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General Navigation PDF

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topair
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General Navigation [CHAPTER 1 DIRECTION & DEFINITIONS. Ti Ean, eee "he Poles. 2 Nowh and Sao = East ond Wea, a dead agi DIRECTO eens ‘ae Deco z Magne Dro Compass Divo = Calton Tr Dirsction (CHAPTER — POSITION AND DISTANCE vw Last. ‘Choe oid Loner —— € "Changs of longde asia = ‘aencrxtc&GrnounicLaTUDES (CHAPTER 3-LINES ON THE EARTH sence Woking with gra rs 2 MUNN nee s Sy = iy Grea ices i ‘hand Lines. i (CHAPTER 4 MAPS AND CHARTS erwerernnnnnet Th Coc Se, : 2 ) Sale = zi Maseatons rasan a Seale e 6 ‘Gea ces and inc. ot Seman a ° ‘ie SMIMLE Conic PROMCHON ne 0 ints eateen ncn aviation - 5 ‘Ate Opa io Conair and nr a 10 Treat = a Dis Comer Bip a ‘Seting Up. : 1 INS Normal Operation ei ‘Tir Wan ANOLE INS S Sl TiesraaroowN TRU. — i “nil Agee and cing “ 9 Nawgton = Conran nite 2 ” ‘Sing Up. = : 2 Fas Reiger. = zm ‘Svea Exnons 2 "Eat ate ard rar Wand 2 Cori Et Py (Comrie aeelrtion = 2 ‘Schr Toning. oo Power Fare ey ‘Navigation Computer Fare os (CHAPTER 12-THE FMS NAV a YAY can 1 {Cox Manage’ with i FS. 2 US np 3 Passer... 5 enim 5 ‘Poston tls. é Roan - * Peformance Iiialaton io Take Referee. 2 infu —— i ‘Naval Pri te (Catal Ee 1s Changing Rowing 15 ‘pooch ond andi = - a ‘Shanon 7 (ther FS Fino a hus ouput = = 18 FMS Opening Philosphy 18 Materia Operation - 1s Indkpenion Ue 9 Single we 9 Rake as 9 (CHAPTER 13 THE SOLAR SYSTEM AND TIM Eamonn “TupsoLanststt 1 “Tie YEAR. oS — 4 Uae = = 4 svaso Tas : 6 Jueteremssmonad Bare = * The Uses of LT. Chapter 1 - Direction & Definitions The Earth he planet Earth is roughly spherical. Because ofits spin it is slightly fatter at the equator, a shape krown as an oblate spheroid or an ellipsoid. As this distortion is, ‘only in the region of 0.3% itis ignored for the purposes of the calculations we carry out during this course and the Earth is assumed to be a true sphere, Modern navigation systems compensate forthe flattening of the earth but some older navigation systems list an error called ritude error which arises from making the simple sssumption that the earth is round, i isn" [Even more modern systems like GPS modify the mathematical model of the earth they use beyond the squashed. but ‘Navigation 74 symmetrical ellipsoid to @ geold which even more closely wo8 84ts the represents the earth's surface. The most used reference system mast common is the World Geodetic System of 1984 or WGS84, There is a teforence eystem WGS84 ellipsoid, used by GPS. ees) Y. ee if Soi The Poles The extremities ofthe axis ofthe Barth's rotation are called the Poles, the North pole being the point about which the Barth rotates anti-loclevise when viewed from above - the "top" of the Barth and the South pole the “bottom” of the Earth, North and South North is the direction from any position to the North Pole. South is the direction to the South Poe, East and West East (B) isthe direction in which the earth rotates, West (W) is, the opposite direction. North, South, Bart and Wert are known fas the cardinal directions 12 northseuth, Latitude and Longitude Lines that run from pole to pole on the Earth are called Meridians ‘of Longitude. By definition they must run North/South and there are an infinite number of them. Meridians of Longitude Lines that run East/West are called Parallels of Latitude. Likewise there are an infinite number of these, one af which is the Equator, half way between the poles and perpeadicular to the line joining the poles. The use of lines of latitude and longitude to describe position is covered in the next chapter Parallels of Latitude Navigation nou 13 Direction Direction is measured as an angle in degrees. As an angle must be measured from somewhere a reference datum is needed, With directian we have three possible datums and hence three different ways of describing the same direction. ‘True Direction ‘True direction in measured ag an angle, clockwine with reference to true north, the direction of the north geographical pole, the axis about which the earth spins, "To measure true Girection we use the local meridian of longitude through our 02 Figure 8-15 Magnetic Direction ‘The earth acts like a huge magnet. Its lines of force cover the lobe and are sullicently strong to influence the direction of a Feely suspended magnetic needle. The poles of this enormous. magnet, imown as the north and south magnetic poles, are near the geographical poles but not in exacly the same positions. Thus a compass needle in the earth's undisturbed Magnetic field will point to magnetic north, the datum from ‘which magnetic direction is measured. 14 E ‘Navigation eographie north role aitforencs weacings Iogonate join points of equat Figure ‘The diference between the directions of magnetic north and true north is called variation. Because it is the difference between the datums it is also the difference between all rue directions and their corresponding magnetic directions at any point. Just as true direction is based on the local meridian of Tongitude joining the true North and South poles, magnetic direction may be measured from the local magnetic meridian joining the magnetic North and South poles but folowing the ux line or lines of force of the Barth's magnetic field Variation is not constant across the globe but varies from place to place. Lines joining points of equal variation are called logonals and ‘are often printed on maps and charts Unfortunately as the magnetic pole moves around the true pole approximately once every 960 years variation at aay’ point is subject to gradual change with the passage of time. This change, which is indicated in the margin of the map is not Targe but can be significant. Map and charts should always be checked to find the date at which the variation is correct and any corrections should be applied unless you are told otherwise in the exam. Navigation 18 Figure 8-1-7 Variation is measured in degrees, and is named east or west according to whether magnetic north les to the east or west of {rue north at that point, So magnetic heading, plus or minus variation, equals true heading. Variation can also be described fas + or ~ instead of East and West. Ifyou are given a variation this way read + as East and - as West and use this rhyme to determine whether the variation should be added or ‘subtracted: Variation East Magnetic Least Variation West Magnetic Best Compass Direction When a magnetic needle is influenced only by the Earth's magnetic field it points to magnetic north. If the compass is, installed in an aeroplane the earth's magnetic feld will be distorted by the metal and the electrical equipment around i. ‘The needle now deviates slightly from magnetic north and indicates a direction known as compass north ‘The difference between the direction of magnetic north and that of compass north is called deviation. Deviation is also measured in degrees and is once again described as Bast (+) oF ‘West (). The rhyme to remember is Deviation East Compass Least Deviation West Compass Best 1s ea eee ear avianten| ctoWest and ure te enyme, ‘cadbury's Deviation 2) Figure 8-4-8 Deviation is not, as might be thought, a constant value for a given compass. it varies with the heading of the aircraft as the Sircralts magnetic fields interfere with the earth's magnetic Field frat in one direction and then in another. In order to convert the directions registered by a particular compass t0 ‘magnetic direction, a table of deviation against heading, a compass card, needs to be made up and placed near the ‘compass (o which it applies. Compasses are discusted in more detail in Chapter 7, Calculation of True Direction It is now possible to convert an sitcraft compass heading t0 a True heading o to convert a True heading to an arcraft compass heading provided Deviation and Variation are applied correctly and in the correct sequence. This might help. you remember Cadburys Dairy Milk is Very ‘Tasty Compass Deviation Magnetic Variation True Navigation ee 17 Study the diagram below. Be very clear that we have here only fone direction but that it can be described in three ways. Te Figure 84-9 Cadburys Dairy Milk is Very Tasty Compass Deviation Magnetic Variation ‘True marc SWIM SAT eS ‘Navigation ‘angle trom the ‘ae e 90° Chapter 2 - Position and Distance farallels of latitude and meridians of longitude are a Position Reference System and used as a grid 10 efine position on the arth, The accurscy ‘of the position is only limited by the size ofthe units used. Latitude Parallels of latitude are described by their angle, measured at the centre of the Earth, above or below the equator. Thus the latitude of the north pole would be 90°N and the south pole 90°S. The units used are degrees, minutes and seconds. There are 60 seconds in a minute and'60 minutes in a cegree, The ‘maximum possible latitude is 90° either north or south. Change of latitude ‘The change of latitude isthe angle between the two parallels at the centre of the earth. In figure 8-2-1 the change of latitude Navigation SSCS ‘would be 17°35' plus 44°30", We have to be a bit careful here because there are 60 minutes in a degree. The answer is not 61°65 but If the two latitudes are in the same hemisphere the angles ‘must be subtracted ‘Example: Find the change of latitude between 87°13'S and 2s (Change of tate ois Solution: Subtract the angles: er 1 ‘The change of latitude is 60° 36) ‘The rule is to find change of latitude between different Different hemispheres, add between latitudes in the same hemisphere hemispheres, add. subtract The same emisphere, subtract 2 os ~ Wavigation Longitude Mcridians of longitude are described by their angle away from, the Greenwich meridian, also known as the prime meridian ‘The units used are once again degrees mimites and seconds, ‘but the maximum longitude is now 180°, the Greenwich antimeridian. Longitudes are named East or West depending where they lie in relation to the prime meridian. The diagram below shows the earth viewed fom above with longitudes shown, 120" EW ose caso w West <<‘ + east eiian Figure 823 Because longitudes can run up to 180° they are shown by ‘convention with three digits for the degrees. Thus 10" 14° Eis, properly written as 010° E. Change of longitude 1m just the same that change of latitude can be calculated so ccan change of longitude. In the example above the change of Jongitude can be found by adding, as they are in different hemispheres, 029° o1' Ww 06H S61E + 93°57 Navigation 2 [A complication arises when the sum comes to more than 180° fas we are interested in the shortest way around the earth, Example: Find the change of longitude between 160° 35' ‘and 086" 54° W. 10005 ‘Solution: As before add the angles. 160° 35° 086" 53° + 2aT 29 ‘his is more than 180", so it cannot be the shortest way around. To find the answer subtract DAT" 28) rom 360" 360° 00 2a 28° - 13 So the rule is now, for change of longitude between different hemispheres add the two and if the answer is more than 180° subtract it fom 360° to find the shortest way round. =e Navigation ‘The change of longitude between wo points in the same hemisphere can be found by subtracting the smaller angle from the large. Example: Find the change of longitude between 140°22.W and 178° 11W wer Crange of vaorze WL Congas o Greenwich Merson west «Ds cae Figure 82.5 Solution: Subtract the twor vee ar 140° 29 - 37° 49) Distance (One minute is one The units of distance that are used in navigation are ‘nautical mile. kilometres, statute miles, nautical miles and feet. By far the ‘most common are the last two, Conversion between the units ‘can be carried out on the nav computer but you might find it ‘sofa to remeuiber Ue flowing 1 Kilometre = 3280 ft 1 statute mile = 5280 # 1 nautical mile = 6080 ft Naviga as ‘The nautical mile is a unit that is derived from the earth itself ‘The definition is that one nautical mile is the distance subtended by one minute of are on the earth's circumference, This means that if we know the angle between two points, along a circumference, we can find the distance in nautical niles ‘The obvious circumference to try this out on is the equator. Example: Find the shortest distance between 00°N/S 114° ‘and OO'N/S 120°E, Solution: We need the change of longitude in minutes. The points are in the same hemisphere so subtract. 120° 1s: - a 6° is 6 x 60 minutes = 360" so the shortest distance is 360 nautical miles ‘This also works on other circumferences, meridians and antimeridians for instance. Example: Find the shortest distance between 34° 15'N 108° 22°F and 36°00 N 108" 22'E. Solution: The points are in the same hemisphere so subtract to find the change of latitude. 26° 00! one degree is sixty minutes so the change of Tatitude in minutes is 105, the distance 105NM. Now we have the ability to calculate the distance between two points on the same longitude, using the change of latitude in finutes, or two points on the equator, using change of Tongitude in minutes 40,000km trom ole or 5.40000 Departure the cartwort shortest distance “The format only works i the change of Tongtude stn Departure Figure 826 ‘The diagram above shows that as we move away fom the equator the east/west distance decreases for the same change of Tongitude. At the poles the distance between the meridians 15 2010, at the equator it isthe change of longitude in minutes. In other words the distance travelled east/west varies with the cosine of latitude, Between the two extremes of the poles and. the equator east/west distance, called departure, can be found by using the formula: departure = change of longitude x cos latituse (om) (minutes) ‘The units are important here as it rests on the idea that NM. is one minute, even though the east/west distance is not along, @ circumference but a parallel of latitude. Example: Find the departure between 47°S 113°E and 47°S. ew ‘Solution: First find the change of longitude in minutes. The points are in different hemispheres so add, us" 1 + 285" This is more than 180° so subtract fron 360° to find the shorter way round 360" pee 7 _multiply by 60 to put it into minutes ‘Navigation SSCS 75x60 = 4500 ‘now we can put this into the formula, departure = change of lngitude x cos lat 4500 x cos 47° = 3069 NM Ic should be noted that the distance calculated using the departure formula is not the shortest distance unless we are fon the equator, itis the distance in an east/west direction Distance Over The Poles We already know that we can find the distance between two points if we can find the angle between them measured along a ‘ireumference of the Earth. We have found the angle between ‘wo latitudes by finding the change of latitude, and we found the angle between points on the equator by finding the change of longitude. One last case remains to be considered where points lie on opposite meridians (ie. a meridian and its anti- ‘meridian) and the shortest distance between them goes over the pole. Example: Find the shortest distance between 57°N 008°E, and 83°N 172°W. Solution: Sketch a diagram, eon i72W S7'N008rE \é \ E a Figure 82-7 First we note that the difference in longitude between OOS°E and 172°W is 180" ic, these places lie on a meridian and its antimeridian, ‘We need to find the angle between the points ‘measured at the centre ofthe earth. The diagram shows that we can find this by adding the Tnttudes and then subtracting the tata from 180". sr sax = 140° 10-140" = 40" Now put the angle into minutes, 40x60 = 2400 ‘and the distance is therefore 2400NM es one ‘minute equals one nautical mile on a Greumterence, ‘An alternative solution which would give the same result would bbe to find the angle from 83°N to the pole, find the angle between 57°N and the pole and then add them, ‘This question is the only one where you will be asked to work ut the distance between two points with differert latitudes and longitudes. It can be recognised by checking that the Tongitides add up to 180" ‘The Effect of the Distorted Sphere For the purposes of our calculations we assume that the Earth, Js @ perfect sphere but we know that in reality the Barth is a ‘squashed sphere, an oblate spheroid. Because of the distortion in the shape of the Earth a nautical rile (one minute of arc subtended on the surface of the Earth), {i diferent at different latitudes. "One minute of ae subtended fn the surface of our oblate spheraid covers a distance of: 1,862m at the poles 1,853m at 45°N/S 1,84am at the equator The ICAO definition of one nautical mile is 1,852m, 607A. {6080 is fine for calculations, ‘Navigation . Because the Barth ia not a true sphere but an oblate spheroid (or ellipsoid), the radius measurements are slightly different: the equatorial radius = 6,956kea (3,753 NM, the polar radius = 6,933 (3,740 NM} ‘This distortion may be expressed as a ratlo of elliptiety or (a-b/a where ais the equatorial radius and b is the polar radius, ‘The accepted ratio of ellepticity derived from the International Elipsoid Reference (1924) is 1/297, sometimes expressed a8 1297, Geocentric & Geodetic Latitudes ‘We have defined a Parallel of Latitude by drawing a line from the centre of the earth and measuring the angle of that line above or below the equator at the centre of the earth. This is, called the Geocentre (earth centred) Latitude. It can be seen that, if the earth is assumed to be a spheroid rather than a sphere, this line does mot emerge from the surface of the earth perpendicular toi Spheroid, Figure 828 An alternative way of measuring Latitude isto drave the line at Fight angles to the earth's surface. This gives the Geodetic or Geographic Latitude. 20 = Figure 8.29 ‘The Geocentric and Geodetic latitudes will be the seme only at the poles and at the equator. The greatest difference in latitude wil occur at 45°N or 45°5 where it amounts to about 11.6 minutes of are, Geodetic latitudes are plotted on sharts, the differences between geodetic and geocentric latitudes are largely ignored. ‘Navigation SSC Intentionally Blank 2az = "Navigation Chapter 3 - Lines on the Earth children know the shortest distance beween two points is a straight line and if pushed they might define straight line as a line that does not bend or deviate oF perhaps a line that has a constant direction When we ‘come to look at lines on the earth we Sind that this definition ia ro good, there are lines of constant direction but they are not the shortest distance between two points. To find aut why we ‘must look back to the way direction itself is described Direction in navigation is given as an angle from a éatum. The datum used is the direction of the north pole. If we look at’ Similar situation below the direction of a line has been ‘measured at two points and, although the line is unbending, the direction can be seen to have changed. direction 025° A straight line with changing direction Figure 8.344 ‘Exactly the same thing happens on the surface of the earth, Lines that form the shortest distance between two points have changing directions, not because they are bent but becatise of the way direction is measured, This should not be 2 surprise, ineaonen etait] the shortest distance from England to Japan is over the north pole, track direction changes from northerly at the start t0 Southerly at the end. As this is a result of the converging, ‘meridians the effect is called eonvergeney Great Circles Lines that form the shortest distance between two points are called great circles, because if they were continued around the earth they would be the largest circles you can draw on a sphere, a circumference. Ir you want 10 ilustrate the concept stretch a rubber band between two points on a globe. Any circle that is not a great circle is called a small circle Lines that are drawn with a constant direction must by definition be longer tracks than the grest circle, the ‘shortest distance, These are called thumb Hines. A great circle between ‘wo points will always lie on the poleward side of the hum line between these paints, Great circles and shumb lines Figure 832 Working with great circles Ii an obvious advantage to be able to take the shortest track between fo points so great circle tracks are used for navigation whenever possible. The disadvantage is the constantly changing track direction, in practice Inertial ‘Navigation Systems, LORAN or GPS are needed to fly great circles, Navigation systoms fy great ‘convergency It is possible to calculate by how much the track direction how much the changes between two points. Convergency is clearly dependent great eel track on latitude, it will be Zero at the equator where meridians are changes Parallel and at a maximum at the poles where they converge ‘most. It is also dependent on how far we travel, a short track ‘will have litle change of direction a long one like our trip to Japan could go through nearly 180°. The full formula’ to caleulate convergency is Convergency = change of lngitude x sin mean atitude Im order to test the formula let us put in the latitude of the equator, where the meridians are parallel and no matter how far you travel your track is either east or west: convergency = change of long x sin 0° bbut sin 0° is zero 90, convergency = 0 We can also test for the poles, convergeney change of long x sin 90° = change of ong x1 = change of long Convergency is ‘This makes sense too, if you change your longitude by 180° greatest atthe you change your track direction fram north to south poles sow 30" ‘sow trac 100° or e0rew aoe 10 tLe Convergency equals change of longitude atthe pole Figure 33 Wadgaten——~SSCS~C aS 3 ‘The formula works equally wel for latitudes in between. Bxample: Solution: Bxample: Solution: Find the convergency between A (40°N 025°W) and B (60°N 060°B) ‘The easiest way to find the mean latitude is to add the two latitudes together then divide by two. Use the formula, convergency = change of long x sin mean lat 85° x sin SO" 85" ¥ 0.7660 os ‘This tells us that between A and B the track has changed by 65° Find the convergeney between A (56°S 104°} and B (84°S 170°W), change of ong is 170° - 104° = 66° mean lat = Ys (56 + 84) = % (140) = 70" change of long x-sin mean I = 66° x sin 70" = 66" x 0.9397 2 convergency ‘This tells us that between A and B the track has changed by 62° [As we expect the convergeney between two places relatively close together is minimal Example: ‘Solution: Find the convergency between London (51°30 (000* 00°W) and Bristol (51°30'N 002" 30'W) Convergency = change of long x sin mean lat = Quexsin Si" 2s x 0.7826 a It is more usual to give you an initial great circle track direction and ask you to calculate the final track direction. The difference between the two must be the convergency, the only ane Navigation ‘each change question is whether it should be added or subtracted. Sketch diagrams are essential here. Bxample: Solution Navigation Given that the initial great circle track from Lisbon (88°N 009°W) to Nassau (25°N. 078°) is 274° find the final great circle track Start with a diagram. There are three basic rules that will help keep you out of trouble DDrav the meridians sloping in to the top in the northern hemisphere and sloping out in the southern hemisphere, Look at the given trac, if tis generally easterly draw it left to right, if its generally westerly draw it right to tet Putin the angle you are told about and check it looks roughly correct. ‘This is the northern hemisphere so the meridians slope in to the top af the page and the wack is generally westerly so we draw it right te left with Lisbon on the right and Nassau on the left. Putin 274” at Lisbon drawing it clockwise from north Ht N \ aah 2 User Calculate the convergency, convergency = change of long = sin mean lat = 69'xsin is ae ‘The diagram shows the fnal track argle is less than the initial so final track = 274° - 36° 238 Example: Given that the initial great circle track direction between Perth (82°S 116*8) and Cape Town (34°S (020°F) is 241°T find the final great circle track. ‘Solution: Follow the rules forthe diagram. N ? 