Chapter 6-0. INTRODUCTION aes. “Lay The profile of number of objects consists of various types of curves. This chapter deals with various types of curves which are commonly used in engineering pra as shown belo 1. Conic sections 4, Evolutes 2. Cycloidal curves 5. Spirals 3. Involute 6. Helix. We shall now discuss the above in details with reference to their construction and applications. iggy ‘CONIC pas ou Tesh se in eT The sections obtained by the intersection of a right circular cone by a plane in different positions see to the axis of the cone are called conics. Refer to fig. 6-1. set Nea pine ELUPSE ELLIPSE 42) panaBoun lKvPERBOLA (When the section plane is inclined to the axis and cuts all the generators on fone side of the apex, the section is an ellipse [fig. 6-11.102 Engineering Drawing Ich. 6 (ii) When the section plane is inclined to the axis and is parallel to one of the generators, the section is a parabola (fig. 6-11. (iii) A hyperbola is a plane curve having two separate parts or branches, formed When two cones that point towards one another are intersected by a plane that is parallel to the axes of the cones. The conic may be defined as the locus of a point moving in a plane in such a way that the ratio of its distances from a fixed point and a fixed straight line is always constant, The fixed point is called the focus and the fixed line, the directrix. distance of the point from the focus The ratio distance of the point from the directrix |S Called eccentricity and is denoted by e. It is always less than 1 for ellipse, equal to 1 for parabola and greater than 1 for hyperbola ie. @ ellipse: e <1 ) parabola: e =1 ii) hyperbola : ¢ > 1. The line passing through the focus and perpendicular to the directrix is called the axis. The point at which the conic cuts its axis is called the vertex. 6-1-1, ELLIPSE meee Use of elliptical curves is made in arches, bridges, dams, monuments, man- holes, glands and stuffing-boxes etc. Mathematically an ellipse can be described by x equation 2 + a = 1. Here 'a' and 'b’ are half the length of major and minor axes of the ellipse and x and y co-ordinates. (1) General method of construction of an ellipse: ‘This book is accompanied by a computer CD, which contains an audiovisual animation presented for better visualization and understanding of the SES AM subject. Readers are requested to refer Presentation module 12 for the following problem. Problem 6. ip. 6 the deci equal to 50 mm and eccentricity s 2 cusnoran ): To construct an ellipse when the distance of the focus from (Draw any vertical line AB as directrix. )) At any point C on it, draw the axis perpendicular to the AB (directrix). Mark a focus F on the axis such that CF = 50 mm. (iv) Divide CF into 5 equal divisions (sum of numerator and denometer of the eccentricity.) (v) Mark the vertex V on the third division-point from C. Ve 2 Thus, eccentricity, © = ye = 5” (wi) A scale may now be constructed on the axis (as explained below), which will directly give the distances in the required ratio. (vii) At V, draw a perpendicular VE equal to VF. Draw a line j VE _ VE _ 2 Thus, in triangle CVE, ye = ye 7 3 ng C and E.Art. 6-1-1] Curves Used in Engineering Practice 103, (will) Mark any point 1 on the axis and through it, draw a perpendicular to meet CE-produced at 1’, (ix) With centre F and radius equal to 1-1, draw arcs to intersect the perpendicular through 1 at points P, and Py These are the points on the ellipse, because the distance of P; from AB is equal to C1, Py Fatt 1 ve 2 ci > vc 7 3 Similarly, mark points 2, 3 etc. on the axis and obtain points P2 and Py, Py and P's etc (Draw the ellipse through these points. It is a closed curve having two foci and two directrices. and binecTAIX a DIRECTAD aes ae =a) ~ vy anis_|c is Directrix and focus FiG. 6-2 (2) Construction of ellipse by other methods: Ellipse is also defined as a curve traced out by a point, moving in the same plane as and in such a way that the sum of its distances from two fixed points is always the same. (Each of the two fixed points is called the focus. (i) The line passing through the two foci and terminated by the curve, is called the major axis. The line bisecting the major axis at right angles and terminated by the curve, is called the minor axis. Conjugate axes: Those axes are called conjugate axes when they are parallel to the tangents drawn at their extremities. In fig. 6-3, AB is the major axis, CD the minor axis and Fy and F are the foci. The foci are equidistant from the centre O.10 Engineering Drawing Ich. 6 The points A, P, C etc. are on the curve and hence, according to the definition, (AF, + AR) = (PF; + PF) = (CF, + CF) ete But (AF; + AF) = AB. . (PF + PF) = AB, the major axis. Therefore, the sum of the distances of any point on the curve from the two foct is equal to the major axis. (Again, «(CF + CR) = AB. But ch = Ch Chy= Ch = 4 AB. Hence, the distance of the ends of the minor axis from the foci is equal to half the major axis. MINOR AXIS MAJOR AXIS | Conjugate axes Fic. 6-3 Problem 6-2. To construct an ellipse, given the major and minor axes. The ellipse is drawn by, first determining a number of points through which it is known to pass and then, drawing a smooth curve through them, either freehand or with a french curve. Larger the number of points, more accurate the curve will be. Method I: Arcs of circles method (fig. 6-4), £ (Draw a line AB equal to the major axis and a line CD equal to the minor axis, bisecting each other at right angles at O. i With centre C and radius equal to half AB (i.e. AO ) draw arcs cutting AB at F, and Fy, the foci of the ellipse. (il) Mark a number of points 1, 2, 3 etc. on AB. (iv) With centres F, and F, and o radius equal to A1, draw arcs Arc of circle method ‘on both sides of AB. FiG. 6-4Aart. 6-1-1] Curves Used in Engineering Practice 105 () With same centres and radius equal to 81, draw arcs intersecting the previous arcs at four points marked Py (i) Similarly, with radii A2 and 62, A3 and 63 etc. obtain more points. (vii) Draw a smooth curve through these points. This curve is the required ellipse. This book is accompanied by a computer CD, which contains an audiovisual animation presented for better visualization and understanding of the MP subject. Readers are requested to refer Presentation module 13 for the following method I. Method Il: Concentric circles method (fig. 6-5). Concentric circle method FiG. 6-5 (Draw the major axis AB and the minor axis CD intersecting each other at O. i) With centre O and diameters AB and CD respectively, draw two circles. Divide the major-axis-circle into a number of equal divisions, say 12 and mark points 1, 2 etc. as shown, (iv). Draw lines joining these points with the centre O and cutting the at points 1', 2' etc. (~) Through