Section 4 Electrical Engineering ANDREW W. EDWARDS Power Engineer, Westinghouse Electric Corporation HAROLD L. RORDEN Consulting Engineer, American Eectrle Powor Serviee Corporation FREDERICK W. SUHR Consulting Engineer, General Electric Company Direct-Current-Circuit Analysis kitenhotfs Laws for DC-Circult Analysis Aiternating-Current-Circuit Analysis Vector Aigebra in Aiternating-Current-Circult Analysis Lightning-Arrester Selection and Application Direct-Current-Generator Selection ‘Alternator Selection for a Known Load Selecting Electrie-Motor Starting and Speed Contvols. Basle Short-Circuit-Current Determination Power-Systom Short-Circut Current Transformer Characteristics and Performance. ‘Transformer Selection for an industrial Load System Power-Factor Analysis Power-Factor Determination and Improvement Wiring-Size Choice for Primary Distribution Wire- and Cable-Size Determination for a Known Load. Preliminary Electrical Load Estimating Plant Power-Distribution-System Planning Induetrial-Battery Selection and Application Electrie-Motor Selection or @ Known Load Starting Time and Current for AC Electric Motors Interior-Lighting-System Selection and Sizing Outdoor-Lighting Selection and Sizing Feeder Sizing for a Combination Electrical Load Sizing Residential-Service Demand Load Electrc-Comfort Heating-Load Determination “442 REFERENCES: Shurzberg and Osterheld Essentials of BlectricitwBlectronies, MeGi Coreoran~Busic Electrical Engineering, Wiley, Oppenheimer and Borchers Direct and Alternat ing Currents, MeGras Hill; Chang— Energy Conversion, Prentice-Hall; Rosenblatt and Priedaaa, Direct and Alternating Current Machinery, McGraw-Hill; Pender~Eleetrical Engineers Handbook, Wiley, Fink and Carroll Standard Handbook for Pleetrical Engineers, MeCraw-Hill ‘Thnbic Willson Industrial Electricity, Wiley; Abbott and Steka—N lectrical. Code Handbook, McGraw-Hill, Riehter— Practical Blectrical Wiring, MeCraw-Hill Steks and Brandon “NEPA Handbook of the National Electrical Code, MeGras-Fill: Hubert Operational El cit, Wiley, Croft and Carr—American Electrician's Handbook, NeCra-Hill: Beeman — Indus trial Power Systems Handbook, MeGraw-Hill, Gibbs Transformer Principles and Practices, MeGrave- Hill, Libby—Motor Selection and Application, MeGraw-Hill: US. Governanent Peinting Oifice= Electric Cursent Abroad; IEKE:— Blectric Systems for Commercial Buitdings; IEEE. Electric Pawer Distribution for Industrial Plants; Power Magazine Editors Industrial Electrical Systems, MeGraw Hill, Daswes—Blectrieal Engineering, MeCriw-Hill, NEMA~ Standards for Motors aud Generators, NEMA~ Standards for Industrial Control, ANSA~Induction Machines; ANSA~Sinichronons Motors; MePartland and Novak ~Blectrical Systems Design, McGraw-Hill, MePariland soul Novak -Elvet rival Design Details, McGraw Hill, MeParthand and Novak Blectes- cal Equipment Manual, MeGraw-Hill; MePartland and Novak —Plectrical Systems for Potcer and ight, MeCraw- Hl DIRECT-CURRENT-CIRCUIT ANALYSIS A directcurrent circuit contains 15 resistors arranged as shown in Fig. {. Compute the current flow through, and the voltage drop across, each resistor in this cireuit, Calculation Procedure: 1. Divide the circuit into sections and groups When analyzing a complex de combination circuit the simplest procedure is to divide the circuit into sections that can later be combined into single or multiple resistances in series. Once this is done the etreult is much easier to analyze. Mark on the circuit diagram the sections decided upon. Figure 1 shows that the three a ro o.----4 | [eee Fig. 1. Direct-current circuit containing numerous resistances (values in ohms): 1,5 1.0005 f= 1,800; r,= 200; r, = 400; 1, = 600; r, = 400; r= 200% r= 20; ry fa 005 5, = 600; ns = 52. 20; 200; 74, 40; groups of series-parallel resistances ean be divided into three sections. Indicate each section as shown,Electical Engineering as Further subdivide each section into parallel and series groups. Mark the groups as shown in Fig. 2. Combine the group resistances to obtain a single section resistance Use the rules for parallel and series circuits to combine the resistance values in each group to obtain one single equivalent resistance for each section, Use R= group resis tance, ohms, and r= resistor resistance, ohms. Por group 1, Fi. 1 1 1 R 600 ohms. Te+ir, ~ 171,000 171,500 since r, and ry are resistances in parallel. For group 2: Re= r+, 600 dohins, since ry and r, are resistances in series. For section 1, Fig. Re=ao ee oe = 00 TR FTIR, 17600+ 17600 ~ 300 ohms since R, and R, are two resistances in parallel that replace the former ry ty and resistances. Ry, Is the equivalent single resistance for groups T and 2 Follow the same procedure for group 3, Fig. 1. Thus, Ry = r-+%4 = 400+ 200 = 600 ohins. Then, sinee f, and group 3 are in parallel, 1 1 = TST Teo + Ta00 7 300 ohms Ros Follow the same procedure for groups 4 and 5, Fig. 1. Or, Ry 4/1) = 200440 240 ohms. 1 L Pe TF Ting Hina TIO THO Ta ~ She Then, fr section e, Res 1 y= 48 ohms iea0-+ 1760 3._ Sketch the equivalent circuit Sections 1, 2, and 3 have been reduced to equivalent single-series resistances, Sketch them in place as shown in Fis. 2 20 ohms 48 obs 52 ohms Fig.2. Direct-current circuit of Fig. 1 reduced to two groups of resistances. 4. Study the equivalent circult for its makeup Study of Fig. 2 shows that the cireuit now consists ofa simple parallel-series eireuit— i.e,4roup A is in parallel with group B while both are in series with r,4a Standard Handbook of Engineering Calculations . Analyze the equivalent circuit to find the line resistance Using the rules for parallel and series cireuits as in Step 2, the is Ry = Roy + Bg, ~ 300+300 = 600 ohms. Likewise for group B, F, 48-52 = 120 ohms. “The equivalent resistance of the parallel cirenit consisting of groups A and B is then esistance of group A Ry Rot ns = 20 1 1 Ry +R, 1600+ 1/120 Ry 100 ohms Lastly, combine this series resistinee with the one remaining series resistance 1 to find the total resistance of the line, or y= r.+ Ray = 20+ 100 = 120 ohms, Hence, the total equivalent resistance of this circuit is 120 ohms. 6. Compute the line current Use the relation I= E/Ry, where I resistance, ohms. Or [= 360/120 = 3 amp. 7. Compute the equivalent-circuit current and voltage The voltage across any resistance ise. Tyra where [and rare the current and resistunce, respectively, for the resistance in question, Thus, e, = Iyry ~ 3% 20 = 60 v Then, Ey ‘e, because the voltaye acting on groups A and Bis that potential remaining after the voltage drop across ry. Or, Ey = Ey 300 v ‘The current in euch group is 1 = B/R, or 1, = 300/600 = 0.50 amp; I= Enjo = 300/120 = 2.50 amp. Asa check, [y= 1,1, = 0.50-+ 2.50 = 3.0amp, as computed in step 6. line current, amp; E 8. Compute the section current and voltage Using the same reasoning as in Step 7: &ss 0.50 300 = 150 v ‘The voltaye across troup A equals the sum of the voltage drops across the resistances, in this group, oF Ey = ey, +e = 150-+ 150 = 300 v, This checks with the computation im Step 7, Using the same procedure for group Bs ¢)= Lary = 2.5020 = 50; &= [Ros 2.50% 48 = 120-v;. ey = Tuy + es = 2.5052 = 130, As a check, Ey= eo tea tey= 50-4 120+ 130 = 300 v. as previously computed in Step 7, LsRyy = 0.50% 300 = 150 v5 es = LR 9. Compute the original-circult current and voltage The current in each resistor, section, and group of the original circuit is uiven by the general relation i= e/r, where the appropriate voltage and resistance is substituted. ‘Thus, for section 1 of the original ei |R. = 150/600 = 0.250 amp; in: = ests 150/1,000 = 0.150 amp; fay = esi's= 150/1,500 = 0.100 amp. Then Ig) = fy hat ies = 0.250-+ 0.150+0.100 = 0.500 amp, and ey > ary ~ 0.250%400 = 100V5 5) = e+e 50 +100 150v. Likewise, for the voltage across section 1: é,.= ist, 0.250 x 400 = 100 v5 es, = e+ #15 = 50-+ 100 = 150. 