Chapter - 11

Overview of
Related Literature
2.1. Introduction

Fisheries economics emerged as an important field of research after the

second world war. Till then, studies relating to fisheries were almost
completely confined to biological aspects of fisheries. During 40s and 50s,
following the realisation that major constraints on fisheries development was
technological. Quite a few studies focussing on purely technological aspects
were taken up, largely in developed countries. The third world countries'
interest in fisheries was aroused in 50s and 60s of 20th century when most
such countries embarked upon ambitious schemes of economic development.
At this juncture, world development agencies like United Nations (UN) through
Food and Agriculture Organisation (F'AO) took active interest in the
development of fisheries as it turned out to be potential source of food and
nutrition for the rapidly growing population of the world. These gave rise to
growth of prolific studies relating to fish production, marketing, technology,
fishery resources, finance, price, socio-economics etc.

2.2. Studies Relating to Production

Chakraborty, Nair and Balakrishnan (1973)' in their article

examined the characteristics of marine fish production in India. India
produced annually approximately 0.7 million tonnes of marine fish. Total
production figures as well as landings from individual fisheries vary widely
over the years. At present, increasing effort is being put to produce higher
yields. A study of these figures has assumed importance for a proper
understanding of the resources of important fisheries. The quarterwise catch
figures of important fishes have been studied and indices showing their
seasonal and regional occurrences have been constructed and discussed.
 Srinivasan (1981)2 while discussing the status of marine fisheries of
Tamil Nadu, drew the attention to the problems faced by traditional fishermen
due to the increasing competition from mechanised boatmen following the
prawn boom. He cautioned that if the tempo of trawling continues unabated,
the Madras coast may also experience the diminishing returns which has
already set in on the West Coast. The author also stressed the importance of
diversified techniques in maximising production and improving the
productivity of artisanal fishermen. Further, the author has suggested that
the present system of financially helping a few big boat owners may be changed
in favour of helping a large number of small boat operators.

Saxena (1984)3 studied the management aspects of shrimp fishery with

particular reference to India in 1984. According to him, the Indian shrimp
fishery after 1975 has been experiencing a decline, which has been
substantiated by reduction in catch per unit effort. In the light of the decline of
the Indian shrimp fishery, three types of tools to manage the same has been
suggested: (i) an exhaustive techno-economic survey should be undertaken to
study the production, processing and marketing costs, margins, practices,
channels, etc. along with the socio-economic conditions to the local fishermen in
order to provide alternative employment opportunities and financial
compensation, (ii) the type of management tools includes regulatory measures
and (iii) relate to the encouragement of shrimp culture.

Subha Rao (1986)4 made a study to examine the trends in the total fish
production of Andhra Pradesh and compared the same with all India fish
production a t different points of time. Andhra Pradesh was lagging behind in
the long term trend of annual growth of fish production than that of India as a
whole during the period 1961-81. The catching pattern with reference to
percentage distribution of different species in different years showed a
declining trend in most cases. The common feature in all the species was the
heavy fluctuations.
 Sekar, Senthilnathan and Isabella Rani (1993)6 conducted a study
with an objective of analysing the coastal region-wise, craft-wise, gear-wise and
month-wise fish production in Tamil Nadu during the year 1992-93. Craft-wise
fish production showed that mechanised crafts are contributing around 59 per
cent of total catches. Among the gears used for fish production, gill net
accounted for 39 per cent followed by trawl net 31 per cent of total fish catch.
Month-wise analysis showed that July, August and September are the peak
period for fishing activity. Region-wise fish production showed that Palk Bay
recorded the maximum annual growth rate and the west coast has the lowest.
However, production per Kilometer of coastal length was the higher in the west
coast. Therefore, it was suggested that necessary steps to be taken to involve
fishermen effectively by providing infrastructures needed to them for fishing,
so that the west coast potential is tapped for increasing the marine fish
production.

Sathiadhas (1997)6 studied (i) the production trend and variation in

catch composition of marine fish over the years, (ii) the economics of different
craft - gear combinations in marine fishing operations, (iii) the marine fish
marketing problems to determine price spread of different varieties and to
assess the share of fishermen and middlemen in consumer's rupee in Tamil
Nadu. The author used both primary and secondary data. Data on costs and
earnings of different craft - gear combination and price of different varieties of
fish including handling and transportation charges a t various points of the
marketing channel, collected by direct observation a t selected centres. The
study revealed that (i) both mechanised and non-mechanised sectors are
important to increase the fish production, (ii) motorization of country craft
helped the fishermen to improve their living condition, (iii) catch per unit effort
of trawlers is continuously declining in Tamil Nadu (iv) lesser the number of
intermediaries in the fish marketing chain, higher is the share of fishermen in
the consumer's rupee.
 Devaraj, Sathiadhas and Reghu (1998)7 in their paper reviewed the
marine fish production in the state vis-a-vis the potential yield, assessed the
economic performance of trawlers and motorised gillnetters, analysed the
distribution pattern of marine fish in the internal market and the performance
of marine fishery exports, evaluated the capacity utilisation of processing
plants and suggested policy measures for improvements in production and
marketing of marine fish.