point 1 on the major-axis-circle, draw a line parallel to CD, the minor axis. (vi) Through point 1! on the minor-axis-circle, draw a line parallel to AB, the major axis. The point P,, where these two lines intersect is on the required ellipse. (vii) Repeat the construction through all the points. Draw the ellipse through A, Py, Pa etc. Method Ill: Loop of the thread method (fig. 6-6). This is practical application of the first method. (Draw the two axes AB and CD intersecting at O. Locate the foci F, and F,. i) Insert a pin at each focus-point and tie a piece of thread in the form of a loop around the pins, in such a way that the pencil point when placed in the loop (keeping the thread tight), is just on the end C of the minor axis. r-axis-circle106 Engineering Drawing Ich. 6 (ii) Move the pencil around the foci, maintaining an even tension in the — thread throughout and obtain the ellipse. It is evident that PF; + PF, = Cy + Ch, ete. v Loop of the thread method Fic. 6-6 Method IV: Oblong method (fig. 6-7). D ‘Oblong method Fic. 6-7 (Draw the two axes AB and CD intersecting each other at O. (i) Construct the oblong EFGH having its sides equal to the two axes. (ii) Divide the semi-major-axis AO into a number of equal parts, say 4, and AE into the same number of equal parts, numbering them from A as shown, (iv). Draw lines joining 1', 2° and 3' with C. (v) From D, draw lines through 1, 2 and 3 intersecting C'y, C’2 and C's at points Pj, P2 and Ps respectively. (vi) Draw the curve through A, P)....C. It will be one quarter of the ellipse (vil) Complete the curve by the same construction in each of the three remaining quadrants, As the curve is symmetrical about the two axes, points in the remaining quadrants may be located by drawing perpendiculars and horizontals from P;, P, etc. and making each of them of equal length on both the sides of the two axes. For example, Pax = x P,; and Pay = yPs.Arte 6-1-1) Curves Used in Enginee 1g Practice 107 ‘An ellipse can be inscribed within a parallelogram by u shown in fig. 6-8. ig the above method as FiG, 6-8 Lines PQ and RS, joining the mid-points of the opposite sides of the parallelogram are called conjugate axes. Method V: Trammel method (fig. 6-9). D ‘Trammel method Fic. 6-9 (Draw the two axes AB and CD intersecting each other at O. Along the edge of a strip of paper which may be used as a trammel, mark PQ equal to half the minor axis and PR equal to half the major axis. Place the trammel so that R is ‘on the minor axis CD and Q fon the major axis AB. Then P will be on the required ellipse. By moving the trammel to new positions, always keeping R on CD and Q on AB, obtain other points. Draw the ellipse through these points. Problem 6-3. (fig. 6-10): ABC is a triangle such that AB = 100 mm, AC = 80 mm and BC = 60 mm. Draw an ellipse passing through points A, B and C.108 Engineering Drawing Ich. 6 (Draw horizontal line AB = 100 mm, Take A as centre draw an arc of 80 mm. Similarly B as centre and the radius equal to 60 mm, draw the arc such that it intersects previously drawn arc at the point C. Join ABC to complete triangle. (ii) Mark the mid point of AB such that OA = OB = 50 mm. Join OC and extend CO such that CO = (ii) Draw parallel lines from C and D to the line AB. Similarly draw parallel lines, from A and B to the line CD and complete the rhombus (PORS). (iv) Divide AO into convenient number of equal parts Al = 12 = 23 = 34 = 40 and AQ to same number of equal parts A1' = 1'2' = 2'3' = 3'4' = 4'Q. Join A, 1, 2, 3,4! with D. Join C1 and extend it to intersect line D1’. Similarly join 2, C3, C4 and extend it to intersect D2', D3', D4’ respective. Draw smooth curve passing through all intersection. (v) Complete the ellipse by above method for the remaining part (3) Normal and tangent to an ellipse: The normal to an ellipse at any point ‘on it bisects the angle made by lines joining that point with the foci. The tangent to the ellipse at any point is perpendicular to the normal at that point. Problem 6-4. (fig. 6-3): To draw a normal and a tangent to the ellipse at a point Q on it. Join Q with the foci Fy and Fp. (Draw a line NM bisecting 2 Fy QF. NM is the normal to the ellipse. (i) Draw a line ST through Q and perpendicular to NM. ST is the tangent to the ellipse at the point Q. Problem 6-5. ( R from it This may be drawn by two methods: (a) A large number of arcs of radius equal to the required distance R, with centres on the ellipse, may be described. The curve drawn touching these arcs will be parallel to the ellipse (b)_ It may also be obtained by drawing, ‘a number of normals to the ellipse, making them equal to the required distance R and then drawing a smooth curve through their ends. Fic, 6-11 Problem 6-6. (fig. 6-12): To find the major axis and minor axis of an ellipse whose conjugate axes and angle between them are given, Conjugate axes PQ and RS, and the angle « between them are given. (Draw the two axes intersecting each other at O. (i) Complete the parallelogram and inscribe the ellipse in it as described in problem 6-2, method (iv). 6-11): To draw a curve piyallel to an ellipse and at distanceArt. 6-1-2] Curves Used in Engineering Practice 109 (ili) With © as centre and OR as radius, draw the ser at a point E. (iv). Draw the line RE. () Through O draw a line parallel to RE and cutting the ellipse at points C and D. CD is the minor axis, (vi) Through O, draw a line perpendicular to CD and cutting the ellipse at points A and B. AB is the major axis. le cutting the ellipse Problem 6-7. (fig. 6-13): To find the centre, major axis and minor axis of a given ellipse. (Draw any two chords 1-2 and 3-4 parallel to each other. (i) Find their mid-points P and Q, and draw a line passing through them, cutting the ellipse at points R and S. Bisect the line RS in the point O which is the centre of the ell With O as centre and any con- venient radius, draw a circle cutting the ellipse in points E, F, G and H. Complete the rectangle EFGH. Through O, draw a line parallel to EF cutting the ellipse in points A and B. Again through O, draw a line parallel to FG cutting the ellipse at points C and D. AB and CD are respectively the major axis and the minor axis. 6-1-2. PARABOLA ZA stony This book is accompanied by a computer CD, which contains an audiovisual gX1aK animation presented for better visualization and understanding of the P subject. Readers are requested to refer Presentation module 14 for the following problem.110 Engineering Drawing Ich. 6 Use of parabolic curves is made in arches, bridges, sound reflectors, light reflectors etc. Mathematically a parabola can be described by an equation y2 =4.a x or ws day. (1) General method of construction of a parabola: Problem 6-8. (fig. 6-14): To construct a parabola, when the distance of the focus from the