2a Perth cape Town Figure 83:7 Calculate canvergency. Convergency = change of long x sin mean lat 96" xin 33° a ‘The diagram shows the final track angle is greater than the initial #0 the final track angle 24a" + 52" = 2067 Watch for the catches, make sure you are in the right hemisphere, use the given track to decide which point is on the Jeft and which on the right and draw angles clockwise from north. Dont attempt to get the latitudes right, the diagram will ‘work just as well you keep it simple. oo ‘Example: Given that the initial great circle track direction from A (42°N 160°E) to B (64°N 120°E) is 312°T find the initial great circle track from Bto A, Solution: Calculate convergency. cconvergency = change of long x sin mean lat 40° xsin 53° = 40°x0.7986 = 32 Figure 83.9 ‘The initial great circle track from A to B was 312°T. The diagram shows the final great circle track 312-32 = 280" ‘The question asked not for this but for the initial rack from B to A. The diagram shows this is the reciprocal s0| Initial great circle track B to A 280° - 180° = 100° Nevigntion SSC Rhumb Lines Im the same way that there ia only one great circle track ‘between any two points, except the poles, there is only one constant direction, rhumb line, track. The advantage of fying. Fhumb line tracks is equally obvious, any aireraft without a sophisticated navigation system must fy a constant track, the disadvantage being the route is slightly longer. ook at Uke dirs Uelow, whic shows Gwe polls jan dhe northern hemisphere and the chumb line and great circle tracks between them. Convergency is given as 40°, Figure 83-10 ‘The thumb line, remember, always lies on the equatorial side of the great citcie. The great circle track can be seen to change from O80" at A to 120" at B. At the mid point the rhuumb line track and the great circle track are parallel so if we could find the direction ofthe great circle track atthe mid point we would also have the rhumb line track direction ‘This is not particularly dificult. Half way along the great circle track the direction will be half way between 080" and 120°, oF 100". Thus the rhumb line track direetion at Uhis point is also, 100". The definition of a rhumb line, however, is that itis aline ‘Rand at B. We can now say that the angle between the great circle and thumb line tracks at either end is haf the convergency. This is called the conversion angle. The diagram opposite shows the ‘conversion angle at either end of the tracks. gt Conversion angle 20") ‘ ‘The formula for conversion angle is just conversion angle = % convergency Now we have the capability to calculate rhumb line tracks from great circles and vice versa ifthe convergency can be found. Bxample: Solution: Given thatthe initial great circle track between A (44°S 170°E) and B (92°S 160°W) is O78°T find the shumb line track from A to B measured at 160"W. As for the convergeney problems the answer to ‘this wil come from a correctiy drawn sketch agram. Follow the rules, Southern hemisphere Direction of GC track generally easterly Does it look right? ed 100° 100W amet 38 ‘This is an interesting example. The track goes the shortest way around and crosses 180° B/W, and itis in the southern hemisphere. As the rhumb line lies on the equatorial side it is now north of the great circle. Once the diagram has been ‘correctly drawn all the hard work has been done. convergency = change of long x sin mean lat = 30"xsin 38" = 30 x 0.6157 conversion angle = 9.25" a ‘The diagram shows the thumb line track angle at Ato be less than O78" 80 Rhumb line track at A= 078" - 9° = 069° ‘The question asks for the rhumb line track A to B at 160°W but as the track direction is the same all along by definition the answer is 069°. It is worth noting that, if we were asked for it, the ‘Thumb line track B to A would be the reciprocal, 249°T. It is important to place the rhumb line on the correct side of the great circle, This becomes rule 4 for the diagrams: 4. Make sure the great circle is poleward of the rum line, Example: Given that the initial great circle track between ‘ovo points in the northern hemisphere is 90° and that the convergeney between the points is 18" find the equivalent rhumb line track ‘Solution: This isthe northern hemisphere so the rhumb line lies south of the GC. (10 ees ‘Navigation Mics aes ‘The diagram shows the RL track is greater than the GC track Figure 83-13 Rhumb line track = 090" +9 o9o"r Summary Great Circles Great circles are the shortest distance between tuo points Great circles have a constantly changing track direction Meridians are great circles ‘The equator is a great circle Great circles le on the poleward side of rhumb lies Convergency = change of lang x sin mean lat, Rhumb Lines Rhumb lines have a constant track direction Meridians are rhumb lines ‘The equator is a shumb line Parallels of latitude are rhumb lines Conversion angle = ¥ convergency Rhumb lines always lie on the equatorial side of great circles +) Rhumb lines never follow the same path aver the earth an reat circles except for meridians and the equator Note that all parallels of latitude are rhumb lines; only the equator js also a great circle; all parallels of latitude other than ‘the equator are small circles, any other circle, Se ‘The importance of getting the sketch diagrams right cannot be cover emphasised. Remember the rules: 1 Draw the meridians sloping in to the top in the northern hemisphere and sloping out’ in the southern hemisphere, Look at the given track, if it is generally easterly draw it left to right, if its generally westerly draw it right to left ut m the angle you are told about and check st looks roughly correct. Make sure the great circle is poleward of the hump line tae Navigate Chapter 4 - Maps and Charts ‘whether we were flying rhumb line tracks or great ircles and found our way successfully to. our destination, This chapter should give you an appreciation of how hard the cartographer works to create charts that are pilot proof. ost of us have picked up a map in the past, drawn a M line on it and flown & route wibout considering Maps ‘The ideal map would be a perfect scale model of the earth itself, in effect a globe. As soon as we attempt to represent the earth's surface on a fat sheet of paper there is going to be distortion, The distortion can be used to our advantage, for instance to show rhumb lines as straight ines, but more often, than not limits the usability of the map. From the navigator’ point of view a map should have the following properties: ‘Shapes should be correctly shown Angles should be correctly shown Equal areas on the earth should be equal on the map Either great circles or thumb Kines should be straight lines Seale should be constant Positions should be easily plotted Adjacent sheets should fit together Coverage should be world wide ‘As we look at the maps available to us we shall find that some hhave these properties over small areas, some over large, but none are perfect, Navigation SSCs ‘The Correct Shape ‘The requirement to show shapes correctly is interlinked with the requirements to show angles and distances correctly as a shape is no more than a collection of angles and distances, ‘There are two conditions for a map to show shape correctly 1, The seale must be the same in all directions at any ‘one point. It is no good having a scale of 1:1,000,000 in fame direction snd ome of 12,000,000 in anather. ‘The diagram below shows a circle on the earth distorted on a chart with different scales north south and east/west. : a 2. : Bie led . [Not the same scale in all directions Figure 844 2. The second requirement is that the north/south meridians and the cast/west parallels must cross at right angles. This is called a right angle graticule, The Giagram below shows distortion with a graticule not at right angles, Oo © A 2 1 ‘l 1 2 1 23 A graticule not at right angles Figure 8.42 (aoe ee none) Aight angle ar scale = conformal arent circles nearly straight lines = conformal ‘This property of showing shapes correctly, and therefore angles and distances, is called orthomorphism. This literally means “the correct shape’. In the US the word “conformal” is used, but it means the same thing. ICAO rules define a chart as conformal (orthomorphic) projection if a straight line approximates to a great circle, For a chart to be orthomorphic it must have these two qualities, the same scale in all directions and a right angle graticule. A curved gratcule can still eut at right angles, All the graticules below are acceptable. NX Fight Are Graveules Figure 8.43 Seale Any representation of the earth's surface that is not full size will be a scale model of the zeal thing. Seale is defined as the ratio of chart distance to earth distance, Ina formule, chart distance (CD) ‘arth distance (ED) Scale = If we know two out of the three variables in this equation we ‘can find the third, Bxample: Solution: Bxample: Solution: aa A chart seale is given as 1:1,000,000. How many ‘nautical miles wil a 6” line on the chart represent, ‘Top tn: Start with the scale formula and fil in what you know. You can often sed calculation scale - {nd estimate the snawer using the =D ‘he map sealer on transpose the formula, ERPS computer ED = 6,000,000 the task is to tum 6 milion inches into nautical miles. First divide by 12 using a calculator to get feet. 6,000,000 = —_500,000%¢ 12 now convert feet to nautical miles on the nav computer, 500,000 = 82.NM ‘or divide 500,000 by 6,080 (the number of fet in ‘nautical mile) using a calculator. A chart represents 20NM by a line 3 inches long. How many kilometres would be shown by a line & inches long? Start with the formula scale = @ ED scale - 2 Bowie {8 divided by the ED we are wht ON =D ot et Fem ED Wavigation Wim a the inches now eancel out 20 =D - Sx37km 3 = 99k Put simply: if 2U NM is represented ty $ inches each inch represents 6.6 NM. so 8 inches represents 53.3 NM or 99 km Mercator’s Projection Mercator's projection was one of the earliest reliable charts ‘The projection was taken from a light inside a wire model of the Barth, called the redueed Barth, with its. graticule shining on to a cylinder of paper wrapped around the model and touching at the equator. When the cylinder is developed it looks like this Wor sao on gr Og Mercator's projection and the developed cylinder Figure 84-4 Se ‘The diagram above shows that the meridians which normally converge towards the pole have been distorted to parallel Straight lines. Thus the east/west distance between them, the departure, which decreases with latitude on the earth is now constant. The only way that this can happen is if scale feast west is expanding with latitude. Happily seale can also be seen to be expanding north/south as the distance between parallels which is constant on the earth increases with Tatitude, Infact scale is expanding as the secant of the latitude ‘Asa formula, ‘Scale at any latitude = scale at the equator x secant of the latitude ‘You may remember that the secant of an angle is 1/eosine of ‘that angle. The formula can be reuzitten to give ‘scale at any latitude = scale atthe equator x cosas et ‘Seal expands as Iattude ‘As scale varies with be given at only one latitude, the seale latitude, an for scale at other latitudes to be calculated using the formulae above, ‘Bxample: Given that the scale at the equator on « Mercator chart is 1: 2,000,000 find the seale at 42°, Solution: Start with the formula, scale at any latitude * scale at the equator x_1 ‘os Tate scale at 42° ee 379005000” Soa pit eee 000,000 x 078 Asai 17780,000 ‘The second way of expressing the formula suits us perfectly as ‘we would want to end up with a fraction. It is worth noting ‘hat in the calculation above when we were going away from the equator to find the scale at another latitude the only thing wwe did was multiply the big number at the botiom of the fraction, the denominator, by the cosine of the latiude. If we were going towards the equator we would have divided it by the cosine. You might find this diagram useful to help you remember which way is which, ‘The fact that scale expands means that the chart is not truly orthomorphic but it is considered reasonably orthomorphie lover small areas, becoming increasingly less so over large areas, as the scale expansion distorts shape. ‘Navigation Ce Great Circles and Rhumb Lines ‘As the meridians are all parallel straight lines it follows that a thumb ines are line that cuts them all at the same angle, a rhumb line, must straight tine also be a straight line, As rhumb lines he on the equatorial side great ckelos ff great circles it follows that great circles must be curves ‘convex tothe pole, or ifyou prefer concave to the equator. ‘carves concave to ‘he equator Figure 0.46 Showing rhumb lines as straight is an advantage if you wish to fly chumb line tracks and a disadvantage if you wish to plot radio bearings, which take the shortest path, the great cite ‘The diagram below shows how a radio bearing must have the conversion angle applied to it before it can be plotted ‘straight line ‘Actual goat ‘ee bearing tna leat chat Conversion angle must be bod to pote staght Ine Figure 84:7 = Naito projection Is only hear the equator ‘Summary ‘This is how the requirements for an ideal char: apply to Mercator’ projection: ‘+ Shapes should be correctly shown ¥ over small areas ‘+ Angles should be correctly shown over small areas ‘+ Equal areas on the earth should ‘be equal on the map + Either great circles or rhumb lines Rhumb ines should be straight lines ‘+ Scale should be constant * ‘+ Positions should be easily plotted ¥ “ + Adjacent sheets should fit together + Coverage should be world wide 70"N to 70'S, but itis sae ‘The advantage of Mercator’s projection over others we shall use is that thumb lines are straight lines. This. is only an advantage if you cannot use great circles and otherwise is positive disadvantage. Notice that the Mercator chart used ‘way from the equatorial region does not meet the ICAO Fequirement for orthomorphism as it does not show great circles as straight lines ‘The disadvantages are that great circle tracks can not be easily plotted and radio bearings cannot be plotted unless conversion angle is applied. Long distances. cannot be measured faccurately ‘because of scale expansion and the chart is ‘unusable above 70°N/S, and only usable with dificulty outside the tropics Mercator's projection is used for Admiralty charts, some meteorological charts, and a few plotting and topographical charts and maps in the tropics, ‘Navigation a The Simple Conic Projection ‘The simple conie projection is derived by placing a cone over the reduced earth, oe) Figure 8-48 ‘The developed cone shows that there is now convergency on. the chart as the meridians of longitude are straight lines and slope in at @ constant angle towards the poles. The meridians fn the earth, however, change their slope relative to each other from zero at the equator toa maximum at the poles. On this chart convergency is constant at al latitudes and therefore can. only be correct at one, the latitude where the cone is tangential to the reduced earth, the parallel of origin. ‘The earth convergency at the latitude of the parallel of origin comes from the familia formula, CConvergency = change of longitude x sine latitude of paral of origin AAs this is correct for chart convergency at that latitude and constant all over the chart we now have a formula for chart convergency on conics which is shortened to: Chart convergency = Change of Longtude x Sine Parallel of Origin eit ‘onvergency is ‘romtor than chart converge, ‘equator itis tess To prevent you from having to repeatedly work out sines, the sine of the parallel of origin (often called the constant of the fone, the convergency factor or jst “n') is printed on the map itsel. ‘The simple conic still sulfers from scale expansion north snd south of the point where the cone touches the earth (at the parallel or origin) so it is only part of the solution to the Gisadvantages of a Mercator. What is needed is a chart where the scale can be assumed to be constant over a larger area. ‘This is achieved by slicing the cone into the reduced earth #0 there are areas where scale has contracted and areas where I hhas expanded but overall a larger area where scale 's closer to that given Lamberts Projection ‘Since the cone now cuts into the earth it is not a projection in the original sense of the word and the chart has to be ‘mathematically produced. The idea still apples. sara ea wwoweZ_\XN {/ Parallel of Origin \ ‘Standard Parallel ‘The Lamberts Conical Orthomorphic Figure 0-49 [nal ttt emus Bastar 144 Chart Convergency ‘The Lamberts chart has a parallel of origin as before where the cone is parallel to the tangent. The latitude ofthis parallel still, determines the amount of chart convergency and the formula for chart convergeney on conics still applies, Scale ‘There are now wo latinudes where the chart touches the reduced earth, the standard parallels, and at these latitudes Scale will be’ correct. Between the standard parallels the distance on the reduced earth is greater than the chart distance $0 scale will contract and outside the standard parallels scale will expand. By carefully spacing the standard parallels the scale expansion and contraction over the chart ean be kept to less than 1% and scale can be assumed to be constant. Similarly over a modest spread of latitudes chart convergency will be close enough to earth convergency for the differences to be insignificant. Maximum Spread et tattuse 24" Lamberts developed Figure 84-10 ‘The diagram above shows the optimum spacing of the standard patallels wid Wie sauaianaus change of latlude over while Wie Chart can be spread whilst still talking scale to be constant. Tt should be noted that the parallel of origin is not exactly mid- ‘way between the standard parallels but slightly closer to the pole. i _ convergency’ comect atthe erated oferta ‘Te parate of gin gy poleward of tho alt way point nearly straight but actually slighty curved Great Circles and Rhumb Lines ‘As chart convergency is close to earth convergency great circles, fon a Lamberts can be assumed for practical purposes to be Straight lines. You should be clear that they are not exactly Straight and do in fact have a very gentle curve concave to the paralel of origin. Rhumb lines are eurves concave to the pole. The diagram below shows a view of rhumb lines and great circles with the curvature of the great circle greatly ‘exaggerated to show they are not exactly straight. Figure 8444 ‘Summary ‘Within the limits of latitude the folowing is true: ‘+ Shapes should be correctly shown verynearly + Angles should be correctly shown © ¥—_verynearly ‘+ Bqual areas on the earth should bey ‘equal on the map eee + Bither great circles or thumb lines great’ circles should be straight lines very nearly + Scale should be constant within 19% 1+ Panitions ahowd be ensily plotted ‘+ Adjacent sheets should fit together east/west only + Coverage should be world wide x 0% to 80's Lamberts is widely used for plotting charts, topographical ‘maps and meteorological charts. It tends not to be used for polar flights as more suitable charts are available for these ‘areas of very high earth convergency. ‘Navigation SSCs The Transverse Mercator ‘The transverse