0.250% 200 = 50Vs és = fr 50/604 250+ 0.350 = 0.500 amp, 0.250% 400 = 100 vs e74= For section 2 find the current in the same way as for section I: f= €3/"y ig iy 0.250 amp; {y= &sx/Ry = 150/600 = 0.250 amp; 1 The voltage across section 2 is made up of: ¢, Jgrg = 0.250 x 200 = 50 vs, + Gq = 100450 For section 3; i 120/240 = 0.5 amp; i, = eq/R,= 120/60 = 2.0 a Tag hi, = 0.50420 = 2.5 amp. Also; 100¥5 en = 0,50 x40 = 20 V5 ¢55 = ey +811 = 100% 20 For group 5: ina = ul! = 120/100 ~ 1.20 amp; érys = gylrys = 120/200 = 0.60 amp; ine = €slty = 120/600 ~ 0.30 amp, ie = Fn fy = 1-204 0,60-+ 0.20 = 2.00 amp. Related Calculations: Any reducible de-circuit (Le., any cireutt that can be reduced to one equivalent resistance with a single power source), no matter how complex, can be solved in a similar manner to that described above, When each cireuit is solved separa- tely and combined whenever possible, the current through each resistor and the voltage drop across it may be obtained. To analyze such cireuits, perform the following stepsElectrical Engineering a5 in the order listed: (1) Combine the resistance values in each group to obtain one single equivalent resistance value for each section. (2) Combine the resistince values of all sections to obtain one single equivalent resistance value for the line. (3) Solve for the line current. (4) Find the current flowing in each resistor. (5) Find the voltage across each resistor, In the analysis of some circuits, Steps 4 and 5 may have to be inter changed. KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS FOR DC-CIRCUIT ANALYSIS leulation Procedure by applying Kirchhoff's Analyze the circuit of the previous laws. Calculation Procedure: 1. Label all circuit elements as to name and value Figure 34 shows the circuit of Fig. 2 with its elements identified by symbol and value. The 360-v generator represents the circnit-voltage source 20 ohms 20 ohms 48 ohms 300 ohme 52 ohms 300 ohms "| 52 onme ‘circuit by use of Kirchot's laws. 2. Label the current direction in each branch of the circuit Draw an arrow alongside each branch of the cireuit to indicate the direc electron flow in the branch, Use judgement in assuming the probable direct electron flow in each branch ofthe cirenit, Fig, 3b.46 ‘Standard Handbook of Engineering Calculations 3. Mark all circuit connecting points with a reference letter Follow a clockwise dirvetion when marking the com letter, Fig. 3b. 4. Set up current equations at each junction of three or more circuit elements When setting up the current junction equations, consider the currents entering the junction as algebraically positive; consider currents leaving the junction as algebr: cally negative, Thus, atjunction C, Fig. 3b, i+ iz—Ly = 0:atjunetion F, Ty—i,— is In this case, except for the algebraic signs, the two equations are the same, The reason for this condition is that the number of independent equations that can be used is always one less than the total number of junctions in a cireuit. (Kirehholf's current law states: The algebraic sum of all currents at any point in a circuit must be zero.) icting points with the reference 5. Setup voltage equations for each closed path in the circuit Kirchhoff's voltage law states: The algebraic sum of all the voltages in any closed path of a circuit must he zero. So be sure to indicate the polarity of the voltages. When setting up the voltage-loop equations, follow these two rules (a) The voltage of a power source is positive when the direction of the path being traced is from the negutive to the positive terminal and negative when in the reverse direction. (b) The polarity of a voltaye at a resistor depends on the direction of the electron ow through it. When the indicated direction of electron flow is opposite to the direc- tion in which the voltage loop is being traced, the voltage at a resistor is negative. When the directions are both the same, the voltage is positive. Using these rules for loop ABCDEPA, Fig. 3b, Ey~ Iyr.—iyry—iyny~ hyn = 0. Taking the path of this loop in the opposite direction as AFEDCBA, then tify} ifs ite} in Es= 0. Substitte known circuitelement values in the first equation to obtain 360 —201, 120i, = 0. for loop ABCDEFA, Setting up the voltage equation for loop ABCFA in a similar manner, iuq—iry— 0. Substituting known circuitelement values, 360~ 201, Likewise for loop FODEP. fry iar, — ity iyr4— fs =O, and 600%, ~ 120i, = 0 — hr di 0, 6. Solve the independent current and voltage equations simultaneously When a cirenit has n basic unknowns, a equations that contain each unknown at least once are necessary for the solution of the problem. Since there are three basic unknowns In this cireuit, namely, f,, f,, and f,, only three equations are needed, if each equation contains each unknown at least once. From one of the current equations, write one of the unknowns in terms of the other unknown or unknowns, Or, iti—Tn=0; hence, [;~ i, +s, Substituting i, +i: for I, in the current equation for loop AFEDCBA, 360 20(i, + ig)— 120), = 0, or 360— last equation for one of the unknowns in terms of the other unknown, or i, = 2.57 ~0.1431,, Substitute this quantity in the current equation for loop FCDEF, or 600%, ~ 120(2.57—0,143i,) = 0: i, = 0.5 amp. Substitute this value for ip in the first combined equation, or 360—140i,—20i, = 0, and solve for i, or i =2.5 amp. Since i, and i, are known, the equation I, = i, +i, ean be solved, or I~ 2.5+0.5 = 3.0 amp. 7. Compute the unknown voltages using Ohm's law ‘Thus; en 3x20= 60 v. 1205 = hry = 2X5! = 150v. Related Calculations: The above Caleulation Procedure isan application of Kirchhof’s laws to a reducible circuit. Use the circuits Note that when a cirenit has two power sources, such as often occurs in irreducible circuits, the directions of the currents are not known, Hence, current directions must be assumed. If an incorrect direction is chosen, it will show up in the solution as a me general method and steps for irreducible“7 negative current. However, the magnitude of the current—i.e., the numerical value— will be correct regardless of the direction chosen. Use the negative sign for the current in any remaining calculations. As a final check, substitute the values obtained in any unused current or voltage equations so that all unknown current values are used at least once. ALTERNATING-CURRENT-CIRCUIT ANALYSIS A series-parallel alternating-current circuit is connected as in Fist 4a. Find the current, power, apparent power, power factor, and phase angle of the line. Find the voltage and current of each part of the circuit. Draw a vector diausram for the eirouit, Calculation Procedure: 1. Reduce each parallel group to a single value of resistance and reactance ‘The purpose of this reduction is to produce the same effect, when the elreuit elements are connected in series, as the original parallel group. These values ure called the equivalent resistance and equivalent reactance. Do this by (a) assigning a convenien assumed voltage to the troup for finding the impedance and phase anal of the group, {b) finding the equivalent resistance, and (c) nding the equivalent reactance ‘Assume « 120, supply. Then, for group t, Fig. das fy B/Ry = 130/30 ~ 4 amp: Iu, = EIX, = 12040= Bamps Tage = (e+ Lae= E+ 3P9= 5 amps Zou Eline = 130(5 — 24 ohms, where Ze — equivalent reactance of group 1 egg? 288 ohms Reqtl92 ohms Re 0 ohms Kiggt 44 ohms Regr384 obme we) ‘hae #173 om W73.amp Eig 120 v Earn2 83 @ i) (2) Typical ac circuit; (b) circuit converted to st 5 elements; (c) voltages across cult elements; (2) cuit vector diagram. Find the power factor of group I from cos = Iyllige = $= 0.80: sin 8 Islline = 0.60, From a table of trigonometric functions, @ = 37° lagging. Use the relation Ry = Za c08 0 to find the equivalent resistance, Ry ohms, Or, Roy 24x 0.80 shms. Likewise, the equivalent reactance Nay is Xoy = Zou Sid 0.60 = 14.4 ohms,Standard Handbook of Engineering Calculations Using a similar procedure for geomp 11, Fi Tres = E/By = 240/60, Fito = Ue Samp: Zog~ Ellie 48 ols; 608 = Inline f=" O80. 