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NEED OF FLOW MEASUREMENT
The branch of engineering science deals with discharge measurement is called
Hydrometery Management of water resources or engineering mainly depends
upon measurement of water at different stages in irrigation system is of great
concern. Some important stages need flow measurement or management are
discussed here.
Flow Measurement
The measurement or assessment of volume of water passing per unit time from
any point is called measurement of flow
Distribution of water from head works to main canals
All the main canals have specific design and discharge carrying capacity. To meet
the designed water levels of canals off taking from head works, fixed discharge is
diverted to these canals to irrigate their command areas. Discharge indicating
gauges are fixed at several places in each canal and are monitored continuously to
maintain designed discharge.
Distribution of water among provinces
Average annual water available from all the rivers is proportionally distributed
among provinces. Proportionality of water follows the agreement among
provinces Water accord 1991. Electronic Telemetry system has been recently
installed at all the head works to monitor flows around the clock to all the
provinces.
Maintaining designed depth of water in canals
To meet the designed discharges of outlets according to their command areas, it is
essential to operate/run canals at designed full supply level. For maintaining full
supply levels of distributaries and minors, measured discharge is
provided/allowed from their parent canals, through regulatory gates.
Equity in Water Distribution among farmers.
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Equal distribution of water among farmers is of great concern. Evaluation of
equity in water distribution among farmers can be made possible through regular
flow measurements in watercourses or at farm levels.
Measured irrigation to crops
Saving of precious irrigation water is dire need of current drought situations. At
farm level different techniques are adopted for saving of water. Thus it is very
important to irrigate crops according to their water requirements and to avoid over
or under irrigation by applying measured quantities of water. Over irrigation may
participate in waterlogging while under irrigation will cause low yield.
Watercourse Design
First requirement for deciding design of a watercourse, is the discharge of that
watercourse only. Any additional discharge, e.g. tubewells or special quota of
rice etc., is also adjusted in design. Hence measurement of discharge is basic need
for design of a watercourse.
Planning and Designing of Irrigation and Drainage Structures
Different types of hydraulic structures are constructed on irrigation channels and
on surplus water carrying drains. All such structures are designed for passing of a
limited quantity of discharge.
Pre and Post improvement of irrigation system
For evaluating the performance of water management or irrigation projects,
measurement of flow in watercourses or canals before improvement is taken as
base line. After completing such projects flow of these water channel is again
measured for evaluation/comparison.
No Water Management without flow Measurement
Keeping in view, the importance of flow measurement at different stages/portion
of irrigation system it can be said that without flow measurements, proper water
management is not possible.
BASIC TERMINOLOGY USED IN FLOW MEASUREMENT
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1 - Discharge.
It is measurement of volume of water in flowing condition.. Units of discharge
commonly used are
a. Cusec
b. Musec/Cumecs
c. LPS
d. G.P.M
e. A.F
a. Cusec.
If one cubic foot volume of water is passing in one second form a certain point,
then discharge is called 1 cusec or ft3/sec.
b. Musecs/Cumec.
If one cubic meter volume of water is passing in one second from a certain point,
discharge is called 1 cumec/musec or m3/sec.
c. Liter Per Second.
If one liter volume of water is passing in one seconds from a certain point,
discharge is called 1 lps or 1liter per second.
d. Gallon Per Minute
If one gallon of water is passing in one minute time from any point, then
discharge at that point is called 1 Gallon Per Minutes or G.P.M.
e. Acre Foot
When an area of one acre is filled with water to a depth of one foot, then volume
of water is called 1 acre foot (AF). 1-Acre Foot = 43560 ft3
2 - Conversion Table
1 Cusec = 28.31 lps
1 Cumec = 1000 lps
1 Gallon (US) = 3.78 liters
1 Gallon (UK) = 4.55 liters
One liter = 0.001 m3
1 A.F = 43560 ft3
1-Hectare = 100m x 100m
1- Hectare = 2.47 acre
1- acre = 198 ft x 220 ft = 60m x 66m
1m = 3.28 ft
1 inch = 2.54 cm
3- Gross Command Area (GCA).
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It is the total area that is within command of an outlet. It also includes that land to which
canal water is not allowed. Canal water is not sanction to some area due to various
reasons, e.g topographic position. Gross Command Area is generally expressed in acres.