mercator is a cylindrical projection which uses, fa meridian as its great circle of tangency, This is called the ‘central meridian, ALD Scale The projection shows the distortion present away from the ‘meridian, Seale expansion hits the 1% limit about S00NM away from the central meridian, The chart is only intended to be used within 3S0NM of the central meridian and here seale can be assumed to be constant, In reality seale is CConvorgoncy ‘central meridian, Crest circles at right anges to 0 ‘central meridian expanding as the secant of the great circle are away from the central meridian, just like a normal Mercator. Convergency ‘Chart convergency is complex but will be the same as earth convergency where the cylinder is tangential to the reduced earth, along the central meridian and could also be said to be correct exactly along the equator because all meridians are ‘perpendicular to the equator. Great Circles and Rhumb Lines ‘The meridian of tangency and all great circles at right angles to ‘tare straight lines, Within the usable area great circles ean ‘be assumed to be straight lines but are, in fact, curves concave to the meridian of tangency. Rhumb lines are curves concave to the nearest pole, just like a lamberts. Parallels of latitude Which are only chumb lines and not great circles (ie. all parallels except the equator) are ellipses. ‘Summary Within the usable area the folowing applies, outside the usable area very litle of itis true. ‘+ Shapes should be correctly shown very nearly ‘+ Angles should be correctly shown ¥_verynearly ‘+ Equal areas on the earth should be ‘equal on the map See ‘+ Either great circles or rhumb lines great circles should be straight lines very nearly “+ Scale should be constant within 196 ‘+ Positions should be easly plotted ¥ ‘+ Adjacent sheets should ft together Sond ft N/S a a a rolling ft E/W ee y with a rolling Coverage should be world wid ae Transverse Mercators can be used for long North/South routes, or those that cross the poles. They are more often, found ‘as the base for topographical maps of long. thin, countries with a North South orientation, ‘Wavgation SSC The Oblique Mercator ‘The Oblique Mercator is another cylindrical projection where the great circle of tangency is neither the equator nora meridian, These charts are one-ofls designed for a particular route, in the example illustrated one from London to Sydney via Bangkok The usable area is the same as the Transverse Mercator and once again inside the usable area the chart is indistinguishable from a Lamberts, Figure 2-443, In reality the scale expands as the secant ofthe great circle arc ‘away from the great circle of tangency. Convergency is correct where the cylinder is tangential fo the earth and also at the poles Great circles at right angles to the great circle of tangency are straight lines, Others are curves coneave to the tangent but, in ‘the usable area, nearly straight, [Rhumb lines are curves concave tothe poles. ae Cit ummary ‘Once again this only applies inside the usable area, ‘© Shapes should be correctly shown ¥ ‘+ Angles should be correctly shown ‘Equal areas on the earth should bey ‘equal on the map + thor great circles or thumb lines should be straight lines ‘+ Scale should be constant ‘Positions should be easly plotted ‘© Adjacent sheets should ft together ‘+ Coverage should be world wide Saisie Very nearly Very nearly Very nearly Great circles very nearly Within 1% A raling it Araling fit ‘The great circle of tangency on an Oblique Mercator can also be referred to as the false equator of the projection, Navigation “a7 The Polar Stereographic Polar stereographic charts use a flat plate projection touching at the pole. Scale i correct where the chart touches the earth fat the pole, and convergency is correct where the chart is, ‘nilet as tangential to the earth, also at the pole. Thus the formula for the cone lsat. chart convergeney is chart convergency = change of longitude ‘Seale will clearly expand away from the pole. The full formula Scale at Scale at gyeayp? (90° lattude) anylattude ~ the equator eS ‘There is no requirement to perform scale calculations, eae tes gg amseeen) In the aytabus but not yot early straight but actually 1 point of pee Radius of a Parallel of Latitude Given the nominal scale of the chart it is possible to calculate the radiue of a parallel of latitude on the chart using the formula: Radius of paraiel of attude = 2R tan (colat2) Where R is the radius of the reduced earth and the co-latitude fo the latitude eubtracted from 90", the dogreca te go to the pole, Since the radius of the Earth is 250,000,000 inches the radius of the reduced earth will be 250,000,000 + scale required. Example: What is the chart radius ofthe 70°N parallel of latitude on a polar stereographic chart with a ‘nominal scale of 1:10,000,000? ‘Solution: R= 250,000,000 + 10,000,000 = 25 inches Radius of 70°N parallel 1 25.25 x tan (90" = 50x tan 10" 50 x0.176 = 88 inches 0/21 Great Circles and Rhumb Lines 'Rhumb lines are curves concave to the pole, chece this against the parallels of latitude. Great citcles are straight lines if they go through the pole and become progressively more curved a they move away. As the chart is used for polar navigation great circles are assumed to be straight lines, Navigation a9 ‘Once the assumption is made that great circles are straight line tracks problems involving tracks on polar stereographic ‘charts can be reduced to simple geometry. Bxample: A straight line trac is drawn on a polar stereographic chart from A(79°N 112°W) to [BITO"N 140°F). Determine the initial true track at A, the final true tele at B and the longitude ‘where the track is east or west ‘Solution: The solution lies in a diagram. Draw a circle, Inbel the Greenwich meridian and draw in the directions east and west. You might find it useful to follow the convention we have used drawing the northern and southern hemispheres so that East is always tothe right of the page, the way we rpormally think of it. ore Figure 84-16 ‘This convention, if followed, means not only that ‘east is always to the right and west to the left but ‘clearly distinguishes between northern and southern hemisphere diagrams Now put in positions A and B and the track joining them. You may find it helpful to put in the ‘meridians through A and B as a north reference. LL Top Tin: be the diagram In order to determine the approximate rack directions turn the diagram around unl the rnorth reference at A and # points up the page. It ‘snow easier to ee that the track from A to B runs right to left, and right to leftis from east to ‘west. The track at A is more than 270°T but less than 360°T and the track at B is more than 180°T Dut less than 270°7, ‘3.0n Nate \ » + Figure 84-18, Furthermore, the track will cross the meridian of longitude at right angles at the point waere it reaches its highest latitude (xe, where # is closest aaa to the Pole. Since points A and B are at the ‘same latitude the track from A to B will reach ite highest latitude exactly half way between A and B and this meridian has been drawn in on the iagram below. This isthe point where the track is 090° or 27077; from the diagram it can be seen that the track at this point is 270°T If we now consider the triangle formed by point A (A), point B (B) and the North Pole (P) we have trangle ABP. The angle in this triangle at P {angle APB) is the change of longitude between points A and B. To find this change of longitude Add the Bast & West longitudes of A and B: L2W + 1405 152° this is more than 180° so subtract it from 360° {find the short way around ‘change of longitude (A-B) = 360° - 252° = 108° In triangle APB the side AP (78°N - 90°N) is the same length as side BP (also 78°N ~ 90°N), which ‘means that the angle at A angle PAB) is equal to the angle at B (angle PBA); an isosceles triangle. ‘The 3 angles in any triangle always add up to 180°. “Since the angle at Pis 108° the angle ‘Aaand B must be 36° each (108° + 36" + 36 180") ‘The track at A must be 360° - 36° = 324°T ‘The track at B must be 180° + 36" = 216°T Note that the track from A to B has changed from change in rack 324°T to 216°T ‘The change in track, which is = change in convergency, is 108° and is the same as the longitude change in longitude, ‘Since the full change of longitude from A to Bis 108°, half the change of longitude is 54° ‘The longitude of the mid point of the track must be Liaw + 54° = 166W ‘This is the answer tothe last part of the question, ‘The track will be westerly at 166°W. = ‘Wavigation ‘Top Tip2: Solutions to these problems alway’ follow the same pattern, ‘once again the diagram is crucial. Make sure Solution: Navition 1. You are in the right hemisphere 2. East and west are correctly shown 23. North is correctly shown A straight line tack is drawn on a polar Sstereographic chart from A (82"S 164°E} to B (82°S 78°W). Determine the intial track direction At A, the final track direction at B and the Tongltude where the wack Is either east or west Draw the diagram following the rules above Figure 8.44 The track at A is more than 090°T but less than 180°7, the track at B is less than 09)"T and at the midpoint the track AB is easterly. Add East & West longitudes: O7eW+16sE = a2 Change of langitude from A to B 360° - 242" 118 In triangle APB the angle at P is 118° and angles Aand B are both 31°, Track at A = 180° 31" ‘Track at B= O31°T oT Change of longitude from A to mid point usa - ‘mid point longitude sorswrse = ‘Summary Shapes should be carrectly shown Angles should be correctly shown Bqual areas on the earth should be equal on the map Either great circles or shumb lines should be straight lines Seale should be constant Positions should be easily plotted Adjacent sheets should ft together Coverage should be world wide oi 59" 137 Ww very nearly very nearly very nearly reat circles very nearly within 19% You may come across questions involing great circle tracks between two places at different latitudes, ‘The question will give you the point at which the track reaches i highest latitude and you know that the track will be 090" or 270° at that point. and apply it as usual, oa aneent ‘Work out the change of longitude (convergeney) Chapter 5 - Grid Navigation ‘e now have a series of projections that can cover the ‘\ K J ove each providing in their specie areas nearly ‘constant scale with chart convergency clase to earth ‘convergency. None of them ease the difficulties that a pilot fying near the poles would experience, rapid change of tue direction because of convergency and rapid change of variation because ofthe proximity to the magnetic poles. The modern solution is to fly great circle tracks with the ‘autopilot coupled (o a global navigation system, INS, GPS or LORAN. Before these aids were available it was more ‘convenient to ignore the compasses and fly a gyro heading. Maps were overlaid with a grid of lines indicating gyro north, the direction to which the gyroscope was aligned. on on 180 ON ‘ao (20° ay Ags ove on oo0'EGN ‘pom Stopes aoe co ososiv r Figure 854 Convergence ‘The meridian where true north equals grid north, in this case (060"W, is called the datum meridian. A stright line drawn on this chart will have the same grid direction throughout, Navigation aa although the true track and magnetic track directions wil vary considerably. At any point the difference between grid track and true will be the convergency between the datum meridian fand that point. This difference is called the eonvergenee. It is true to say that ‘convergence = chert convergency from the datum menian ‘The diagram below shows the same chart with a straight line tack drawn on it. Notice that at the datum meridian the true track and the grid track are the same. At 030°E they differ by su" as chart convergency trom the datum is change of longitude, 90° True track and gti track Track 040°7 ore sow Datum Merion Figure 8.52 ‘This means that we can relate grid track direction to true track it we know the datum meridian and the longitude of the position Beample: A grid is aligned with the meridian at 020°E on a polar chart. A straight line is drawn from A (85°N (040°) to B (85°N 060°W}, Determine the grid track direction, Solution: The first thing to do isto sketch a diagram and Alotetnine Uhe poi al wil: Use lah i eles feast or west B060'W. (A OAE woo E Figure 853 ‘The traci can be seen to be westerly atthe mid longitude, 010°W. Now draw in grid north, GN GN Bo8o"w (A 040°E Figure 854 [At O10"W grid track direction can be seen to be greater than tre trace It maust dller by the convergence. Convergence = chart convergeney from datum meridian (202) = change of longitude ‘Navigation 3 oe So grid track direction is 270° + 30° 100" ‘This is the same for the entire track as grid direction does not change Example: An aireratis overhead 78°N 095°W flying a track fof 040°Grid on a polar chart with the grid aligned tw the Greenwich meridian, Find the true track direction Solution: Draw a sketch dingram, ‘The grid traci and true track must differ by the convergence, which is the change of long from the ‘datum meridian in this case 95". The only Secision to make is whether the true track is 040° ‘minus 95°, 305", or 040° plus 95°, 135°. The diagram provides the answer, 305" Convergence can be named east or west. Bast if true north is cast of grid north and west if true north is west of grid north Having named it correctly the addition or subtraction problem, can be volved with the rhyme convergence east true track least ‘convergence west true track best ‘You rarely come across the notation east or west in the ATPL exams so this method is best discarded in favour ofthe sketch diagram solutions. You do, however, need to be aware of it gt ote that thore ‘One note of caution, be careful in the southern hemisphere. Example: An aircraft at 80°S 130°B is fying O30°T. A grid ie ‘overlaid aligned with the Greenwich meridian, ‘determine the grid track direction. ‘Solution: on Were Trak Figure 8.56 Be very careful to represent east and west properly in your diagram. The track is 090°T, the fitference is the convergence, 130", so the grid tracke is either 030° minus 130°, 260° grid, or 080" plus 130°, 160° ‘The diagram provides the final answer, 160"grid, ‘A final advantage of adopting the drawing convention we have ‘used is that when the datum meridian is the Greenwich or prime meridian then grid north is always straight up the page {in both the northern and southern hemispheres. When the ‘datum meridian is the Greenwich antimeridian grad north is always straight down the page. Although it is not a very elegant navigational soluticn itis also ‘worth noting that these problems relating to grids on polar Stereographic charts can also be solved by. drawing the diagram accurately and just measuring the angles involved, Navigntion OSC Grids on Lamberts charts Grid navigation techniques are not limited to polar stercographic charts. Grids can be drawn on various chart projections and one widely used for grid navigation is the Lamberts projection. "The same rule applies, the angle ‘between Grid North and True North is called convergence and itis the chart convergency between the datum meridian and ‘where you are, In the ease of a Lamberts chart: Convergence = Change of longitude x sin paral! of origin fand you will recall that “a” is the constant of the cone or convergence factor which is the sine ofthe parallel of origin £0 the formula could be written: Convergence = Change of longitude xn ‘Example: A route is being plotted on a Lamberts chart using a grid aligned with the Greenwich meridian, ‘The aircraft is at $9°S 100°E tracking 100°C, ‘The convergence factor forthe chart is 0.75, variation is 10°, deviation is 4°E and drift is ‘Fright. What isthe aireraf's true track? Solution: Draw a diagram following the conventional rales Draw two southern hemisphere meridians, ane for the datum and one representing 100°E, cove 1008 Figure 5:7 ‘Now parallel the datum meridian through a point ft 100"E and draw in the information you know, fn this ease the track of 100°G, ‘The diagram now shows you that the true track is Jess than the grid track and, as ever, it differs by the chart convergency between the datum. meridian and where you are. ........... ais Tue Noth North co 100 Figure ess Chart convergency = ~—Change of long xn 100 x0.75, =e 0 convergence = 7 Grid Track = 100°6 Convergence 75. ‘True Track. ust Sometimes grid charts show a combination of convergence and magnetic variation called. grivation to allow a one step conversion from magnetic trac to grid. Lines joining points of equal grivation are called igogrivs and they are printed on grid charts just as isogonals are printed on other chatts Grivation is the algebraic sum of variation and convergence. To convert between Grid and Magnetic directions the convention is: Grivation East Magnetic least Grivation West Magnetic best a7 Intentionally Blank Chapter 6 - Temperatures, Heights and Speeds Temperatures Navigation (ICAN), which was the forerunner of ICAO, attempted to standardise aviation across the world Although it didn't quite do that it did achieve agreement on the use of an International Standard Atmosphere (SA) for lise when calibrating aircraft instruments. The definition of ISA was confirmed by ICAO in 1964. The important features of the ISA are I: 1920 the International Convention for Aeronautical |AtMean Sea Level: Temperature: +15°C Pressure: 1013.25 Hpa Density: 1,225 em/M Above msl temperature decreases at 1.98°C/ 1,000 ft (6.5°C/ 1,000 m up to the tropopatise at 36,000 ft (-1km) then remains constant at -56.5°C up to 65,600ft (20m) then increases by 0.3°C/1,000 ft (1°C/1,000m) up to 104,960 ft (2ien) Calculation of Temperature Deviation It is quite usual in aviation to express the temperature of the atmosphere as a deviation (or diflerence) fom the standard atmosphere. Bxample: An aircraft is at FL120 and the outside air temperature is -4°C. What isthe ISA deviation? Solution: ‘Temperature in ISA at FL120 = 415 @rx 12) = 9c Ambient temperature at FL120 4c ‘Temperature deviation ise ‘The temperature deviation, expressed as ISA +5°C, means that the environment is 5°C warmer than it would be in a standard “atmosphere at that level. Note we have rounded 1.98°C per 1,000 ft to the more convenient 2°C per 1,000 f. In weather forecasts you are sometimes presented with Temperature deviations rather than temperatures and may Bxample: You are planning to fly a route at F280 and you are advised that the temperature will be ISA ~ 10°C. What will the ambient temperature at L250 be? Solution: Temperature in ISA at FL250 = 415"= 2°x25) = -35C ‘Temperature deviation = hore ‘Ambient temperature at FL250 “45°C ‘TAT and SAT All electrical thermometers are prone to sensing errors. They suffer from either the ‘am-rise’elfect of air being compressed in the sensor as the aireralt flies faster or the heating effect of anti-icing devices or friction heating between the air and the fast moving aircraft. ‘As a result of these various heating effects the temperature indicated referred to as the Total Air Temperature (TAT) will be higher than the Static Ai Temperature (SAT) ‘An alternative name for TAP is Ram Air Temperature (RAT) and alternative “names for SAT are Corrected Outside Air ‘Temperature (COAT) or Outside Air Temperature (OAT) In order to obtain the SAT from the TAT a negative correction must be applied which will vary with the TAS of the aircraft. ‘The amount of correction is not the same for all aircraft thermometer systems but will depend on the recovery factor for the system. This calculation is normally performed in the ‘Air Data Computers of the aircraft. ‘sven though there are dillerences in the recovery tactor they ‘are small enough to allow the nav computer to be used 10 ‘estimate TAT from SAT and SAT from TAT in the absence of an ADC. Example: The TAT indicated at 460kt TAS is -25". Use the [Navigation Computer to determine the SAT. aa Se Wagation ‘The atorence TAT Ie the covery factor Solution: Locate the ‘Temperature Rise’ scale on the inside of the nav computer. Read 23" against a TAS of ‘460k. Ifthe TAT is 23° higher than the SAT then, Height The construction and errors of altimeters are covered in the Instruments Section. The altimeter is a barcmeter for measuring atmospheric pressure but calibrated so as 10 Indicate the altitude the aircraft would be atin. an International Standard Atmosphere. In a standard atmosphere the mean sea level pressure remains constant at 1013.25 Hpa or mb but in the real world ltmospheric pressure is constantly changing, In order to cope With the real world the altimeter is ited with a sub-scale, calibrated in mb, which enable us to relate our height, of altitude, to any pressure datum we care to select, For convenience we stil use the (Q’ code developed before WWIL as a form of shorthand to describe the pressure datum we are referring to as follows: QFE Pressure observed at the With QFE set the altimeter sified datum, indicates height above the airfield datum, or 2er0 when at the airfield datum. (QUE Pressure observed at the With QNH set the altimeter airfield datum Feduiced to indicates altitude above mean fea level using the ISA sea level (amsl} or airfield lapse vate elevation when on the airfield NB. regional QNH is the lowest forecast pressure in a defined area over a one hour period and with this set the altimeter stil indicates an altitude above mean sea level. QFF Pressure observed at the This is a value used by met, sirfield datum reduced to forecasters and isthe sealevel usingambient pressure they would conditions expect to record if the barometer was at sea level. QNE Height indicated on Used when QFE or QNH are touchdown