Amrnini (1999)g attempted to assess the present status of marine fish

production in Kerala vis-a-vis the production before ban was introduced. The
author has made a comparison of fish production between the pre-ban period
(1981-1987) and ban period (1988 - 1997). There has been unprecedented
growth in the marine fish production in Kerala during the last decade which
incidentally coincides with the period during which ban on trawling during
monsoon has been in vogue. Comparison of the average landings during 1981 -
1987 and 1988 - 1997 indicate an increase of 69 per cent in overall landings in
the state and surprisingly two points which deserve consideration are: (a) the
increase (69 per cent) has been uniform in pre-monsoon, monsoon and post
monsoon periods, (b) the relative intensity of landings during the three seasons
remain the same during pre-ban and ban period (26 per cent during pre-
monsoon, 24 per cent during monsoon and 50 per cent during post monsoon).

Dibakar Naik (2OOl)g made a study on trends in marine fish landings

and marine fish marketing in different maritime districts of Orissa during 1996
to 1999. He has given his findings that marine fish production in Orissa has
been increased from 38.70 thousand tonnes in 1980-81 to 133.46 thousand
tonnes in 1996-97 and it declined to 121.08 thousand tonnes in 2000-01. On an
average the State has recorded a growth rate of 8.86 per cent for marine fish
production during last one and half decades. Marine fish marketing in Orissa
hhs been carried out by a large number of intermediaries forming a long chain
of market channels. In short five or less number of intermediaries form the
market channel for the marine fish in Orissa. In the existing marketing
system the fishermens' share have been decreased to the extent of 22.20 per
cent to 26.76 per cent with the increase in middlemen from one to five in the
market channel.

Shiyani, R.L, (2002)lO has made an analysis on district-wise and

species-wise growth and instability of marine fisheries in Gujarat. It has been
concluded from the study that relative share of Junagadh, Kutch and
Jamnagar districts in the total marine fish production of the state increased
substantially over a period of time, whereas a drastic decline in the case of
Valsad and Amreli districts was noticed. The instability indices were
comparatively higher during 1970-80 in all the districts except Kutch, Amreli
and Jamnagar. The compound growth rates of fish production of almost all the
species were positive and significant. It has been suggested that awareness
campaign among the fishermen on the importance of mesh size regulation
would be useful for the sustainable benefit of marine fisheries in the long run.
The Government should take necessary steps to enforce sea law demarcating
different fishing grounds for different craft gear combination which will help
maintaining socio-economic balance instead of creating socio-economic conflicts
among the fishermen.

Mini, K.G. and M, S r i n a t h (2003)Il have made an appraisal about the

trawl fishery of Tamil Nadu for the period from 1985 to 2000. In this article,
the trend of fish production in Tamil Nadu and catch composition have been
aualysed. It has been estimated that the annual average of marine fish
production during 1985 - 2000 was 3.51 lakh tonnes representing 15.8 per cent
of total all India landings. The fish landings showed increasing trend during
the year 1985 to 1992, and decreasing trend in 1993, recovered in 1997 and
again decreasing trend in 2000. It has been found that the reason for the
fluctuations was the increased number of trawlers and extension of the fishing
ground for upward trend. The reason for the downward was the over-
exploitation. In the analysis of catch composition, it was concluded that
silverbellies was the most abundant constituent (23.2 per cent) followed by
cluepids (14.2 per cent), penaeid prawns (10.5 per cent), croakers (4.8 per cent),
carangids (4.3 per cent), rays (3.9 per cent), thread-fin-breams (3.9 per cent),
cephalopods (3.8 per cent), other perches (3.3 per cent), goat fishes (3.1 per
cent), crabs (2.8 per cent), lizard fishes (2.6 per cent), ribbon fishes (1.1 per
cent) and pigface breams (1.0 per cent).

2.3. Studies Relating to Marketing

Singh a n d G u p t a (1983)lZ conducted a study on marine fish

marketing, and fisheries development in India in the year 1983. They pointed
out that the transportation of fish is very inefficient in India. Due to
inadequate transportation, no fresh fish is available in potential markets
located away from the landing centres, whereas surplus fish a t harbours is
being sent to fish meal plants. Further, it has been observed that the catches
of certain varieties like sardines and mackerels are landed in a large quantity
in fishing season which results in the glut a t producing centres.

Kalavathy (1985)13 studied the organisation of fish marketing in

Madras Fishing Harbour in 1985. She identified different marketing channels
and means of transport for different species of fishes. While studying the role
of women in marketing, she has done a case study for each role, i.e. women as
auctioneer, retailer, trash fish wholesaler. She concluded that the
mechanisation benefited some categories of fish marketing women operating a t
Madras Fishing Harbour by way of higher incomes or new earning
opportunities. I t also perhaps aggravated income disparities among
fisherwomen. I n a small landing centre, the marketing of fish is fairly
decentralised and a high percentage of women take to fish marketing. In a
large landing centre, marketing is more centralised, offering fewer employment
opportunities but higher profits for those women who have managed to stay in
the business.
 Panikkar a n d Sathiadhas (1985)1* studied the marketing system and
price spread of some of the commercially important marine fish in Kerala state.
The analysis indicated that fishermen's share of consumers rupee varied from
31 to 68 per cent. The fishermen get a better share for quality fishes having
high consumer preferences than for cheaper varieties. They suggested the need
for a fast and efficient transportation system for the improvement of marketing
of fish.