4= 0460; 6% 37 Ieading; Roa = Za 608 8= 48% 0.80 38.4 obs Neu % 0.50 = 28S ohms. 2. Drawan equivalent series-circut diagram Figure 4b shows the equivalent series-circuit diagram in which the computed equivalent resistance and equivalent reactance replace parallel groups Land II. 3. Compute the desired quantities for the equivalent circuit Use the relation Zou = [(Rea + RY + (Xioy~ Xie)'I*® where Zao = eirenit impedance ohms, Or, Zo = [192+ 384+ 107 + (14-4~ 288) = 69.1 ohms. Then, lige = Bund Zou = 120/69:1 = 1.73. amp. The line power is Poy = FRx, watts, oF LT3"X 19.2 + 38.4) 113 watts. The apparent power, va, of the circuit is AP; = Ena, 20 LT: 208 va The power factor of the circuit is PFeg = PrP = 203/208 ~ 0.978, OF Bon 125° leading 4. Compute the voltage and current of the original circuit The voltage at scoup 1=FiqZoa= L73X 34 = 4L5v; at Re the voltage is 1.73% 10= 17.3 v, Also, the voltage at group I= By 3x48 = 83 v ‘The current through Ry is fy ™ Eow/y = 41.5/50= 1.38 amp; the current through Xuy is tras = Bam/Xy = 41.540 L04 amp. As a cheek, the line current to group T should be Fine = Unit + fuse? = (138+ 1.04)? 1-73. amp. ‘The current through group I= fps ~ fuge= L73amp, The current through Ry is py = Eayai R= 83/60 = 1.38 amps also Ise Bam/Xe = 83/80 = 1.04 amp, Figure 4c shows the voltage and current distribution in the original circuit, and Fig. 4d shows the vector diazram for the cireuit. Note that the Hine vollaue, Eige = 120-v = the assumed voltae used in Step 1 Related Calculations: To analyze parallel-sevies av cirenits, use the following steps: (1) Find the impedance, current, power, cos @, and sin # for euch parallel branch using the general relations given above. (2) Resolve each current into its in-phase (resistance) component and quadrature (90° angle) or reactance component using the relations Iy= 1080, and fy=Isin#, where I= branch current, 6 = leading or lagging power factor angle. (3) Compute the line current by combining the in-phase (resistance) components and the quadrature (reactance) components of all the branch currents using the general relation lige [lly €0 8; + 60s Bo}? (fy sinh * fe sin Ba.) In the expression +1, sin 0). use + for leading currents and — for lagging currents When the sum of the second parentheses in the lig expression is +, this indicates that Iiye is leading current; a newative sum indicates a hugging line carrrent. (1) Compute the impedance of the cirenit. (5) Gompute the power taken by the circuit. (6) Compute the va of the circuit. (7) Compute the line power factor. Although this is the recom: mended solution sequence. it may have to be altered, depending on the characteristics of the circuit analyzed. Zag sin 84S, VECTOR ALGEBRA IN ALTERNATING-CURRENT-CIRCUIT ANALYSIS Use vector algebra to analyze the circuit in Fig. 4. Find the impedance, phase angle, current, power factor, and power of the line, and the voltage and enrrent of each part of the cirenit Calculation Procedure: 1. Compute the impedance of each circuit group For circuit groups with two components in parallel, use the relation Zp= Z,Z (Z,+7,), where Zy is the total impedance, ohms; Z, and Z, are the impedances, respec- vely, of the two components in parallel. For group I, using vector notatio [(30 x'40)/(30 + J40)] x [(30 ~ j40)/(80 —j40)] = 19.2-+j14.4 = 2437" ohms. For xroup A, Zan = {(60(—80))(60 —j50)} (60 + j80)/(60 + j80)] = 38.4 —j28.8 = 48/—37 ohms,Electrical Engineering CJ 2. Draw the equivalent series circuit Using the computed impedances of the parallel groups, draw the equivalent series 3. Compute the line impedance ‘The line impedance Zye = Zea't Re + Zany ohms. Or in words, the line impedanes sum of the parallel-ircuit group impedances plus the line resistance. For the series Circuit in Fig. AD, Zyqe= 19.2+ j14.4 + 10+ 38.4 — j28.8 = 67.6 j14.4 = 69~ [12° ohms, 4. Compute the line current Use the relation hine = E/Ziiys ohms. OF, lige = 20/60 = 1.74 amp, 5. Determine the line power factor Step 3 shows the line phase angle as 12°, Since PFige= C08 Aine = €05 12°, PP yee = 0.978. 6. Compute the line power Use the relation, Pige = EIPE, watts, or 120% 1.74% 0.978 = 204 watts 7. Compute the voltage and current in the circuit parts For Ry, En = 1 Iiywtey = L.TAX 24 = 41.8 v. Then, fq) = Ey/Ry = 41.8190 1.39.amp. Also, Thu = Ba /Xin— 41.8/40 = 1.04 amp, This completes the voltage ‘current computations for group I. For group TH: Ean = Ligek: = Nien = 1.74 X48 83.6/80 = L04 amp. Related Calculations: Vector algebra saves many steps in complex ac-cixeuit prob- lems. When polar notation is used, as in this Calculation Procedure, solutions are obtained more rapidly, Note that the cireuit analyzed in this Procedure is the circuit analyzed in the previous Procedure LIGHTNING-ARRESTER SELECTION AND APPLICATION Select lightning arresters for a three-phase 13.8-kv industrial plant electrical system fitted with 4.16-kv rotating machines, TAX 10= ITAV: Uy = Tine = LTA amps Bre 83.6/60 "1.39 amps Trev Calculation Procedure: 1. Select the distribution-system arrester voltage rating Table 1 shows the typical voltage ratings of lightning arresters usually chosen for three-phase power systems, Thus, either a 15-kv or a 12-kv arrester may be used for this system, depending on how the system neutral is grounded, Where the lype of grounding is not known, or is yet to be chosen, the higher-rated arrester is a safer choice, Also, an effectively grounded neutral may, ander fault conditions or other emergencies, leave a portion of the system ungrounded. For these reasons the higher~ rated arrester is often preferred. Henee, a 15-ky arrester will be chosen for this distri- bution syste 2. Choose the type of arrester to use ‘Table 2 shows the typical arrester types used for various required voltage ratings. ‘Thus, either a distribution- or station-type arrester can be used for a required voltage rating of 3 to 15 kv. Further study of Table 2 shows that proteetion of industrial-plant electrical systems is usually accomplished by use of a station-type lightning arrester. ‘The reason for this is that the value of the equipment and the importance of uninter~ rupted service warrants the use of station-type arresters throughout the voltage range ofthe plant. Hence, this type of arrester will be chosen for this phint. 3. Choose the rotating-machinery arresters ‘Table 3 shows the voltae rating of lightning arresters used to protect three-phase ac rotating machines, Since it hasalready been decided, Step 2, to use station-type arresters10 Standard Handbook of Engineering Calculations TABLE 1 Voltage Ratings of Arresters Usually Selected for Three-Phase Systems Voltage rating of arrester, kv Nominalsystem [System neutral | System neutral voltage, kw ungrounded or ‘effectively resistance grounded | grounded 10.120/0.208 ¥ 005, 0175 0.240 085, 0.65 0.50 os, 0.65 0.600 085 0.55 24 3 3 DAH LOY 45° or 6 B45" oF 6 418) 45° or6 48 45¢ or6 sa | 15" oro 6 2 15 2 7.9/12.47 ¥ 45 Stor Iz 18.2 (or 138) 15 B 3 20 Bes 0 46 rn 6 a o ns 12h oF 138 M5 BI “The 45 and Tsky arvesters are available only in the station type. iThe use of these arresters requires an XW; ratio less than that necessary to make the system’ “effectively rounded.” SOURCE: Beeman— Industrial Power Systems Handlbool, MeGraw- Hill TABLE 2. Lightning-Arrester Applications Required Avrester Tipe of Arcester Used Voltage Rating, ke 3-15 Distribution o station 20-73 Line oF station Equipment Protected Typical Arvester Choice Industral plant Station Liquid-filled transformers and substations rated 1,000 ‘va and less; short cables between overhead lines and apparites; small breakers; disconnects Distribution or ine Rotating machines .