4 - Culturable Command Area (CCA)
That area of an outlet which is under cultivation within command of outlet. Culturable
Command Area is generally expressed in acres or hectares.
5 - Water Allowance.
It is the quantity of irrigation water allowed for 1000 acres of culturable land. This also
helps in designing an outlet for its command area.
6 - R.D
Reduce Distance (RD) is measurement of distance from head of channel to any point.
This distance is measured in feet. 1 RD = 1000 ft e.g. distance of 4500 feet is written
as RD 4 + 500
7- R.L
Reduced Level ( RL) is elevation of any point with reference to sea level. It is shown in
feet or meters.
8 - Reach
It is a particular length of a canal/distributary from one point to other point i.e length
between two successive points
9 - Location of an Outlet.
Distance of an outlet in feet from head of canal/distributary indicates its numbers. R or
L is added to this number which shows that outlet is off-taking from left (L) or right
(R) side of canal/distibutary. e.g 4500- R
10 -Upstream/Downstream.
If we are using a flume or standing on a hydraulic structure, then upstream (U/S) is the
side from where water is entering in the flume or structure and downstream (D/S) is the
side where water is going out from flume or structure.
11 - Inlet.
It is the point of a hydraulic structure where water is entering to that structure.
12 - Outlet.
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It is the point of a hydraulic structure where water is going out from that structure
13 - Perimeter.
Length of cross section or the length of a section of canal/distributary/watercourse,
which is in contact with water.
14 - X-Section.
Cross-Section (X-Section) of channel is from which water passes. It is the dimension of
a section, i.e. depth and width of flow
15 - Free Flow.
When water passes through a hydraulic structure and downstream water level does not
affect the water level of upstream, flow is called free flow.
16 - Submerged Flow.
When water passes through a hydraulic structure and downstream water level affects the
water level of upstream, called submerged flow.
17 - Duty of Water:
It is the area irrigated per cusesc discharge, during a base period.
18 - Delta of Water
It is the total requirement of water of a crop from sowing time till maturity
Wheat = 16 inches
Cotton = 28 inches
Sugar Cane = 70 inches
Maize = 13 inches
Rice = 55 inches
Potato = 18 inches
Onion = 30 inches
19 - Conveyance Efficiency
Ratio of discharge at tail of a watercourse to the discharge at head of a watercourse
e.g. if discharge at tail of watercourse is 1.5 cusecs while discharge at head of same
watercourse was 2 cusecs then
Conveyance efficiency = 1.5/2 x100 = 75%
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Losses = 25%
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FLOW MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES
1) Trajectory Method For Tubewells
This method is used to measure the discharge or flow for rate of tubewells. It is
very simple and easy method. It has three essential requirement/condition for
discharge determination
Inside diameter of pipe
Measurement of X-coordinate of flow (Horizontal distance measured from
the end of pipe)
Measurement of Y-coordinate of flow (Vertical distance measured down
from the horizontal point to the top of the water jet)
Formula used For Full Flowing Pipe
Q = 0.0174 D2x X/Y
where
Q = lps
D = inside diameter of pipe (cm)
X = X-coordinate (cm)
Y = Y-coordinate (cm)
Formula used For Partial Flowing Pipe
Q = [0.0174 D2 x X (a/A)]/Y
where
Q = lps
a = Area of jet
A = Area of pipe
D = inside diameter of pipe (cm)
X = X-coordinate (cm)
Y = Y-coordinate (cm)
LIMITATIONS
Pipe should be straight
Discharging in air
Length of pipe > 6 D
Error upto 10 %
Discharging in air
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6 D2 -FLOAT METHOD
Float method is used to measure discharge in open channels where accuracy is not of
important. It is based on velocity- area relationship.
Discharge = Area x Velocity
Q=AxV
Q = m3/sec
V = S/t ( m/sec)
A = Cross Section Area of flow (m2)
Cross sections of water channels vary, i.e Rectangular Section, Trapezoidal or Parabolic
Section
Take 30 meter straight and long section of watercourse, and mark A and B
points.
Put float 1 m before point A.
Float e.g. round wooden block, wooden sphere, orange, long necked bottle partly
filled & capped
Note time taken by float for distance from point A to B.
