CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
Lasers are now being used in the automotive industry to produce seam or stitch welds, as
alternatives to conventional resistance spot welding, which are used extensively for attaching
auto-body panels to subassemblies. The advantages of laser welding over resistance spot welding
result from the smallness of the laser spot size, the large penetration depth of the weld into the
material and the requirement that only single sided access to the work piece is necessary. Further,
the equipment used to carry out the welds can be easily adapted to new vehicle program changes,
unlike that used for resistance spot welding.1 Potential benefits realised by the application of
laser welding include reduced flange widths, increased structural strength and high speed
automated processing. Traditionally CO2 lasers have been used for auto body applications.
Recent advances have been made with Nd:YAG lasers, which are now capable of producing
beam powers of more than 2 kW or more through a fiber optic cable. This is particularly useful
for robotic operations, where it is necessary to manipulate the laser beam about a stationary part.
Lasers are also used in the manufacture of tailored blanks, where suitably prepared sheet metal,
including differing thickness and material combinations, are butt welded together prior to being
pressed into the finished shape. This results in considerable cost and weight savings and
increases structural rigidity.
Laser beam welding (LBW) is a welding process which produces coalescence of
materials with the heat obtained from the application of a concentrate coherent light beam
impinging upon the surfaces to be joined. The focused laser beam has the highest energy
concentration of any known source of energy. The laser beam is a source of electromagnetic
energy or light that can be pro jetted without diverging and can be concentrated to a precise spot.
The beam is coherent and of a single frequency. Gases can emit coherent radiation when
contained in an optical resonant cavity. Gas lasers can be operated continuously but originally
only at low levels of power. Later developments allowed the gases in the laser to be cooled so
that it could be operated continuously at higher power outputs. The gas lasers are pumped by
high radio frequency generators which raise the gas atoms to sufficiently high energy level
to cause lasing. Currently, 2000-watt carbon dioxide laser systems are in use. Higher powered
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systems are also being used for experimental and developmental work. A 6-kw laser is being
used for automotive welding applications and a 10-kw laser has been built for research purposes.
There are other types of lasers; however, the continuous carbon dioxide laser now
available with 100 watts to 10 kw of power seems the most promising for metalworking
applications. The coherent light emitted by the laser can be focused and reflected in the same
way as a light beam. The focused spot size is controlled by a choice of lenses and the distance
from it to the base metal. The spot can be made as small as 0.003 in. (0.076 mm) to large areas
10 times as big. A sharply focused spot is used for welding and for cutting. The large spot is used
for heat treating.
The laser offers a source of concentrated energy for welding; however, there are only a
few lasers in actual production use today. The high-powered laser is extremely expensive. Laser
welding technology is still in its infancy so there will be improvements and the cost of
equipment will be reduced. Recent use of fiber optic techniques to carry the laser beam to the
point of welding may greatly expand the use of lasers in metal-working.
Although at present steel is the main material used in the vehicle manufacturing industry,
the use of lighter materials, such as Al, Mg and Ti will in the future become of increasing
importance, in order to reduce weight. This, however, will require the ability to make satisfactory
joins between these materials and steel. Aluminium alloys are invariably less weldable than
automotive sheet steels due to its high diffusivity and the presence of passive oxide layers, which
have a significantly higher melting temperature than the base alloy and often a poorer electrical
conductivity. Laser welding of Al alloys is also problematic due to its high thermal conductivity
and high reflectivity of the laser light, but progress is being made using Nd:YAG lasers.
CHAPTER-2
2
HISTORY
Einstein first postulated the quantum-mechanical fundamentals of lasers at the beginning
of the 20th century.
1960 The first laser called a ruby laser was first implemented
1970 The first high performance lasers were developed in the 1970s with the development of
CO2 lasers. Since this time the applications for laser beam sources have evolved.
1980 Laser soldering becomes a popular way to join leads in electronic components through
holes in printed circuit boards.