Sathiadhas a n d Panikkar (1988)ls made a study on market structure

and price behaviour of marine fish in Tamil Nadu. They concluded that fish
marketing in Tamil Nadu is still under the clutches of middlemen. Of the 25
varieties of fish covered under the study, the percentage of marketing margin
in consumers price for 20 varieties which constitute 90 per cent of landings
worked out a t more than 40 per cent.

Panikkar and Sathiadhas (1989)l6 studied the fish marketing system

prevailing in Kerala, the price structure, seasonal and spatial price variations,
marketing margins of commercially important varieties of fish and the share of
fishermen as well as middlemen in consumer's rupee. The study revealed that;
due to lack of infrastructure facilities the supply of fish a t the landing centre is
highly inelastic which often would be resulted in disposal of fish at throw-away
prices at the time of heavy landings. The involvement of a number of
middlemen in the marketing chain adversely affects the interest of both
fishermen and consumer. Fishermen's share in consumer's rupee varied from
an average of about 40 per cent for cheaper varieties of fish to about 65 per cent
for high priced varieties. There has been a
marketing expenditure over the recent years.

Tim Bostock (1992)l' explained

undertaken by BOBP through its ODA fun
in coordination with the Marketing and Resea
fish consumption in Madras city in the year
sampling method was used in order to select 2500 households in Madras
(approximately 0.25 per cent of the population) to study the differences in
consumption among families of different income levels. The most significant
findings of the study were: (i) 91 per cent of all Madras households are non-
vegetarian fish consumers (98 per cent in the poorest sectors and 72 per cent in
the most well-off). (ii) There appears to be an underlying trend towards non-
vegetarian and therefore growing demand for fish, (iii) Of the fish eaters, all
consume seafish, 79 per cent consume shrimp, 64 per cent crab, 75 per cent
dried fish and 20 per cent fresh water fish. It is of great interest that dried fish
is consumed by all income levels. (iv) Overall, the expenditure on all fish
products is second only to milk among the animal proteins, but significantly is
the most important in the lower income groups. (v) The average quantity of fish
products consumed on a per capita basis is 7.2 Kg. The amount of protein
supplied by this is roughly equivalent to that supplied by milk, is twice that of
eggs and several times that of either chicken or mutton. (vi) Fish is considered
economical and better value for money (especially by the poor), more easily
available, tastier and easier to cook than any other animal protein food. (vii)
Awareness of marine fish varieties is very high, sankara and seer standing out
above all others in all income groups. Consumption of high priced fishes seer,
shark, pomfret increases with the increase of income, whereas consumption of
low priced fishes white fish, anchovy, silverbelly decreases. Economy plays a
major role mainly in the lower income group. (viii) Research indicated quite
clcarly that the market was not yet ready to accept processed or packaged food
in its strictest sense. (ix) Hygiene, sanitation and fish quality a t the point of
sale influence the purchasing decision of the consumer. (x) Availability is more
of a problem in the upper income groups, who tend to travel further to favoured
points of sale. ' In lower income groups, fish is largely purchased at the
doorsteps from itinerant traders.

Bennett and Rogers (1992)lB conducted a study about bicycle trader

who was doing fish trade in small-scale in Sri Lanka. The authors spent a day
following the activities of the bicycle trader. They studied the composition of
fish bought and the expenditure incurred for preservation and other marketing
fees and the profit earned by the trader on that day. This case study highlights
some of the marketing problems faced by bicycle traders selling a perishable
commodity like fish - (i)the distance and the time taken to travel from home to
the fish market, (ii) the importance and unpredictability of consumer
preference, (iii) loss of quality due to poor storage, (iv) the variability of
demand, both for fish as a food and for individual species of fish.

Sathiadhas and Panikkar (1992)lg attempted in this paper t o discuss

the marketing margins, and producer's and middlemen's share in consumer's
rupee for commercially important varieties of marine fish in Madras region of
Tamil Nadu, India. Pudumanikuppam which is a major mechanised landing
centre as primary market, Chintatripet as wholesale market and Pattalam,
Chintatripet, Saidapet and Vadapalani (all i n Madras city) as consumer
markets were selected for the study. Data on landing, wholesale and retail
prices of selected varieties of fish were collected 15 to 20 days in each quarter
during April 1984 to March 1985 by following the marketing channel.

Nongnuch Raksakulthai (1996)2Q made a study on the processing of

hybrid Clarias catfish. Most of the production is consumed domestically, where
the consumers prefer to buy live fish. Owing to the limited demand of fresh
hybrid catfish, processing the fish into different products will be one way to
solve the problem of excess supply by expanding the market, both domestic and
international, increasing the shelf-life as well as adding value to the raw
material. The various products which may be obtained include: fermented
'plara', smoked catfish; semi-dried catfish stick; Chinese style catfish sausage;
catfish cracker; frozen cooked catfish dishes; battered and breaded products;
surimi; and, canned products. The major constraints in processing linked t o
the hybrid catfish is the higher price compared to marine fish, and also the
processing techniques, which require further research on appropriate
technology to develop products with high acceptability, high nutritive value,
low cost, and lone shelf-life. There should also be a comprehensive marketing
strategy, to increase the consumption of the hybrid catfish.