with standard outside the range of the pressure,1013.2mb altimeter subscale (see below) Tt may be necessary to use QNE in times of very low atmospheric pressure because the altimeter subscale does not fg low enough. There are two standards for the construction of allimeters. The American standard has subscales from 950 01050 mb and the British standard has subseales from 800 01050 mb. Although sea level pressures do not ever go above 1050 mb, it is not unusual for the QNH and the QFE to be below 950 mb. If this is the case itis unwise to fly IFR altitudes based on a QNH which cannot be set. VFR light may be undertalcen with cae by setting the lowest possible figure on the subscale and ‘which cannot be ‘wound off Wavigaton ith aFE set, you toad height above {he alto, with ON sot you read itude above Change to 1013 going up through fhe transition situde Altimetry Procedures (QFE may be used in the vicinity ofan airfield to shown height above touch down. Airfield QNH may also be used in the Vicinity of an airfield to give altitude above sea leve, in which ‘case alifield elevation must be taken into account. Away from the airfield QNH is used to give altitude above level for flights taking place up to and including the transition altitude. When above the transition altitude the standard, pressure setting of 1013.2 mb gives pressure altitudes oF ‘ight levels. A fight level is a pressure altitudes with the last ‘wo zeroes left off $0 that 12,000 ft becomes FL20. soe | One BFS oe in owe ‘tone “isn tint Stings ‘The first Might level above the transition altitude is referred to 4s the transition level and the layer of airspace butween the ‘wansition altitude and the transition level is referred to as the transition layer. Because the transition layer may be less ‘than 500 ft thick separation hetween the iransitian altitude ‘and the transition level cannot be guaranteed Altimetry Errors and Problems Various altimetry problems may be set in several of the ‘examinations including navigation. Bxample: ‘Sotution: Figure 66:3 ee ‘An aireraft is fying at FLAS and the highest terrain en route is 3,200. Ifthe QNH is 990 ‘mb, assuming 1 mb = 30, the terrain clearance wv be Start with a diagram: ‘The aircraft is at FLAS or 4,500 ft above the 1013mb pressure datum, ‘The diference between 990mb and 1013mb is. ‘23mb which is 23 % 30 f or 690K, ‘The top ofthe high ground is 3,200 * 690 = 3,800 fect above the 1013 mb ‘preooure datum. ‘The terrain clearance is 4,500 ~ 8,890 ~ 610 f. ‘An alternative approach would be to consider the sircraf' truc altitude to be: Taw Navigation ston heights ‘and MOH or MOA, may need tobe ‘conscted for temperature ecror hon eis cold 4,500 ~ 690 = 3,810 f. ‘The terrain clearance will be 3,810 3,200 108 ‘Temperature Errors ‘The altimeter is calibrated to standard atmosphere conditions, and most of the time the environment is close enough 10 ‘Standard? for any temperature induced ervors to be minimal, When the environment is warmer than standard the aircraft will be higher than indicated; usually a ‘safe’ errr. When the environment is colder than ‘standard’ the aircraft, willbe lower than indicated and this is, potentially, a dangerous error. In the en-route phase all aircraft ere subject to the same temperature error and no individual corrections fare made other than by Air Traffic Control to ensure that any assigned level would give adequate terrain clearance ‘Temperature errors do need to be taken accoun: of when landing in very cold conditions and a temperature correction, ‘must be applied to the Decision Height, MDH or MDA. The Corrections are interpolated from a table such as the one shown below. Figure 8-6-4 ‘Example: An aircraft isto carry out an instrument lapproach with QNH set and MDA ia o he 20008 ‘with the airfield elevation at 1,500 ft and the surface temperature ~10°C. Use the table above to determine what indicated aitude sald be Solution: ‘The temperature correction is based on the ilerence between the aerodrome altitude and a MDA and would therefore be the same whether ‘an MDA or an MDH was used, For SO0R at -10" the table gives SOR so the indicated NDA should ‘be 2050 Density Altitude Aircraft are normally flown at altitudes and fight levels based fon atmospheric pressure. Alternatively a density altitude may be used, defined as that altitude in the atandard ‘Stmosphere to which the actual density corresponds, "Density altitade may be calculated using the nav computer as follows: Example: What isthe density altitude when the airfield elevation is 3,000 ft ams! and the surface temperature is +9°C? Figure 8.65 Solution: In the airspeed window of the nav computes place the temperature (+9°C} opposite the aitfield clevation (3,000 f). Now go to the density lltitude window and read off the density altitude (8,000 fi). Since this example represents standard atmosphere conditions the density altitude is the same as airfield elevation Example: What is the density altitude when the airfield elevation is 3,000 ft amsl and the surface temperature is +25°C? ‘Solution: In the airspeed window of the nav computer place the temperature (225°C) opposite the airfield clevation (3,000 f). "Now go to the density falitude window and read off the density altitude (5,000 f}.On a hot day the density ofthe ai is Jess and in this example itis as ifthe airfield was at 5,000 ft ams! in a standard atmosphere. ‘There would be a corresponding reduction in sireraft performance. Density altitudes may also be found by calculation. The dliference between the density altitude and the true altitude is, roughly 120ft for each degree of ISA deviation. Densty altitude is higher ifthe temperature is above ISA, lower iit is below. ‘Try the second example again, this time by calculaticn ‘Bxample: What is the density altitude when the airfield clevation is 3,000 ft amsl and the surface temperature is +25°C? Solution: The ISA temperature at 3000f would be (15-8 x3)" +9" the real temperature is 25° itis 25-9 = 16" above ISA, ‘The correction is 16x 120 = 19208 So the density altitude = 3000 + 1920 = 49201 Notice there is difference between the solution arrived at by calculation and the solution from the naw computer. In most ceases this is small and will not affect the answers to a mutli= choice question. In general the exam questions do not specify the method to be used but, where the difference is great, the answers appear to match the calculation method more than the nav computer, Heights on the glideslope can be calculated using this formula: Height = alidepath anale x clstance to goin feet 60 Beample: Calculate the height of an aircraft that is on a 3° slidepath passing over a marker 4NM from touchdown, Solution: Height = =~ x 4x 6080 0 = 126k A complication emerges when distance is given not from touchdown but from the threshold. Now the formula calculates the aircraft height above ita postion as it crosses the threshold 0 to find the true height add SOft on Example: Calculate the correct height for an aircraft 3 NM from the threshold on a 2.9" glidepath. Solution: Height = —2.9° x3 x 6080+ 50 60 = 328 ‘A coarser application of the one in sixty rule for a 3° glidepath allows the height to be estimated as 300f per mile from Touchdown. If you use this method the SOM addition still applies ifdistancew ave measured Irom dhe Usresbold Very ovcasionally glideslopes are expressed as a percentage rather than in degrees. If this happens the percentage slope can be converted to degrees on the nav computer Example: An aircraft is descending on a glidepath published as 12%. Calculate the glideslope angle In degrees. 0 owe ‘distance is ‘he threshold Solution: Place the percentage glidestope over the 10 or 100 fn the nav computer, read out the glide angle in ‘degrees over the 60 marker, 7.2° Figure 86-7 oruse calculator, 12x 60= 7.2" 100 Calculating Rates of Descent on a Glidepa Rates of descent can be calculated on a glidepath in several diferent ways. The ‘approved! formula for rate of dessent is Rate of escent = Ge angle x Groundspeed « 6080, 00 00 ‘The disadvantage ofthis is that its 100 clumsy to work with in the air. It is usually shortened to one of two methods, one & simpler ealeulation and one a nav computer solution. ‘The simpler calculation makes the assumption thet the glide angle is three degrees, which it nearly always is in teal life, and ‘that there are 6000M in a nautical mile not 6080, “his allows the formula above to be reduced to: Rate of Descent = 5x groundspeed bout it is crucial to remember this only applies to three degree glideslopes. Navigation have Example: Determine the rate of descent on a 3° glidepath, with @ groundspeed of 140kt. Solution: Rate of descent ‘5x groundspeed 5x 140 = 700f/min ‘The alternative solution is to set the glide angle over 60 on the nav computer and read out the rate of descent over the groundspeed, Figure 8-08 Sometimes odd sounding numbers turn up in the exam. ‘Example: An aircraft has a groundspeed of S40kt on a 12% glideslope, Determine the rate of descent. Solution: We have already determined that a 12% tlideslope is the same as 7-2". The formula only ‘works for 3° gidepaths but it can be adjusted to {ve the correct rate of descent by increasing of fecreasing the answer in proportion, For a 3° gldepath the rate of descent would be: = 5xs40 = 2700 ft/min me Wavigato Increasing this in proportion for a7.2° gidepath ‘as opposed to 03.0" gidepath, 2700x7.2 = — 6480.R/min 30 ‘The alternative solution works better here, put the glide angle over 60 on the nav computer and read out the rate of descent over the ‘goundspeed, 540k. Figure 06-9 Speed RAS and TAS ‘The construction and errors of air speed indicators (ASIs) are covered in depth in the instruments section of these notes. ‘The ASI gives an Indicated Air Speed (IAS) Feadout in the cockpit. IAS is important to us for handling considerations, the stalling speed we avoid and the target speeds we use, at least at low level, are Indicated Air Speeds. For navigation we need to know the True Air Speed (TAS). The difference between the TAS and the indicated specc is caused by the design and operation of the sensing system. The things evigation Te oa that cause the difference are split down into instrument and pressure error, density and compressibility errors. ‘A quick reminder of some other speeds and the differences between them, Indicated Air Speed (IAS) corrected for Pressure or Position error & Instrument error ves Rectified Air Speed (RAS) or Calibrated Air Speed (CAS) corrected for Compre ves ity Equivalent Air Speed (EAS) corrected for Density ves ‘True Air Speed (TAS) Corrections for instrument and pressure errors are usually very small and combined on a single correction card, RAS and ‘CAS mean the same thing ‘The navigation computer provides corrections directly from RAS to TAS, As the difference between IAS and RAS is very small we shall assume, for now, that they are the same thing. Example: Using the nav computer calculate the TAS of an aircraft fying at FL120 where the temperature is “S'C at a RAS of 150 nots Solution: On the nav computer place the temperature (-5°C) against the altitude (12,000 R shown as 12) In the airspeed window. ‘This fixes the relationship between RAS and TAS. Now read the ‘TAS of 181kt on the outer scale against the given RAS of 150 kts on the inner scale Wavigation Figure 86-10 ‘We might have to work the calculation backwards to find an RAS from a TAS Example: In order to fy at a TAS of 220 kts whatis the required RAS ifthe aircraft is at FL140 and the temperature is “10°C ? Solution: As before place the temperature (-10")egainst the altitude (14) inthe airspeed window. Now go to the required TAS (220 kts} on the outer scale and the RAS can be read off next toi (175 kt). [At higher altitudes and speeds, in fact when the TAS exceeds 300 ‘kts, there will be an extra correction required for ‘compressibility error Compressibiity spplied above Example: Using the nav computer calculate the TAS of an sone ras iroraft flying at F200 where the temperature io “40°C at & RAS of 280 knots, Solution: On the nav computer place the tempereture (-40°C) against the altitude (29) inthe sirspeed ‘window. Go to the main scales and RAS (280 kts) is on the inner scale, the value next to it on the outer scale shown aa 445 kts, ‘again ae Figure 80:14 ‘As the initial TAS we get is over 300kt the effect of ‘compressibility will make the ASI over read. To ‘correct for this error there isa compressibility index which we move through calculated ‘number of divisions. The calculation is (TAS + 100) ~3 so in our example 45 divisions. Having moved the compressibility index through 1.46 divisions in the direction of Une arrow go back to the RAS, 280 kts, on the inner scale and row read of the correct TAS nest to it on the outer scale, 435 kts. We can also work it backwards, Example: Solution: In order to fy at a TAS of 480 kts what isthe required RAS ifthe aireraft is at FL310 and the temperate ie 50°C 4s before place the temperature (50°) against the altitude (31) in the airspeed window. Now go to the required TAS (480 kets} on the outer scale and fon the RAS scale next to it you note a value of 296kts, Compressibilty still has to be taken into Move the compressibility index through Navigation ways turn the ‘direction of the (480 ~ 100} ~ 3 = 1.8 divisions {in the direction of the arrow and go back to the TAS of 480 kts on the outer seale and read the corrected value for RAS next to it on the inner scale, 306 kts. Notice that it makes no difference whether we are zoing from, RAS to TAS or TAS to RAS, the compressibility carrection is, always applied in the same direction. ‘Mach Numbers ‘The Machmeter shows the Mach number (MN) of the aircraft Which is how fast itis going as a proportion of the local speed, fof sound (LSS). It is supersonic above Mach I and if the aircraft is fying at a Mach number of 0.75 itis travelling at % of the LSS, The local speed of sound varies with temperature For navigation we need to be able to convert from Mach, ‘number to TAS and back again, The relationship between, ‘Mach number, TAS and RAS can be expressed mathematically Mech Number = TAS iss o TAS = Mvxiss We can calculate the LSS mathematically; it is @ constant, 38.94, multiplied by the square root of the ambient air temperature in degrees Absolute: Iss = 3804xvrA Note that absolute zero (0°A) occurs at -273°C end O'C is, 12738 Example: What is the TAS of an aircraft fying at a Mach ‘number of 0.82 at FL310 where the outside ait ‘temperature is -40°C? ‘Solution: We can either solve this on the calculator or the ‘nav computer. Nav computer: Put the temperature (-40°C) against the Mach index in the ‘Airspeed! window. This fixes the relationship between Mach number and TAS. ‘evigaton heesr sion cae tem Now read TAS of 487 on the outer scale against ‘Mach number of 0.82 on the inner scale Figure 86-42 Caleulator: TAS = MNxLSS 0.82 x 38.04 x W273 — 40) = 082 x 594.4 487.4 kts [Note that the flight level is irrelevant and that compres does not have to be accounted for. ‘And we can work it backwards, ‘Example: In order to make good a required ETA an sireraft ‘must fly at a TAS of 480 kts. Its at FL350 and the outside air temperature is-S5°C, What is, the MN to Ay at? Solution: Caleulator: MN = TAS iss. . 480 38.94 x a7S-SH) 574.9 = Moss: Nav Computer: Put the temperature (55°C) against the Mach index. Go to the required TAS (480 kts) on the outer scale and read the required MO.835 next to it on the inner seal, ‘As a variation on this theme you may be asked what the ASI reading is for a given Mach number. Here we shall assume that RAS and IAS are the same thing Example: Solution: Navigation ‘An aircraft is fying at MNO.77, FL. 290, OAT ~ 48°C. What does the ASI read? First find TAS from MN: TAS 0.7 x 38.94 x (273-48) = 45018 or use the nav computer [Now find RAS from TAS. Put the temperature (48°C) next to FL (29) in the airspeed window of the nav computer, Read out the initial RAS of 289 against the TAS of 450 kts. As the TAS is over 300kt we need to apply compressibility which is 1.5 divisions in the direction ofthe arrow and read a final RAS of 25K against 450Kt TAS, eee ere es! Speed, Distance & Time Calculations ‘The circular side rule on the ‘back’ of the naw computer ean be used to calculate speed, distance and time problems. Using the two main scales, the inner seale is time and the outer scale is, distance. ‘Example: An aircraft has a groundspeed of 478 kts. How Jong will it take to cover a distance of 135 NM? ‘Solution? Put the 60 (minutes) on the inner scale next to 478 (NM) on the outer scale (the aircraft will cover 478 NM in 60 minutes). Go to the 135 on the futer scale and read off the time taken to cover that distance on the inner scale, 17 minutes, Figure 86-13, From the distance covered in a given time the groundspeed can be caleulated. Example: An aircraft covers a distance of 185 NM in 24 ‘minutes what is its groundspeed? Solution: Place the 24 (minutes) on the inner scale nest to ‘the 185 (NM) on the outer scale. Next to the 60 (minutes) on the inner scale read off the ‘groundspeed on the outer scale: 46KT. Itmay be necessary to convert different units of distance ‘Example: How many kilometres are there in 1,200 NM? Solution: Way Computer: Place 1,200 (12) on the inner main scale next to the NM index on the cuter scale. Go to the km index on the outer seale and read off the distance, 2/225 kam, on the wer main scale, Figure 8.64 Caleulator: Convert 1,200 NM to feet (enter 1,200 x 6080) ‘Then convert to kam [+ 3280) this gives 2,294 km, Navigation at Fuel Calculations ‘All nav computers are capable of fuel flow calculations but the (CRPS has extra scales to simplify uel conversion problems. Example: An aircraft has used 1,800 Ibs of fuel in 23 minutes. What is the fuel flow in Ibs per hour? ‘Solution: Put the 28 (minutes) on the inner scale next to the 1,SUU lbs) on the guter scale, Next to the OU (minutes) on the inner scale read off the fue! flow (4,700 tbs per hour) on the outer scale. Example: An aircraft is burning 6,200 tbs/hr, how much fuel will be used in 28 minutes? Solution: Place the 60 (minutes) on the inner scale next to the 6,200 (lbs) on the outer seale. Go to the 28 (minutes) on the inner scale and read off the fuel "used (2,900 Ibs) next to it on the outer scale. It is also possible to calculate the fuel effleteney, or fuel used per NM, for an aircraft using the nav computer. ae ee ee ee Example: An aircraft is using 6,200 bs/hr and has a groundspeed of 42KT. What is its fuel usage in Ibs per NM? ‘Solution: Place the 420 (KT) on the inner scale next to the 6,200 (bs/hr) on the outer scale. Go to the 10 {or 1} on the inner scale and read the feel Clficiency figure (14.75 Ibs NM) next toit on the ‘outer seale, Figure 86-16 Fuel Conversions ‘The navigation computer can be used to conver between volumes of fuel in Imperial Gallons (1), US gallons (USC) and litres (f'and weights of fuel in pounds fib) and flograms (ka) using the specific prvity (86) of the fue When reading an answer from the CRP5 you must have an approximation in mind in order to know whether the number Is, 65 or 60 or 600 or 6,000 of whatever unit you are reading Some useful conversion figures are 1G = 12usG = 4581 11G of water (80= 1.0) = 10 Ibs L1G of fuel (SG=0.8) = 8 Ibs Ll ofwater (SG= 10) = kg 11 of fel (SG=0.8) -0.8 kg ‘Many people find it easier to remember rough numbers to ect ‘the decimal place right, there are roughly 4 litres or 10 Ibs in a gallon, US of Imperial, and a kg is about a lire ‘Example: What is the weight in kilograms of 1,000 1G of fuel with a SO of 0.8? ‘Solution: There are roughly 4 kilos or litres in a gallon so ‘the answer wil be roughly 4000kg, To ind the ‘numbers place 1,000 (ie. 10} next to the 1G" index and next to the SG (kg) 0.8 read the weight of the fuel: 9,630 ke. Figure 86-17 Example: How many litres is 1,000 Ibs of fuel with a SG of os? Solution: Place 1,000 (.e.10} next to 0.8 on the SG {Ibs} [Next tothe litres index read the volume of fue, 568.0 litres. egg eer ees) Intentionally Blank a6 Wavigation Chapter 7- Magnetism and Compasses the direction ofthe geographic North Pole, Magnetic North which is the direction of the North Magnetic Pole and Compass North which is an aircraft specific and heading specifie direction close to Magnetic North but differing ‘because of magnetic deviation, f have already established that there are three \ K J scams for sizcraf heading, True North which is ‘This chapter looks in more depth at aircraft compasses, their construction and the errors caused by deviation and variation. It duplicates a section of the Instruments notes, 1 you have already completed this you may treat this as revision. Magnetism Permanent magnetism occurs in iron and some o its alloys and occasionally in other compounds. Temporary magnetism an be induced by electrical currenta in an electro-magnet. bis chapter looks at magnetic theory as it affects aviation and aviation compasses. Magnetism occurs in iron and some ofits alloys and, rarely, in other compounds. As a foree i is known to be relaied to clectricty and suspected to be a part of family of forees that shape both space and time. ‘The Molecular Theory of Magnetism Not all pieces of iron and steel are magnetic, They can be agnetised and demagnetised if correct techniques are applied. This can be explained by thinking of the molecules of, iron all as individual magnets. In the unmagnetised state the molecular magnets point in all directions, when the iron is ‘magnetised the molecules line up to create one large magnet. Navigation : 7A Magnetism is not an all or nothing situation; the intensity of magnetism can be varied. When iron