut laccomplir, quelle que soit la rcurrence dune unit.
Le glissement lintrieur de la catgorie du Npr conduit ainsi un comportement
profondment analytique dans la traduction, voluant vers un traitement constructeur
didentit dans la LS.
Conclusions
Lespace public roumain se caractrise par une dynamique accrue des structures
dnominatives ayant une existence propre et une personnalit contextuelle instable. cause
de ces caractristiques, une valuation simpose au moment de la traduction, gnrant un
transfert de valeurs sociosmantiques qui mritent dtre transposes le plus fidlement dans
le texte-cible. Tout ce processus qui implique des comptences cognitives dveloppes de la
part du traducteur doit galement tenir compte de la couleur locale, dune importance non
ngligeable, notamment dans les mdias o elle se manifeste travers des sous-entendus, des
allusions et des procds bass sur des figures de construction et sur des figures de sens. Cette
prsence anthroponymique charge du point de vue structurel et constructif justifie la
considration du contexte mdiatique en tant que pierre angulaire du dveloppement du
systme dnominatif roumain.
Bibliographie gnrale
Ballard, M. 2011. Numele proprii n traducere. Traduction coordonne par G. Lungu-Badea.
Timioara : Editura Universitii de Vest. (Lucrarea original publicat n 2001).
Benveniste, . 1974. Problmes de linguistique gnrale II. Paris : Gallimard.
Chelaru-Murru, O. 2010. Nume, porecle, semnturi ironice n paginile < Academiei
Caavencu > [Noms, sobriquets, signatures ironiques dans les pages de l Acadmie
Caavencu ]. In Limba romn : Controverse, delimitri, noi ipoteze (II), Pragmatic i
stilistic, Actele celui de al 9-lea Colocviu al Catedrei de limba romn [La langue roumaine
: Controverses, dlimitations, de nouvelles hypothses (II), Pragmatique et stylistique, Les
actes du IXe Colloque de langue roumaine], Bucureti, 45 dcembre 2009 : R. Zafiu, A.
Dragomirescu and A. Nicolae (Eds.), 175184, Bucureti : Editura Universitii din Bucureti.
Delisle, J. 1993. Traduction raisonne. Ottawa : d. De lUniversit dOttawa
Felecan, D. 2011. Names within the Romanian Public Space: Formation Patterns and
Communicative Functions. In Cultural Spaces and Archaic Background. The International
Conference of Intercultural Studies and Comparativism Cultural spaces and archaic
foundations. Baia Mare, 2010, D. Suiogan, . Mari, C. Drbu (Eds.), 558574. Baia
Mare : Ethnologica Publishing.
Felecan, D. 2012. Des appellatifs non conventionnels noms communs de groupe dans la
langue roumaine actuelle : construction et fonction communicative. Nouvelle Revue
dOnomastique (NRO) 54 : 227244.
Felecan, D. English vs. Latin in the Construction of Unconventional Appellatives in
Contemporary Romanian (Sociolinguistic Considerations), paratre.
1140
SECTION: LANGUAGE AND DISCOURSE LDMD I
Felecan, D. 2013b. Aspects de la dynamique des appellatifs non conventionnels dans lespace
public roumain actuel, paratre.
Gary-Prieur, M-N. 1994. Grammaire du nom propre. Paris : Presses Universitaires de France.
Jonasson, K. 1994. Le nom propre. Constructions et interprtations. Louvain : Duculot.
Kleiber, G. 1981, Problmes de rfrence. Descriptions dfinies et noms propres. Recherches
Linguistiques n VI, Etudes publies par le Centre dAnalyse Syntaxique de lUniversit de
Metz, Paris : Klincksieck.
Kripke, S. 2008. La logique des noms propres. Paris : Les ditions de minuit.
Ladmiral, J-R. [1979] 1994. Traduire : thormes pour la traduction. Paris : Gallimard, coll.
Tel .
Leroy, S. 2004. Le nom propre en franais. Paris : Editions Ophrys.
Lungu-Badea, G. 2004. Teoria culturemelor, teoria traducerii. Timioara : Editura
Universitii de Vest.
Lungu-Badea, G. 2005. Tendine n cercetarea traductologic. Timioara : Editura
Universitii de Vest.
Lungu-Badea, G. 2008. Quelques questions concernant la traduction des noms propres :
application au roumain. In : T. Miliaressi (d.). La Traduction : philosophie, linguistique et
didactique. collection UL3 Travaux et Recherches Lille : Universit Charles de Gaulle
Lille3.