1987 Laser powder fusion process developed
2002 From Linde Gas in Germany, a Diode laser using process gases and "active-gas
components" is investigated to enhance the "key-holing" effects for laser welding. The
process gas, Argon-CO2, increases the welding speed and in the case of a diode laser,
will support the transition of heat conductivity welding to a deep welding, i.e., 'key-
holing'. Adding active gas changes the direction of the metal flow within a weld pool and
produces narrower, high-quality weld.
CHAPTER-3
3
PRINCIPLE AND WORKING OF LASER BEAM WELDING
PROCESS
Laser beam welding (LBW) is a welding technique used to join multiple pieces of metal
through the use of a laser. The beam provides a concentrated heat source, allowing for narrow,
deep welds and high welding rates. The process is frequently used in high volume applications
using automation, such as in the automotive industry. It is based on keyhole or penetration mode
welding.
In general cases heat is required to fuse the metals for any types of welding, in laser beam
welding process the heat is obtained from the application of a concentrated coherent light beam
which striking upon the weld metal and melt the metal, such this weld joint is obtained, this
welding process is called laser welding.
A laser beam is produced inside of the Ruby Crystal. The Ruby Crystal is made of
aluminium oxide with chromium dispersed throughout it. Which is forming about 1/2000 of
crystal, this less than natural ruby. Silver coated mirrors are fitted internally in the both side of
crystal. The one side of mirror has a tiny hole, a beam is come out through this hole.
A flash tube is placed around the Ruby Crystal, which is filled with xenon inert gas. The
flash is specially designed such as which is made flash rate about thousands flashes per seconds.
The electrical energy is converted into light energy, this is worked by flash tube.
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Fig no 3.1 Diagram of Laser Beam Welding
The capacitor is provided for storage the electrical energy and supply the high voltage to
flash tube for performed appropriately. The electrical energy discharged from capacitor and
xenon transform the high energy into white flash light rate of 1/1000 per second.
The chromium atoms of Ruby Crystal are excited and pumped into high energy. Due to
heat generating the some of this energy is lost. But some light energy reflected mirror to mirror
and again chromium atoms are excited until loss their extra energy simultaneously to form a
narrow beam of coherent light. Which is come out through the one end tiny hole of crystals
mirror. This narrow beam is focused by a optical focusing lens to produce a small intense of
laser on the job.
A laser beam is produced inside of the Ruby Crystal. The Ruby Crystal is made of
aluminium oxide with chromium dispersed throughout it. Which is forming about 1/2000 of
crystal, this less than natural ruby. Silver coated mirrors are fitted internally in the both side of
crystal. The one side of mirror has a tiny hole, a beam is come out through this hole.
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Fig no 3.2 Welding of Laser
3.1 Lasers
The two types of lasers commonly used are solid-state lasers (especially ruby lasers and
Nd:YAG lasers) and gas lasers.
The first type uses one of several solid media, including synthetic ruby (chromium in
aluminum oxide), neodymium in glass (Nd:glass), and the most common type,
neodymium in yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd:YAG).
Gas lasers use mixtures of gases such as helium, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide (CO2
laser) as a medium.
Regardless of type, however, when the medium is excited, it emits photons and forms the
laser beam.
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3.2 Functions of laser beam welding
Laser beam are used in industry to cut band weld metal and to survey land and construct
buildings.
In scientific research, they are used in laser spectroscopy and chemical analysis.
They are used in medical procedures such as eye, cancer and heart surgery, as well as in
cosmetic procedures. Dental applications include cavity treatment, nerve regeneration
and reshaping gum tissue.