directrix is 50 mm. A (i) Draw the directrix AB and the axis CD. (ii) Mark focus F on CD, 50 mm from C. (ii) Bisect CF in V the vertex (because eccentricity = 1). (iv) Mark a number of points 1, 2, 3 etc. on the axis and through them, draw perpendiculars to it (v) With centre F and radius equal to C1, draw ¢ ares cutting the perpendicular through 1 at Py and Py. i (vi) Similarly, locate points P and P'2, Ps and P's etc. on both the sides of the axis. (vii) Draw a smooth curve through these points. This curve is the required parabola. It is an open curve. . Problem 6-9. (fig. 6-15): To find the axis of a given Directrix and focus parabola. Fic. 6-14 (Draw any two chords AB and CD across the parabola, parallel to each other and any distance apart. (ii) Bisect AB and CD in points E and F respectively and draw a line GH passing through them. The line GH will be parallel to the axis. (iii) Draw a chord PQ, perpendicular to GH. (iv) Bisect PQ in the point O and through it draw a line XY parallel to GH. Then XY is the required axis of the parabola. 2-0 Fic. 6-15 i Fic. 6-16Art. 641-21 Curves Used in Engineering Practice 111 Problem 6-10. (fig. 6-16): To find the focus and the directrix of a parabola whose axis is given. (Mark any point P on the parabola and draw a perpendicular PA to the axis. Mark a point B on the axis such that BV = VA. (i) Draw a line joining 8 with P. Draw a perpendicular bisector EF of BP, intersecting the axis at a point F. Then F is the focus of the parabola. (iv) Mark a point O on the axis such that OV = VF. Through O, draw a line CD perpendicular to the axis. Then CD is the directrix of the parabola. 2) Construction of parabola by other methods: Method I: Rectangle method (fig. 6-17). Problem 6-11. To construct a parabola given the base and the axis. (i) Draw the base AB. (i) At its mid-point €, draw the axis EF at right angles to AB. (ii) Construct a rectangle ABCD, making side BC equal to EF. (iv) Divide AE and AD into the same number of equal parts and name them as shown (starting from A). () Draw lines joining F with points 1, 2 and 3. Through 1', 2' and 3, draw perpendiculars to AB intersecting F1, F2 and F3 at points P;, P, and P3 respectively. (vi) Draw a curve through A, P;, P2 etc. It will be a half parabola Repeat the same construction in the other half of the rectangle to complete the parabola. Or, locate the points by drawing lines through the points P;, P2 etc. parallel to the base and making each of them of equal length ¢ on both the sides of EF, eg. Py)O = OP';. AB and EF are called the base and the axis respectively of the parabola, ; c | 5 P 4 q q f 4 AT Fv € 8 a Rectangle method Parallelogram method Fic. 6-17 Fic. 6-18 Fig, 6-18 shows a parabola drawn in a parallelogram by this method. Method il: Tangent method (fig. 6-19). (Draw the base AB and the axis EF. (These are taken different from those in method |.) (i) Produce EF to O so that EF = FO.112 Engineering Drawing Ich. 6 ide lines OA and OB into the same number of equal i) Join O with A and B. parts, say 8. (iv) Mark the division-points as shown in the figure. () Draw lines joining 1 with 1, 2 with 2' etc. Draw a curve starting from A and tangent to lines 1-1', 2-2' etc. This curve is the required parabola. Tangent method Fic, 6-19 1-3, HYPERBOLAI <1 Si) gniwinh yt -eni0y ath stmpal, «o> Pe Ec TA a oar Use of hyperbolical curves is made in cooling towers, water channels etc. Rectangular hyperbola: It is a curve traced out by a point moving in such a way that the product of its distances from two fixed lines at right angles to each other is a constant. The fixed lines are called asymptotes. This curve graphically represents the Boyle’s Law, viz. P x V = a, P = pressure, V = volume and a is constant. It is also useful in design of water channels. General method of construction of a hyperbola: Mathematically, we can describe a hyperbola by zy? 2a ~ br = 1: lig. 620 and fig, 6-21.) Problem 6-12. (fig. 6-20): Construct a hyperbola, when the distance of the focus from the directrix is 65 mm and eccentricity is 5~ (Draw the directrix AB and the axis CD. (i) Mark the focus F on CD and 65 mm from C. (ii) Divide CF into 5 equal divisions and mark V the vertex, on the second division from C. VE Th, consirity = 4 = 2.Art. 641-3) Curves Used in Engineering Practice 113 To construct the scale for the ratio 3 draw a line VE perpendicular to CD such that VE = VE. Join C with E. ve _vE_ 3 Thus, in triangle CVE, ye = ye = 3 (iv) Mark any point 1 on the axis and through it, draw. a perpendicular to meet CE-produced at 1". (v) With centre F and radius equal to 1-1', draw arcs intersecting the perpendicular through 1 at Py and Py. (vi) Similarly, mark a number of points 2, 3 etc. and obtain points P2 and P's, P3 and P'; etc. (vii) Draw the hyperbola through these points. Problem 6-13. (fig. 6-21): To draw a hyperbola when its foci and vertices are given, and to locate its asymptotes. (Draw a horizontal line as axis and on it, mark the given foci F and Fy, and vertices Vand V;. Mark any number of points 1, 2, 3 etc. to the right of Fy. (ii) With F and F, as centres and radius, say V2, draw four arcs. (iv) With the same centres and radius V32, draw four more arcs intersecting the first four arcs at points P,. Then these points lie on the hyperbola. (W) Repeat the process with the same centres and radii VI and V31, V3 and V,3 etc. Draw the required hyperbola through the points thus obtained. (vi) With FF, as diameter, draw a circle, (vii) Through the vertices V and Vj, draw lines perpendicular to the axis, cutting the circle at four points A. From O, the centre of the circle, draw lines passing through points A. These lines are the required asymptotes. C Fic, 6-20 Fic, 6-21 Problem 6-14. (fig. 6-22): To locate the directrix and asymptotes of a hyperbola when its axis and foci are given. From the focus Fy, draw a perpendicular to the axis intersecting the hyperbola at a point A.114 Engineering Drawing Ich. 6 (Draw a line joining A with the other focus F. Draw the bisector of 2 FAF,, cutting the axis at a point B. (ii). Through 6, draw a line CD perpendicular to the axis. CD is the required direct (ii) With © the mid-point of FF; as centre and OV; as radius, draw a circle cutting CD at points E and G. (iv) Lines drawn from O and passing through E and G are the required asymptotes. () The asymptotes will also pass through the points of intersection (R and S) between the circle of radius OF, and the vertical through V3. Problem 6-15. (fig. 6-23): To draw a rectangular hyperbola, given the position of a point P on it 8 € aoe cf 4 | / | / ‘I Ji 6 4 é GQ ° F Fic. 6-23, (Draw lines OA and OB at right angles to each other. (i) Mark the position of the point P. Through P, draw lines CD and EF parallel to OA and OB respectively. (iv) Along