- Distributionoui uo Sounoeyy Buneyoy gy aseyg-aouyy 10} juoWdiNdy anNoaIOLE f e19eL anane ‘Standard Handbook of Engineering Calculations in this plant, the choice of the rotating-machinery-type arrester is simplified. Thus, all that need be cone is to choose the stition-type arrester voltage rating. ‘Table 3 shows that either 4,500-v or 3,000-y station-type arresters are suitable for 4,160-v machines, depending on the type of system grounding. Once again, unless the: system is known tobe effcctively grounded, the higher voltage rating is the ‘Thus, either the higher or lower voltage rating would be used, depe rounding method employed Related Calculations: Other xe equipment that can benefit from lightning-arrester protection includes metal-clad switchgear, generators, transformers, distribution lines, circuit breakers, overhead feeders, etc Direct-current motors and generators connected to exposed overhead lines are gen- erally protected by capacitor-type de arresters. These arresters can he installed at the machine terminals, on the bus, or at the station on each outgoing feeder, Mereury.are rectifiers and thei transformers can be protected by a set of station-type or distribution type arresters on the supply side of the transformer. If the de feeder suitable de arresters should also be used at the de terminals of the bus, or on the exposed de feeders. choice. ing on the DIRECT-CURRENT-GENERATOR SELECTION Select an alternator for a new industrial plant having an expected demand for 8.000 kw The load served by the generator requires an input voltage of at least 230 v at all ratings ‘up to full load Calculation Procedure: 1. Compute the generator amperage output Use the relation I = P/E, where I = generator amperage output; P = generator power output, watts; £= generator terminal voltage, For this generator, 1 = 1,000,000/230 = 50 amp, 2. Select the generator rating Typical standard ratings for direct-current generators are 1,000, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, 6,000, ete... amp. Since the required amperage output ofthis generator is between vo standard ratings, select the next higher rating, or 5,000 amp. This provides estes capacity fora moderate growth in the xenerator load. 3. Select the type of generator to use ‘Two classes of de generators are used today: (a) separately excited, and (b) sell excited. The selfexcited generator is, in general, more popular for power service Three types of self-excited de generators are nsed for power generation—shunt, sevies and compound wounel. The first two have drooping voltage characteristics —ie., the fenerator output voltage decreases as the external loud increases, F supply service, a eurmulative-compound-type gerivrator is preferred, This type of generator may be flat-compounded, Fig. 5, so that it produces the same voltage at full load as at no load. or it may be overcompounded so it produces a higher voltage at full load than at no load, Fig. 5. Other wiring arrangements are wide compounded and differentialcompounded. Since the load served by: this generator requires an input voltage of at least 230 v, either a flat-compounded or am overcom= potnded generator can be used. To provide for the possibility of load growth, an over: compounded generator would be the hest choice because it will provide the desired voltage at all loads within the generator rating, 4. Compute the generator efficiency ‘The manufacturer's engineering data list the losses in the generator. These losses are usually expressed in watts and are shunt-field loss = shunt-feld current x yenerator voltage rating, armature loss = [shunt-feld current + armature current}? * armature resistance, ohms; series-field loss = series-field loss = [series-field current + armature current}? series field resistance ohms; and the stray power loss.Electrical Engineering 443 Assume that the sum of all these losses for this generator is given as 80,000 watts. ‘Then, since generator efficiency = output watts/(output watts-+ losses, watts), efficie 1,000,000) 1,000,000 + 80,000 ~ 0.925, oF 92.5 percent, lated Calculations: Use this general method to choose de generators for power, emergency marine, and similar applications. Be sure to relate the generator output. — ‘generator oitage Overcompounded b> Flat-compoundee ~ Undercompounded Generator output terminal voltage Difterenil-compounded Load, emp Fig.5 Voltage characteristics of drect-current generators. voltage characteristic to the load being served. If this important aspect of de generator choice is overlooked, the unit chosen may be unsuitable for the load. Also, be sure that the rpm of the generator selected can be obtained using a suitable prime mover. ALTERNATOR SELECTION FOR A KNOWN LOAD Select an alternator for a new industrial plant having an expected demand for 8,000 kw at a power factor of 0.8. Continuous operation of the plant is expected and interruptions of generating service must he avoided hecanse they are costly. Hence, reserve capacity must be provided for forced outages and regular maintenance. The plant will have a continuously high load factor. Calculation Procedure: 41. Select the alternator capacity In general, the cost per kw of installed generating capacity decreases as the size of the unit increases. Also, the efficiency of steam-driven generating units increases as unit size increases. Operating labor costs are nearly proportional to the number of generating units installed. The efficiency of a generating unit is usually low at light Toads and rises toa “best point” somewhere between 73 percent and full load. The exact shape of the efficiency curve of an alternator depends on the type of prime mover and, to a lesser degree, on the size, design, and other features of the alternator and prime mover. “These characteristics of generating units point toward supplying load with one large alternator. Yet this is rarely possible because of loud conditions.a4 Jeutations Where continuity of operation is re uptions are costly, reserve capacity is required, notonly for forced outages but for scheduled maintenance outages. tis usually more economical to provide reserve capacity for several smaller generating, units than for one large unit, A typical plant might use three units, any two of which can carry the load. This arrangement also provides economically for load growth— adding 2 nit gives four machines with any three able to earry the full plant load. Where con- tinuity of service is an important consideration, check to see what standby service, if nny, the local utility ean provide, and what it costs. Using the above facts ay a general guide, make a tentative choice of three units for this 8,000-kw plant. ‘The capacities of the three units chosen will be 6,000, 4,000, and 4,000 kw to fulfill the requirement that any’ two nits be able to carry the plant load, ‘Thus, the capacity of the units, when operated in twos, is 6,000-F 4,000 = 10,000 kw, oF 4,000°+ 4,000 = 8,000 kw: 2. Study the plant load factor ‘The plant load factor ulso exerts a strong influence on alternator choice. A low load factor discourages the use of one or two large units because much of the operating time will be on the lower part ofthe efficiency curve. A special problem in some industries is the weekend load, which may require a special small unit. The load-duration curve pro- vides a valuable insight for relating unit sizes to plant load conditions, Since this plant has a continuously high load factor, the three units will probably be suitable. 3. Select the alternator operating voltage Figure 6 shows the typi ties, Thus, 4,000-kew alte standard voltage ratings for alternators of various capac ators are rated between 4.16 5,000 kw’ and up 13Sky is a standard \ voltaze, 4 alee eereleel|| Since any two of those alternators mst WY operate in parallel, the same voltaue shoul ze VDWWQROa SS be used for each. In this plant the smaller ; K eee \ alternators will use 6.8kv because higher £ \etoge voltazes are the trend today, Hence, the 5 vat large generator should be chosen for the Pd ool} RAY ine erecta Sere fe X either smnaller unit Ewen ‘When choosing alternator voltage, keep B 4p46 ey im mind the trend toward generating at B | 2anl higher voltages (ap to 18.8kv) in indus & plants and distributing at that voltage to Secondary substations, Where a kter chanse ee 68 From delta to ¥ connections to increase the ne alternator voltage is plamed, be sure the oe a llternator is now connected delta. Fig. 6 Standard alternator voltage rat 4, Check the generator regulation ‘The standard alternator regulation of 40 to 45 percent at 0.8 pf will satisfy most indus trial-plant needs. Where the plant has one load which is much larger than any other— such as the chipper motor in a paper mill—a different regulation from that eited above might be required. The exact regulation required varies with the motor rating and application. 