Sa'iagrarna (1997)21 explained the experience of a firm established in

1996 in Orissa in marketing of dried fish. The firm (oriental dry fish
industries) engaged in processing of fish hygienically into high - quality
products in order to get high price than that of traditionally processed fish. The
firm marketed its product in the North -Eastern region since the market price
in that region was more than three times the price elsewhere. But the firm
took risks such as: (i) high transportation costs, (ii) uncertainties in
transporting to the distant markets through hilly terrain, (iii) delays in getting
payment for the products and (iv) prevailing instability and tension in the area
because of terrorism. The experience made the firm to search for other
markets, as it is essential to cater to local markets before dealing with distant
markets that seem lucrative but loaded with risks.

George Mathew (1997)22 evaluated the project jointly undertaken by

the Post-Harvest Fisheries Project (PHFP) and the Kanyakumari District
Fishermen's Sangams Federation (KDFSF) on commercial operation for
marketing rack-dried anchovies on a pilot scale in the year 1992 in
Kanyakumari District. The main aim of the project was to promote the use of
drying racks for drying anchovies in order to avoid the physical and value
losses sustained by Kanyakumari district Eshermen through sand-drying of
anchovies. The rack dried fish got good prices 10 times more than that of sand-
drying fish because of its high quality, but the market potential is very limited.
Only the metropolitan markets of Chennai and Hyderabad require such a
superior quality product. Eventhough, the project's planning, problem shooting
and precautionary foresight were just right, but failed in its effort to market
the anchovy product on its own and replace the middlemen since the anchovy
fishery collapsed in 1994. Consequently, two years after the project wound up
the anchovy-drying activity. But one positive outcome is that some individual
fishermen have taken up rack-drying of anchovies. The rack-drying fishes will
definitely get high prices for its high quality than that of sand-drying fish.

The D e p a r t m e n t For International Development (DFID) Post-

Harvest Fisheries Project (1997)23 conducted an awareness programme on
fish and fishery products at Hyderabad in August 1996. The programme
brought together 12 producer groups together to discuss problems and
prospects in production and marketing of value-added products. In the
programme the following three major problem areas were identified, which
have to be resolved: (i) lack of awareness on the part of the consumers; the
inability of small producer groups to undertake market promotion at any
appreciable level; (ii) the inability of agencies in specific areas in creating and
sustaining market demand in spite of fluctuation of catches; and (iii) lack of
awareness of quality control criteria, and laxity in observing them if known.
The problems identified by the programme are prevailing even today in all
parts of the country in the marketing of fishery products. It also implies that
sustaining market demand are interconnected with awareness of consumers on
fish products and the quality control measures. More efforts should be put-
forth in this direction.

Basuki and Nikijuluw (1998)24 made a survey on fish consu.mption

patterns in selected major cities of Java. The fish consumption in Java seems
to be influenced by fondness and preferences, as well a s by the products
availability. The results of a survey in four major cities show that processed
marine fish products are consumed by the majority of people. I n Surabaya and
Bandung fresh fish and salted boiled fish became favourite foods, while in
Semarang pressure-cooked fish and salted fish became the most favourite ones.
I n Yoyakarta, almost all respondents prefer to consume fresh, salted and salted
boiled fish. Generally, the consumer complained about the quality of products,
especially for salted and salted boiled fish. More than 60 per cent of
respondents in Surabaya did not satisfy with salted and salted boiled fish
qualities. In Semarang, consumer dissatisfaction reached more than 20 per
cent for salted fish and more than 50 per cent for salted boiled fish. In
Bandung, fermented fish and salted fish were admitted as low quality
products. Regarding the consumer budget, the more they earned, the more fish
they consumed. Compared with the total expenses, the fish consumption
reached 10 to 14 per cent. Finally, the improvement of the quality and the
products diversification apparently would increase the demand.

Sutton (1998)26 in his article presented a series of necessary reforms

and suggested how by working together, conservationists, scientists, fishers,
industry and Governments can help shape the future of world fisheries. WWF
and Unilever Corporation have taken the first step by launching the Marine
Stewardhship Council, an innovative plan to bring market forces and the power
of consumer choice to bear in favour of sustainable, well managed fisheries. If
- both as a n important source of
marine fish populations are to be sustained
food and as a vital component of ecosystems - increased public support and
consumer power must be used to create social, economic, and political
incentives for fishing that is both sustainable and clean. That will not be easy;
fish neither sing like whales nor look like pandas. But the stakes are high: the
future of the world's fisheries their associated marine ecosystems and the
millions of people that depend on them for food and employment.

Yoshiaki Matsuda (2000)26 has reviewed the history of fish marketing

in Japan. The Japanese experience is rich in terms of long history, species
handled, products forms, cooking methods, ways of utilisation and interaction
with domestic fisheries. Along with the change of people's life style from
hunting to farming, marketing and trade have developed. Traditional
marketing and trade include commercialisation of dried, smoked, salted and
fermented seafood; seasonings; seasoned boiled seafood; and organic fertiliser.
Modern marketing and trade include commercialisation of cultural species, fish
paste, canned fish, frozen/fresh/live fish, fish oillfish meal/ fertiliser, and
potential resource species. Cultural and food diversity is essential for the
human survival in the 21st century. Despite the conventional use of fish, most
marine organisms are not utilised yet. As healthy food, drugs, raw materials,
ornamental use, and contribution to solving environmental problems, there is a
great potential in fisheries and fish trade if the resources are wisely managed
under the WTO framework started in 1994.