Find Velocity (v)
Repeat 3 to 4 timesion
Measure average depth of flow (d), not of w/c
Measure width of flow (b)Calculate area (A)
Calculate discharge Q = 0.9 x A x V for lined watercourse
Select fairly uniform and straight section of watercourse
Mark 30 meter from A to B points on section
Measure average depth of flow (d) at several points
Measure width of flow (b) at several points
Take b and at d at 3 to 4 points within section for average valuesPut float 1 m
before point A.
Float e.g. round wooden block, wooden sphere, orange, long necked bottle partly
filled & capped
Note time taken by float for distance from point A to B.
Find Velocity (v)
Repeat 3 to 4 timesCalculate average area (A)
Calculate discharge
Q = 0.8 x A x V for katcha watercourse.
A sample for Katcha watercourse discharge calculation is given in on next
page
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Session-2
3- Cut-Throat Flume
Device to measure discharge in unlined watercourses only
Results satisfactory under
-Free Flow Conditions
-Submerged Flow Conditions
Less Head loss (Difference of FSL on U/S & D/S of CTF)
Accurate even in flat gradient channels
Error < 5 %
Free Flow?
Submerged Flow?
Selection of Cut-Throat Flume
Flumes are available in different sizes, which have varying capacity to measure
discharge. Sizes f some flumes are given below with their discharge measuring capacity.
Flume sizes Q (Range)
''
4 x 3 upto 1 cfs
8 x 3 1 2.75 cfs
12 x 3 2.75 4 cfs
16 x 3 > 4 cfs
4 x 3 Size of flume
WxL
W - Throat width
L - Length of flume
How to install Cut-Throat Flume ?
For installation of cut-throat flume, following points must be taken into consideration
Away from structures (Culverts, Nakka, Outlet)
Converging section towards upstream
Diverging section towards downstream
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Place Flume in center of channel
Place Flume Parallel to flow lines
Place Flume in Straight Section of Channel
Near Mogha, can cause submergence of mogha, and reduced flow
Place on/above bed level of channel
Flume should not be hammered for leveling Properly level the flume (Transverse
& Longitudinal)
Place mud on both sides of flume
Check leakage from sides and below the bottom
Ensure that both holes are free from dirt
Scales in observation wells are clear
Data Collection
After complete installation and control of leakage, flow data should be recorded
as steps given below. Take reading after 20 minutes of complete installation
Record reading Hu & Hd for upstream and downstream from observation wells
Variation in readings indicates leakage.
Take 5-6 readings with interval of 5-6 minutes for Hu & Hd
Check Flow conditions
S = Submergence = Hd/Hu
a) If S < 0.7, free flow for Flume 8 x 3
e.g Hu = 0.66,
Hd = 0.4,
S = 0.6, it is Free Flow
b) If S > 0.7 for Flume 8 x 3
Submerge flow
e.g Hu = 0.60,
Hd = 0.50,
S = 0.83, it is Submerge Flow
Find Discharge For Flume 8x 3
a) - For Free Flow
Q = Cf Hu nf = 2.858 x Hu1.8 26 or
- Consult table-7 for free flow discharge
- Read for flume of 8 x 3 against 0.66 in the column of Hu,
- Q = 1.34 cfs
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b) For submerge formula
Qs = [Cs(Hu - Hd)nf]
[(-log S) ns ]
Cs = 1.6,
ns = 1.489,
nf = 1.826 or
consult, table-7 & table-9
Qf = 1.125 cfs
Qs / Qf = 0.931
Qs = 0.931 x 1.125
Qs = 1.05 cusecs
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4 -WEIRS
General Flow Equation
Q = C x L x H1.5
Q - Discharge
C - constant
L - Width of crest
H - Head
Weir - Vertical Contraction
Flume - Horizontal Contraction
Types of Weirs
1) Rectangular Weirs (Suppressed)
Q = 1.84 x L x H1.5
Q = m3/s
L & H in meters
(Applicable to Drop Structures of W/Cs)
2) Rectangular Weirs (Contracted)
Q = 1.84 (L - 0.2H) H1.5
Limitations
Depth of flow (H) over crest > 0.03 m
Crest of weir above channel bottom > 0.3 m
Width (L) > 0.15 m
D/s FSL > 0.06 m below weir crest
3) Trapezoidal Weir
Q = 1.86 x L x H1.5
Q = m3/s
L & H in meters
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Limitations
Weir crest height > 0.3 m
Head 0.06 - 0.6 m
Head / L < 0.5
FSL of D/S should be 0.06 m below the crest of weir
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Session-3