3.3 Benefits of laser welding
Low heat input
Fast cooling
Almost stress free overlays
High hardness
Fine microstructure
Fig no 3.3 Industry for Laser Beam
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Fig no 3.4 view of Laser
CHAPTER-4
8
TYPES OF LASERS
4.1 Gas Laser Beam
It use a mixture of gases such as helium and nitrogen. There are also CO2 or carbon
dioxide lasers. These lasers use a low-current, high-voltage power source to excite the gas
mixture using a lasing medium. Operate in a pulsed or continuous mode. Carbon dioxide lasers
use a mixture of high purity carbon dioxide with helium and nitrogen as the lasing medium. CO2
lasers are also used in dual beam laser welding where the beam is split into two equal power
beams.
4.2 Fast Axial Flow (FAF) Gas Laser Beam
They have similar arrangement of components as that of slow axial flow gas laser, except
that in the case of the FAF Laser, a roots blower or turbo pump is used to circulate the laser gas
at high speed through the discharge region and corresponding heat exchangers. The FAF lasers
with continuous wave (CW) output power levels of between 500 to 6000 watts are available.
4.3 Transverse Flow Laser Beam
These lasers operate by continuously circulating gas across the resonator cavity axis by
means of a high speed fan type blower, while maintaining an electric discharge perpendicular to
both the gas flow direction and the laser beams optical axis. Transverse flow lasers with output
power levels between 1 and 25 kW are available.
4.4 Solid state Laser Beam
Nd:YAG type and ruby lasers Operate at 1micrometer wavelengths. They can be pulsed
or operate continuously. Pulsed operation produced joints similar to spot welds but with
complete penetration. The pulse energy is 1 to 100 Joules. Pulse time is 1 to 10 milliseconds.
4.5 Fiber Laser Beam
In fiber lasers the gain medium is the optical fiber itself. They are capable of power up to
50 kW and are increasingly being used for robotic industrial.
4.6 Physics of Laser Welding
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4.6.1 Conduction mode welding
Heat is absorbed from the laser beam through the top surface of the metal. Steady state
conditions are reached quickly (~2.5ms). The heat input is balanced by losses through the metal
by conduction. The aspect ratio of the weld is determined by thermal conduction and surface-
tension-driven fluid flow in the weld pool. As the surface tension decreases with temperature,
outward flow of the molten metal occurs. Penetration depths are determined by heat conduction
and convection in the weld pool.
4.6.2 Deep penetration mode welding
A high energy density laser beam vaporises the workpiece during the welding process to
form a hole (keyhole), which allows the laser beam to penetrate into the metal to produce a
deep, narrow melt pool. The absorption of the laser beam increases drastically once the keyhole
has formed, as multiple reflections of the laser light occurs within the hole until most has been
absorbed by the metal. Only a fraction (typically 0.5-0.8) of the absorbed energy causes melting
of the metal to occur, the rest is dissipated by thermal conduction into the base of the metal,
radiation, or convection in the melt pool.
4.6.3 A Good Weld
A good weld is crack-free and has high strength and reliability.Pore formation and
alloying element loss are important concerns in laser welding of automotive aluminium alloys
and must be minimised. The size and shape of the weld pool and the hardness of the
microstructure are both important factors. A fine grain microstructure in the weld pool with a low
increase in hardness is desirable. The quality of a laser weld is also related to the depth of
penetration of the laser beam.
4.7 Types of Weld Defects
4.7.1 Pores in the weld pool
Pores in the weld pool are produced by the keyhole collapsing too quickly and not
allowing the molten metal to flow into the centre of the keyhole before solidification takes place.
They occur primarily in the root of the weld. Instability of the keyhole formation has been shown
to be the main cause of macro-porosity (holes >0.2mm in size) in some Al alloys. When using
pulsed lasers, the porosity tends to increase with increasing power density and pulse time.
4.7.2 Cratering
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When using pulsed lasers, the transition from conduction to keyhole welding is
accompanied by more frequent occurrence of both occluded gas pores in the root and cratering of
the top surface, particularly at higher power densities. In general, increasing the power density
and pulse time results in a rapid increase in cratering.
When the edge of the weld is lower than the centre of the weld, it is said to be undercut.