attains its maximum magnetism it is said to be saturated, In addition to having varying magnetic intensity, not all pieces of iron are easily ‘agnetised, Those that do become saturated easily also lose their magnetism easily and are known as soft iron. Iron that is, difficult to magnetise keeps its magnetism and is known as hard iron, ‘The molecular magnets can be induced to line up by several methods. Most children will have magnetised a nail by stroking, it repeatedly with a magnet. Iti also possible just to place iron n a magnetic field for it to slowly magnetise. If the metal is jammered the iron is muuch more quickly magnetised. This induced magnetism occurs when aircraft are manufactured they are lying in the earth's magnetic field. Finally, an iron bar can be magnetised by placing it inside a solenoid with a strong, DC current passing through it Im the same way that iron can be magnetised it can also be demagnetised. Ifthe iron is heated it loses its magnetism at around 900°C and stays demagnetised on cooling, It can also be demagnetised by placing it in an oscillating magnetic field inside an AC current coil and gradually reducing the field strength to zero, or by being hammered when positioned at Fight angles to a magnetic field 72 ec rosen ee ecrieeel e@ Soft ron can putt magnetic fold out ‘lignment Magnetic fields can be represented by lines of force kaving ane pole and going into the other. The poles are labelled north oF blue and south or red. Soft iron placed in a magnetic field will, deflect the field lines and can on occasion leave an air gop ‘where there is no field. Figure 8.7.2 ‘The actual pole is not at the end of the magnet, but some distance inside. Lang thin magnets have their poles near the fends, short fat magnets, lke the earth, have the pole further in =punien i why compass needles point down into the earth near oles. Navigation SSC 73 ‘The Earth's Magnetism ‘The iron core of the earth behaves like a huge magnet sith north and south poles. The magnetic pole is not coincident ‘with the geographic pole, the axis of the earth's rotation. The Hines of magnetic force are shown below Tt can be seen that @ magnet lined up with the lines of force ‘would not only not line up with the true meridians but would also not be horizontal with respect to the earth, except along, the magnetic equator or aclinic line ‘The angle between the true meridian and the magnetic meridian is called variation. Variation varies between 180°, on a line joining the true and magnetic poles, and zero where this line is extended beyond the two poles. Lines joining points of ‘equal variation on the earth's surface are called isogonals, The Isogonals converge at the magnetic poles and at the true poles. Figure 87-4 shows isogonals converging on the north magnetic and true poles ‘The line along which variation is zero is called the agonic line Because the Earth's magnetic poe is slowly moving around the true pole variation changes over time Ta Navigation @ Actinic means tno (injeline”. The ‘old ie horzontat ‘on that Ine, {toctinc moans “the same Ainjetine™ Figure 874 ‘The angle between the earth horizontal and the resultant force is called dip. Maximum dip would occur at the poles, 20 dip, along the magnetic equator, the aclinic line. Lines joining points of equal dip are called isocinic lines, or isoclizes. Ingres Dp Dagan ‘The resultant or total magnetic force can also be dived into a horizontal component, called H and a vertical companent, Z, ‘The terminology is shown in figure 8-7- ‘Navigation Wesue 5 ss The Direct Reading Compass ‘The direct reading compass is the most basic form of compass found in aircraft. Older aeroplanes use direct reading, ‘compasses backed up with Dis as a main navigation instrument, more modern aeroplanes will still have one fitted ‘asa standby compass. Principle of Operation Direct reading compasses have a freely suspended magnet attached to a compass card. The magnet is permitted to line up with local flux lines and the compass heading is read off ‘against a lubber line. To be useful in an aireraft the compass ‘card must not oscillate and must remain nearly horizontal ‘even when there is a sizeable vertical or Z component in the ‘magnetic field. ‘To encourage the magnets to remain horizontal they are suspended on a short pendulum so that the force of gravity counteracts @ large part of the dip. Note that the pendulous ‘magnet does not completely cancel the eflectof dip, just reduce Notice that it is the south pole, the red “north-secking” pole, of| the compass magnet that i atiracted to the earth's north pole, and that figure 8-7-6 is therefore for the northern hemisphere, for the dip would be opposite in the southern hemisphere. At very high latitudes close to the magnetic poles the horizontal component (H} is too small to use, even with a pendulous magnet. This is the compass unreliability area, sometimes called the six micro tesla one. os sous ~S~SCawigton ‘To reduce oscillation the magnet is suspended in a liquid filled cease. Damping filaments fitted to the magnet increase the effect and several short magnets are used rather than one long fone to keep the moment of inertia down, system that is not totaly damped will allow the magnet to oscillate; the time it takes to complete an oscillation ie called the period of the ‘oscillation. A fully damped system is said to be aperiodic, that isto say that when the magnet is displaced it returns smoothly to ts original position without oscillation. ‘The liquid in the case must be quite special It has to be transparent, non-corrosive and have just me right vscostey £0 ‘minimise the period of oscillation while not unduly restricting the steady movement of the magnets. Alcohol or parafin based liguids are normally used. There will be some system for ‘accommodating expansion and contraction of the liquid; a ‘metal bellows or a bent tube called a sylphon tube ‘The E Type Compass, ‘The E type compass is a typical standby or emergency compass, Ivis designed to be vertically mounted, usally above the Windscreen. The case is filled with silicone Maid and a, bellows system allows for uid expansion with increase of temperature. Figure 67.7 It is subject to deviation errors and two pairs of adjustable compensating magnets are fitted to the top of the case t0 correct for this. Elongated mounting slots allow for edjustment in azizuth to overcome alignment errors Navigation Tous 77 ‘The instrument is designed to be accurate in use to +10° but in practice accuracy down to #2/° can be obtained, A deviation tard wil be provided so that magnetic headings ean be derived from compass headings. Errors ‘The design of basic magnetic compasses includes a pendulous suspension system, as. described in figure 8-7-6 that counteracts some of the effects of dip. Figure 8-7-6 shows that fm the halaneed sate the magnets are not quite hariznntal and the Centre of Gravity (CG) is not directly undemeath the pivot ‘This means that the systems are subject to turing and azceleration errors, Acceleration Errors Consider an aircraft heading west in the Northern Hemisphere as in figure 8-7-8. The heading datum is on 270°. There will be residual dip towards the north end of the needle 30 the CG will be just south of the pivot. Ifthe aircraft accelerates the inertia, of the magnet, acting through the CG, will tend to rotate the needle anti-clockwise. If the compass card is attached to the needle there will be an apparent turn toward North during the acceleration; the heading datum reads 280°. As the aircraft Ssteadies at the new speed the heading will come hack to 270" land on deceleration the opposite would happen, an apparent ‘urn to the south, or Bene er Jae gato 1 the aircraft were to accelerate on an easterly heading the offset C of G would cause the compass card to turn clockwise; fan apparent turn to the north again, with the heading datum reading 080" So in the Northern Hemisphere the acceleration produces an, apparent turn toward North. In the Southern Hemisphere the Cof G of the magnets will ie to the North of the pivot so all, ‘effects are reversed. In the Southern Hemisphere asceleration produces an apparent turn toward South. In summary, E/W Acceleration produces an apparent turn toward the near pole, E/W deceleration produces an apparent turn toWwerd the Tat pole. On the aclinie line there will be no error. ‘Turning Errors ‘The acceleration caused by a turn can also have a2 effect on the indicated heading when the C of Gis away from the pivot. ez T| | | | se ; | | | = | | Figure 67.9 Figure 8-7-9 shows that the C of G and hence the tail of the needle tends to be swung to the outside of a turn causing the heading indication to lag when turning through north. Turning left through North, when the aircraft is pointing North the heading indicated is stil 020° or thereabouts. Turaing right, when the aircraft is pointing north the indicated heading is stil 340". Turns through east and west are unaffected as the C of G isin line with the pivot along the radius of turn, During turns through South, still in the Northern Hemisphere, the same thing will happen’ Now the indication will lead the ‘rue heading. In a right tun, when the aircraft is pointing South the indicated heading is already 200°. In a left turn, when the aircraft is pointing South the indicated heading is, already 160°, ‘Turning errors are a fanction of dip, so would be zero on the clinic line, and work in the opposite sense in the southem ‘magnetic hemisphere. In practice, they are significant up to 35, degrees either side of North, | | reagcdy Figure 87 Remember that turns through the near pole produce lag and through the far pole lead. They can be visually summarised as follows Figure 87-44 a0 snes avigation ‘Turning errors are compounded as the liquid in the compass picks up the turning motion of the aircraft. This Iuld swisl ‘makes the compass lag, and works the same way atall times. Although it isa much smaller error than turning error, it Increases lag and decreases lead, as they apply in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres, ‘The UK CAA quote the amplitude of turning error or a rate 1 ‘hum in mid-latitudes as 20° and liquid switl as 5. ‘Navigation ieaue 5 7a Intentionally Blank 72 SC Navigation ‘iste by turning forces Chapter 8 - Remote Indicating Gyro Compasses Introduction ‘have looked at (wo methods of providing heading Information, the DI and the compass, Both have significant errors, but used together they cal perform an adequate service. The next ngical step Js to combine the two instruments in one to use the rigidity of 1 gyro to stabilise the output but to monitor the system and, prevent wander with a continuous magnetic heading input, ‘The first remote sensing systems were just specialised compasses mounted out on the wingtip of in some other location relatively free of interference from aircraft magnetism, ‘The heading output was passed to a conventional vertical dial ‘on the instrument panel by a selsyn transmission system. The ‘wingtip compass - the detector unit - was both pendulous and, free to rotate, and so suffered from the same tuning and Acceleration errors that alict the direct reading compass. Im modern remote reading gyrocompasses the direction of the earth's magnetic field is detected by a flux detector, which is, fot free to rotate, and does not sulfer from the same turning, fand acceleration errors as a compass. The output from the detector is passed to a directional gyro, where a feedback system keeps the gyro output continuously synchronised to the aireraft magnetic heading, The Flux Detector Unit ‘The problem faced by the detector is that without a type of compass itis dificult to read the direction of a steady magnetic field. A changing magnetic feld will induce an electic current in a col of wire, as in an ordinary car alternator, but steady field does nothing, ‘The horizontal component (H} ofthe earth's magnetic field is a steady field. How do we overcome this? ‘The detector has three legs. The detector is made of sof iron, and component H induces a magnetic field in each leg. The legs end in a ‘horn’, that is there to collect the maximum possible amount of H, to make the detector more sensitive. We ‘heed three to solve any ambiguity about whether the recorded rection of His North or South, for example. Figure 8-8-1 shows a detector in the earth’s Hi component, with a different proportion of the magnetic field induced in each leg, as etermined by the angle of the leg to magnetic North. The detector unit is also variously known as a flux valve or flux agate, giving its name to the “Mux-gate” compass, Figure 8-0-4 ‘The detector unit is positioned in a wingtip or in the tal, as far as possible from interference from the aircraft's own ‘magnetism, So that the detector ean remain horizontal while the aircraft pitches and rolls within set limits, normally 225°, thus reading only component H and not an element of Z as well, the detector mounting is pendulous. It is held ina Hoolce's joint, an ordinary universal joint, and does not rotate in azimuth relative to the sireraft. The detector case may be filed with liguid to damp out oscillations of the detector. Figure 8-8-2 illustrates this, i. ‘Measuring the Component of H in Each Leg ‘The legs of the detector are made up of two separate sections, fone on top of each other. A coil around the centre section is supplied with an alternating current of just sufficient strengvh to fully magnetically saturate each soft iron leg as it reaches, peak power. ‘Wavigation ee ‘The changing magnetic feld induces a current in a secondary pick-up coil but, because the secondary coil also lies in the earth's magnetic field, the output from the secondary coli contains not only information about the fluctuating magnetic fields induced by the primary coil nut also the steady magnetic field of the earth. Transmitting the Signal ‘The induced current from the three legs is sent to an array of, Ssuior cos laid out in the same way as dhe detector. The three Stator coils then produce a magnetic field in the centre, varying in amplitude, but with a resultant direction that corresponds ‘exactly in relation to the three legs as does the direction of the original field. A rotor coil placed in the stator field wil have a current induced in it unless it remains at 90 dogrees to the resultant field. Thus the rotor coil, when turned to the null position, is used to reproduce at the remote location the exact, heading’ of the original field, in our case the direction of ‘magnetic North. This is called a selsyn system, short for “self synchronising”. Figure 8-8-4 shows how this operates, A \ 2" + HHH TITTY | Operon fn Sten 8st Because @ current is induced in the rotor only when it is not aligned with the original field the selsyn can also be regarded fas an error detector. In this case, when the rotor is not aligned ‘with the original field, current induced in it is sent to an amplifier where the signal is amplified, rectified to DC, and ‘then passed to the precession coll ofa gyro unit. kT compas Syeveiaon ‘The Gyro Unit ‘The gyro in a remote indicating compass isa tied gyro with two gimbals, giving it two degrees of freedom but controled in both topple and drift. Its mounted on a bevel gear which is meshed with a second bevel gear. When the gyro is precessed in ‘azimuth the two gears rotate ‘The precession magnet is a curved permanent magnet mounted on the top af the gyro. The precession coll is wound faround the precession magnet. The DC output from the amplifier is fed to the precession coil where it creates a ‘magnetic field. The constant magnetic feld created by the DC in the precession coil will attract the precession magnet one way or the other depending on the direction of the DC from the amplifier. This applies a force on the spin axis of the gyro Which precesses the gyro in azimuth. As the gyro is processed in azimuth it turns the bevel gear on ‘which it is mounted. This causes the second berel gear ‘0 rotate which turns. the shaft. The null secking rotor is ‘mounted on the shaft and when the null seeking rotor reaches the null position with the Earth's magnetic field the indicator (also turned by the shaft) indicates the aircraft's heading. As Tong as the null seeking rotor remains in the null position of the Earth's magnetic field no correction signal will be sent via the amplifier to the precession coll. If the null seeking rotor goes out of its null position a current (AC) is induced in the coi of the null seeking rotor which is passed to the amplifier to be processed and sent to the precession coil. This system wil ‘Wavieaton eee ‘ensure that the null seeking rotor is constantly held in the mull position with the Earth's magnetic field which means that the ‘Compass wil always indicate the correct magnetic heading. ae In order to keep the gyro spin axis aligned with aircraft horizontal the gimbal which ives the gyro freedom in the vertical plane (fopple) is fited with a slip ring powered with DC. While the gyro spin axis isin line with aircraft horizontal the pick-offs in contact with the slip ring sit on insulated segments and do not receive a current. If the gyro spin axis ‘goes out of alignment with aircraft horizontal the pick-offs receive @ current which is passed to a torque motor. This causes the 70 to be precessed to alignment with aircraft horizontal. Heading Transmission ‘The signal selsyn, amplifier, gyro unit and main heading reference are to be found in a large box called the master indicator which is located on a radio rack. The heading information must be transmitted fem the master indicator to instruments and systems where itis needed. The simplest transmission system is a shalt driven by the main shaft of the master indicator, as in figure 8-8-5, but this will only work ‘over short distances, over longer distances a. sclayn ‘transmission system is used. a Synchronisation ‘The automatic synchronisation system applies a torque to the tyro horizontal gimbal that precesses the gyro in azimuth at About 2"/minute. To indicate that this process is working correctly signals are talcen from the input to the precession system and used to move a small lag on the front 3f the gyro. Unit, showing a dot when the gyro is being precessed in one direction, and a cross when itis going in the opposite direction. When the gyro is at its null position the flag should hover between the two, but sinall movements of Use aisetalt usually make the system switch regulany from dot to eross, and this dotcrossing’ is an indication that the system is correctly aligned, Figure 887 For use on start-up, or when the gyro has toppled in manoeuvre, there is manual rapid alignmert system. Pressing in'a knob on the front of the gyro unit, masked with ot and cross, energises the rapid erection system for the gyro (for otherwise the gyro would precess and topple when moved in szimuth) and engages the Imob with the gyro. Tuming the Knob then manually turns the compass card untl the dot cross position is found. You should always turn the knob in the direction, dot or cross, of the indication on the dot-eross fag a Use as a Directional Gyro ‘The remote indicating gyro compass may be used as a directional gyro. This may happen when the magnetic monitoring system fails, or it may be selected off. In either case a ag saying DG appears on the front of the compass, and synchronisation ‘with a direct reading compass or a grid reference must be done manually by using the dot/cross knob. Selection is done by operating a Compass/DG switch on the System errors ‘The remote indicating gyro compass sulfers from the same errors caused by variations in aircraft magnetism, thotigh to lesser degree, and by changes in the earth's magnetic field, as do direct reading compasses. They must be swung periodically, to establish compass deviation ‘The detector is pendulous s0 as to be free to remain horizontal and detect only the H component of the earth's field, but its freedom is limited to 25° off the aircraft vertical. Longitudinal fand lateral accelerations will tt the detector, introducing readings of the Z component and other components of aircraft induced magnetism than B and C. Bank and pitch beyond 25° will also pull the detector out of the horizontal, with the same elects. Because of these potential errors there are various sensors incorporated to detect pitch, bank and acceleration fand when these exceed set limits the magnetic: monitoring system is switched off During manoeuvres and accelerations the gyro is still available fas a heading reference but subject to the usual gyro errors of earth rate and transport wander. These errors, however, are ‘small compared to the turning and acceleration errors of direct reading compasses, and with the stability of the gyro element and the relatively slow rate of synchronisation used, they may be ignored. The gyros, lke the DI, are subject to gimballing error in turns; this too may be ignored ‘The Inertial Reference System ‘The IRS has to maintain a very accurate reading of True North Although not a compass, itis used as a heading reference. The IRS computer wil hold a variation map for the world and can dlisplay both true and magnetic heading as required. Ia earlier INS systems the INS provides true heading for mixing with and stabilising the magnetic heading input from a detector. (oars ns enn @ ‘We already low that soft iron can be magnetised by leaving it jn a magnetic field. Hammering speeds up the process. It should come as no surprise to us that as an aircral is built it ‘becomes lightly magnetised in the direction it lies inthe earth's, field. This inital magnetism depends on where it was built, which wil affect the