Chand and Nityananda Das (2OOZ)27 have given an account of basic

requirements for an organised Fish Market. They have specified the essential
infrastructure facilities needed for an organised market. I t has been suggested
that to make the entire fish marketing system successful, apart from having an
organised fish market, right marketing strategies are essential. For this,
identification of consumers' needs and nature of demand for products and
services is necessary.

Al-Maxrooei, N., G.V. Chomo and A. Omezzine (2003)28 conducted a

study in order to provide information on Oman consumers' attitudes and
preferences for fish purchase form and market outlets using an information-
processing model, It identifies factors for predicting changes in market
demand for fish products and services as a result of changes in consumers
attributes. Results indicate that on-shore fish markets are the most preferred
outlets fox the coastal population while retailers and Oman National Fisheries
Company are the commonly used outlets. Results also show that whole fish is
the most preferred form of purchase for both rural and urban medium to low-
income consumers while a large proportion of high-income consumers in urban
regions prefer mainly sliced fish. It has been suggested that market
development efforts should focus on the organisation of on-shore fish markets
in coastal regions and retailers and Oman Fisheries Company's outlets in the
island areas. Further suggested that forms other than whole fish may be
promoted for sale in super markets and specialised shops for the urban high-
income consumers group.

MPEDA (2003)29 reviewed the marine products export scenario for the
year 2002-03. It has been mentioned that the export of marine products
showed an increasing trend in 2002-03. The increase was 10.09 per cent in
quantity, 15.52 per cent in rupee realisation and 13.69 per cent in US $
realisation. The average unit value realised was US $ 3.05 per Kg compared to
US $ 2.95 per Kg of the previous year. Frozen shrimp continued to be largest
item in terms of value. Shrimp contributed 26.85 per cent in volume and 66.97
per cent in value of the total export of marine products from India. U.S.A.
emerged as the single largest market for I n h a n marine productions in value
terms during 2002-03 relegating Japan to the second position. Chennai
continued to be the largest port through which the marine products exported.

Devadasan (2003) 30 has given an account of a good potential for India

to increase its share in international fish trade by exporting value added fish
products. It has been concluded that most of the market channels currently
used are not suitable to trade value added products. A new and a n appropriate
channel would be the super market chain, which would want to procure
directly from the source of supply. Appearance, packaging and display are all
important factors leading to successful marketing of any new value added
product. The retail pack must be clean, crisp and clear and make the contents
appear attractive to the consumer. The customer must be given confidence to
experiment with a new product launched in the market.

2.4. Studies Relating to Fishing Technology

Kurien and Mathew (1982)31 have studied the impact of technological

changes in fishing on fishermen. According to this study there are wide
regional variations in the species-mix of the marine resource in the country.
The nutritive value of all species of fish are almost the same but there are
different type of market demand and prices for various species. There is direct
impact of mechanisation on fish production in quantitative as well a s
qualitative nature.

Krishna Srinath (1988)32 conducted a study on the efficiency of the

technology based on the perception of fishermen of their present and future
status in relation to their living conditions prior to motorisation. The study
was conducted in Vypeenkara during August - October 1985. Data were
collected from 50 units out of 115 motorised crafts through an interview
schedule. Information on personal variables, impact of motorisation and the
living standards and projection for future, aspirations and facility satisfaction
as assessed qualitatively by fishermen themselves were collected. From the
study, it was concluded that motorisation can be instrumental in bringing
about significant changes in the living conditions of fishermen and their
outlook and inculcating the spirit of unity and co-operation among them. The
fishermen in general felt that their status has improved as a result of
motorisation and were more optimistic about their future.

Sehara and Karbhari (1989)33 undertook a study to measure the

economic efficiency of OBM units operating gill nets in northwest coast.
Kochra Nivti in Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra and Dhamlej in Junagadh
district of Gujarat were selected and the study was conducted during the year
1986-87. The data were collected from a sample of 20 units with the help of
schedules. The information relating to the details of craft, gear, labour,
infrastructure, credit, marketing, preservation of catch, fixed cost, operating
expenditure, catch composition and price of fish were collected. Based on
various economic parameters, they have concluded that the gill net fishing by
dugout canoe fitted with outboard engine was found to be profitable in
northwest coast during 1986-87.

Jean Gallene and Robert Hall (1992)34 undertook a project to

demonstrate the technical and economic feasibility of small-scale offshore
fishing for large pelagic species by introducing two 10 metre FRP boats
acquired from Sri Lanka using driftnets and long lines. The project was
undertaken during the year 1991 at Chinnamuttam, Tamil Nadu. The results
of the project indicated that the performance and results of the fishing trials
have been on the whole satisfactory. But they were not upto full commercial
standard because of the inexperience of the crew and the exploratory nature of
fishing by one or two boats operating in isolation. The financial viability of the
off-shore operations has been demonstrated, generating a n internal rate of
return 21 per cent and a net present value of Rs. 1,09,787 a t a discount rate of
14 per cent. This marginally profitable return, however, does not leave much
incentive to offset the high risk involved in this or any other fishing operation.