5. Check the paralleling characteristics of the alternators To parallel two alternators, the voltage, frequency. waveform, phasing, and phase rotation of both alternators must be the same. During paralleling, slight adjustments can be made in the alternator voltage and frequency. Check the specification sheet of each alternator to see that the requirements listed above are met. Related Calculations: Use this general method to choose alternators for commercial, marine, portable, and similar applications. Be sure to use the manufacturer's specifi cation sheet when considering a specific alternatorElectrical Engineering 445 SELECTING ELECTRIC-MOTOR STARTING AND SPEED CONTROLS Choose 2 suitable starter and speed control for a 500-hp wound-rotor ae motor that nnast have a speed range of 2 to 1 with a capability for low-speed jousing, The motor is to operate at about 1,800 rpm with current supplied at 4,160 v, 60 Hz. An enclosed starter and controller is desiruble from the standpoint of protection, What is the actual motor speed if the motor has four poles and a slip of 3 percent? Calculation Procedure: 1. Select the type of starter to use Table 4 shows that a magnetic starter is suitable for wound-rotor motors in the 230 to, 4.500-v and 5 to 1,000-hp range. Since the motor is in this voltage and horsepower TABLE 4 Typical Alternating-Current Motor Starters* ‘Typical va Motor tyne | Starter type “ Vottare Hp Squirrel cage . | Magnetic, full: nio-ss0 | 1.5-600 oltage With fusible or 208-550 | 2-200 nonfusible dis connect ar cirewit Dreaker Reversible 110-550 | 15-200 Manu, Fal nosso | 15-75 voltage Manual reduced | 220-2,500 | 5-150 voltage, antotrans former Mognetic,reduved- | 220-5000 | 5-1,750 voltage, autotrans: Former Magnetic. redueed- | 220-550 | 5-600 voltage, resistor lagnetic. primary | 220-4,500 | 51,000 ‘and secondary control Dramsand resistors | 1,000 max | 5-750 for secondary control j Synchronous ..| Reduced-voltage magnetic Reduced-voltage, | 220-2,500 semimagnetic: Fall-voltage, 220-5.000 | 25-3,000 magnetic Hixl-capacity | Magnetic, ful 2,900-4,600 | Upto 2.250 induetion....] voltage Magnetic, reduced: | 2,300~ voltage High-capacity. | Magnetic, fll 2.800-4.600 | Upto2.500 synchronous | voltage Magnetic, edueed- | 2,500-4,600 | Upto2.500 voltage High-capacity | Magnetic prin wound rotor | and secondary Wound rotor 600 | Upt02.250 2,300-4,600 | Upto2.250 “Based! on Allis;Chalmers, General Blect Westinghouse416 ‘Standard Handbook of Engineering Calculations range, a magnetic starter will probably be suitable, Also, the maynetic starter is avail- able in an enclosed cabinet, making it suitable for this installation, ‘Table 5 shows that a motor starting torque of approximately 200 per cent of the full- load motor torque and current are obtained on the first point of acceleration. 2. Compute the full-load speed of the motor (100~s)/100]120f!n, where s=slip, percent; f= frequeney of supply current, Hz; For this motor, § = [(100—3)/100]120(60)/4 = 1,750 rpm, motor full-load speed, rpm; jumber of poles in the motor, TABLE 5 Adjustable-Speed Drives Drveiyper Drive shits [Common Padre [savas [Fdcuren | Wome] Wouni-our | Wound aor ettage de |Jomasee | semtor | cau [rstandard | yet” | derwtorse Power feafer” [sem [Meaifen [Acamon” Acmwtor [Acmneon, | dome ms “motor | “exener| “reac | esi Caton: | cme, revue’ Sede. | owes | sooth rete Nomatsoeed | a1 |otere force [aenamte | ar | tor a1 oe ley [tebe [i ayote Loree a ae i tee (i ee mee Ye ves waltbie.. cn | ct | ot ot et | chem sie re rer |e |S venation 1 eratur remlar|resior | sheet” Jewia—|nheseas” [Ret | Rhee | tem vow costs Montrl—wbwosst [ores [eran | orm | coinane vere Encioues | | ‘wate. | am | an fan | pew Jat an an Veahing | ‘ewes xe | te Xe a | ome Xe Drumics | Ye | Ae No ye | oe |i alinte | ee ret eect (Recor eee te) Yes x ree | ‘rention..| ves | over | ver | Yee wo | ve ves conve | Toccestion | deceleration | Yes | Yeu ves tes No pity | s0.se | cate sosse | on | oomn | ates Tpapectat | tone | so8e8 | -srs | we | ae | asus | ro-r0% rere... 1005 | soo | r008 | ase | 908 | oom | irom suring Tarive... 0-g00s| 2000s aeo-soos] 200-0008} 2008 | 200.2005 | 200-s00% Namberst ; Tom, tags. teomm | comm | teoum | None | tertsings | taetsings | Taetses *svsedonlyinsaturableresetor deans ‘or constantlorquese-hp conta horsepower Units oF 200 1 speed range are alle ‘Low speed ean be obtained using senate resistance. “Totally enelowed units must be water or ok-coule, “addycineent rake may be integral with ast ‘thased om standard de motor ‘Norns wt larger de motor stcesthas slower base speed.Electrical Engineering a7 3. Choose the type of speed control to use ‘Table 5 summarizes the various types of adjustable-speed drives available today. This listing shows that power-operated contactors used with wound-rotor motors will give a3 to I speed range with low-speed jogying. Sinco a 2 to I speed range is required, the proposed controller is suitable because it gives a wider speed range than needed, Note from Table 5 that if'a wider speed range were required, a thyratron control could produce a range up to 10 to 1 on awound-rotor motor. Also, a wound-rotor direct- current motor set might be used too. In such an arrangement, an ac and de motor are combined on the same shaft. The rotor current is converted to de by external silicon rectifiers and fed back to the de armature through the commutator, Related Calculations: Use the two tables presented here to quide the selection of starters and controls for alternating-current motors serving industrial, commercial, marine, portable, and residential applications. To choose a direet-current motor starter, use Table 6 as a guide. Speed controls for de motors can be chosen using Table 7 as a guide. De motors are finding increasing use in industry. They are also popular in marine service, TABLES Direct-Current Motor Starters Type af Starter Typleal Uses Aerossthe-Hine Limited to motors of less than than 2 hp Reduced-voltage, manual Used foe motors up to 50 bp control face-plate type) where starting is infrequent Reduced-voltaye. multiple. ‘switeh Motors of more than 50 hp Reduved-voltage, devin Large motors: frequent switch starting and stopping Reduced-voltage, magnetics Freaiuent starting ad switch stopping; large rotors TABLE 7 Direct-Current Motor-Speed Controls ‘Typeofmotor |Speed characteristic ‘Type of control Series wound. | Varying; wide-speed] Armature shunt regulation and series Shune-wound | Constantat [Armature shunt selected speed | and series resistors; field ‘weakening: variable sri ture wotiage Compune-wound] Regulation shout [Armature shunt and series 2 percent resistors; feld weakening variable armature voltage BASIC SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT DETERMINATION A 50-hp ac motor draws 63 amp at full load. This 40-ohm apparent impedance motor is supplied from an “infinite” bus through a transformer with a rated output of 440 , 200 amnp, and a 0.2-ohm impedance. Determine the short-cireuit eurrent flow if a fault occurs between the transformer and the motor. What will be the effect of using. 2,000- amp, 0,02-ohm impedance transformer for the same motor to provide for a load growth?a8 ‘Standard Handbook of Engine ing Calculations Calculation Procedure: 1. Sketch the circuit hookup Figure 7 shows the typical cireuit hookup for an i breaker at point X must have a large enough rating to hi tallation of this type. The cireuit ulle the short-cireuit current, Infiite bus, ~ Transformer cn x t i 50-hp more 5-1, dO-onen oT Spparent impedance Fig.7 Typical motor circuit with a step-down transformer and protective circuit break Compute the short-circuit current with the small transformer With a short circuit at F, the only impedance limiting the short-circuit current flow is the transformer impedance of 0.2ohm, because the current will take the path of least resistance. The motor apparent impedance of 40 obm is so much larger than the transformer impedance that the short-circuit current will rash outat F Compute the short-circuit current from I, = E/Z,, where 1,= shortcireuit current, amp; E = bus voltage rating, i.c., transformer-outpu rating, «; Z, = transformer impe- dance, ohms. Thus, 1, = 440)0.2 = 2,200 amp. Henee, the cirenil breaker must handle at least 2,200 amp to protect this eireuit. 