dip, which way the aircraft was pointing in. the factory, how much soft jon is in it and how mich it was hammered. Figure 8-8-8 shows the magnetic field around an aircraft that was built facing Southeast inthe Northern Hemisphere. Figure 8.88 Before the aeroplane leaves the factory itis de-gaussed in an ‘attempt to remove this magnetism. This is never totally, ‘successful so there is always some residual magnetism that can cause compasses to deviate ‘The magnetic field around the compass can be distorted by a number of factors. First there is the permanent, hard iron, oaguetion ig the adierafl structure sat we lave just described. Next, there could be permanent -agnelism imported with the cargo. Then there is the distortion of the earth's magnetic field by soft iron in the aircraft, end finaly, soft iron brought aboard with the cargo. These distortions work. jn both the horizontal and in the vertical and finding and defining them all so as to make corrections would bea complex. and difficult task. Fortunately, most are small, and a simple correction for hard iron magnetism in the horizontal plane wl, ‘Navigation [i oueer te re sat normally bring the compass deviation inside the required limits ‘which are 1° for a remote indicating gyro compass and # 3° Tor a direct reading compass, We will need to knov, however, hhow the other factors might affect the accuracy of the compass ‘and when a compass should be checked by carrying out a process known as a compass swing ‘The purpose of a compass swing isto: ‘+ determine the amount of deviation on a series of headings ‘+ correct for as much of the deviation as possible 1 record the residual deviation From the record of residual deviation a compass correction ccard is produced which will enable the pilot to determine the ‘deviation on any heading. Other Causes of Deviation ‘The compass is trying to line up with H, the horizontal ‘component of the earth's magnetic field and is being pulled off bby deviating forces, A decrease in the strength of Hor an inerease in deviating forces will increase the overall compass deviation, ‘Changes in H ‘At the magnetic equator, the aclinic line, dip is zero, Z is zero and His at its maximum. As you move away to higher ‘magnetic latitudes Z and dip progressively increase and H decreases in strength. Ifthe deviating forces remain the same the progressive decrease in H will lead to larger and larger deviations, ‘Changes in Deviating Forces ‘The assessment of deviating forces has been confined to effects in the aircraft horizontal, on the asstimption that the compas ‘needle will also be horizontal. If this is so, then magnet forces in the aircraft vertical, on the normal axis, will not pull the compace off. However; in cteep climb, dive or banie ateituden the aircraft and compass are no longer lined up and both permanent and induced magnetism in the aireraft vertical can ‘ffect the compass. ‘Any change in aircraft permanent magnetism will affect deviation. This can occur ifthe aircraft is left standing on the same heading for long periods, particularly if work involving hammering is also taking place. It can happen after a heavy a Navigation: landing, or even after consistent normal landings or. the same heading. Electrical faults and lightning strikes also change the permanent magnetism. Changing major components like engines affects the magnetism. Carriage of magnetic cargo is, llmost too obvious to mention, Aircraft induced magnetism can also be changed. Soft iron in the aircraft distorts the local earth field around the compass, and the deviation varies with the orientation of the soft iron 10, 1H. Large, long soft iron components in the cargo like pipeline cor gun barrels will inerease deviation on some headirgs Reasons to Swing the Compass ‘The causes or error listed above immediately suggest a lst of eccasions when a compass should be swing to check its accuracy. The lists: Whenever a compass is installed or replaced Whenever the accuracy ofthe compass isin doub: After a maintenance period, if required by the schedule After significant aircraft modification or repair When carrying magnetic fright When the compass has suffered significant physical shock After a lightning strike Long term operation at a different magnetic latitude After long term storage standing on the same heading, Intentionally Blank (age Chapter 9 - Practical Navigation Introduction hist you are unlikely to ever have to plot a route as tn airline pilot, plotting is included in the syllabus because it brings together many of the things covered in previous chapters and because elements of it are used in everyday navigation. Before we san plot a. route we need to look at some techniques and defiaitions you ‘may have already met in the PPL syllabus Heading, Track and Drift Heading ‘The heading of an aircraft is the angle from the aircrafts fore ‘and aft axis to the north datum, true north in the case of true heading, magnetic north in the case of a magnetic heading. < Hoan wath iN \ bs Heading ‘Track oF Course ‘Track is the aircraft's path over the ground. The path we wish Track errr angle to follow is called the required track and the path we actually may be relerred end up taking is called the track made good. The angle tas TKE, this ls between the two, if there is one, is called the track error. INS torminolony Track Error Angle Required Tr \ ‘Track Made Good Wind Less Than Expected “rack Error Angle Figure 80:2 Drift Drift is the angle between the aircraft heading and the track Port dit blows ‘made good. It is called port drift when the track made good is you te por less than the heading and starboard when the trace is greater starboard dt than the heading, A useful way to remember thi is tows you to rift goes from heading to track Heading 149°M 7° Starboard Dri “Tack Made Good 1M aaa ores ee once! “The two sloments of these vectors, speed and Airection, must stay together. To ‘ut wind direction ‘with groundapeed ‘or track with TAS Wind Calculations ‘The nav computer that you use for the exams must be capable of wind calculations. There are two main sorts, the circular eppesen computer and computers with a ‘slide’ for wind, falculations. We assume you are using a ‘slide’ type of computer, ideally either an Aristo, Pooleys CRPS, or the ‘military Dalton Mic 4A. The Pooleys CRPI and some other nav ‘computers do not have all of the functions required for the ‘examinations fora professional pilots! licence. PSE MG TE Watoin eel meee ee a eae Flere ‘The vectors we use are one for the movement of Track & the aircraft through the groundspeed air, the heading and TAS, fone for the movement of Heading the air, the wind direction “gta and speed, and one for the resultant movement over the ground, the track and sroundspeed ‘The nice thing about vectors is that you can dd them together graphically. heading and ‘TAS is represented by one line and. wind direction and ‘speed by another Faweooa then “the track and groundspeed is the line that would join the two. ‘The ‘wind face’ of the nav computer allows us to draw parts of these vectors and, knowing two of them, to find the third. Wind Finding Itwe know the heading and TAS flown by the aircraft and, from. to positive fixes, if we can calculate the track made good and groundspeed then we can calculate the wind which has flfected the aircraft ‘Example: The aircraft has flown a heading of 150°T and a ‘TAS of 250 kts, The track made good between two pasitve fixes wa T46°T and the ermindapendt ‘was 285 kts, What wind has affected the aircraft? Solution: Place the centre dot over the TAS (250 kts) and set the heading (150°7) under the heading index Use the slow speed slide seale when possible for greater accuracy, Since the aircraft has covered A wack over the ground of 146°T it has ‘experienced a dif of 4" port (left). Put a mark ‘where the 4 port drift and the 285 kts groundspeed coincide Capa Figure 6-955 i Rotate the circular bezel until the mark you have ‘made is immediately under the centre dot on the ("drift line. The wind direction is shown tinder ‘the heading index (300°T) and the wind speed is the difference between the value under the centre dot (250 kts) and the value under the mari (210 kts) which is 40 kts, ‘The wind velocity is 300°T/ 40 kas. Figure 80-6 information about drift and groundspeed. Example: The aircraft is fying a heading of 310°? and a, ‘TAS of 220 kats.""The doppler shows a drift of 7° starboard (right) and a groundspeed of 183 kts. We may be given the aitera's heading, TAS aad doppler Una na acing he area | a | Solution: Figure 69:7 Place the centre dot over the TAS (220 kts) and the heading (310°T) under the heading index. Put a mack where the drift (7"stbd) coincides with the groundapeed (183 kts), Rotate the Circular bezel until the mark you have made is jmmediately under the centre det on the O° drift line. Read off the wind direction and speed as in ‘the previous example: 280°T/43 kis, A final method of assessing the wind is to find the drift on three different headings; this method is known as a multi-drift wind. Example: Solution: ae ‘An aircraft is lying at a TAS of 200 kt. Ona heading of 030°T the dri is 7" stbd, on a heading ‘of 150°T the drifts 5* port and on a heading of 260"T the drift is 4" port. What wind is affecting the aireralt ? Place centre dot over TAS, 200 kts and put ‘wo det tines hheading 020°T under the heading inde Draws would do the fob, line down the 7" stbd drift. Now put the next three improves, heading, 150°T, under the heading index and ‘he accuracy draw a line down the 5° port drift. Now put the final heading, 260°T, under the heading index and draw a line down the 4° port drift. The point ‘where the three drift lines intersect isthe end of the wind veetor. Rotate the circular bezel until the intersection ofthe three drift lines is Teowe Navigation Figure 8.08 immediately under the centre dot on the O° drift line. Read off the wind direction and speed as in the previous example: 286°T/28 kis. Heading and Groundspeed ‘This is the most usual use for the nav computer. We plot and ‘measure a required track on the chart and, given the wind, we ‘can calculate the heading to fly in order to make good that, ‘ack and the groundspeed along that track. Example: Solution: ‘The required track is 100°T, the TAS is 190 kts land the wind velocity is 320°T/35 kts. What heading is required to fly the required tack and ‘what will the aircraft's groundspeed on that heading ? Place centre dot over the TAS, 190 kts (slow speed scale), dial up the wind direction (320"}under the Ineading ineow and marie the ent of the win vector 35 kts below the TAS. Put the required track under the heading index and note that the drift on this heading would be 5° stbd; we fy a heading of 100° the track will be 105" Figure 8.9.9 twa turn Now put the required track under the S*sthd deift towards the cross and you will note that the drift will be 6°stbd, [Now put the required track under the 6” stbd drift and the drift remains at 6 Figure 6.9:10 W the aircraft Mies a heading of 094°T the 6* starboard drift wil ensure that my trace will be re rt Finding 100°T and the aircraft's groundspeed will be as shown under the end of the wind vector, 215 kets. the Track and Groundspeed This process may be required in order to caleulate, for example, ‘the direction and speed at which to move a position line to construct a fx. Example: Solution: ‘The wind is 080°T/40 kts. Ifthe aircraft is vine ‘heading of 320°T and a TAS of 270 kts its estimated track and groundspeed wil be? Put centre dot over TAS, 270 kts, dial up wind direction under the heading index and plot wind vector 40 kts below centre dot. Put heading, 820°T, under the heading index: there will be 7 port drift and the aircraft will rack 313°T and its troundspeed will be 291 kts. se € ky Figure 8.041 Navigation amu Bearings ‘The direction from one point to another is calle its bearing. It ‘may be refering to either the great circle arc or the rhumb line joining two places. A bearing measured from true north is true bearing, one from magnetic north a magnetic bearing “True Bearing Be Figure 8.912 a0 tae Navigation Relative bearings ‘A relative bearing is the bearing measured from the aircraft fore and aft axis. To get a true bearing add the aircraft tue Ineading to it, to get a magnetic bearing add the magnetic heading, Heading 16°T If the sum of the relative bearing and heading come to more than 360° then subtract 360° to find the bearing, Figure 88-18 Navigation one Symbols & Charts Conventional Plotting Symbols ‘The following symbols are used by convention when plotting nectar 4 apryonte © {00d or required track Adead reckoned postion ‘A radio bearing of DME are ia Figure 89-16 Chart Symbols ICAO publishes standard symbols for use on aeronautical maps and charts. Most cartographers comply with the ICAO standard symbols but you may come across some differences, for instance the Boeing EFIS uses the VORTAC symbol for both VORTACs and associated VORs and DMEs, Shown below are a selection of the ICAO symbols that you are likely to see in the exam. Line symbols: Flight Information Region (FIR) — ‘Aerodrome Trae Zone (ATZ) Contrl Zone (CTR) ‘Advisory Aipace (ADA) - Uncontoled Route Figure 8.9.47 ae Other symbols as a ee vet sats e@«- wie = © vor lighted : a. Fl oe ‘eo a, ©) venoue knees SP vom wl ae SP vorne x fone es A Ses a oon Proting Charts ‘The plotting questions in the General Navigation examination will require you to plot on the Jeppesen charts in the training, Airway Route Manual. Most of the questions invove plotting bearings and/or distances or measuring tracks, bearing and distances. You will be provided with a photocopy of the appropriate chart but, i the UK, you will also be able to take the Jeppesen ELOI chart into the examination room. Complete the remaining exercises using either the copy of LOI at figure 8-9-28 at the end of this chapter or the orginal ELOI from your Jeppesen student manual. If yeu use the original chart marie it only with pencil. ‘Navigation Se Plotting Plotting Radials {A fix obtained from one o more radio beacons can be defined by two bearings, by a bearing and a distance or by two ranges, When bearings are used they are normally described. as “radials" meaning “magnetic bearing from the beacon". ‘The Jeppesen airways charts are designed to be used by pilots and therefore show a helpful magnetic north reference at cach Magnetic Nort reference for ENS NOB Magnetic Nort reference for ‘SHAVOR oF \er4s Figure 80-19 ‘This means that radials can be plotted by aligning the protractor with the north reference and simply reading out the ‘magnetic bearing, Example: Given SHA VOR (N52 43.3 W008 53.1) and Waterford aerodrome (NS2 12 W0O7 07) what is the SHA radial when overhead Waterford ‘erodrome? Solution: Identify SHA and Waterford on the chert Draw a line on the chart from SHA to Waterford. Place the protractor over the SHA VOR aligning the north reference on the protractor with the Magnetic North reference on the chart. Note that the alignment ean be checked by looking at the airways coming out of SHA, which show magnetic Navigation tracks or radials from SHA. Notice also that you cannot always make all the airways maich at fonce because they are ustally the mean magnetic ‘tracks, and therefore might have small diferences in variation, and are always to the nearest degree, Go forthe best ft At the edge of the protractor read out the radial to Waterford, 123°, see figure 8-9-20. Figure £9.20 Plotting Distances Where DME distances are asked you should be very cautious about using a navigation ruler unless you are working on an friginal chart with a good scale. Photocopying charts distorts, the scale. If you are using a reprinted chart it is much safer to use the scale printed on the chart or, if there is not one given, luse the meridians as a scale remembering that one degree is, 6ONM. soxample! Gwen CK VOR/DME: (NDI 90.4 W008 29.7) and Kerry aerodrome (N52 10.9 W009 31.4) what is the CRK radial and DME distance when overhead Kerry aerodrome? ans ‘Solution: Identify CRK and Kerry on the chart, Draw a line between CRK and Kerry, extending it Figure 8.9.21 ‘To find the distance measure it on the chart with compasses, dividers or against a piece of paper. Figure 89:22 then read it out against the scale on the left of the chart, 42NM, answer (). Figure 8.0.23, Plotting True Tracks It is possible to read true directions straight off the exart by aligning the protractor with the True North reference, the ‘meridians, rather than the Magnetic North references, ‘Example: Given CRN DME (NSS 18.1 W008 56.5) and [BEL VOR/DME (N54 39.7 WO06 13.8) the initial ‘ue traci and distance fram CRN to BEL is: (a) 049° - 128NM (b)0s8*- 1270 (080° 118 (057° 117NM Solution: Identify CRN and BEL. Draw a line between them, Place the protractor overhead CRN and align it with the nearest meridian, Read the true track 49, Measure the distance off as before, against the ‘scale on the left of the chart, 128NM, Aaswer (a) ‘This question asked forthe initial true track so we measured it at the start. The average true track direction could be found by ‘measuring it in the middle. Plotting Fixes ‘We can now combine the plotting of bearings and distances to find a position. Example: Solution: Given SHA VOR/DME (NS2 43.3 W 008 33.1) radial 048° /22NM what ia the airerat position? (a) __N'5228 W009 20 (&) 5258 Wo08 25 f@_N'33.00 woos 30 (a) _N'5225 W009 17 |dentify SHA VOR/DME. Align the protractor with the magnetic north reference and mark off a radial of 048". Draw a bearing line through the ‘mark, Use your compasses to measure 22NM on the ‘scale at the side of the chart. Place the point of. ‘the compasses on SHA and draw an are through ‘the bearing line. You ehould have eomething lee figure & 9-25. Navigation Figure 89.25, If there is any doubt about which positon to choose plot them all in. In this ease answer () is Figure 8.0.26, ‘Example: Given SHA VOR (N5243.3 WO08S3.1) radial 143°, | (CRK VOR (5150.4 W00829.7) radial 050", what | is the airerat position? fa) _NS155 woos 10, (B) _N5208 woos os (N52 00 Wo08 00 (a) N52 10 W008 oo Solution: You should get something lke Figure 8:9-27, answer (@) Intentionally Blank ‘oF Action are the ‘same ting Chapter 10 - Contingency Planning, DR & VFR Navigation ‘hen planning a fight and monitoring its progress it is useful to know which would be the nearest airfield to get to in terms of time and also how far ‘we can fly down the planned route and sill be able to return to our departure airfield. These calculations are ‘covered in detail in Flight Planning. We also need to consider DR uncertainties and visual navigation techniques, The Radius of Action Par, An aircraft's radius of action is the distance it can fy outbound and still have sulficient fuel to retum to. the departure airfield. This may also be called the point of no return (PNR) or point of safe return (PSR}. ‘Navigation 10.4 ‘The greatest distance to PNR will be in stil air conditions, If there is any wind the aircraft will experience either a headwind fut and a tailwind home or a tailwind out and a headwind hhome; in both cases the aircraft will lose more time when going into the headwind than it gains when it has the tailwind, ‘The time and distance to PNR will also depend on how much fuel is available to burn. The amount of fuel available to burn does not depend simply on how much fuel is carried by the aircraft. “Itis also necessary to consider how much fuel the aircraft is to arrive back at its departure with, Full reserves, ‘neluaing contingency fuel, may be required or an absolute PNR may be required with the aircraft recovering to its eparture airfield with only a minimal amount of fuel remaining. ‘The time to PNR will depend on total fuel endurance (E), ‘groundspeed out (0), and groundspeed home (Hl). The formula teed to caleulate time to PNR ie Time to PNA. exw orm Care must be taken when caleulating the fuel endurance to ensure that the aircraft arrives back at the departure aitfield ‘with correct amount of fuel Bxample: Sector distance 2,400 NM TAS. 260 its ‘Wind component (out) 440 kes Fuel consumption 3,800 Ibs/hr Contingency fuel 5% Overhead and diversion reserves 5,200 Ibs What is the distance to PNR retaining overhead and diversion reserves and no contingency fuel? Solution: Groundspeed out = 26040 = 300kts Sector time 2,400 NM @ 300 kts = 8.0 hrs Sector fuel 8x3,800 = 30,400 Ibs Contingency fuel (5 %) = 1520 tbs Reserves, : ‘Total fuel at take off 31120 Ibs ‘The aircraft ie to My to PNR and return to its departure airfield with overhead and diversion reserves on 5,200 lbs remaining, Its to bum. ‘the sector fuel (30,400 Ibs) and the contingency fuel (1,520 Tbs}; a total of 31,920 Ibs. LL ‘he greatest secure in stil ae rs are work out the Commit point to ‘sane Ps tot you ‘which i the Into wind Fucl endurance (B) = 31,920+3,800 = 8.4 hrs Groundspeed out (0) ‘260'+ 40= 300 kts Groundspeed home (#) = 260 - 40 = 220 kts ‘TimetoPNR= $4.x220 = 355hr8 (00 + 220) distance to PNR Critical Point 55 x90 = 1,056 NM ‘The Critical Point (CP) between two airfields is the point from which it would take the same time to fy to either afield, In still air this would be exactly half way between the two sirfields, Itshould be noted that CP will move into wind, Figure 810-2 Figure £.10:3 ‘The calculation of CP is based on the ratio of groundspeed to destination (Om or ‘O') and the groundapeed back 10 the departure airfield (Home or ‘H._ Ifthe total distance between departure and destination airfields is D then the distance from the departure airild to the CP may be calculated using the formu: Navigation 703 Distance tocP = Dx H (orn) When calculating the