Sathiadhas, P a n i k k a r a n d K a n a k k a n (1992)36 undertook a study to

evaluate the changing pattern of craft - gear combinations, their catch
composition and comparative economics of operations a t Nagapattinam centre
of Tamil Nadu coast during the year 1987-88. They collected primary and
secondary data for this study. The primary data were collected through
schedules regarding the information pertaining to initial capital investment on
hull, engine, nets and other accessories, year of purchase, resale value of the
unit, source of finance, sharing pattern of crew wages, annual repairing
expenses, operational cost, species-wise catch and revenue. The secondary data
pertaining to mechanised and non-mechanised fish landings, crafts and gears
etc. were collected from Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, Review
of production trend showed that the contribution of mechanised boats in the
total marine fish landings of Tamil Nadu steadily increased from about 28 per
cent in 1976 to 62 per cent in 1990. The trawl catch forms more than 90 per
cent of the mechanised landings and 50 per cent of the total landings of the
state. The introduction of single and two boats high opening trawlnets were
economically efficient. The pair trawling further provided a new technique to
fishermen to harvest the hitherto under exploited valuable resources. The
convenience of shifting from trawling to pair trawling or vice-versa depending
on the availability of various resources within the region enhanced the overall
catch rates of these units offering further scope to increase the trawl landings
along Tamil Nadu coast.

Kemparaju (1994)36 made a study on the drift gillnet fishery of the Goa
state during the period 1985-88. It was found out from the study that the drift
gillnet fishery during the period from 1985 to 1988 in major centres showed a
steady improvement indicating its continued importance in the exploited
fishery of Goa despite the fluctuations noticed. It was also observed that in the
small-scale fisheries sector, the drift gillnet fishing was significant as it
exploits the higher value fishes such as seer fishes, tunas and sharks. Thus the
drift gillnet fishery has better development prospects in the state.

Mahesh V, Joshi (1996)37 studied the factors affecting the

mechanisation of fishing crafts and the impact of mechanisation on marine fish
production and income and the standard of living of fishermen's households.
He also studied the hazards effects of mechanisation and foreigner's deep
fishing in Indian ocean and identified the problems of small fishermen. The
main findings of his study are: (i) There is direct relationship between fishing
mechanisation and employment opportunity. It was also observed that the
average earning of crew members households in mechanised fishing were
substantially higher than those of non-mechanised fishing. Mechanisation and
higher wages are co-related to each other. (ii) Generally fishermen may borrow
from the commercial banks, fish merchants, money lenders, relatives arid
friends. Co-operatives have failed in providing credit to the fishermen.
Finance is a main obstacle in fishery development. (iii) The variable cost per
trip for a trawler is higher than the O.B.M. boat. The cost of fuel is a single
prime item in the case of trawlers. The salary of crew members is high in
mechanised boats. (iv) All the fishermen have strongly unanimously and
aggressively opposed for deep fishing permission to the foreigners. (v) It is
found that arrangement of maintenance of mechanised boat is very difficult
compared to same for non-mechanised boats. (vi) Mechanised boat owners have
more income and relatively much higher standard of living as compared to non-
mechanised boat owners. (vii) It was observed that there was serious problems,
limitations and litigations of mechanisation. It badly affected the small
fishermen. There is destable issue of exhausted fish stock due to
mechanisation. I t affected the employment. There are problems of fuel,
finance, maintenance, repairing, higher costs, etc., due to mechanisation. (viii)
Contribution of the government and co-operative institutions for finance is very
negligible. Fishermen prefers loans from fish merchants, friends and relatives.
Banks are also one of the sources of borrowing.

Chennubhotla, V.S,K,, et,al. (1999)38 have conducted a study about

the different kinds of non-mechanised and mechanised crafts used and gear
employed along the Andhra Pradesh coast. They have observed that until the
middle of 1960s fishing for marine finfishes and shellfishes along the Andhra
Pradesh coast used to be carried out employing indigenous non-mechanised
crafts. Subsequently, trawlers and later mechanised vessels operating gillnets
came into use which resulted in the creased fish production. Use of outboard
engine on indigenous crafts for reaching fishing grounds is a recent feature of
near the coast fishing.

Krishnan, C.K. (2003)39 has examined the recent trends in

mechanisation of Malabar fishery sector. He has studied the operating cost of
trawlers fitted with in-board engines using diesel as fuel and out-board engines
using kerosene for ring-seiners. He worked out that the average cost of
operation per day for a ring-seiner unit using out-board engine run by kerosene
was between Rs.5000 and Rs.6000 and for dieselised leyland in-board engines
came down to Rs.2000. I n view of this, more and more active fishermen were
attracted towards the introduction of in-board engines.
2,5. Studies Relating to F i s h e r y Resources

George (1973)40 made a remark that for successful exploitation of the

marine fishery resources, it is most vital that we should have an absolute
knowledge of the resources. In India all along the centuries, marine fisheries
exploitation has been in the hands of a type of people who are very backward
and conservative. So modern developments in fisheries had no impact on them,
It is only in recent years that a change in attitude has taken place. At present
marine fish landing in India has attained the level of slightly near a million
tonnes. It is possible to step up this production several fold. For this,
considerable planning is required. Very large numbers of mechanised fishing
vessels are required, besides landing and berthing facilities for these vessels.
Adequate quantities of ice, water, fuel, oils, etc. will have to be set up. All
these will require high financial investments. For making such investments a
thorough knowledge of the available resources is necessary. Many countries
have produced fishery atlases giving h l l information of resources. In India
also production of such an atlas is required and for this efficient and thorough
studies of resources will be required. The explorative survey so far done is
inadequate and this will have to be planned in a much bigger way.