3. Compute the short-circuit current with the large transformer Use the same relation as in Step 2. Or, 1, = 440/0.02 = 22,000 amp. Thus, the large former, installed to handle the greater load, will require a cireuit breaker with a much higher rating. Note that the motor-load current will remain the same, yet the short-circuit current increases tenfold as the system load increases. Related Calculations: This simple short-circuit computation shows the basic proc dure to use. As a circuit and its components become more complex, so do the short cirenit computations. Typical methods are shown in the following Calculation Procedure. POWER-SYSTEM SHORT-CIRCUIT CURRENT A three-phase power system has two generating stations thet supply one substation, If the generator ratings, line voltages, and line reactances are as listed below, determine the short-lrcuit current when a fault occars in the distribution line beyond the sub>- station Unit |Rating. kva_ |} Lineto-line Kv | Reactance, ohins Generators...] 80,000 138 23 Generator y... | $5,000 138 aa Line #2 50,000 138 06s, Line ys 85.000 bs 040) we stashort -| 150,000 138. 045Electrical Engineering a9 Calculation Procedure: 1. Express the system reactances on a per-unit basis Select a kva base, stich as 50,000, 100,000, 200,000 kva, etc. Any easily manipukited value can be used. Once a kva base is chosen, compute the reactance per unit Xyy from Xyu= (kva base) X/ke*x 1,000, where X= unit reactance, ohms; kv # linesto-line Kilovolls for the unit Selecting a kva base of 100,000 kva and using this relation for generator x, Xyw (100,000)(2.3)/(13.8)(1,000) = 1.21. Using the same kva base, compute the perunit reactince for the other generator and each line, Draw a single-line diagram of the system, Mark the reactance values on the system single-line diagram, Pig. Ba 2. Sketch the network representing this power system Figure 8b shows the network representing this system. It consists of a parallel net- work of two parts, each part having two Xjq reactances in series 3. Compute the equivalent reactance between the generator and the fault Use the relation Xu = (X.Xy/XeXy)+Xae where Xo = equivalent reactance of the network, per unit; X,= total per unit reactance for leg xz; X,= total per unit reactance for leg ys; Xi = total per unit reactance for leg A. Substituting, Xo [121+ 0.310.577 + 0.21.21 +0.341 40.577 + 0.21) +0 758 per unit 4. Compute the normal line current at the fault Use the relation 1, = kva base/ke V3 for the normal line current at the fault, where surrent at the fault, amp; other symbols as before, Thus, I, = 100,000) ‘amp. 5. Compute the current in each line at the fault Use the relation f= Iy/Xyy for a three-phase short Tine at the fault, amp; other symbols as before, Thus, J uurrent in each 5.500 amp, where I 175/0.759 6. Compute the fault current in each fine For generator x and transmission line x2, Le I(Xyur+XiurVSXawe Where Le = generator and transmission-line fault current, amp; Xyur = generator reactance, per Unit; Xjqco= transmission-line reactance, per unit; ¥Xj,~ sum of the individual network reuetances; other symbols as before. Substituting, 1= 5,500(1.21 + 0,341)/(1.21 +0.341-+0.577 0.31) = 3,650.amp, Using a similar relation for generator y and transmission-line ys, by = 5,500(0.577 + 0.21)41.21-+0.341 + 0.577 +021) = 1,850 amp. As a check, the sum of the two genera torand transmission-line currents should equal I,, or 3,650 + 1,850 = 5,500 amp = I. Related Calculations: The yeneral method presented here is valid for simple ‘and complex short-circuit calculations, Summarized, this procedure is as follows. (1) Obtain equipment and line reactances from equipment characteristies and tabulated data, 2) Draw the system single-line diagram. (3) Convert reactances to per unit on a base kva. (4) Combine reactances to obtain u reactance diagram without series reae- ances. (5) Compute the fault current or kva. To combine reactances, use the equations shown in Fig. Se Lastly, Table 8 shows the short-circuit current theoretically possible at various operating voltages and kva ratings. TRANSFORMER CHARACTERISTICS AND PERFORMANCE A 60-112, 1,000-kva three-winding transformer is rated at 4,800-V primary voltage and 600- and 480-v secondary voltages. The transformer has 800 primary turns, and the rating of each secondary winding is 500 kva. Compute the number of turns in each secondary winding, the rated primary current at unit power factor (pf), rated primary current at 0.8 pf, lagging current, rated current of the 600- and 480-v secondary wind ings, primary current when the rated current fows in the 480-v winding with p: 10, and the rated current flow in the 600-v winding with a 0.8 lagging pf.420 ‘Standard Handbook of Engineering Calculations seme 2084 i Substton | pm Saaara reco (a) bid Branches in series x XK Ke Xe Branches in perale: Wye to cela 1 1 % tg % Ke x x 3 2 na x 2 x 2% Lx, Xe AE Hah Data 10 Wye %o% aete%e Xome Yo" Saar ke 1 : % te sf 2 4X 3 take 5 Xo ere Fig. 8 (a) Electrc-power system with two generating stations and one substation; (b) circut diagram of gonerating system ina: (c)reaetances fr various cireuit arrangements ©Elect Engineering eat Calculation Procedure: 1. Compute the number of turns in the secondary windings Use the relation N,= eNglvp, where N,=number of turns in secondary windings voltage rating of secondary winding; N, = number of turns in the primary winding voltage rating ofthe primary winding, TABLES Theoretical Short-Circuit Currents Shore-cireuitamp per phase for various voltages, Shortcineuit Sephase | kva 1s.000 | 2.5006 25,000 1.000 | 5,800 | s1.000 | 70,000 50,00 2.000 | 11.500. | 63.000 | 140,000 100.000 £000 | 23,000 | 125.000 } 289,000 NOTE: These are calculated enrrent values diseonnting lunpethayee that may he met in typical plant systenns on secon Aasies ofunitsubstations For the 600-v secondary winding, N, ~ 600(800)/4,800 = 100 turns. For the 480-v secondary winding, N, = 480(800)/4,800 — 80 turns, 2. Compute the rated primary current Use the relation 1, = va/ey. where [= primary current, amp; ca = transformer voltampere rating; ¢= transformer primary voltage rating, For this transformer at unity power factor, f, = 1,000,000/4,800 = 208 amp. AtOS-pf lagging current, the rated primary curvent is the same as the rated primary current at unity power factor, or 208 amp. The reason for this is that the power fuetor relates to the transformer or secondary load. The power factor of the load does not affect the rated primary-winding current, 3. Compute the secondary-winding current Use the relation 1,= va, where J, = secondary current How, amp: rd. = secondary voltampere rating; 6, = secondary voltage rating, For the 600-v secondary winding, I, = 500,000/600 = 833 amp. For the 480-v secon- dary winding, 1, = 500,000/480 = 1.041 amp. 4. Compute the primary current at the given secondary loads Use the relation 1, = (tay/t,Neosphi)* (Caalty}eos'pf:). where I= primary cur- rent, amps va.) = voltamperes of the first secondary coil, cy = transformer primary voltae; cos” pf = angle, expressed in degrees, whose cosine ~ the power factor of the lou on the first secondary coil; other symbols are the same, except that they refer to the other secondary coil ofthe transformer. Thus, 1, = (600% 833/4,800) /—36,8°+ (480 x 1,041/4,800) [0° = 104.1 cos 36.8" =f 104.1 sin 36.8"+ 104.1 cos 0°+ 104.1 sin 0 = S3.4— 62.4404 1041, or 1, — 187.5 ~ 162.4, Converting this expression using veetor algebra, [y — (187.5°—6 amy Related Calculations: Use this uencral method to analyze transformers with one or more secondary coil windings used for power, distribution, residential, or commercial TRANSFORMER SELECTION FOR AN INDUSTRIAL LOAD ect a three-phase transformer for an industrial plant having an expected load of 300 kva located 400 ft from the transformer. The transformer will be Tocated in an area, of high humidity. What is the transformer voltage drop, copper loss, and care loss ifan ‘Standard Handbook of Engineering Calculations the primary voltage is 4,160 and the secondary 480 v, and the power factor 0.80? What sound level can be expected with this transformer? Calculation Procedure: 1. Choose between an outdoor substation and a load center Outdoor substations were once the popular way of