Ladder Operators and the Quantum

Harmonic Oscillator

William Talmadge

Problem

Consider a harmonic oscillator of mass m and force constant k. In the first

excited state what is the probability of finding the particle between x0 and 2x0 ,
where: x0 = [9~2 /(4mk)]1/4 .

Solution

Ground State

This problem can be solved by using ladder operators to determine the ground
state and then raising it to the first excited state. Define the ladder operator
r  
mω i
â = x̂ + p̂ (1)
2~ mω

as the lowering operator. The lowering operator acts on a ket with the eigenvalue
equation √
â |ψn i = n |ψn−1 i . (2)

Consider that the physical interpretation of the lowering operator is to reduce

the energy level of a particle in the harmonic oscillator system by one level. If
it is operating on the ground state there are obviously no states to which the
system can be lowered. Thus applying the lowering operator on the ground
state produces the vacuum state. The vacuum state contains no particles. This
implies the following relation.
â |ψ0 i = 0 (3)

By expanding eq. 3 we obtain a differential equation that yields the ground

state function ψ0 .
d
p̂ = −i~
dx

1
 2

r  
mω ~ d
â |ψ0 i = x̂ + ψ0 = 0
2~ mω dx
mω
ψ00 = − xψ0 (4)
~
The general solution to eq. 4 is
2
ψ0 (x) = Ae−mωx /2~
.

To determine A we simply impose the normalization constraint on the equa-

tion that the probability of finding the particle somewhere must be unity. We
calculate the probability with
ˆ ∞
P = ψ ∗ (x)ψ(x)dx
−∞

constraining P to unity and substituting the particular wave function we wish

to normalize. ˆ ∞ 2
2
Ae−mωx /2~ dx = 1
−∞
ˆ ∞
2
A 2
e−mωx /~
dx = 1 (5)
−∞

Note that eq. 5 contains a Gaussian integral which has the form,
ˆ ∞ r
−ax2 1 π
e dx = . (6)
0 2 a

Since the integrand of6 is an even function we can double it and use it to simplify
eq. 5. r
2 1 π~
A (2) =1
2 mω
 mω 1/4
A=
π~
With the normalization determined we have a stationary wave function for the
null-vibrational state or ground state.
 mω 1/4 2
ψ0 (x) = e−mωx /2~
(7)
π~
 3

Excited State

With the ground state determined, the first excited state |ψ1 i can be found by
using the raising operator
r  
mω i
↠= x̂ − p̂
2~ mω

according to the eigenvalue equation,

√
↠|ψn i = n + 1 |ψn+1 i . (8)

Applying ↠to ψ0 according to eq. 8,

p
↠|ψ0 i = (0) + 1 |ψ1 i
r  
mω ~ d  mω 1/4 −mωx2 /2~
ψ1 (x) = x− e .
2~ mω dx π~
r
mω  mω 1/4 −mωx2 /2~
ψ1 (x) = 2 xe (9)
2~ π~

With eq. 9 determined for the first excited state we can integrate the probability
integral on the interval
1/4
9~2

[x0 , 2x0 ] where x0 = .
4m2 ω 2

ˆ 2x0
P = ψ1∗ ψ1 dx
x0
ˆ 2x0
 r 2
mω  mω 1/4 −mωx2 /2~
P = 2 xe dx
x0 2~ π~
ˆ
mω mω 2x0 2 −mωx2 /~
r
P =4 x e dx (10)
π~ 2~ x0

The integral in eq. 10 looks like another type of Gaussian integral. However,
it has finite limits of integration which means the solution will be in terms of
error functions. The solution would be relatively complex to work out if it were
not for the observation that the limits are given such that a change of variables
in the integrand will yield an integral that can be evaluated numerically. We
begin by letting r
3~
x= u
2mω
 4

then making the appropriate change of variables which transforms the proba-
bility integral into the following.
r ˆ 2
3 2
P =3 u2 e−3u /2
du
2π 1

Evaluating the integral numerically gives the following solution to the problem.

0.192121