PHOTONIC DEVICES

Dr. Blint Pdr

GENERAL INFORMATION
Course lecturer:

Dr. Blint Pdr

Microelectronic and Technology Institute
Kand Klmn Faculty of Electrical Engineering
buda University, Budapest

Contact:
Through the administration, Department of Electronic Technology,
Technical University, Budapest

Or

[email protected]

[email protected]
 SUBJECTS COVERED IN THE COURSE
Physical basics of photonics (optical properties and quantities, physics of
passive and active optical components)

Light-emitting and sensing devices (non-coherent light sources, i.e.

incandescent and luminescent lamps, light-emitting diodes, detectors,
photodiodes, solar panels, coherent sources, i.e. solid-state lasers, laser
diodes),

Optical materials and passive components (optical glasses, crystals,

semiconductors and polymers),

Active optical components (modulators, deflectors, polarizers, filters,

frequency converters, switches),

Liquid crystals, light-sensitive materials, and optical memory (silver-

halogenides, data recording and reading, magneto-optics)

Optical transfer and optical data processing (optical cables, image

processing, sensors)

COURSEWORK AND GRADING

Five short test papers (15-20 min) during the term (will be announced)

List of typical questions will be available at the end of the lectures

The grade is based on the average of the grades of the five tests

One (but only one) test can be repeated at the end of the term

Pdf files of the lectures will be avilable on the homepage of the

Department of Electronics Technology
OPTOELECTRONICS AND PHOTONICS

Optoelectronics:

Any device that operates as an electrical-to-optical or optical-to-

electrical transducer.

Photonics:

"Photonics" comes from "photon" which is the smallest unit of light

just as an electron is the smallest unit of electricity. "Photonics is
the generation, process and manipulation of photon to achieve a
certain function.

PHOTONICS

An All - Pervasive Technology

Uninhibited light travels thousands of times faster than electrons in

computer chips. Optical computers will compute thousand of times
faster than any electronic computer can ever achieve due to the
physical limitation differences between light and electricity.

Can packed more wavelengths (that is information channels) into a

optical fibre so that the transmission bandwidth is increased than
conventional copper wires.

Light encounters no electromagnetic interference in contrast to

electrons in copper wires.
OPTICS

Optics is an old subject involving the generation, propagation &

detection of light.

Three major developments are responsible for rejuvenation of optics

and its application in modern technology:
1- Invention of Laser
2- Fabrication of low-loss optical Fiber
3- Development of Semiconductor Optical Devices
As a result, new disciplines have emerged & new terms describing
them have come into use, such as:
Electro-Optics: is generally reserved for optical devices in which
electrical effects play a role, such as lasers, electro-optic modulators
& switches.

PHOTONICS

Optoelectronics: refers to devices and systems that are essentially

electronics but involve lights, such as LED, liquid crystal displays
and array photodetectors.

Quantum Electronics: is used in connection with devices & systems

that rely on the interaction of light with matter, such as lasers &
nonlinear optical devices.

Quantum Optics: Studies quantum & coherence properties of light.

Lightwave Technology: describes systems and devices that are used

in optical communication & signal processing.

Photonics: in analogy with electronics, involves the control of

photons in free space and matter.
PHOTONIC COMMUNICATION

Photonics reflects the importance of the photon nature of light.

Photonics and electronics clearly overlap since electrons often
control the flow of photons and conversely, photons control the flow
of electrons.

The scope of Photonics:

1- Generation of Light (coherent & incoherent)
2- Transmission of Light (through free space, fibers, imaging
systems, waveguides, )
3- Processing of Light Signals (modulation, switching, amplification,
frequency conversion, )
4- Detection of Light (coherent & incoherent)

Photonic Communications: describes the applications of photonic

technology in communication devices & systems, such as
transmitters, transmission media, receivers & signal processors.

ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL DEVICES (1)

Immunity to electromagnetic interference
Can be transmitted without distortion due to electrical storms, etc.

Non-interference of two or more crossed beams

Unlike electrical signals, optical signals can cross each other without
distortion

High parallelism
Two-dimensional information can be sent and received

High speedhigh bandwidth

Potential bandwidths for optical communication systems exceed 1013
bits per second

Beam steering for reconfigurable interconnects

Free space connections allow versatile architecture for information
processing
ADVANTAGES OF OPTICAL DEVICES (2)
Special-function devices
Wave nature of light for special devices
Interference or diffraction of light can be used for special applications

Nonlinear materials
New logic devices can be created

Photonics-electronics coupling
The best of electronics and photonics can be exploited by
optoelectronic devices

Challenges: How does one harness the tremendous potential?

OTICS: FRO RAY- TO QUANTUM OPTICS

Historically, optical theory developed
roughly in the following sequence:

(1) Ray optics;

(2) wave optics;
(3) electromagnetic optics;
(4) quantum optics

Ray optics is the limit of wave optics when the wavelength is very short.

Wave optics is a scalar approximation of electromagnetic optics.