PD, mark a number of points 1, 2, 3 etc. not necessarily equidistant. () Draw lines 01, 02 ete. cutting PF at points 1', 2' etc. (i) Through point 1, draw a line parallel to OB and through 1', draw a line parallel to OA, intersecting each other at a point Py. aces (vii) Obtain other points in the same manner. For locating the point, say Pg, to the left of P, the line 6 should be extended to meet PE at 6. Draw the hyperbola through the points Ps, P, P; etc. ‘A hyperbola, through a given point situated between two lines making any angle between them, can similarly be drawn, as shown in fig. 6-24,Art. 61-4] Curves Used in Engineering Practice 115 3 = se " Aianter 7 6-1-4, TANGENTS AND NORMALS TO CONICS | 7, (1) General method: When a tangent at any point on the curve is produced to meet the directrix, the line joining the focus with this meeting point will be at right angles to the line joining the focus with the point of contact. The normal to the curve at any point is perpendicular to the tangent at that point. Problem 6-16. To draw a tangent at any point P on the conics (fig. 6-2, fig. 6-14 and fig. 6-20). (Join P with F. (i) From F, draw a line perpendicular to PF to meet AB at T. (ii) Draw a line through T and P. This line is the tangent to the curve. (iv) Through P, draw a line NM perpendicular to TP. NM is the normal to the curve. (2) Other methods of drawing tangents to conics: Method I: Problem 6-17. (fig. 6-25): To draw a tangent to an ellipse at any point P on it. (With ©, the centre of the ellipse as centre, and one half the major axis as radius, draw a circle. (ii) From P, draw a line parallel to the minor axis, cutting the circle at a point Q. Fic, 6-25 (iii) Draw a tangent to the circle at the point Q cutting the extended major axis at a point R. From R, draw a line RS passing through P. RS is the required tangent to the ellipse. Method I: When an axis of parabola is given Problem 6-18. To draw a tangent to a parabola at any point P on it. (From P, draw a perpendicular PA to the axis, intersecting it at a point A (fig. 6-26). Mark a point 8 on the axis such that BV = VA. Draw a line from B passing through P. Then this line is the required tangent.116 Engineering Drawing Ich. 6 i) Through P, draw a line PQ parallel to the axis (fig. 6-27). Draw two lines AB and CD parallel to, equidistant from and on opposite sides of PQ, and cutting the parabola at points A and C. Draw a line joining A with C. Through P, draw a line RS parallel to AC. RS is the required tangent. Method II: When the focus and the directrix are given (fig. 6-28). Fic. 6-26 Fic. 6-27 Fic. 6-28 (i) From P draw a line PE perpendicular to the directrix AB, meeting it at a point E. ) Draw a line joining P with the focus F. (iii) Draw the bisector RS of angle EPF. Then RS is the required tangent. Problem 6-19. (fig. 6-21): To draw a tangent to a hyperbola at a point P on it when the axis and the foci are given. Draw lines joining P with foci F and F,. Draw the bisector RS of 2 FPF). RS is the required tangent to the hyperbola. Note: In fig. 6-22, the line AB is the tangent to the hyperbola at the point A. y ee 6-2. CYCLOIDAL ‘ Ss - Z (CLOIDAL CURVE: j Gi These curves are generated by a fixed point on the circumference of a circle, which rolls without slipping along a fixed straight line or a circle. The rolling circle is called generating circle and the fixed straight line or circle is termed directing line or directing circle. Cycloidal curves are used in tooth profile of gears of a dial gauge. Sey SA) ROP sicose nit th Aortasoii alone? tA S35 Br Cycloid is a curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle which rolls along a straight line. It can be described by an equation, y = a (1 ~ cos) or x = a (0 ~ sind). Problem 6-20. (fig. 6-29): To construct a cycloid, given the diameter of the generating circle. (With centre C and given radius R, draw a circle. Let P be the generating point.Art. 6-2-1] Curves Used in Engineering Practice 117 le. (i) Draw a line PA tangential to and equal to the circumference of the (iii) Divide the circle and the line PA into the same number of equal parts, say 12, and mark the division-points as shown. (iv) Through C, draw a line CB parallel and equal to PA. (¥) Draw perpendiculars at points 1, 2 etc. cutting CB at points Cy, C) ete. Cycloid Fic, 6-29 Assume that the circle starts rolling to the right. When point 1' coincides with 1, centre C will move to C;. In this position of the circle, the generating point P will have moved to position P; on the circle, at a distance equal to P'; from point 1. It is evident that P; lies on the horizontal line through 1' and at a distance R from Cy. Similarly, Pz will lie on the horizontal line through 2' and at the distance R from Cp, Construction: (vi) Through the points 1', 2' etc. draw lines parallel to PA. (wii) With centres C;, C2 etc. and radius equal to R, radius of generating circle, draw arcs cutting the lines through 1, 2' etc. at points P,, P etc. respectively. Draw a smooth curve through points P, P,, Pa... This curve is the required gycloi Normal and tangent to a cycloid curve: The rule for drawing a normal to all cycloidal curves: The normal at any point on a cycloidal curve will pass through the corresponding, point of contact between the generating circle and the directing line or circle. The tangent at any point is perpendicular to the normal at that point. Problem 6-21. (fig. 6-29): To draw a normal and a tangent to a cycloid at a given point N on it. (With centre N and radius equal to R, draw an arc cutting CB at M. (ii) Through M, draw a line MO perpendicular to the directing line PA and cutting it at O. is the point of contact and M is the position of the centre of the generating Circle, when the generating point P is at N. Draw a line through N and O. This line is the required normal. (iv) Through N, draw a line ST at right angles to NO. ST is the tangent to the cycloid,118 Engineering Drawing Ich. 6 Problem 6-22. (fig. 6-30): A thin circular disc of 50 mm diameter is allowed to roll without slipping from upper edge of sloping plank which is inclined at 15° with the horizontal plane. Draw the curve traced by the point on the circumference of the disc. Fic. 6-30 ()Drawa line AB of length 157 mm (ie. nD) at angle of 15° with the horizontal. i) Draw a circle of 50 mm diameter at upper edge 8 as shown and divide the circumference of the circle in twelve equal parts. Name 1, 2, 3, 4 to 11 Draw parallel lines from 1, 2, 3, 4 to 11 to the AB, Take B as generating point on the circumference. (iii) Draw a parallel line from the centre of circle O to line AB and equal to length of AB. Divide this line in 12 parts. Name O; to yz as shown, (iv) As the disc rolls from position B, the centre of disc simultaneously moves