James (1988)41 elaborated that in their article that pelagic resources

play a key role in the overall marine fish production in India. Marine fish
production from the Indian seas has shown considerable increase during the
past four decades. The bulk of the resource caught is constituted by oil sardine
and mackerel, but these species showed characteristic wide fluctuations in
abundance as well as distribution compared to other fishery resources.

Sudarsan et. al. (1988)42 conducted a study on the appraisal of marine

fishery resources of the Indian Exclusive Economic Zone. This study was based
on the exploratory survey data collected by Fishery Survey of India vessels and
attempts to assess the quantum of resources from the presently unexploited
grounds outside 50 metre depth upto 300 metre in the case of demersal
fisheries within EEZ of India. The current yield of fishery resources of the sea
around India is about 1.8 million tonnes against wide ranging estimates of a
potential of 2.3 - 8.5 million tonnes, which offers great scope to increases the
marine fish production. The report also described infrastructure facilities
required to exploit these resources.

Mahadevan Pillai, Balakrishnan a n d Alagar a ja (1994)43 studied

the exploited fisheries of Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry for the period from 1985
to 1989. The contribution of the mechanised and artisanal fisheries sectors,
share of pelagic and demersal groups in the fish production, the trend of
district-wise fish landings, the resources of non-conventional fisheries, the
present status of marine products exports and the recent scenario of
mechanisation of country craft have been dealt with in this study. They
concluded that the annual average exploited marine fishery resources of Tamil
Nadu state during the period 1985-89 was estimated to be 2.6 lakh tonnes
indicating an increase by nine per cent over the preceding five year period.
They also observed that higher returns from the mechanised sector over the
non-mechanised sector during the study period. This increase in fish
production was possible by the large scale introduction of artisanal gear and
motorisation of country crafts. The region 0 - 50 m depth was heavily exploited
and the zone beyond 50 m depth has to be concentrated for future exploitation.
The share of pelagic fishes during the study period was 48.8 per cent which 5.8
per cent higher than the preceding five year period. In the district-wise fish
landings, Thanjavur and Ramanathapuram dominate which together
contribute 38 per cent to the total landings of Tamil Nadu. During the period
1985-89, Tamil Nadu contributed 17 per cent of the total marine products
exported from India. There was an increase of 15 per cent and 58 per cent
respectively in total quantity exported and the value realised in India during
1985-89 than the previous year period 1980-84, whereas Tamil Nadu accounted
an increase of 53 per cent and 120 per cent respectively. In respect of
Pondicherry Union Territory, the fish production has increased by 13 per cent
during the period 1985-89 than the previous fiver year period 1980-84. The
fish production by the mechanised and artisanal sector show that only
marginal increase by mechanised sector whereas 18 per cent increase by the
non-rnechanised sector. The pelagic and demersal constituents of the marine
fish landings during the period was 68 per cent and 32 per cent respectively.

Pauly (1994)44 given a brief review of the demersal and pelagic fisheries
of Southeast Asia, with emphasis on biological and socio-economic factors (such
as, the presence of inshore shrimp stocks and mass unemployment
respectively) and which tend to promote over-exploitation of marine fish
resources. I t is shown that several models routinely used by fishery biologists
to assess Southeast Asian fish stocks tend to lead to management advice that is
less conservative than warranted. Straightforward remedies exist for the
latter set of problems. On the other hand, non-traditional approaches will have
to be identified to deal with problems related to resource over-exploitation.

FA0 (1997)46 reviewed the state of the world's marine fish stocks, based
mainly on statistics through 1994. The introduction refers to the limits of
world fish production and to major trends in world fisheries since 1950.
Attention is drawn to the generalised high level of exploitation of the more
valuable marine resources. More detailed remarks are provided for each FA0
statistical area, together with a discussion of the major changes and trends
that have occurred in specific resources and the fishery assessment strategies
in current use in support of fisheries management in each region. Special
sections address the global issue of tunas and tuna-like species and other
special topics dealing with lantern fishes as a potential resource, and global
synchrony in fish populations. Summary tables are provided for each
statistical area showing historical and recent landings for the major marine
resources and judgements on their current state of exploitation.

Desai and Bhargava (1998)46 carried out a comprehensive work on

primary and secondary production in the northern Indian Ocean including the
Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. A large amount of data is available for
different seasons from four sectors of India's exclusive economic zone. The
authors estimated the primary and secondary rates of production. Based on
biologic data, fishery potentials have been computed to be 4.72 million tonnes
in the entire EEZ of Inha. The present marine fish catch is about two million
tonnes; therefore, the fish catch could be increased substantially. They also
described the seasonal picture of biologic production and fishery potentials in
all sectors of the EEZ. It shows the Southwest monsoon period (June to
September) to have a high fishery potential. This is reflected in fish catches in
the post monsoon months, especially along the est coast of India.

Hameed (1998)47 estimated the exploited and potential fishery

resources of the EEZ of India. 2.02 million sq.km. Exclusive Economic Zone of
India has a fishery potential of 3.9 metric tonnes of which 2.21 metric tonnes
are within the 50 metre depth zone and 1.69 metric tonnes beyond it. The
demersal stock is about 0.65 metric tonnes, the coastal pelagic about 0.74
metric tonnes and oceanic resources about 0.30 metric tonnes. The depth-wise,
region-wise and resource-wise potential yield of demersal, pelagic, oceanic and
allied resources are presented and major exploited and under-exploited
resources offering scope for increased production are outline. The landing
patterns of marine fish during 1980-1996 are analysed.