Lungu-Badea, G. 2008. Mic dicionar de termeni utilizai n teoria, practica i didactica
traducerii. Timioara : Editura Universitii de Vest.
Lungu-Badea, G. 2011. Un panorama de la traduction roumaine des noms propres (roumain-
franais). In: T. Milliaressi (d.). De la linguistique la traductologie. collection
Philosophie & linguistique . Presses Universitaires du Septentrion.
Manu Magda, M. 2011. Pragmatic i antroponimie (consideraii teoretice referitoare la
sistemul apelativelor n limba romn) [Pragmatique et anthroponymie (considrations
thoriques concernant le systme des appellatifs en roumain)]. In, Nom et dnomination.
Actes de la Confrence Internationale dOnomastique, I re dition, Interfrences
multiethniques dans les anthroponymes, Oliviu Felecan (dir.). Baia Mare, 19-21 septembrie
2011, Cluj-Napoca : Editura Mega.
Rastier, F. 1991. Smantique et recherches cognitives. Paris : PUF.
Reiss, K. i H. J. Vermeer, 1984. Grundlegung einer allgemeinen Translationstheorie.
Tbingen : Niermeyer.
Translationes: (In)Traductibilit des noms propres (3). 2011. Timioara : Editura
Universitii de Vest.
Van Langendonck, W. 2007. Theory and Typology of Proper Names. Berlin/New York : De
Gruyter.
Vaxelaire, J-L. 2005. Les noms propres une analyse lexicologique et historique. Paris :
Honor Champion.
Vaxelaire, J-L. 2011. De Mons Bergen. De lintraduisibilit des noms propres. In
Translationes, nr.3/2011, p.13-28, responsables du numro : Georgiana Lungu-Badea, Alina
Pelea, Timioara : Editura Universitii de Vest.
Les journaux satiriques Academia Caavencu, Kamikaze, Caavencii.
1141
You might also like
- Application of Polysystem Theory in The Field of TranslationNo ratings yetApplication of Polysystem Theory in The Field of Translation7 pages
- Georgeta Ciobanu-Romanian Words of English Origin100% (2)Georgeta Ciobanu-Romanian Words of English Origin138 pages
- George Calinescu Si Proiectul Monografic EminescuNo ratings yetGeorge Calinescu Si Proiectul Monografic Eminescu5 pages
- Valori Semantico-Stilistice Ale Verbului: Limba RomânăNo ratings yetValori Semantico-Stilistice Ale Verbului: Limba Română7 pages
- Translation of Film Titles. A Case Study On The Translation of Film Titles From English Into Romanian and Influences On Box Office SuccessNo ratings yetTranslation of Film Titles. A Case Study On The Translation of Film Titles From English Into Romanian and Influences On Box Office Success58 pages
- Teaching How To Generate Complex Nominal Phrases Used To Define New Concepts or Describe Objects100% (1)Teaching How To Generate Complex Nominal Phrases Used To Define New Concepts or Describe Objects6 pages
- Theories and Practice of Translation BT Modoficat 27 11 2006 PDF100% (2)Theories and Practice of Translation BT Modoficat 27 11 2006 PDF248 pages
- I. Ischenko Difficulties While Translating Realia .No ratings yetI. Ischenko Difficulties While Translating Realia .6 pages
- Teoria Si Practica Traducerii - Curs de LectiiNo ratings yetTeoria Si Practica Traducerii - Curs de Lectii27 pages
- Romanian Lit History: Impact & IdeologyNo ratings yetRomanian Lit History: Impact & Ideology19 pages
- Ciobanu Romanian Words of English OriginNo ratings yetCiobanu Romanian Words of English Origin71 pages
- Sintaxa Limbii Romane - Valeria Gutu RomaloNo ratings yetSintaxa Limbii Romane - Valeria Gutu Romalo11 pages
- Turisticheskiy Diskurs Strategii I Problem Perevoda Saytov Oteley PDFNo ratings yetTuristicheskiy Diskurs Strategii I Problem Perevoda Saytov Oteley PDF10 pages
- Linguistic and Multimodal Insights Into The Tourist BrochuresNo ratings yetLinguistic and Multimodal Insights Into The Tourist Brochures10 pages
- Ntroduction To Ranslation Tudies: Ina Sîtnic University Lecturer, Ma, PHD StudentNo ratings yetNtroduction To Ranslation Tudies: Ina Sîtnic University Lecturer, Ma, PHD Student31 pages
- Conceptul de Literatură Universală (Generală) Şi Comparată: Carmen Popescu100% (1)Conceptul de Literatură Universală (Generală) Şi Comparată: Carmen Popescu42 pages