from O to O}. Draw an arc with radius as 25 mm and centre as O; to intersect the line drawn from the point 1 parallel to AB. Mark intersection point as B;. This point is on the cyloid. () Similarly draw arc from the points O, to O;2 such that it intersects each line drawn from 2 to 11 respectively. Join the points by smooth curve. This curve is the cycloid. ee ee az Trochoid is a curve generated by a point fixed to a circle, within or outside its circumference, as the circle rolls along a straight line. When the point is within the circle, the curve is called an inferior trochoid and when outside the circle, it is termed a superior trochoid. Problem 6-23. (fig. 6-31, fig. 6-32 and fig. 6-33): To draw a trochoid, given the rolling circle and the generating point. (a) Inferior trochoid: Let Q be the point within the circle and at a distance Ry from the centre C. (Draw the circle and mark a point Q on the line CP and at a distance Ry from C. ) Draw a tangent PA equal to the circumference of the circle and a line CB equal and parallel to PA (iii) Divide the circle and the line Ct (0 12 equal parts.Art, 6.2.21 Curves Used in E ering Practice 119 Method 4: (fig. 6-31): Determine the positions P,, Pz etc. for the cycloid as shown in problem 6-20. Draw lines C;P;, CpP2 etc. With centres Cy, C etc. and radius equal to Ry, draw arcs cutting CyP;, CoP2 etc. at points Qy, Qz etc. respectively. Draw a curve through these points. This curve is the inferior trochoid. SUPERIOR Trochoids Fic. 6-31 Method I: (fig. 6-32): With centre C and radius equal to Ry, draw a circle and divide it into 12 equal parts. Through the division-points, draw lines parallel to PA. With centres Cy, Cy ete. and radius equal to R;, draw arcs to cut the lines through 1, 2' etc. at points Qy, Q) etc. Draw the trochoid through these points. Inferior trochoid Fic. 6-32 (b) Superior trochoid: Let 5 be the point outside circumference of the circle and at a distance Ry from the centre. Superior trochoid Fic. 6-33,120. Engineering. Drawi Ich. 6 ‘Method I: (fig. 6-31): Adopt the same method as method | used for inferior trochoid. Point 5 will lie on the line CP-produced, at distance R from C. Points S;, Sp etc. are ‘obtained by cutting the lines CP) -produced, CoP-produced etc. with ares drawn with centres Cy, Cp ete. and radius equal to Rp. S, $1, 52 etc. are the points on the superior trochoid. Method II: (fig. 6-33): Same as method 1! for inferior trochoid. Note that the radius ‘ofthe circles equal 10 R.A loop is formed when the circle rolls for more than one revolution. 6-2-3. EPICYCLOID AND HYPOCYCLOID | 8 Zz The curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle, which rolls without slipping along another circle outside it, is called an epicycloid. The epicycloid can be represented mathematically by x = la + b) cosd ~ a cos (** 0), y =(@ + 6) sind - a sin (2420) where a is the radius of rolling circle. ‘When the circle rolls along another circle inside it, the curve is called a hypocycloid. It can be represented by mathematically x = a cos38, y = a sin30, Problem 6-24. To draw an epicycloid and a hypocycloid, given the generating and directing circles of radii r and R respectively Epicycloid (fig, 6-34): With centre O and radius R, draw the directing circle (only a part of it may be drawn). Draw a radius OP and produce it to C, so that CP = r. Fic, 6-34 With Cas centre, draw the generating circle. Let P be the generating point. In one revolution of the generating circle, the point P will move to a point A, so that the arc PA is equal to the circumference of the generating circle.Art, 6-2-3] Curves Used in Engineering Practice 121 The position of A may be located by calculating the angle subtended by the arc PA at centre O, by the formula, ZPOA _ 360° ZPOA = 360" x R* (Set-off this angle and obtain the position of A. i) With centre O and radius equal to OC, draw an arc intersecting OA-produced at B. This arc CB is the locus of the centre C. (ii) Divide CB and the generating Circle into twelve equal parts (iv) With centre O, deseribe arcs through points 1, 2', 3' etc. (v) With centres C,, Cp ete. and radius equal to r, draw arcs . cutting the arcs through 1', Hypocycloid 2 etc. at points P;, Pp etc. Fic. 6-35 Draw the required epicycloid through the points P, Py, Pa.vinu-A. Hypocycloid (fig. 6-35): The method for drawing the hypocycloid is same as for epicycloid. Note that the centre C of the generating circle is inside the directing circle. Hypocycloid Fic, 6-36 When the diameter of the rolling circle is half the diameter of the directing circle, the hypocycloid is a straight line and is a diameter of the directing circle (fig. 6-36). Normal and tangent to an epicycloid and a hypocycloi Problem 6-25. (fig. 6-34 and fig. 6-35): To draw a normal and a tangent to an epicycloid and a hypocycloid at a point N in each of them,122 Engineering Drawing Ich. 6 (With centre N and radius equal to r, draw an arc cutting the locus of the centre Cat a point D. Draw a line through O and D, cutting the directing circle at M. Draw a line through N and M. This line is the normal. Draw N and at right angles to NM. ST is the tangent. 6-2-4, EPITROCHOID (hc, 637 m0 0.638 FB Epitrochoid is a curve generated by a point fixed to a circle ( or outside its ‘ ‘i 1e ST through circumference, but in the same plane) rolling on the outside of another circle. Se 4 6 Epitrochoids FIG. 6-37 6 Superior epitrochoid Fic. 6-38Arte 6:2:5] Curves Used in Engineering Practice 123 ao another circle, the curve is called a hypotrochoid, When the circle rolls i The curve is termed inferior or superior, according to the position of the point being inside or outside the rolling circle. EPITROCHOID Se aoa Inferior epitrochoid and hypotrochoid Fig. 6-39 Problem 6-26. To draw an epitrochoid and a hypotrochoid, given the rolling and directing circles and the generating points. ‘These curves are drawn by applying the methods used for trochoids. Note that arcs are drawn instead of horizontal lines. Epitrochoids: Method |: Superior and ii ~ see fig. 6-37 Method II: Superior ~ see fig. 6-38 Inferior see fig. 6-39 Hypotrochoids: Method 1: Superior and inferior = see fig. 6-40 Method II: Superior ~ see fig. 6-41 Inferior ~ see fig. 6-39 ren the diameter of the rolling circle is half the diameter of the directing Circle, the hypotrochoid will be an ellipse.124 Engineering. Drawing Ich. 6 Fic. 6-40 6 Superior hypotrochoids Fic. 6-41 The involute is a curve traced out by an end of a piece of thread unwound from a circle or a polygon, the thread being kept tight. It may also be defined as a curve traced out by a point in a straight line which rolls without slipping along a circle or a polygon. Involute of a circle is used as teeth profile of gear wheel. Mathematically it can be described