groundspeeds the TAS used depends on the type of emergency envisaged; an engine failure, for instance, would give a reduced TAS. ‘Example: How long will t take to reach the engine failure CPirthe distance between the departure and destination airfields is 1,200 NM, the four engine TAS is SbU kts the tree engine YAN 18 490 kta, there is wind component af +30 kes outbound and normal operations up to the CP ? Solution: For the formula D = 1,200 NM © = 350+30 = 380 kts H = 350- 30 = 320 kts Distance to 3 engine CP = 41,200.x.320 (880 + 520) = s0onm ‘normal operating groundspeed 380+ 30 = 410 kts Time to Sengine CP = $49. NM@410 kts 180.4 minutes ‘Taking this example it can be seen that if the engine failure occurred 580 NM from departure airfield, which is 620 NM from the destination, it will be quicker to continue the greater distance to the destination rather than return the shorter distance (but longer time) to the departure airfield The Circle of Uncertainty Without fixing systems such as GPS or LORAN it may only be possible to positively fix the position of the aircraft at irregular Intervals when ground based aids such as VOR, DME or NDB fare available or when map reading is possible. "Even weather radar in the mapping mode is of litle use in the middie of a ‘major ocean. In the absence of continuous fixing we rely on DR navigation or estimating our position, ‘The initials DR originally stood for “deduced reckoning” but this was abbreviated to “ded. reckoning". Because of the sloppy use of the language this has become known as “dead reckoning” oe Wig “roundspeed out ‘roundspeed On inthe engine fallre ease. Use ‘oundspeed On tneertainty grows the iat fo ‘The accuracy of our DR position will depend on the hilowing ‘The accuracy ofthe last positive fix ‘The accuracy with which heading has been maintained ‘The accuracy with which air speed has been mairtained ‘The accuracy of our estimate of the wind affecting the aircraft our last positive fix was only accurate to within 10 NM then our subsequent estimates of our position will only be accurate {o 10 NM of more, ‘The "more" will depend on the other three factors listed above and the longer we fly without positively fixing our position the greater the error or potential error in our. estimate of position, There will be a growing circle of luneertainty around our aircraft and we could be anywhere vwithin that circle Example: ‘The last positive fx can be considered to be ‘accurate within 8 NM. The error in our DR ‘position may be assumed to be growing at arate ‘0f3% of our TAS which has been 460 kts since the last positive fx at 1000 hrs. How large is the circle of uncertainty at 1120 hrs ? Solution: ‘The circle of uncertainty ia growing at «rate of| 13.8 NM/her (9% of 460 kts). It has grown by 18.4 NM in the 80 minutes since the last positive ‘ix but started with a radius of 8 NM so by 1120 brs the radius of our circle of uncertainty is 18.4 +8= 26.4 NM In other words, we have an ‘estimate of our position, which may be correct, but we could be anywhere within a 26.4 NM radius of that position, Visual Navigation and Map Reading Introduction Visual navigation is use of topographical maps to menitor or fx the aircraft's position. Map reading actually conssts of two related but diferent sills. First, for ight monitoring, the pilot, ‘ust be able to visualise the terrain wid plysieal fectuses out symbols on the map. The second skill {s required when the fircralt’s position is uncertain and the pilot has only a DR position to work from; now ground features must be turned, {Into a mentally perceived picture of the map and related to the map symbols. Route Planning ‘When planning a route tracks and distances between turning points ‘will be measured and noted; headings, groundspeeds ‘and elapsed times between turning points will be calculated ‘and recorded. The flight could be conducted simply by fying the pre-planned heading for each leg for the appropriate lapsed time but our position at any time during the flight ‘would only be an estimated, or DR, position. The conduct of the flight would be much more efficient if the pilot evaluates the difference between his DR position and actual position and takes corrective action {0 allow for wind changes and heading fr airspeed errors. For visual navigation (map reading) the pilot should plan to use visual check points which are major Teatures which ean be used to ascertain the aircrafts position, The selection of visual check points would include considerations such as: Proximity to planned track Ground features on oF close to track are preferred, Size and uniqueness, Large objects with colour contrast and/or some vertical extent will be easier to identi. Planned altitude, ‘At lower levels a selected visual check point may be hidden by high ground or only visible after the aircraft has passed over it ‘Time of year. Changes in vegetation or snow cover can cause t same landscape to take on a different appearance at dlllerent times of year, However, where snow could hide a litle used minor road a cleared major road would. ‘stand out better, Position can be ascertained by overflying suitable visual check points or by estimating the aircraft's position from selected Coin chil. points, ft de preferable to wee more Una coe feature to confirm that the correct point has been identified ‘There may, for instance, be more than one isolated village in the area so each one should be related to other features such as rivers, roads, railways, hills, valleys, etc. Coastlines stand ‘out well’ but additional features sich as estuaries, rivers, settlements, ete. should be used to confirm the exact point on the coastline being observed 6 eat In remote, sparsely populated areas with few landmerks it may ‘be necessary to use line features as visual position lines. A, Straight road, river or railway may be used for a groundspeed/ETA check if it crosses track at or clase to right ‘angles ora tracking check ifit is parallel tothe planned track. If distinctive feature is identified but at a distance which is ‘too great to enable an exact position to be estimated it is still, possible to fix the position of the aireraft by the intersection of bearing and range position lines from the feature. These may ‘be established as follows: To find the bearing estimate the relative bearing of the feature tnd add or subtract it from the aircraft's heading as we did before. Range from a feature may be estimated using a change in relative Bearing (alten as the feature passes beam the airraf), the aireraf's groundspeed and the 1 in 60 rule. Bxample: A feature i noted on a relative bearing 3 085°, ‘Two minutes Inter the same feature ison relative bearing of 090°. Ifthe airerafthas a ‘groundspeed of 120 lcs what isthe range of the ‘ircraft from the feature? Solution: First work out how far the aireraft has travelled ‘between the bearings. In 2 minutes at ¢ ‘groundspeed of 120 kts the aircraft will travel 4 NM Using the nay computer, set the 60 on the inner scale against the change in relative bea-ing (5°) ‘on the outer scale, Next tothe 4 in the outer scale ‘ead off the distance from the feature oa the inner scale: 48 NM. ‘This method only works for small changes of relative bearing — up to 15". Larger changes of bearing will require a trigonometric solution. Inflight Procedures Where possible the position of the aircraft should be continuously monitored using a series of selected and verified visual check points, Where these check points are not available line features may be used to check grounéspeed and BTA and/or tracking accuracy. Aer a period of fight over featureless terrain a DR position should be established to enable the pilot to identi features When they appear. If there is no visual check point available Navigation 5 707 at a scheduled turning point the aircraft should turn on ETA at the turning point and every effort made to re-establish position fonce identifiable features are again available. Timing to the next expected visual check point will ensure that the pilot docs not miss an expected ground feature. In remote areas map reading is made diffiult by the lack of, identifiable features and because maps may lack detail and /or be inaccurate. At high latitudes the lack of features and a Dlending of the horizon into cloud layers, especially ifthe grond is covered in snow, will make navigation difficult. In ‘white fut conditions where snow covered ground is maisunguishable from the sky itis virtually impossible to estimate height above ground, Speed Adjustment ‘Sometimes itis necessary to adjust speed in order to achieve a required ETA at a reporting point. This can be calculated by ‘working out (what happens if we do nothing’ and fi) what do we need to do to correct for doing nothing. ‘Example: An aircraft is estimating 050°W at 1010 with a sroundspeed of 536Kt. At 1822 the aircraft is Instructed by ATC to reduce speed to be at 050"W at 1913. Assuming the correction is made at ance ‘the required speed reduction is Solution: At 1822 the aircraft has 48 minutes to run to S50°W and at a groundspeed of 536 kts the distance to run ia 429 NM. In order to arrive at ‘SOW at 1913 the aircraft must cover 428.8 NM jn $1 minutes and this requires a ground speed (0f 504.5 kts. The speed must be reduced from $536 kts to 504.5 kis; a reduction of 31.5 kts. Using this method itis only one small step required to work lout changes of IAS or Mach number. ‘Example: An aircraft at FL 140, IAS 210 ka, OAT -5°C and ‘wind component minus 35 kt, is required to reduce speed in order to cross a reporting point 5 ‘minutes later than planned, Assuming that fight Conditions do not change, when 150 NM from the reporting point how much should the IAS be reduced by ? nae ee nee Solution: Setting up the navigation computer for FLI40, an OAT of -5°C, and a CAS of 210kt gives 2 TAS of 264kt. Subtract the wind component of 35k hheadiwvind to find the intial groundspeed of 229k. ‘The time taken to travel 1SONM at 229kt is 150 + 229 x60 = 39.8 minutes in order to del aner by 5 minutes we must arrive goat 44.9 minutes: 150 NM in 44.3 mimutes means we must have & sroundspeed of 150 + 44.3 x 60 = 203 kt If the groundspeed is reduced from 226k to 2031 this a reduction of 229 - 203 = 26K In order to reduce the groundspeed by 26kt we ‘must reduce the TAS by 26kct from 264i to 238k Setting up the navigation computer for an altitude of FL140 at an OAT of -5° shows a TAS of ‘238k corresponds to a CAS of 190k, This is 20k Tess than the original CAS of 210k. ues 70.9 Calculation of Top of Descent Position or Rate of Descent ‘You must be able to calculate the point at which to commence your descent in order to put the aircraft at the right position and at the altitude or flight level or the rate at which to descend from a given position. ‘To caleulate the Top of Descent Position: Bxample: Solution: ‘An aircraft at FLISS is to descend to be overhead the destination airfield a an altitude of 2,000 ft ‘The rate of descent will be 800 FT/MIN, the mean sroundspeed in the descent will be 240 kts and the ONH at the destination airfield is 1020hPa At what distance from the airfield should descent begin? FL1SS is at 15,500 + (7 x 30) = 15,710 f above ‘the 1020hPa QNH datum. Aircraft is to descend through 13,710 ft at 800 FT/MIN, which wil take 17.1min. At a mean groundspeed of 240 kts the aircraft will cover 68% NM; start descent at this range {rom the destination airfield ‘To calculate Rate of Descent: Example: ‘Solution: ‘An aircraft at F370 is required to commence ‘descent at 120 NM from a VOR and to cross the facility at PL 190. Ifthe mean GS for the descent is 288 kt, the minimum rate of descent required Aircraft isto descend through 24,000 feet. 120 NM at groundspeed 288kts will take 25 ‘minutes. To descend through 24,000 feet in 25 minutes requires at rate of descent of 960 feet per minute (24,000 * 25 = 960) Tae avigation Chapter 11 - Inertial Navigation that can provide “continuous information on the aircrafts position, track, heading, groundspeed and, if ‘necessary, height without any external assistance. Most sircraft of any size will be fitted with at least two inertial systems, the duplication is so that the information can be ‘compared for possible error, T: inertial navigation system is a self contained system (Older inertial systems were not fully integrated into the aircraft, and could be purchased and fitted by an operator as an ‘optional extra navigation system. These are known as Inertial, Navigation Systems (INS) because their main function is, navigation. More modem systems are fully integrated with other aircraft systems so that they provide not only navigation information, but also attitude references. These systems are celled TRUS, Inertial Reference Units, or sometimes IRS, Inertial Reference Systems, In this chapter we will lols at the basic principles of inertial navigation and at two typical systems, one an older "stable platform’ INS with conventional gyros as fitted to the LIO11 fand the other a modem "strapdown’ IRU as fited t0 the Boeing 737-800. Basic Principles ‘The starting point for an inertial reference aystem is acceleration. if acceleration is known then the aircrat’s speed, an be calculated. If the speed is known the distance travelled tan be calculated, Nevigntion SSCS ‘The mathematical process that reduces ‘acceleration to speed is called integration, the same process reduces epeed to distance travelled. This means that to get speed from i acceleration requires one stage of me Sitges gtlisnce fem ccceraton requires two stages. Im order to sense linear acceleration the inertial system uses mechanical inertial stcoelerometers Im order to sense angular acceleration it uses Rate Integrating Gyros, either ‘mechanical or, in more modern equipment, fing laser gyros, Figure 8444 Accelerometers and Rate Integrating Gyros fare discussed in fll in Instruments, Chapter 3. This is brief Inertial Accelerometers ‘An inertial accelerometer uses a pendulum suspended on a spring or blade, The weight, or bobweight, at the bottom of the pendulum is the T bar of an & U bar system, Accelerometer Foosbadk Foosback ae ‘Sonal Ear Inout iat ‘Aecelraon put Figure 8.41.2 4s the aircraft accelerates, perhaps to the right ofthe page, the inertia of the pendulum weight will eause it to move to the left Navigation ‘The product of Integration @ @ ‘This air gap between the weight and the arms of the E bar will now be uneven and the currents induced in the B bar will also ‘be uneven. The feedback system then sends a current to the feedback coils to magnetically push the T’ bar back to its ‘normal position, ‘The dis wt of the 1 bar is proportional to. the acceleration, the current required in the feedback coils is proportional to the displacement so the current is proportional, {othe acceleration, ‘The inertia accelerometer detects liner acceleration Rate Integrating Gyros We have already met the concept of integration when dealing, ‘with straight ine movement, it ean also be applied to angular acceleration. Rate Integrating Gyros integrate the angular rate ff rotation to output an angular measurement cf detected, ‘movement. Figure 841-3 Barly Rate Integrating Gyros are a gyroscope with two degrees. of freedom supported inside a can which is suspended in turn inside another can. A viscous fluid fils the gap between the ‘An input around the 27’ axis causes the gyro to presess in the normal way and the gyro and inner can start to rotate around the YY" axis. The viscous fuid between the cans sesists the ‘Navies ERP r ae Ss aaa NEES Pare 14 3) ‘movement and as soon as the input is removed the cans stop rotating, The amount of movement is a function of the rate of input and time and therefore indicates angular movement. Later inertial systems use Ring Laser Gyros as Rate Sensing Gyros. Ring Laser Gyros use two laser beams directed around ‘a system of three mirrors, one of whichis semi-transparent. Sesame an rgrcene [ toa Oe Figure 844-4 Angular acceleration causes the light travelling one way round, the system to travel apparently further, the shift of the wave front can be read out as an interference pattern by a photo sensitive cell. This wil indicate the rate at which the gyro is rotating, At very low rates of rotation the photodiode pickofT finds it dificult to distinguish a phase difference, problem known as ‘phase lock’ or laser lock’. To overcome this problem @ mechanical vibration known as ‘dither’ is induced in the ‘optical sensing system, With dither operating the RLG can detect rotation rates as low as 0.0015 degrees a second, The Acceleration Axes ‘To solve @ complete navigation problem in space we need to know the acceleration in three axes at right angles to each other, sometimes referred to as orthogonal axes, When we come’ to choose our axes two of them should clearly be feast/west and north/south and the third should be the vertical ‘The north/south axis is called the X axis, the east/west axis is called the Y axis and the vertical axis the Z axis, i ‘The RLG act a tate sonaing tyro and detects sngular Figure 84145 To sonse acceleration in three axes three accelerometers are required, 9 sense acceleration north/south and east/west ‘gnoring up and down requires only two accelerometers. Stable forms and Strapdown Systems ‘The theory so far suggests that, if we know where we start from, if we measure acceleration in three axes we wil be able to calculate where we end up. We choose to express the movement in three axes, X,Y and Z, north/south, east/west and up and down. The problem is, how does the inertial system relate ita acceleration to these defined axes, how does it know which direction is north and which way is up? ‘There are three solutions to this, the first is to keep the inform the accelerometers are mounted on always level aid aligned to north and measure acceleration relatve to the platform. This is called a stable platform system. ‘The second solution isto keep the platform level, ta not snery about keeping it aligned to north, but merely detest how far ‘out of alignment it in, This ie called the wander angle aystem, ‘The third solution is to not to worry about either Kvelling or north alignment but just detect how far out of levd and how far out of alignment the accelerometers are at initialisation and then monitor any changes. This is called the strapdown system as the gyros and accelerometers are just xed (strapped down) to the aircraft structure, meal oo mage ena anne! The Stable Platform INS ‘The stable platform INS keeps the accelerometer platform level and aligned to true north, In order to achieve this the platform is suspended in three circular frames called gimbals, The gimbals are driven by electrical torque motors to keep the platform in the required position in space, keeping the X axis atigned to true north and the plaform in the local horizontal, Keeping the Platform Level and Aligned ‘Temporary displacement of the platform from level and from north alignment is sensed by three Rate Integrating. Gyros arranged at right angles to each other. ll three RIGS have horizontal spin axis. The North and East gyros sense topple land the azimuth gyro senses dri. Angular movement about the North/South axis is sensed by the North gyro, angular ‘movement about the East/West axis is sensed by the East gyro land angular movement about the vertical axis is sensed by the azimuth gyro, When the gyros sense displacement they send instantaneous correction signals to the torque motors and the platform is kept level Figure 8.11.6, As the platform is always aligned to north different gyros sense pitch and roll depending on which way the aircraft is pointing Figure 8-11-6 shows the aircraft heading east. Arranged like Integrating Oyros “The alroratt must ring the alignment {his roll would be around the platform east/west axis. It would therefore be sensed by the east gyro and a signal would be sent to the roll motor to keep the platform level. Pitch would be rotation around the platform north/south axis, it would be sensed by the north gyro which would compensate ay sending 4 signal to the pitch motor. The accelerometers would not sense any movement because there would not be any linear acceleration north/south or east/ west. If the aircraft were heading north pitch changes would be angular acceleration about the east/west axis, this would be sented by dhe eat On intermediate headings both gyros would sense some clement of platform movement inthe aircraft rol or piteh Initial Alignment and Levelling Alignment and levelling is done only once for each Might to establish the datums with the aireraft stationary on the ‘ground. Once aligned the inertial system is not realigned for the remainder ofthe flight. When alignment is taking place the outputs from the accelerometers and gyros are used for different purposes than they are in light, separate selection, is made on the INS, the ALIGN mode. Levelling is achieved by motoring the platform until there is no ‘cceleration duc to gravity sensed by either accelerometer. This ‘means that, even if the airerat is on a slope, the platform will be level. Levelling does not require any latitude and longitude input by the pilot Alignment is achieved by motoring the level platform until the feast gyro has no topple output. I the aircraft is stctionary on the ground the only cause of topple would be earth rotation, if the east gyro has 2ero topple output this must mean that its fais is aligned north/south as in the previous diagram. This is checked by the INS looking at the topple output of the north, fayro, this should be equal to the earth rate which is 15" x cos latitude. The INS cannot do this unless it has a latitude input from the pilot. ‘The alignment of the stable platform with true north ie called syro-compassing, The aircraft must not be moved during the levelling and alignment sequence otherwise either or both operations could be upset Navigation SSCs Navigation (Once alignment is complete the INS is switched into a different ‘mode, the NAV mode. Now the gyro outputs are used to keep the platform level and aligned and the accelerometer outputs feed! through integrators to become speed and ultimately distance ‘The north accelerometer output is integrated once to find speed in the north/south sense and then a second time to get north/south distance travelled. As each minute north/south is fone nautical mile this can be easily converted into change of latitude and then, knowing where we started, a latitude. 