The electromagnetic theory of light provided the most complete

treatment of light within the confines of classical optics.

The theory of quantum optics provide an explanation of virtually all

optical phenomena
OPTICS: HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT I
ANTIQUITY: Ancient Greeks ancient light weapons ???

OPTICS: HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT II

ANTIQUITY

Early observations Euclid (280 B.C.) In homogeneous medium light

travels along straight lines (rays)
Principle of the shortest path
In fact it is a geometric optical approximation

Heron (1 st century B.C.) law of reflection with proof

Ptolemy (2 nd century A.D.) law of refraction (in error !)

However it holds approximately true for small incident angles

OPTICS: HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT III
EARLY NEW TIMES (17th century)
Ray or geometric optics

Kepler (1571-1630) small angle approximation to the law of refraction

Snell (1591-1626) and Descartes (1596-1659) law of refraction
Fermat (1601-1665) principle of least time

The correct formulation of the laws of reflection and refraction

Snells law (Descartess law for francophones)

Fermats principle

These amount to the foundation of modern (geometrical or ray) optics.

OPTICS OF EARLY MODERN PERIOD

AS WE SEE IT NOW
The incident and reflected beams and the normal vector of the surface
are in the same plane (they are coplanar).

The angle between the incident beam and the normal vector of the
surface and the angle between the reflected beam and the normal
vector of the surface are equal.
 OPTICS OF EARLY MODERN PERIOD
AS WE SEE IT NOW

Optical fiber confines light by reflection

Law of reflection: r = i

Snells law n1sin1 = n2sin2

Light bends toward low-n region

The critical angle

Light cannot exist region 1 if

2 > c sin-1(n1/n2)
Snells law: nr sinr = ni sini
Principle of light pipe

OPTICS OF EARLY MODERN PERIOD -

AS WE SEE IT NOW
Optical path length (OPL) and Fermats principle

Fermats principle states that the optical path length (OPL) must be
stationary, i.e. a first order change in the path will cause a second
order change in the OPL.
FERMATS PRINCIPLE: APPLICATION
The whole geometric or ray optics can be derived from Fermats priciple.

From Taylor series expansion

FERMATS PRINCIPLE AND REFRACTION

OPTICS OF EARLY MODERN PERIOD -
AS WE SEE IT NOW
Wave optics

Huygens (1629-1695)
developed the wave theory of light
realized that light slowed down on entering dense media
explained polarization and double refraction

Young (1773-1829)
explained interference and colored fringes and showed that light
was a transverse wave

Fresnel (1788-1827)
performed experiments to establish the wave theory
derived expressions for reflected and transmitted waves

HUYGENS PRINCIPLE
Huygens principle states that a wave propagates as if the wave-front
were composed of an array of point sources each emitting a spherical
wave.
All points on a given wave front are taken as point sources for the
production of spherical secondary waves, called wavelets, which
propagate outward through a medium with speeds characteristic of
waves in that medium
After some time has passed, the new position of the wave front is the
surface tangent to the wavelets
EXPERIMENT OF YOUNG AND FRESNEL

HUYGENS-FRESNEL PRINCIPLE

The Huygens-Fresnel principle states that each points of an advancing

wave front is the centre of source of a new train of waves (secondary
wave). The advancing wave can be regarded as a sum of secondary
waves.

Interference, diffraction, etc. can be explained.

In the original formulation by Huygens, the phenomenon if interference
was not incorporated.
ANOTHER OBSERVATION: DOUBLE
REFRACTION - POLARIZATION
Ancient observation: looking through certain crystals (e.g calcit CaCO3)
ghost picture can be seen.

Origin of this phenomenon: the polarization of the light, and the

dependence of the propagation properties on the polarization.
This will be discussed in the framework of wave optics.

DOUBLE REFRACTION

AAline
lineviewed
viewedthrough a cubic
through sodium
a cubic chloride
sodium (NaCl,
chloride halite)crystal
(halite) crystal
(optically
(opticallyisotropic) andand
isotropic) a calcite (CaCO
a calcite 3) crystal
crystal (optically
(optically anisotropic).
anisotropic).
 EM WAVE OPTICS
Maxwell equations

D B
H=J+ E=- D= B=0
t t

Constitutive relations (linear media)

D = E B = H

Wave equation (no charges, no currents) (DAlamberts equation)

1 2 1
(2 - ) u = 0 u : E or H v =
v2 t2 ()1/2

The velocity v is a characteristic of the medium, being dependent on the

constants and of the medium. For free space (vacuum) v is
approximately equal to 3x108 m/sec or about 1 foot/nsec.