by x = rcos® + r@sin®, y = rsin@ ~ rOcos®, where ‘r’ is the radius of a circle. Problem 6-27. (fig. 6-42): To draw an involute of a given circle. the end of With centre C, draw the given circle. Let P be the starting point, the thread. Suppose the thread to be partly unwound, say upto a point 1. P will move to a position P, such that 1P, is tangent to the circle and is equal to the arc 1P. P; will be a point on the involute. Construction: (Draw a line PQ, tangent to the circle and equal to the circumference of the circle. fe PQ and the circle into 12 equal parts.Arte 6:31 Curves Used in Engineering Practice 125 Draw tangents at points 1, 2, 3 etc. and mark on them points P;, P2, Ps etc. such that 17; = P1', 2P, = P2!, 3Py = P3' etc. Draw the involute through the points P, Py, P,...etc. Normal and tangent to an involute: The normal to an involute of a circle is tangent to that circle. Problem 6-28. (ig. 6-42): To draw a normal and a tangent to the involute ofa circle at a point N on it. fy Involute Fic. 6-42 (Draw a line joining C with N. i) With CN as diameter describe a semi i) Draw a line through N and M. This line is the normal. Draw a line ST, perpendicular to NM and passing through N. ST is the tangent to the involute. Problem 6-29. (fig. 6-43): To draw an involute of a given square. Let ABCD be the given square. (With centre A and radius AD, draw an arc to cut the line BA-produced at a point P;. i) With centre B and radius BP, (i.e. BA + AD) draw an arc to cut the line CB-produced at a point P2. Similarly, with centres C and D and radii CP, (ie. CB + BA + AD) and DP3 (ie. DC + CB + BA + AD = perimeter) respectively, draw arcs to cut DC-produced at a point P; and AD-produced at a point P,. The curve thus obtained is the involute of the square. Problem 6-30. (fig. 6-44): Trace the paths of the ends of a straight line AP 100 mm long, when it rolls, without slipping, on a semi-circle having its diameter AB, 75 mm long. (Assume the line AP to be tangent to the semi-circle in the starting position.) rcle cutting the circle at M.126 Engineering. Drawing Ich. 6 Fic, 6-43 Fic, 6-44 () Draw the semi-circle and divide it 10 six equal parts. (i) Draw the line AP and mark points 1, 2 etc. such that A1 = arc At’, A2 = arc A2 etc. The last n SP will be of a shorter length. On the semi-circle, ‘mark point P' such that 5'P’ = 5P. At points 1, 2' etc. draw tangents and on them, mark points P,P etc. such that 1 P) = 1P, 2'P) = 2p...and 5'Ps = 5! Pg = 5P. Similarly, mark points Ay, Az etc. such that A,1! ‘Ay, Ag?! = A2...and Ay AP. Draw the required curves through points P, Py...and P', and through points A, Ay.... and A‘. IF AP is an inelastic string with the end A attached to the semi- circle, the end P will trace out the same curve PP! when the string ® is wound round the semi-circle. Fic. 6-45 Fig. 6-45 shows the curve traced out by the end of a thread which is longer than the circumference of the circle on which it is wound, Note that the tangent 11?) = 1P, 2'P2 = 2P etc, and lastly 2 2P 4 = 14P. Problem 6-31. AP is a rope 1.50 metre long, tied to peg at A as shown in fig. 6-46, Keeping it always tight, the rope is wound round the pole. Draw the curve traced out by the end P. Use scale 1:20. (Draw given figure to the scale.Art. 6-3) Curves Used in Engineering Practice 127 (i From A, draw a line passing through 1. A as centre and AP as radius, draw the arc intersecting extended line A1' at Po. Extend the side 1-2, 1 as centre and Po as radius, draw the arc to intersect extended line 1-2 at P;. ide the circumference of the semicircle into six equal parts and label it as 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. (iv) Draw a tangent to semicircle from 2 such that 2'-P, = 2'Pp. Mark 8' on this tangent such that 2-8! = nR. Divide 2'-8' into six equal parts. (¥)_ Similarly draw tangents at 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 in anti-clockwise direction such 4-9), 5-Py = 5:9), 6-P, = 69, 7-P, = 7-9, 8-9' respectively. Py with smooth curve. es (i) Join Py, Pp, > Fig. 6-46 Problem 6-32. A thin semi-circular plate with C as centre and radius equal to 32 mm is fixed. OP is the inelastic rope of 140 mm horizontal length. End O of the rope is fixed. The end O is 20 mm above and 20 mm on the left of C: The rope is wound in anti-clockwise direction around the circumference of the plate. Draw the locus of free end P of the rope.128 Engineering Drawing Ich. 6 Fig. 6-47 (Taking C as centre, draw the semicircle of radius 32 mm as shown in fig. 6-47. Draw the horizontal line 20 mm above C, Mark O, 20 mm on left of C. Draw OP parallel to the diameter of the plate equal to 140 mm. Divide the semi-circle into six equal parts and lable it 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Join all points with C. Now rotate the line OP about O, till it touches the semicircular plate at point 1. Mark the 1 as point 1° on the rope. (il). Mark 7' on line 1'Po from 1° such that 1!-7' = mR = 100.48 mm. Divide into six equal parts and name it as 1', , 6 and 7. (iv) Draw tangents on semicircular plate at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7 in anticlockwise direction such that 1-P) = 1'8, 2-P2 3-Py = 38, 4-P, = 48, 5-P 58, 6-P, = 68', and 7-P, = 78! respectively. () Join points P;, Po, ..., Py by smooth curve. It is involute. Problem 6-33. (fig. 6-48): A thin triangular equilateral plate of 20 mm side is pinned at its centroid O. An inelastic string circumscribes complete perimeter of the plate. One end of the string is attached to one of the apex of the plate. Draw the curve traced out by other end of the string keeping it tight, when the string is unwounded. (Draw an equilateral triangle of 20 mm sides. Determine its centroid by drawing perpendicular at mid point of each sides. (i) Consider starting point P. Taking PR = 20 mm as radius and R as centre, draw the arc to intersect the extended line QR at point 1, of 40 mm as radius. (iii) At the point Q, extend the line PQ equal to 2QR = 40 mm. Q as centre draw the arc to cut at the point 2. (iv) Extend line RP equal to 3 PQ = 60 mm P as centre, 60 mm as radius draw the arc to intersect the extended line RP at 3. (v) Thus the curve obtained is involute.Art. 6-31 Curves Used in Engineering Practice 129 Ns Fic, 6-48 Problem 6-34. A regular pentagonal plate of 20 mm side is fixed at its centre. An inelastic rope is circumscribed along the perimeter of the pentagonal. Draw the path of free end of the rope when it is unwounded keeping, tight for one complete turn. 4 Fic. 6-49 (Construct pentagon of 20 mm side as shown fig. 6-49 Name the corners (apex) as A, B, C, D, and E.120, Engine: ng Drawing, Ich. 6 (ii) Consider starting point £. Extend line BA through A. A as centre, AE as radius draw an arc starting from £ and intersecting