supplying power to industrial phints, Today a load center is often used in place of the outdoor substation. In a load center, the primary power is brought close to the plant load instead of being ended at ‘an outdoor substation, Load centers ure not always the most economical choice, however. Here are general guides for the choice of outdoor substation versus load-center distribution. With a 120/240-v single-phase load, « load center is usually best if the transformer-to-load distance is more than 160 ft for a 25-kva load, nore than 90 ft for a 75-kva load, and more than 60 ft for a 200-kva load. For a 480-v three-phase distribution system, load centers fare generally best for a 150-kva load more than 400 ft from the transformer; a 300-kva, Toad more than 300 ft; a 750-kva load more than 150 ft from the transformer Since this installation serves a 300-kva three-phase load 400 ft from the transformer, 1 Toad-center distribution system will probably be best, aceording to the ubove guide. Hence, this will be the tenative first choice for this plant, 2. Choose the type of transformer cooling Basically, two types of transformer cooling are id and air. The usual liquid coolants currently used are askarel, a synthetic nonllammable liquid, and mineral oil, The liquid-cooled transformer predominates in sizes over 500 kva. By fur the largest number of transformers in terms of kva capacity are oil-cooled. ‘Air-cooled transformers are termed dry-type units. Dry-type transformers can be id units, open tits, foreed-air-cooled, or self- and forced-air-cooled Table 9) shows the important fictors that should be considered in choosing load: center transformers. Study of this table shows that in areas of high humidity an askarel: cooled transformer is generally chosen. sed today’ Ti TABLE9 Transformer Coolant Characteristics* Exposure to lightniag Dey | Askarel Where transformers connect direetly to lightning-esposedd ‘lzcuits with only usual lightning protection No | Yes Hlightningesposure is negligible or i unit is suitably pro tected, iffeeder cable fs underground, or ifuverhead supply having usual Hightaing protection feeds into primary eableat least 1.500 long Yes | Yes Location and atmospheric conditions Relatively clean atmosphere: assembly plants ete yes | Yes Bad atmospheres foundries, eoment, our mills, ete No | Yes Areas of high bamidity or of possibile dooding No | Yes Acid oil, or corrosive vapors present... No | Yes Units to be installed in hazardous locations (ce National Electrical Code, article 500) No | Yes “Teansformers tae overhead on platforms or roof trusses, ll other conditions being satisfactory ves | No “In general, the sealed dry-type transformer can be used under all the given conditions that would ile ont ventilated erty wntElectrical Engineering 423 3. Specify the transformer variables ‘Table 10 lists many of the variables for Ioad-center transformers. Thus, askarel- filled load-center transformers normally use Class A insolation, have an average temperature rating of 35-C rise and 65-C hottest-spot rise. The weight of an askarel- filled unit is about 1.25 times the weight of an oil-Blled transformer; the oor space required by the two is the same TABLE 10 Comparison of Load-Center Unit Substation Transformer Sections Liywid filed Dry type Typeottransformer a . Sealed oa astarel | ventilated Clase Ht Impulse strength 100% 100% 50%" Bos" “otal loss at 75 C ose 100% | 100% 100% ——|100% Inselation, Chass A wA [Clas | Chase [class # erature ratings Average rise 556 5c B06 120 oct Hottest spot rise 5C we [10 moe hance Audio sound level | xab xab (4 AGdb*) | (+ 10db*) |X + LOdb*) Weights 100% 125% B08 13566 Floorspace 100% re | 120% Height too | 00 90% now Norsnall applica Indoor or outdoor Outdoor | All Indoor only | allt laut Submersible Submersible Fireand explosion resistant | No Yes Yes Yes(plus) |¥es (lus) Maintenance required: | Liquid, | Normat | Infrequent | None None [None Internal cleaning None None | Frequent | None | None External cleaning and painting expense Normal] Normal} Subnormal | Atinismum | Minima Special precautions before energizing either initially { rater shutdown, None | None | ew None [Xone *Notyet covered by industey standards Applicable for all types af installation assuming no exposure lightning or assuming adequate protection against impulse voltges ean be provided SOURCE: Beeman Ludustral Power Systems Ha soo, McGraw-Hill 4. Determine the transformer electrical characteristics Table 11 lists the electrical ratings of typical modern transformers. This table shows that a 300-kva rating is a standard one. Hence, such a unit is readily available from. manufacturers. 5. Determine the transformor losses ‘Table 12 shows typical losses for three-phase distribution transformers with ratings to 400 kya. Thus, at full load on a transformer with a 0.80 power factor, the voltaze drop through the transformer is 2.83 percent. The copper loss i 0.92 percent and the core loss is 0.80 percent. Note that Table 12 also shows the impedance for the trans- former. 6. Determine the transformer and sound level ‘Table 13 shows that the average factory has a sound level of 70 to 75 db. Table M. shows that a 300-kva ojlimmersed transformer has a sound level of 55 db, Since the428 Standard Handbook of Engineering Calculations TABLE 11. Electrical Ratings of Transformers for Power anu Distribution Service” Kvarating Voltage ratings Single-phase | Three-phase | Primary | Secondary 15 50 120 120 25 18 240 240 30 10 480 180 50 15 500 600 75 25 200 | 2.400 10 20 2500 | 4.160 15 5 4160 | 6.900 25 100 4300 | 11,500 as 150 soo | 13,800 50 200 900 | 23,000 5 sno | ans00 | 34,500 100 450 | 46,000 150 500 59,000 200 750 250 1.000 1,500 2,000) 2.500 115,000 3.000) 138.000 5.000 161,000 * Pasta listing of commeretally available units TABLE 12 Electrical Characteristics of Single-phase and Three-Phase 60-Cycle Distribution Transformers Single-phase transformers; voltage rating—2,400 to 120/240 v | Percent voltage drop through transformer Size | Impedance ‘with flload current Peroent | Percent sineleohise,| perent 2/6" Cartows | core loss va | lr percent [80 percent pf [50 percent nf a | azizon | 256 5 | 27/840 4 | ardas w ra ss | Shas 3 | lise 208 3m | 2.9/6.8 195 so | 20/687 sé | asfous 199 woo | 35/609" 196Electrical Engineering TABLE 12 Electrical Characteristics of Single-phase and Three-Phase 60-Cycle Distribution Transformers (Continued) 425 ‘Three-phase transformers; voltage rating —2,400/4,160 60 Percent voltage drop through transformer Impedance, ‘with ull-Toad enrent Percent pereent 2/6 | — | Caos jv7 percent pf | 80 pereent pf | 50 pervent pf 5 373 49 4.00 a2 10 20 374 370 255 15 291 3.60 372 22 25 2a 5.66 389 2.05 ax | 4.02/60" 2.79 30 403 1a 50 sosiouss | 2.72 3.65 402 182 5 asa/ein | 252 37 358 160. 100 2s1 | Ba8. 508 156 200 2 3.23 3.84 135, 300 Lm 283 348 | 092 goo | 37ers | Le 3.08 3.70 LT Percent cere loss 138 oss o74 063, 058 051 053 037 nat 080 075 TABLE 13 Average Sound Levels (db) for Various Occupancies Occupancy Decibel Range Apartments snd botels 3545 Average factory 70-15 Classrooms and lecture rooms 35-40 Hospitals. auditoriums, and ehurches 35-40 Private offices and conference rvons 40-15 Offices: Samal 5a Medinm (Sto 10 desks), 3s Lange 64 actory 61 Stores Averige 45-55 Large (5 or more clerks) 61 Residence: Without radio 53 With radio, conversation 60 Radio, recording, and televi 35-30 ‘Theaters and music rooms, 30-35 Street Avene 0 “Manufacturers now sound-rate dry-type transfor mers to meet or exceed NEMA audible sound level stat dards. Select a transformer with decibel rating lower than the ambient sound level ofthe area in which itis to be Nom! installed426 ‘Standar Handbook of Engineering Calculations transformer sound level is less than the ambient sound level in the average factory, the transformer chosen is a suitable unit, Asa general guide, choose a transformer having a decibel rating lower than the ambient sound level of the area in which the transformer, will be installed. TABLE 14 NEMA Aud Sound Levels For dey-type general-purpose speciality trans: Formers 600 vor less, single or three-phase ransformer rating, | Average sound