- Formal Correspondence Vs Translation Equivalence Revisited100% (2)Formal Correspondence Vs Translation Equivalence Revisited11 pages
- Translation Techniques: Ina Sîtnic Lecturer, Moldova State University100% (1)Translation Techniques: Ina Sîtnic Lecturer, Moldova State University28 pages
- Exploring The Canon: Fontane's Effi BriestNo ratings yetExploring The Canon: Fontane's Effi Briest4 pages
- Douglas Robinson - Retranslation and The Ideosomatic Drift100% (1)Douglas Robinson - Retranslation and The Ideosomatic Drift11 pages
- Iulian Boldea (Editor), STUDIES ON LITERATURE, DISCOURSE AND MULTICULTURAL DIALOGUE, Section Language and Discourse, Arhipelag XXI Publishing House, Tirgu Mures, 2014No ratings yetIulian Boldea (Editor), STUDIES ON LITERATURE, DISCOURSE AND MULTICULTURAL DIALOGUE, Section Language and Discourse, Arhipelag XXI Publishing House, Tirgu Mures, 20141,141 pages
- Identities in Metamorphosis. Literature, Discourse and Multicultural Dialogue. Vol. II. Section: Language and Discourse, 2014No ratings yetIdentities in Metamorphosis. Literature, Discourse and Multicultural Dialogue. Vol. II. Section: Language and Discourse, 2014543 pages
- Communication, Context, Interdisciplinarity. Vol. III. Section: Language and DiscourseNo ratings yetCommunication, Context, Interdisciplinarity. Vol. III. Section: Language and Discourse1,036 pages
- MULTICULTURAL REPRESENTATIONS. Literature and Discourse As Forms of DialogueNo ratings yetMULTICULTURAL REPRESENTATIONS. Literature and Discourse As Forms of Dialogue318 pages
- Literature, Discourse and Multicultural Dialogue. Literature, Discourses and The Power of Multicultural Dialogue. Vol. V. Section: Language and Discourse, 2017No ratings yetLiterature, Discourse and Multicultural Dialogue. Literature, Discourses and The Power of Multicultural Dialogue. Vol. V. Section: Language and Discourse, 2017537 pages
- Debates On Globalization. Approaching National Identity Through Intercultural DialogueNo ratings yetDebates On Globalization. Approaching National Identity Through Intercultural Dialogue698 pages
- Literature, Discourse and Multicultural Dialogue. Literature As Mediator. Intersecting Discourses and Dialogues in A Multicultural World. Vol. VI. Section: Language and Discourse, 2018No ratings yetLiterature, Discourse and Multicultural Dialogue. Literature As Mediator. Intersecting Discourses and Dialogues in A Multicultural World. Vol. VI. Section: Language and Discourse, 2018416 pages
- Globalization, Intercultural Dialogue and National Identity. Meditating Globalization, Identities in Dialogue. Vol. V. Section: Language and Discourse, 2018No ratings yetGlobalization, Intercultural Dialogue and National Identity. Meditating Globalization, Identities in Dialogue. Vol. V. Section: Language and Discourse, 2018316 pages
- Globalization, Intercultural Dialogue and National Identity. Identities in Globalization. Intercultural Perspectives. Vol. VII. Section: Language and Discourse, 2020No ratings yetGlobalization, Intercultural Dialogue and National Identity. Identities in Globalization. Intercultural Perspectives. Vol. VII. Section: Language and Discourse, 2020368 pages
- Communication, Context, Interdisciplinarity. The Challenges of Communication. Contexts and Strategies in The World of Globalism. Vol. V. Section: Language and Discourse, 2018No ratings yetCommunication, Context, Interdisciplinarity. The Challenges of Communication. Contexts and Strategies in The World of Globalism. Vol. V. Section: Language and Discourse, 2018336 pages
- Literature, Discourse and Multicultural Dialogue. Discourse As A Form of Multiculturalism in Literature and Communication. Vol. III. Section: Language and Discourse, 2015No ratings yetLiterature, Discourse and Multicultural Dialogue. Discourse As A Form of Multiculturalism in Literature and Communication. Vol. III. Section: Language and Discourse, 2015973 pages