the extended line BA at 1. (wv) Similarly at B,C, and D extend lines. At B as centre and B1 = (AE + AB) as radius, draw the arc cutting extended line CB at 2. At C and C3 = 3A1 as radius draw arc cutting extended line CB at 3. Similarly draw arcs for extended line ED and AE cutting at 4, 5 respectively. (¥) Thus the curve obtained is involute. APB is a given curve (fig. 6- 50). © la the centre cha circle drawn through ie s C, P and D on this curve. If the points C and D are moved to converge towards P, until they are indefinitely close together, then in the limit, the circle becomes the circle of curvature of the curve APB at P. The centre O of the circle of curvature lies on the normal to the curve at P. This centre is called the centre of curvature at P. The locus of the centre of curvature of a curve is called the evolute of the curve. A curve has only one evolute. Problem 6-35 (fig. 6-51): To determine the centre of curvature at a given point on Let P be the given point on the conic and F, the focus. (Join P with F. i) At P, draw a normal PN, cutting the axis at N. (ii) Draw a line NR perpendicular to PN and cutting PF or PF-produced at R. Fic. 6-50 Fic. 6-51 (iv) Draw a line RO perpendicular to PR and cutting PN-produced at O. Then O is the centre of curvature of the conic at the point P. The above construction does not hold good when the given point coincides with the vertex. As the point P approaches the vertex, the points R, N and O move nearer to one another, so that when P is at the vertex, the three points ci oon the axis. In a parabola, PF will be equal to FR. Hence, when P is at V the vertex, the centre of curvature O is on the axis so that OF = VF. In an ellipse or a hyperbola, the ratio of the distances of P from the foci is PE _ NE equal to the ratio of focal distances of N, ke. Be = Np Hence, when P coincides with V the vertex, the ratio becomes YE = OF. VR > OF Similarly, when P coincides with the other vertex V3, the ratio becomes MAL OA VF ~ OFArt. 6-4) Curves Used in Engineering Problem 6-36. To determine the centre of curvature O, when the point P is at the vertex V of a conic: (a) Parabola (fig, 6-52): Mark the centre > of curvature O on the axis such that OF = VF. (b) Ellipse (fig, 6-53): ome FRO%s3 Method I: (Draw a line FG inclined to the axis and equal to VF. Produce F;G to H so that GH = VF. Join H with F, i) Draw a line GO parallel to HF and intersecting the axis at O. Then O the required centre of curvature. Method II: (fig. 6-54): g He (Draw a rectangle AOCE in which | . AO = 4 major axis and pa af > 1 D CO = 3 minor axis. Fic, 6-54 Fic. 6-55 Join A with C. )) Through £, draw a line perpendicular to AC and cutting the major axis at 0} and the minor axis Oz. Then O; and O, are the centres of curvature when the point P is at A and C respectively. (© Hyperbola (fig. 6-55): (Draw a line F,G inclined to the axis and equal to FV;. (ii) On FyG, mark a point H such that HG = VF. Join H with F. (ii) Draw a line GO parallel to HF and cutting the axis at O. Then O is the centre of ‘curvature at the vertex V. Problem 6-37. (fig. 6-56 and fig. 6-57): To draw the evolute of an ellipse. The ellipse with major axis AB and minor axis CD is given. () Mark a number of points on the ellipse. Sf (ii) Determine the centres of curvatures at these | {oe points (as shown at the point P) and draw a “a 4 smooth curve through them. This is the evolute of the ellipse. The evolute may sometimes oo go outside the ellipse as shown in fig. 6-57 \ The centres of curvature at points A and C O are shown by method I of problem 6-36. Fic. 6-57152 Engineering Drawing Ich. 6 Problem 6-38. (fig. 6-58): To draw the evolute of a parabola, () Mark a number of points on the parabola and determine the centres of curvature at these points (as shown at the point P). (i) Draw the evolute through these centres. Note that PF = FR. Problem 6-39. (fig. 6-59): To draw the evolute of a hyperbola. (Mark a number of points on the hyperbola and determine the centres of curvature at these points (as shown at the point P). Draw the evolute through these centres. To obtain the centre of curvature at the vertex, the position of the other focus F, must be found It is determined by making use of the following rule: The tangent at any point on the curve bisects the angle made by lines joining that point with the two foci, ie. 2 FQC = 2 FOC. Problem 6-40. (fig. 6-60): To draw the evolute of a ycloid. (i) Mark a point P on the cycloid and draw the normal PN to it (Problem 6-21). (i) Produce PN to Op so that NO, = PN. Op is the centre of curvature at the point P. (ii) Similarly, mark a number of points on the cycloid and determine centres of curvature at these points. The curve drawn through these centres is the evolute of the cycloid. It is an equal cycloid. Problem 6-41. (fig. 6-61): To draw the evolute of an epicycloid. Fic. 6-60 () Mark a point P on the epicycloid and draw the normal PN to it (Problem 6-24 and problem 6-25). (i) Draw the diameter PQ of the rolling circle. Join Q with O, the centre of the directing circle. (ili) Produce PN to cut QO at Op, which is the centre of curvature at the point P. (iv) Mark a number of points on the epicycloid and similarly, obtain centres of curvature at these points. The curve drawn through these centres is the evolute of the epicycloi Fic. 6-59ee ee Ee ee ee oe ee ee ee Art. 651 Curves Used in Engineering Practice 133 Through Oy, draw a line perpendicular to PO, and intersecting the line joining C (the centre’ of the rolling circle) with O ata point R. The evolute is the epicycloid of the circle of diameter NR, rolling along the circle of radius OR. 6 Fic, 6-61 Fic, 6-62 Problem 6-42. (fig, 6-62): To draw the evolute of a hypocycloid. (Mark a point. P on the hypocycloid and draw the normal PN to it (Problem 6-24 and problem 6-25). ) Draw the diameter PQ of the rolling circle. Join Q with O, the centre of the directing circle (iii) Produce PN to cut OQ-produced at Op, which is the centre of curvature at the point P. (iv) Mark a number of points on the hypocycloid and similarly, obtain centres of curvature at these points. The curve drawn through these centres is the evolute of the hypocyctoi Through O,, draw a line perpendicular to PO, and intersecting OC-produced at a point R. The evolute is the hypocycloid of the circle of diameter NR rolling along the circle of radius OR, Problem. 