1.nmis t minute In a similar way, the east accelerometer output is integrated. tice to find the east west distance, the departure. A nautical mile of departure is not necessarily’ a minute of longitude but the departure can’ stil be back-caleulated to a change of Tongitude using the formula, departure = change of longitude x cos latitude or change of longitude = departure x __1_ cos latitude eit Dbut (1+ cos latitude) is also called the secant ofthe Ititude so ‘change of longitude = departure x secant latitude ‘To find the longitude, then, the latitude must be known. The latitude output from the north/south integrators is fed with, the departure from the east/west integrators into a “secant ‘gear to find first the change of longitude and then longitude. Figure 849-8 ‘Knowing the new position and old the INS is able to calculate the track taken in degrees true. The INS can measure the angle between platform north and the aireraft nose, this is heading. ‘The angle between the two, drift, s therefore also known. The groundspeed can be calculated from distance travelled and time. Navigation aS ‘There are two missing inputs. True Air Speed, TAS, cannot be calculated by the INS s0 it must therefore be fed into the system from the Air Data Computer or, on older aircraft, a primitive form of ADC called Truc Ait Speed Unit, a TASU. Variation is the last input provided from a dalabase of variation values around the world With these last two inputs in place the INS can calculate the ‘wind and output magnetic headings and tracks, if required, Attitude Outputs ‘Although the primary function of the basic INS is navigation, and primitive INS do only that, later systems take attitude ‘outputs from the INS platforms to feed into the Autopilot and Flight Director System (APFDS), the main attitude indicators land the weather radar scanner stabilisation. Controls and Indicators ‘The cockpit equipment consists of a Mode Selector Unit (MSU) and a Control Display Unit (CDU} for each INS unit. The mode Selectors are normally fitted on the roof panel, the CDUs are ‘within easy reach ofthe pilots, often on the centre console 40 Cig “TAS and variation sre required Inputs ‘The msu Figure 844-10 ‘The main control on the MSU is a rotary switch, which controls, the switching on of the equipment, and provides a reversionary attitude mode if the navigation equipment fails. The functions fare as follows: + OFF | Power off + STBY Power ison. A display test may be perfermed. An automatic pre-alignment sequence begins, ‘Airoraft movement does not affect the system + ALIGN The system aligns automatically. Present position rust be inserted before the sequence will complete. The aircraft must not be moved + NAV Normal navigation mode, NAV must be selected before moving the aircraft + ATT Dicables the navigation fanetion ofthe INS and provides pitch, roll and heading outputs to the attitude indicators and APFDS, ‘Two indicator lights are also fitted. The red battery warning light comes on when the INS battery is being used as a power source and the voltage is below the minimum required, The INS will shut down. The green "READY NAV" light shows the alignment sequence is complete and NAV may be selected. (Once selected the ready light goes out ‘The Contro! Display Unit oar Figure 8-49-14 ‘The main control on the CDU is the Data Selector switch that controls the information displayed. The functions are as follows: + TK/as ‘True track and instantaneous groundspeed + HDGDA True heading and drift angle + XTK/TKE Distance left or right of track to 1/10 of @ rile and, on the ight hand display, the angle between desired track and track. + pos Aircraft position as @ Lat and Long to 1/10 ofa minute © way Pr Latitude and Longitude of the waypoint selected on the rolary waypaint selector + DIS/TIME Distance and time to next waypoint + wind Computed wind direction (1) and speed + DSRTK/STS Desired track and system status. With WARN illuminated shows malfunction code followed by action code Groat Clon “owt 1S DispeyTerminoony ‘The MSU rotary switch is moved from OFF to STBY. The rate Integrating gyros are brought up to operating RPM. and temperature. After a few minutes the INS will be ready’ t0 0 {nto the ALIGN mode. If ALIGN is selected before the gyros are ‘up to speed the levelling and alignment wall not start until they are ready. ‘An INS needs to know its latitude accurately during the alignment phase, it will algo need to know its longitude before it can start to navigate. The pilot should select POS on the (CDU and enter the aircraft's position to the nearest tenth of ‘minute as soon as ALIGN is selected. (Once the levelling and alignment is complete the green READY NAV light comes.on on the MSU, the rotary switch is selected ‘to NAV and the INS is ready for use. Ifthe latitude i not inserted the ALIGN sequence will stop half ‘way through, if the longitude is not inserted the RADY NAV. light will nt come on. Ifthe aireraft is moved at all during the ALIGN selection the INS will have to be tumed OFF and the ‘sequence restarted. The full stable platform alignment process takes about 15 minutes. If the position, POS, is entered as the correct latitude but the ‘wrong latitude the platform will evel and align itself correctly and the green READY NAV light will illuminate. If NAV is, ‘Wevigntion SSC selected the equipment will appear to work correctly but Decause the INS will be starting from the wrong position, all ‘outputs will be in error I is possible to go straight from OFF to ALIGN or OFF to NAV. ‘The INS will level and align normally except that, as before, the alignment will not complete until the position is. manually centered. INS Normal Operation ‘The INS will navigate between a sequence of waypoints flying the shortest, great circle, tracks. The waypoints are entered as Jatitudes and longitudes by the pilot on the CDU. The rotary switch is selected to WAYPOINT, each waypoint is selected in tum with the waypoint selector and the lat and long inserted fon the keyboard, ‘The system will cut comers rather than overfly waypoints, When each waypoint is about 2 minutes away the ALERT light fon the CDU illuminates, going, out after the switch over, The current waypoints are displayed in the FROM/TO window. For instance a display of Would indicate the IN is navigating from waypoint zero, present position, to waypoint two, ‘The IN can be redirected to waypoint 3 in one of three ways: Firstly, if nathing is done and the AUTO/MAN switch is set to AUTO, the aircraft will fy towards waypoint 2. Navigation ‘Just before the waypoint the alert light will luminate, the IN ‘wil turn the aircraft smoothly onto the new track and the FROM/TO window will change to read (fom) 2 (to) 3. Left alone the aircraft will ly this track If the auto/manual switch is selected to manual there will be ‘no automatic track changeover. The alert light will say on and the aircraft will overfly the waypoint without turning, waiting {or the pilot to do something ‘The second method will direct the aireralt to fy an intercept ‘heading to join the new track. Select WY PT CHG, key in (from) 2 (lo) 3 and then INSERT. The result is this: 48 a Figure 811615, ‘The third option is to select WY PT CHG, (from) 0 (t) 3, then. INSERT. This redefines waypoint zero as the aircraft postion when INSERT is pressed and steers the aircraft direct to waypoint 3. ‘The XTK TKE selection on the rotary switch is used when the aircraft is steered away from the tack it should be on, for a6 Cit instance, when steering around thunderstorms. XTK on the left hhand display shows displacement left or right of track, TKE an the right hand display shows the angle from the actual track (0 the desired tracle, An aircraft 20.3NM right of track, Between waypoints 2 and 3 and closing to the desired track with a 30° cent would have a CDU display like this: Figure 8.44.17 a ae The Wander Angle INS ‘The wander angle INS platform performs exactly lke the North aligned aystem except that, during the ALIGN phase, the ‘alignment of the platform is computed based on the topple ‘outputs from the North and Kast gyros and the latitude input {rom the pilots. No attempt is made to hold the platform to a specific alignment. Any change of alignment is detected by the ‘azimuth gyro. Accelerations detected by the accelerometers are ‘converted into North/South. motion (enange of lattice) and East/West motion (change of longitude. ‘The disadvantage of the north aligned stable platform system is ‘that it cannot maintain north alignment as it crosses the poles, ‘As a result it has to switch to a form of dead reckoned ‘navigation until it emerges out the other side. A wander angle system has no stich problem, ‘The advantage of the north orientated stable platform is that, although the concepts are complex, the mathematics of converting east/west and north/south acceleration is quite simple and therefore suited to an age before computers. With ‘the arrival of greater processing power it is not a large task to use the RIG outputs to establish the angle between the platform and true north, The Strapdown IRU ‘The logical step from the wander angle system is to not only ‘make no effort to align the platform with true north but also to make no effort to keep it evel. If no effort is made to Keep the ‘accelerometers level then three are needed rather than only ‘two acting justin the horizontal plane. Rate integrating gyros are no longer needed to keep the platform level and aligned. Instead, three ring laser gyros (rate Sensing gyros) are bolted to the structure of the aircraft t0 measure rates of pitch, roll and yaw. Three orthongonally ‘mounted accelerometers are also fixed to the structure of the aircraft to measure acceleration along the X, Y and Z axes. Collectively the accelerometers and RLGs are known as the “computing trihedron’ ‘The strapdown IRU produces a simpler mechanical solution Dut a more complex computing problem, it is more suited to the 21+ century than either stable platform system, a6 ig Initial Alignment and Levelling Levelling and alignment are accomplished with te aircraft stationary on the ground as before. Now it is likely that all, three accelerometers will sense gravitational acceleration but with ‘greater computing power this can be analysed ‘mathematically to determine which way is down. Tee platform ‘is not moved but the vertical is noted Once the vertical is established changes of attitude in space can only he coming fram earth rotation Thx realization alles the IRU to determine the axis of the earth's roation and calculate true north from the Ring Laser Gyro outptt. The IRU is also capable of roughly calculating the latitude. This, calculation is not accurate enough for navigation se a manal position input is stil required as part of the alignment ‘sequence. Navigation The IRU does not even attempt to navigate, it senses accelerations as before and integrates them into latitude and longitude, Then it sends that data to the Flight Management Computer (FMC) for navigation and sends attitude, angular rates, velocities and accelerations to the Flight Control, Computer (FCC) and a variety of other outputs to other aireraft systems IRS Inputs and Outputs Figure 8-11- ‘The IRU provides magnetic heading and track information, converting true track and heading using a variation map stored in the computer database as before, The variation map covers latitudes between 6O°S and 72°, ‘The IRU has an inertial height output, but its accuracy is too ow for height control. 1t therefore takes a barometric height input, which has good steady state accuracy, and using this to stabilise the inertial vertical channel, provides accurate mixed Darometric/inertial height and lag-free vertical acceleration and velocity data The IRU also requires TAS for wind velocity Controls and Indicators ‘The inertial Reference System (IRS) is composed of a number of, individual Inertial Reference Units, Large alireraft have three IRUs and smaller aircraft like the B737 have (wo. ‘The IRUs are controlled for startup, alignment and monitoring by-a single Inertial Reference Mode Panel {IRMP). A Bocing "731-800 pane! is shown below. Figure 844-49 1420 Wavigation “THe IRS wt reject incorrect Inttude or tongitude ‘The bottom half of the IRMP has two mode switches for the two IRUs, for OFF, initial ALIGNment, NAVigation mode and the reversionary ATTitude only output. No STBY mode is provided because there are no mechanical gyros to spin up. Above the mode switches are two sets of IRU status lights ‘The display at the top can be switched to show ousputs from, the Left or Right IRU. The outputs that can be displayed are ‘Track GroundSpeed, Present POSition, WIND velociy and true HeaDinG and STatus, There Is a keyboard for entering Latitude and Longtude data during initial aligament. ‘This is also used for manually entering a heading when the IRU is in the ATT mode and is no Jonger computing its own true heading, Setting Up ‘The mode selector switch is moved from OFF to ALIGN. The detection of the vertical and alignment starts. Tke ON DC lights uminate briefly as the IRS tests the power supply When alignment starts the ALIGN lights come on, Present position can be entered on the IRMP but is more usually entered through the FMS. The IU compares. the calculated position and the position at which it was last shut down and If these are too far out from the position the pilots entered the ALIGN light flashes indicating an error. Position ‘must now be re-entered. Once the present position is accepted and aligment is complete the ALIGN lights go out, NAV can be selected and the fircraft ean be moved Bocing recommend selecting NAV directly from OFF at latitudes between 70°S and 70°N, the alignment is carried out in just the same way. Above 70° latitude the intermediate ALIGN selection should be used. Alignment times vary with latitude, they are quoted as 5 ‘minutes at the equator, 10 minutes at 70°N and as much as 17 minutes at latitudes between 70° and 78" Realignment During turn arounds it ia best to turn the IRS off and re-aien the IRUs completely if there is time. If time is tight, and ft usually is, then a fast re-alignment is recommended. When the aircraft is at the gate turn the IRUs from NAV to ALIGN on the IRMP, The ALIGN lights will laminate. A new gate position can be entered if required, The IRU will align within 30 seconds, the ALIGN lights will go out and NAV can be re-selected Menuaaca SE ane sat System Errors Inertial aystem errors can be described as bounded or ‘unbounded errors. Bounded errors are either fixed or oscillate about a mean; they do not get bigger with time or distance own, Unbounded errors get larger with time or distance flown ‘An example of a bounded error might be a track error of one ‘degree, this is a fixed error and not inereasing with time, The ‘across track distance error that arises from the track error ‘would, however be an unbounded error, this is going to get bigger and bigger. Many potential sources of error will be familiar from other systems. Most system errors can be calculated and a Correction determined by the inertial system to take them out completely. The largest source of unbounded error is the Jmperfection of the gyroscopes leading to real wander. Earth Rate and Transport Wander ‘You will recall from Instruments Chapter 3 that conventional ‘gyros suffer from apparent wander due to Earth rate and transport wander. These errors are entirely predictable. Because the INS computer always knows the position of the aircraft the Earth rate can be calculated and a correction ‘applied automaticaly. Similar corrections can be applied for ‘transport wander. Coriolis Effect You will recall from Meteorology that the Coriolis effect is a netion of the earth's rate of rotation, velocity and Sin Latitude, and the effect is always felt at right angles to the direction of motion. It produces an apparent movement to the right in the Northern hemisphere and to the left in the Southern hemisphere. As the INS computer knows its position, track and ground speed, a correction can be ealedlated t0 ‘compensate for the coriolis effect. Centripetal Acceleration Any body moving in a circular path is accelerating towards the feentre of the cirele. An aircraft moving on the earth's surface will be moving on a circular path, a great circle or a small circle, and will therefore feel centripetal acceleration toward the centre ofthe earth. This acceleration can also be calculated by the INS computer and a correction automatically applied, igo Schuler Tuning [A stable platform system has a control aystem that keeps the platform level relative to the gravity vector. Although there is, no direct connection between the platform and the centre of the earth the force of gravity between them fulfils the same role ‘and the platform will behave as if it was at the end of a vast pendulum suspended from the middle of the earth, ‘The period of oscillation of a pendulum depends cnly on its means that, if the stable platform is displaced from the horizontal, the control aystems will attempt to restore it, ‘overshoot and set up an oscillation of 84.4 minutes. This is called the Schuler period, after Dr Schuler who worked in the early 20th century on gyrocampasses for ships. Figure 8-14-20 ‘The result of the errors in levelling over an 84.4 minute cycle will be apparent accelerations which will be integrated to Apparent. speeds and apparent position changes, all with a Period of 84.4 minutes ‘These errors are all bounded errors, that is, they do not get larger and larger with time. While acceleration and velocity crrors oscillate about a mean zero, the position erro: oscillates, between zero and its maxim value, ‘Schuler Errors Schuler errors are compensated for by damping the oscillations, i might be thought that strapdown systems would be immune fom Schuler errors because they do not use a stable platform. ‘The error is still there, though, because they create a mathematical model of the reference axes, X, Y and Z and fapply the real accelerations to these axes.” Any’ error. in alignment of these axes will produce an apparent acceleration ‘which will lead to apparent speed and distance as before and ‘with the period of 84.4 minutes, ‘The important point to note is that both stable platform and strapdown inertial gystems suffer from Schuler errors, Power Failure Inertial systems are powered from the main aircraft electrical ‘supply. If the main supply fails they may have their own halterion which will rm for 20 minntes ar an ne they. may he automatically switched to the aircraft batteries via the bot battery busbar. If power is lost to the IRS or INS, alignment is lost and the system cannot be used again for navigation during. the fight, With a strapdown IRS it may be possible to restore attitude and heading information, Once power is restored the aircraft is flown straight and level, If the FAIL flags disappear the system may be used to provide attitude information and, if the heading is manually entered, the equipment can be used thereafter as a heading reference. ‘The Schuler cycle Isa damped 88.4 Both strapdown Flatform systems Schuler erors Navigation Computer Failure If the navigation computer element of the IRS or INS fails i may not be able to produce latitudes and longitudes but may Stl be able to provide attitude information to the remaining systems, Selecting ATT disables the navigation function. Once ATT is elected NAV cannot be re-selected Intentionally Blank. 26 c= Naviestion lateral navigation (ENA) ana vertical navigation may) Chapter 12 - The FMS jhe Flight Management System (FMS) combines data rom various sources - sireaft navigation systems, the Air Data Computer, published route information and operating requirements - to provide centralised control {or navigation and performance management, This Chapter will, five you an overview of a representative system stich as is used {in the Bocing series from the 737 to the 777. The Aircraft Operating Manual wil give instructions on the partcular type ‘of FMS fitted and you will become fully familiar with the system in your aireraft during type conversion ‘The FMC — the Flight Management Computer ~ holds two large databases, the Navigation Database and the Performance Database. Data is entered in bulle by the maintenance crew ‘and can be entered and displayed in the eockpit on the CDU. ‘The Flight Management Computer gutomatically tunes navigation aids to provide continuous cross cuts. The radio fx is then combined with INS or GPS data to find a very accurate position ‘The FMS will compute displacement of the aircraf: from the desired track to generate track guidance signals. ‘The normal operating regime is automatic Might wit the FMS. linked to the autopilot and fight director system |APFDS or ARCS), Advanced FMS will guide the aircraft from brakes off to the landing rollout. 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