CURRENT METER
Working principle
Currentmeter Measures Velocity (V)
Direct / By counting revolutions per unit time
Area of Segments (A)
Q=AXV
Methods of Determining Velocities
1. Two point method (0.2 & 0.8) if depth of water > 60 cm
2. One point method (0.6 from top/0.4 from bed) shallow depths (< 60cm)
3. V = 0.123 N + 0.007 where N = Revolution / second or from chart
SEGMENTAL AREA
- Measure top width of water / channel
- Measure bottom width of channel
- Divide width in segments (each segment area = 10% of total area)
- Record width of each segment
- Mark distance from initial point for each segment
- Take average depth of water in each segment
- Measure velocities at 0.2 & 0.8 if depth >60 cm
- Measure velocities in center of each segment
- Find average velocity by counting pings/table
V = 0.123 N +0.007 N = Revolutions/Second
- Calculate Q of each segment by Q = A x V
- Add Q of all segments for total discharge
Types
Pygmy - Depth < 60 cm - watercourses
Price Type - Depth > 60 cm - canals
Vertical or Horizontal Axis
=AXV
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Session-4
IRRIGATION OUTLETS
Definition:-
It is a hydraulic structure, which conveys irrigation water from a state-owned distributary
to private-owned watercourse.
State-owned distributary:
A water channel which owned, and operate and maintained at the cost of
government.(Canal Branch Canal Distributary Minor Subminor)
Private-owned watercourse:
A water channel, which is maintained at the cost of farmers.
The following characteristics are assumed for the performance of an outlet
i) Flexibility
It is the rate of change of outlet discharge to the rate of change of discharge of parent
channel
ii) Sensitivity:-
It is defined as the ratio of the rate of change of discharge of an outlet to rate of change in
the level of distributary water surface i.e normal depth of channel
iii) Efficiency
This is defined as the ratio of the head recovered to the head put in
iv) NOTATIONS & DEFINITIONS
A.O.S.M Adjustable Orifice Semi Modular
A.P.M Adjustable Proportionate Modular
Bt The width of the throat of a view flume etc
F.S.D Full Supply Depth
F.S.L Full Supply level
Hm Minimum working head
v) Minimum Modular Head
It is the minimum difference of water levels or pressure between supply and delivery
sides to enable the semi module to work as designed
vi) Modular Limits
The extreme values of any factors at which modular or semi modular ceases to be capable
of acting as such
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vii) Modular Range
The range of conditions between the said limits within which a modular or semi modular
works as designed
viii. Drawing Ratio
The ratio between depth of water over the crest level downstream to depth of water over
the crest level on upstream side.
ix. Module
A device for ensuring a constant discharge of water passing from one channel into an
other irrespective of water level in each , within specified limits.
Types of Outlets
Non-Modular:
It is an outlet in which discharge of outlet depends in water level of watercourse and the
parent channel. This means that a cultivator can be drawn more discharge of water
illegally by lowering the water level in watercourse ( pipe or banal type and secretly
outlet)
Semi Modular:
It is an outlet in which the discharge of outlet depends upon the water level in the
distributray only and is independent of the water level watercourse (open flume and
A.O.S.M)
Modular:
It is rigid module in which discharge is independent of the level in the distributary as well
as watercourse (Gibbs, Module, Khans Module)
Types of Outlet used in Punjab
i) Open Flume
ii) Adjustable Orifice Semi Modular
iii) Pipe Outlet
iv) Scratchy
v) Pipe Cum OF/AOSM
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1. OPEN FLUME OUTLET
Formula
Q = KBt G 3/2
Where
Q = Discharge in lps
Bt = Throat width in meter
G = Head ( Depth of water above Crest in m)
= F.S.L of canal Crest level
Max F.S.L of watercourse = F.S.L of canal - Hm
Hm = 0.2 G
Hm is minimum modular head required for satisfactory performance of outlet.
Values of K & Bt in MKS system are given below.