6-43. (fig. 6-42): To draw the evolute of an involute of a circle. In the involute of a circle, the normal NM at any point N is tangent to the le at the point of contact M. M is the centre of curvature at the point N. Hence, the evolute of the involute is the circle itself If a line rotates in a plane about one of its ends and if at the same time, a point moves along the line continuously in one direction, the curve traced out by the moving point is called a spiral. The point about which the line rotates is called a pole. ‘The line joining any point on the curve with the pole is called the radius vector and the angle between this line and the line in its initial position is called the vectorial angle. Each complete revolution of the curve is termed the convolution. A spiral may make any number of convolutions before reaching the pole.134 Engineering Drawing it Wa Gini Wacld But" b's bell "Rly —_ a way that its movement towards or away from the pole is uniform with the increase of the vectorial angle from the starting line. The use of this curve is made in teeth profiles of helical gears, profiles of cams etc. Problem 6- given the greatest and the shortest radii Let O be the pole, OP the greatest radius and OQ the shortest radius. (i) With centre O and radius equal to OP, draw a circle. OP revolves around 0 for 1} revolutions. During this period, P moves towards O, the distance equal to (OP - 0Q) ie. QP. (ig, 6-63): To construct an Archemedlan spiral of 14 convolution, (i) Divide the angular movements of OP, viz 1} revolutions i.e. 540°, and the line QP into the same number of equal parts, say 18 (one revolution divided into 12 equal parts). When the line OP moves through one division, i.e. 30°, the point P will move towards O by a distance equal to one division of QP to a point P;. (iii) To obtain points systematically draw arcs with centre O and radii O1, 02, 03 etc. intersecting lines O1', 02, O3' etc. at points P;, Py, P3 etc. respectively. In one revolution, P will reach the 12th division along QP and in the next half revolution it will be at the point Po on the line 18-0. (iv) Draw a curve through points P, P;, P,, Pq This curve is the required ‘Archemedian spiral. Normal and tangent to an Archemedian spi he normal to an Archemedian spiral at any point is the hypotenuse of the right-angled triangle having the other two sides equal in length to the radius vector at that point and the constant of the curve respectively. The constant of the curve is equal to the difference between the lengths of any two radii divided by the circular measure of the angle between them. OP and OPs (fig. 663) are two radii making 90° angle between them. In circular measure in radian, 90° = 5 = 1.57. Therefore, the constant of OP ~ OP, the curve, C = "3. Problem 6-45. (fig. 6-63): To draw a normal to the Archemedian spiral at a point N on it, (Draw the radius vector NO. (i) Draw a line OM equal in length to the constant of the curve C and perpendicular to NO. Draw the line NM which is the normal to the spiral. (iv) Through N, draw a line ST perpendicular to NM. ST is the tangent to the spiral.Arte 65-1) Curves Used in Engineering Practice 135 @ (i, | (ii) ww “ Problem 6-46. (fig. 6-64): A link 225 mm Jong, swings on a pivot O from its vertical position of rest to the right through an angle of 75° and returns to its initial position at uniform velocity. During that period, a point P moving at uniform speed along the centre line of the link from a point at a distance of 25 mm from ©, reaches the end of the link. Draw the locus of the point P. Archemedian spiral Fic, 6-63 Draw a vertical line OA, 225 mm long. With centre O and radius equal to OA, draw an arc. Draw a line OB making 2 AOB equal to 75° and cutting the arc at B. Fic. 6-64 Mark a point P along OA and at a distance of 25 mm from O. Divide the angular movement of the link and the line PA into the same number of equal parts, say 8. The end A of the link moves to B and returns to its Hence, the arc AB must be divided into four equal parts. inal_ position.136 Engineering Drawing. Ich. 6 (i) With centre © and radii O1, 02, 03 etc., draw arcs intersecting lines 01, 02, O3' etc. at points P;, Pz, Ps etc. respectively. Draw a curve through P, P,....Ps...A. This curve is the locus of the Problem 6-47. (fig. 6-65): A straight link PQ of 60 mm length revolves one complete revolution with uniform motion in anti-clockwise direction about hinged During this period an insect moves along the link from P to Q and Q to P with uniform linear motion. Draw the path of the insect and name the curve. (Draw circle of 60 mm radius at P as centre and divide into twelve equal parts, Name in anti clockwise direction 1, 2, 3, 4, Beer 12. (i) Divide line PQ into six equal part and mark as 1', 2, 3', 4, 5' and 6! and from Q/as 7' to 12' Fic, 6-65 (ii) Mark 1°, 2", 3", 4°, 5" and 6" along radius P1, P2, P3, P4, P5 and P6 respectively increasing each division of the line PQ as shown in fig 6-65. (iv) Bottom portion is the mirror image of top portion. So drop the respective point on bottom radii. () Join them with the smooth curve. The curve is archemedian spiral 6-5-2. LOGARITHMIC OR EQUIANGULAR SPIRAL ZZ In a logarithmic spiral, the ratio of the lengths of consecutive radius vectors enclosing equal angles is always constant. In other words the values of vectorial angles are in arithmetical progression and the corresponding values of radius vectors are in geometrical progression. ‘The logarithmic spiral is also known as equiangular spiral because of its property that the angle which the tangent at any point on the curve makes with the radius vector at that point is constant. Problem 6-48. (fig. 6-66): To construct a logarithmic spiral of one convolution, given the length of the shortest radius and the ratio of the lengths of radius vectors enclosing an angle @. ‘Assume the shortest radius be 1 cm long, 0 equal to 30° and the ratio 'y'~ The lengths of radius vectors are determined from the scale which is constructed as shown belo (Draw fines AB and AC Ii them. (i), On AB, mark AD, 1 cm long. On AC, mark a point £ such that 6-66(ii)] making an angle of 30° between 10 10 a= 2 xtom= 2 emArts 655-2) Curves Used in Engineering Practice 137 (ii) Draw a line joining D with E. (iv) With centre A and radius AE, draw an are cutting AB at a point 1. Through 1, draw a line 1-1: parallel to DE and cutting AC at 1’. Again, with centre A and radius A1" draw an arc cutting AB at 2. Through 2, draw a line 2-2' parallel to DE and cutting AC at 2’, Repeat the construction and obtain points 3, 4.....12. Al, A2 etc. are the lengths of consecutive radius vectors. () Draw a horizontal line OQ and on it, mark OP, 1 cm long {fig 6-66(0)1. Through , draw radial lines making 30° angles between two consecutive lines. These are the radius vectors. (0) Mark points Py, Pp.....Py2 on consecutive radius vectors such that OP; SAN, OP2 = AZ vvreesOP yy = AIR. (vii) Draw a smooth curve through Py, Po logarithmic spiral, ‘The equation to the logarithmic spiral is r = a® where ris the radius vector, 0 is the vectorial angle and a is a constant. Pia. This curve is the required Hence, log r = 0 loga. 7 @=0bogr =/O0