The amount of undercutting is defined as the difference in height of the highest and lowest points
on the top surface of the weld. When using pulsed lasers irregular undercutting can occur as the
weld speed is increased, resulting in a deformed weld bead or ropey bead. At even higher speeds
the undercutting becomes consistent.
4.7.3 Humping
This is a longitudinal weld defect, characterised by a regular bumping and restriction of
the weld face. The weld metal forms humps above the surface level of the workpiece (as shown
below). It can occur at high speeds. The weld pool shape plays a significant role in the formation
of humping. Full penetration is not a prerequisite for humping to occur.
CHAPTER-5
ADVANTAGES
Major advantages of Laser Beam Welding include the following :
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Heat input is close to the minimum required to fuse the weld metal, thus heat affected
zones are reduced and workpiece distortions are minimized.
Time for welding thick sections is reduced and the need for filler wires and elaborate
joint preparations is eliminated by employing the single pass laser welding procedures.
No electrodes are required; welding is performed with freedom from electrode
contamination, indentation or damage from high resistance welding currents.
LBM being a non-contact process, distortions are minimized and tool wears are
eliminated.
Welding in areas that are not easily accessible with other means of welding can be done
by LBM, since the beams can be focused, aligned and directed by optical elements.
Laser beam can be focused on a small area, permitting the joining of small, closely
spaced components with tiny welds.
Wide variety of materials including various combinations can be welded.
Thin welds on small diameter wires are less susceptible to burn back than is the case with
arc welding.
Metals with dissimilar physical properties, such as electric resistance can also be welded.
No vacuum or X-Ray shielding is required.
Laser welds are not influenced by magnetic fields, as in arc and electron beam welds.
They also tend to follow weld joint through to the root of the work-piece, even when the
beam and joint are not perfectly aligned.
Aspect ratios (i.e., depth-to-width ratios) of the order of 10:1 are attainable in LBM.
CHAPTER-6
DISVANTAGES
Initial cost is high.
It take time to heat electrode.
It has limited use up to 1.5mm thickness.
Vaporization and porosity is developed in welding metals having properties similar to
magnesium.
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Process is comparatively slow to other welding processes.
CHAPTER-7
LIMITATIONS
Joints must be accurately positioned laterally under the beam and at a controlled position
with respect to the beam focal point.
In case of mechanical clamping of the weld joints, it must be ensured that the final
position of the joint is accurately aligned with the beam impingement point.
The maximum joint thickness that can be welded by laser beam is somewhat limited.
Thus weld penetrations of larger than 19 mms are difficult to weld.
High reflectivity and high thermal conductivity of materials like Al and Cu alloys can
affect the weldability with lasers.
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An appropriate plasma control device must be employed to ensure the weld
reproducibility while performing moderate to high power laser welding.
Lasers tend to have fairly low energy conversion efficiency, generally less than 10
percent.
Some weld-porosity and brittleness can be expected, as a consequence of the rapid
solidification characteristics of the LBM.
CHAPTER-8
APPLICATIONS
To join metals having high melting point and hard.
For welding copper, nickel, aluminum, stainless steel, tungsten, zirconium, tantalum etc.
To join tiny electronic parts and to produce integrated circuit.
To weld parts used in space and aircraft industries.
To join parts of dissimilar metals.
Laser beam equipments can also be used in cutting.
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CHAPTER-9
CONCLUSION
Laser beam welding opens up many opportunities for designing and economically joining
machine parts. Various branches of industry, which use laser beam welding includes electronics,
automotive, and food processing. If you select the proper materials and joint configuration, and
then make repeatable tooling, laser welding produces welds of the highest quality at production
rates that cannot be matches by any other process.
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CHAPTER-10
REFERENCES
www.laserweld.com
www.wikipedia.com
www.seminarprojects.com
welding Technology by .S.Chand.
Production Technology by Sharma P C
Principles of metal cutting / T.V Ramana Rao
http://www.google.com
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http://www.sciencedirect.com
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/laser_cutting
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