level, dD kw 0-9 40 10-50 48 51-150 50 151-300 55 01-500 0 Oilimmersed and dry-type velfenoled trans formers 15.000 v insulation class ad below oit Dry type. dh immersed, ‘db | Ventilated | Sealed Kva 0-300 201-500) 501-700 1501-2.000 2)001-3,000 Related Calculations: Use this zeneral procedure to choose transformers for indus trial, commercial, and residential use. Asa general guide, the following definitions are useful, Power transformers are used in generating plants to step up voltage and in gubsations io step dow voltage, Power raasformers ate usually ated at 300 kra and larger, Distribution transformers step voltage down to 600 or 480 v for industrial use, or 240 and 120¥ for residential or commercial use. Instrument transformers, classed potential or current, serve low-voltage meters and relays. Speciality transformers include units used to change the voltage for specific applications such as signs, are amps, bells, ete SYSTEM POWER-FACTOR ANALYSIS A system has three types of loads — lighting, induction motors, and synchronous motors, Determine the system power fuetor for the following conditions: lighting load = 400 kya at unity (.0) power fietor; induetion-motor load = 700 kva at 0.85 power factor, Tagging; synchronous motor load = 300 kva at 0.75 power factor, leading. What is the system power fuctor? Calculation Procedure 1. Determine the lighting-load kvar ‘The 400-kva lighting load has « unity (1.0) power factor. With a unity power factor, the kva load = the kw load. Also, since there is no reactive current when the power factor is unity, the lighting-load kvar = 0.Electrical Engineering sar 2. Compute the induction-motor kvar Find the incduction:motor kw load from: kw motor kva; pf = induction-motor power fuetor. Or, kiw Compute the induetion-motor kvar from kear = (ke 370 kvar 3. Compute the synchronous-motor kvar As in Step 2, the synchronous-motor kw = kew (pf) = 300(0.75) ~ 225 kw. Then, kear= (koa?—kw*)*, a in Step 2. Or kear= (300? ~2358)% = 198,5 kvar ea (pf), where kea = induetion- 700(0.85) = 595 kw. kue®)*2, or (700 ~ 595") 4. Compute the system kw and kvar ‘The kw loud is the sum of the individual kw loads, or lighting kee + motor kw — 400-4 ‘595 +225 = 1,220 kw. The kvar of the system is found in the same way, except that the Tighting-load kvar is zero and the leading (synehronous-motor) kvar olfsets the hugging {induction motor) kvar, oF 370.0 = 198.5 = 171.5 kvar, ‘The reason for taking the difference hetween the induetion- and synchronous-motor kar is because-a synchronous motor ean supply kvar to the system, 5. Compute the system kva and pf Use the relation kea = (kw? kea las the system power factor from p= system kuv/system Kea = ‘The power faetor is termed laguing because tho lagging or induction-motor kvar exceeds the leading or synehronous-motor kvar, Either eapacitors, synchronotts motors, or synchronous generators could be used to improve the power factor of this system Related Calcuiations: Use this general method to analyze the power factor of any power system industrial, commercial, or residential 1098+ (ITI.5}1" 1,533 kva, Compute .220/1,333 = 0.915 lagging. POWER-FACTOR DETERMINATION AND IMPROVEMENT Determine the power factor in a 440-v three-phase power system when the load draws 135 amp, 85 kw. If itis desired to improve the power factor of this cirenit to88 percent with capacitors, what capacitor rating is required? Calculation Procedure: 1. Compute the circuit kva For a Uuree-phase ac cireuit, use the relation kei voltamperes of the circuit; ¢ = elreuit voltage; « = circuit amperage. Or, ke (440)(135)/1,000 = 103 kva. 2. Compute the circuit power factor Use the relation power factor 35/103 = 0.825, or 82.5 percent. Vi eat 000, where kv = klo- vax = kw(kea. where kus cireuit kilowatt load. Or, wi 3. Compute the circuit kvar The total current in an ac circuit is usually made up of two components —(a) power- producing current, and (b) magnetizing current. Other terms used for these currents are working current and reactive current, respectively, From a power standpoint, the terms used are true power, watts or kw, and reactive power, var or kilovars {kvar). The abbreviation var stands for volt ampere reactive In an ac eireuit, koar = (Kea ~ kw)", Thus, for this circuit, kear = (103" 852) — 58.5 kvar, 4. Compute the kvar at the new power factor At the new power facior of 88 percent the circuit kw is the same, or 85. However, the cuit kva will be kwe/new pf, or 85/0188 = 96.5 kva, ‘The new eireuit krar= (ke? kw*)* = (96.5°— 85% provides 45.6 of the 58.5 kvar requited by the load, 5.6 kvar. Thus, the eireuit428 ‘Standard Handbook of Engineering Calculations 5. Compute the required capacitor kvar ‘The capacitor must provide the difference between the load and circuit kvar, or 58.5 —45.6 ~ 12.9 kvar; say 15 kvar. Thus to improve the power factor of this circuit from 82.5 to 88 percent, a 15 kvar capacitor is required, Related Calculations: ‘he method given above is useful for determining the capacitor, synchronous-motor, or synchronons-condenser rating required to produce a give powerfactor increase, Ax a general rule, the synehronous condenser is usually too Costly a device for power-factor improvement service in industrial plants. Hence, itis seldom used for this purpose in industrial plants WIRING-SIZE CHOICE FOR PRIMARY DISTRIBUTION Determine the proper size of underground cable to use to supply a 1,000-kw load at 80 percent power factor at a distance of 0.4 mile with an allowable voltage drop of 5.0 percent. The receiving-end voltage is 2.200 v. three-phase, Calculation Procedure 1. Compute the system kva-miles load, kwipf) (line length, miles), where pf 1,000,0,80)(0.4) = 500 kva-miles. Use the relation, kvaemiles system power factor, For this system, kvarmiles 2. Choose the wire size to use ‘Table 15 shows that with an 80 percent power factor, 2.400 v, three-phase line, a 4/0) cable will have a I percent voltage drop per 174.0 kvacmiles. However, the receiving voltage of this system is 2.200 v. To correct for the difference between the actual and tabulated receiving voltage, multiply the tabulated kva-miles by the ratio (actual receiving voltage/tabulated receiving valtage)®, or (2,200/2.400(1740) = 146.2 kva- miles per LO percent voltage drop, 3. Compute the actual voltage drop Use the relation actual voltage drop, percent = system kva-milesfkvaemiles per 1 percent voltage drop, oF 500/146.2 = 3.41 percent actual voltage drop. Since the allowable voltage drop is 5 pereent, this is within the desired range. 4, Check the next smaller size cable Since there is a difference of 5.00—3.41 = 1.50 percent between the actual and the allowable voltaxe drop, the next smaller cable might be satisfuctory. A smaller cable ‘ill east less and is therefore worth checking. Using the same procedure as in Step 2, except that a 2/0 10-kv cable is used, kvacmile per 1 percent voltage drup = (2,200/2,400F(118,0) = 99.0. Then, as in Step 3, actual voltaze drop = 500/99,0 = 5,06 percent. Hence, the smaller cable is unsuitable because it produces a higher voltage deop than allowed. Related Calculations: Table 15 can be used to determine (1) the voltage drop in an existing cirenit when the load is known, @) the proper size of a conductor to use to Timit the voltage drop to a predetermined value, or (3) the proper voltage rating of a new line, The 50 percent power-factor colunm in Table 15 can be used to calculate the instantaneous drop in voltage caused by the starting of a large motor on the line. The average power factor of a motor is 50 percent when the motor is being started. Note that dataare listed in Table 15 for both underground and overhead distribution yystems. WIRE- AND CABLE-SIZE DETERMINATION FOR A KNOWN LOAD An electrical installation consists of | motor and 48 lights. What size wire and fuses are needed for the 50-hp squirrel-cage induction motor that is started at its rated three- phase 440-v 60-Hz. eutvent if the motor is 280 ft from the power panel and the voltage drop must not exeeed 1 percent of the supply voltage? The lighting load totals 10,000 ‘watts. This load is supplied by two 110-v circuits. The voltage drop in the lighting