THE ELECTROMAGNETC SPECTRUM

EM WAVE

EM WAVE
WAVE EQUATION

Maxwells equations wave equation (E or H is denoted by u)

u = (d2/dx2 + d2/dy2 + d2/dz2)u = ()2u/t2 = (1/c2)2u/t2

The velocuty of propagation of the wave c = 1/()

E = Eo exp [-i (t kr)]

H = Ho exp [-i (t kr)]

where
= kc = 2c/

MONOCHROMATIC PLANE WAVE

SOLUTION
Direction of propagation: +z, E electric field parallel to x,
then H will be parallel to az y tengellyel prhuzamos

Ex = Exo cos (t kz) = Exo cos 2(t z/)

Hy = Hyo cos (t kz) = Hyo cos 2(t z/)

The velocity of EM waves (light) in free space (vacuum)

c = 1/(oo) = 2,997 924 58x108 m/s 3x108 m/s

The velocity of light c is a fixed value, and is one of the pillars of

the SI unit system. The value of the free space magnetic
permeability is defined as o = 4x10-7 Vs/Am, these together
determine the value of the free space permittivity o.
 INDEX OF REFRACTION

Velocity of light in a medium

() = c/n
v = c/

Index of refraction n = ().

The wavelength of light is the path covered during one period

= v/f = c/(nf)

Note that the index of refraction depends on the wavelength!

POLARIZATION

y
Plane of polarization
E
x ^
Ey y

^ ^
x xEx
Ex

E yE
^
y
z E
(a) (b) (c)

(a) A linearly polarized wave has its electric field oscillations defined along a line
perpendicular to the direction of propagation, z. The field vector E and z define a plane of
polarization. (b) The E-field oscillations are contained in the plane of polarization. (c) A
linearly polarized light at any instant can be represented by the superposition of two fields Ex
and Ey with the right magnitude and phase.
POLARIZATION
Special cases of the phase difference between Ex and Ey

Linear polarization Circular polarization

POLARIZATION
Ecos

Linearly
Light detector
polarized light E TA 2

TA 1

Polarizer 2 = Analyzer

Polarizer 1

Unpolarized light

Randomly polarized light is incident on a Polarizer 1 with a transmission axis TA1. Light
emerging from Polarizer 1 is linearly polarized with E along TA1, and becomes incident
on Polarizer 2 (called "analyzer") with a transmission axis TA2 at an angle to TA1. A
detector measures the intensity of the incident light. TA1 and TA2 are normal to the light
direction.
POLARIZATION

Light propagation, reflection and refraction depend on polarization.

This forms the basis of several optical phenomeneon and devices, as

Photography
Optical measurement techniques
Optical data recording
Etc

BREWSTER ANGLE
Refraction modifies (changes)
the polarization.

At one particular angle of incidence,

light with one particular polarization
cannot be reflected. This angle of
incidence is Brewster's angle, B.
The polarization that cannot be
reflected at this angle is the
polarization for which the electric
field of the light waves lies in the
plane of incidence.
Light with this polarization is said to
be p-polarized, because it is parallel
to the plane. Light with the perpendicular polarization is said to
be s-polarized, from the. When unpolarized light strikes a surface at
Brewster's angle, the reflected light is always s-polarized.
CHARACTERISTIC IMPEDANCE

In a plane wave the ratio of electric and magnetic field strengths

(rms values) is constant. In free space this is

Zo = E/H = (o/o) = o/c = 120 = 376,73 ohm

Zo is the characteristic impedance of the free space.

The characteristic impedance of a material medium (if it is not

ferromagnetic, and its relative permeability has a value of unity) is

Z = Zo/r = Zo/n

here n is the index of refraction.

POYNTING VECTOR

The power density in of an EM wave, and also of light (the energy

transported through the unit surface of mthe wave front during unit
time) is

S=ExH

S is the Poyting vector, [VA/m2].

Using rms values the power density is

P/A = coE2 = cB2/o

PHASE VERSUS GROUP VELOCITY

Carrier: rapidly varying terms

Propagates at vp
Envelope: slowly varying envelope -- information
Propagates at vg
Carries information (digital or analog)
Dispersion: distorts the envelope

REVISION QUESTIONS

Enumerate and discuss the most important milestones of the

development of optics!

State Huygensprinciple, and Huygens-Fresnel-principle! In what

respect extends the latter the former one?

State Fermats principle! Which laws of the geometric optics can be

deduced from it? Illustrate it with an example!

Define the polarization of light! Describe the dependence of

polarization on reflection and scattering!

Enumerate and illustrate with drawings the various types of

polarization!
EXERCISES
1.The electric field of a plane wave propagating in the +z direction is
given as
E = E1 cos(t - oz) ix + E2 sin(t - oz) iy

here is the angular frequency, o is the free space propagation

constant, E1 and E2 are constants.
Determine the magnetic filed of the wave.
Show that for a given z the tip of the electric field vector moves along an
ellipse in function of the time.

2. A laser emits a parallel beam of monochromatic light. The intensity

may be assumed constant across the beam. If the power is 1 W and the
beam has a diameter of 1 mm, calculate the maximum amplitude of the
magnetic induction B in the beam in free space.

3. The Earth receives 1350 Wm-2 of sunlight. What is the rms electric
field E at the earth assuming that the sunlight is all of a single frequency?

END OF THE LECTURE