K Bt (m)
1600 0.06 0.09
1630 0.09 m 0.12
1650 greater than 0.12
Value of K & Bt for FPS system are as under, discharge will be in cusecs
K Bt (ft)
2.90 0.2 0.29
2.95 0.3 0.39
3.0 > 0.40
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OPEN FLUME OUTLET
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ii. PIPE OUTLET
Simplest and oldest type
Placed in the bank of distributary
Semi-Modular, if outlet has free fall
Non-Modular, if outlet is submerged
Major Drawback is that discharge coefficient (Cd) varies outlet to outlet & time
to time
Q = Cd A 2gH
Free Flow Condition.
Q = Cd A 2gH
Q = Discharge in cubic meter per second
H = FSL of Canal Center of pipe
A = Area of pipe (m2 ), g = 9.80 m/sec/sec
Cd = 0.63
Submerge Flow Condition
Q = Cd A 2gHd
Q = Discharge in cubic meter per second
Hd = FSL of Canal FSL of Watercourse
A = Area of pipe (m2 )
Cd = 0.74
Pipe Outlet Free Condition
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Pipe Outlet Submerged Condition
Session-5
IRRIGATION OUTLETS CONTINUE
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iii. Adjustable Orifice Semi Modular
Formula for MKS system
Q = 4030 Bt Y Hs
where
Q = lps
Bt = Throat width (m)
Y = Distance between Lower Tip of Roof Block & Crest
Hs = FSL of Canal Lower tip of Roof Block
FSL of Watercourse = FSL of Canal Hm
Hm = 0.83 Hs 0.5 Bt
Formula for FPS system
Q = 7.3 Bt Y Hs
where
Q = cusecs
Bt = Throat width (ft)
Y = Distance between Lower Tip of Roof Block & Crest (ft)
Hs = (ft)
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Example of Adjustable Orifice
Given
FSL (Canal) = 9.90 m
Roof block Lower Tip Elevation = 9.60 m
Crest Elevation = 9.40 m
Throat width Bt = 0.12 m
Find
a) Discharge
b) Max. FSL of watercourse for free flow
Solution
a) Q = 4030 Bt Y Hs
Hs = 9.90 9.60 = 0.30 m
Y = 9.60 9.40= 0.20 m
Q = 4030 x 0.12 x 0.2 0.3
= 53 lps
b). Max. FSL of Watercourse
= FSL of Canal Hm
Hm = 0.83 x 0.30 0.5 x 0.12
= 0.189 m
Max-FSL of Watercourse
= 9.90 0.189 = 9.711 m
or lower for free flow
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iv - Scratchley Outlet
Hydraulic conditions are same
Coefficient of discharge (Cd) is same for drowned conditions
Pipe or Barrel opens in cistern
Cistern 2-3 Foot Square
Cast iron or stone orifice fixed on other side of cistern
Discharge Formula
Q = Cd A 2gHw
Where
Q = Discharge in cubic meter per second
Hw = working head in m (FSL of Canal FSL of Watercourse)
A = Area of pipe (m2 )
g = 9.80 m/sec/sec
Cd = 0.82
Merits of Scratchley Outlet
Size of orifice can be changed with running channel
Cd is same for all orifices
Low cost for any change in design
Open to inspection at all times
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Scratchley Outlet
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v- Pipe-cum-AOSM
Pipe from canal leads to a sump or cistern
Sump is usually round in shape
It can replace submerged Scratchley outlet
On lined distributaries being installed
Head will be measured in cistern
Discharge will be equal to the semi-module fixed at its lower end
Merits of Pipe-cum-Semi Module
High degree of immunity
Large range of modularity (good at even at low supply)
Low head required
Cheaper in heavy banks
Easy inspection
Easy and cheaper adjustment
Adjustment possible even with running channel
Note: Formulae is same as for OF or AOSM as the case may be
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Session-6
IRRIGATION OUTLETS CONTINUE
DATA REQUIRED FOR DISCHARGE MEASUREMENT
a). For Open Flume
FSL of Canal
Crest level of Mogha
Bt
b). AOSM use Level Set for measuring
FSL of Canal
Lower tip of Roof Block
Crest level of Mogha
Bt
Y
c). For Pipe & Scratchley use Level Set for measuring
FSL of Canal
FSL of watercourse
Diameter of pipe