Somvanshi (1998)48 reviewed that the marine fishery resources

potential is estimated to be 3.92 X 10 super(6) tonnes. The data collected
through the exploratory surveys conducted by the Fishery Survey of India (FSI)
have not only been the basis of this estimated potential but the source of
knowledge on the types of resources and their distribution in time and space.
Considering the current level of annual marine fish production, 2.69 X 10
super(6) tonnes, the potential entails additional harvestable yield of about 1.3
X 10 super(6) tonnes. This additional yield will be mainly from the deep-sea
and oceanic sectors. For further development of fisheries in the Indian EEZ,
application of a number of fishing techniques viz. bottom trawling for deep-sea
fin-fishes, cephalopods, deep-sea shrimps and deep-sea lobsters; mid-water
trawling for columnar species and tune long lining for oceanic stocks of tuna
and allied species should be considered. These techniques used in exploratory
surveys were proved to be effective. The effectiveness of these and the
availability of the resources were further confirmed by the deep-sea fisheries
vessels operated under various deep-sea fishing schemes. However, some of
the commercial techniques such a s mid-water trawling for columnar resources
and purse-seining for oceanic tunas need to be experimented for recommending
its commercial scale application in the Indian seas. In the present scenario of
fisheries development, there is a need for adapting suitable strategies for
rational development aimed a t sustainable exploitation and conservation of the
fish stocks in the Indian EEZ.

Bakari and Kiangi (1999)49 studied about the sustainable use of

marine and coastal resources in Tanzania. The Coastal Zone (CZ) is a dynamic
area surrounding the interface between land and sea. The coastal area and its
natural resources offer great benefits and opportunities for human use. The
authors focused their emphasise on marine fishing and tourism which are the
predominate activities in the CZ on Tanzania. The challenge is to maintain
and improve the resources base on which those activities are dependent, while
developing new economic opportunities in a way that benefits the coast and the
nations as a whole. A major constraint is the inadequate institutional and
legal framework for coastal management. The CZ is made up of both
renewable and non-renewable resources, which are finite. To avoid the
unsustainable use of coastal resources in both its economic and social values,
economic development and the well being of the coastal population has to be
reconciled i n order to strike a healthy balance between marine and coastal
conservation and development. This forms the main basis for sustainable
development, which has a three-dimensional focus, namely, economic,
ecological and socio-cultural approaches. The authors also assessed the
implications of effort to revive the economy on the use of coastal resources.

Nayar and Gupta (1999)6* remarked that in developing countries such

as India, marine fish production is far lower than the estimated capacity.
Currently, fishing activities are carried out mainly in coastal waters; fishing
areas in high seas and outside of the country's EEZ are under exploited.
Methods of fishery management are ineffective and advanced technologies for
fish detection are practically absent. With the launching of the Indian remote
sensing satellite, it is believed that India will be in a position to fully exploit its
resources.

Varghese, S., and V.S. Sornvanshi (2001)sl have presented the coastal
country-wise finfish, crustacean and cephalopod species/ species-groups
contributing to the fish production, as well as the similarities and variation
among them in the Arabian sea. The fish landings reported by most of the
countries in the region contributed similar set of species with varying
abundances. The most common species reported are groupers, threadfins,
barracudas, seer fishes and mullets among fin fishes, besides a number of
species of shrimps and cephalopods. Barring localised and specialised fishing
methods employed for catching pelagic fish resources, trawling has been the
single largest technology being practised in the region for harvesting the
demersal stocks by almost all the countries. The conservation and
management measures emanating from the FA0 Voluntary Code of Conduct
for Responsible Fishing could be a common agenda for the coastal nations in
the region.

2.6. Studies Relating to Finance

Discussing on the role of Financial Institutions in the promotion of

fisheries sector, Pathak (1997)62 indicated that the availability of adequate
and timely credit is the most crucial input for increasing the fish production
and export. He also mentioned that the NABARD had so far sanctioned more
than 5200 fisheries schemes with total refinance assistance of Rs.4037 million
and the disbursement of credit for fisheries has increased at a compound
annual growth rate of 36.7 per cent in the last ten years, when the aggregate
assistance provided to all the scheduled banks reached a level of Rs. 1071.7
million in 1995-96 from Rs.133.5 million in 1985-86. Thus the bankers
contribution could best be realised from the fact that out of the total marine
fish landings of 2.469 million tonnes reported in 1992-93, more than 28 per
cent of the catch was from those boats who availed bank's credit facilities. In
future, the bankers will take up fisheries programme and can invest over
Rs.8000 million by the end of Ninth Five Year Plan and the seafood export
would have a business of three billion US dollars in the international markets.

2.7. Studies Relating to Price

Senthilathiban a n d Selvaraj (1992)63 conducted a study on the price

spread of some of the commercially important fishes in Chidambaranar district
in the year 1989 and 1990. Four landing centres were randomly selected and
data on landings, auction price, marketing costs and marketing margins were
collected. The collected data were analysed to find out the variation in mean
retail price of different varieties of fishes and to find out relationship between
retail price and the net amount realised by the fishermen. The study revealed
that (i) the fishermen's share in consumer retail price was above 60 per cent for
all the important fish varieties in the selected fish landing centres, (ii) there
was a positive correlation between the retail price and the net amount realised
by the fishermen at one per cent level for almost all the fish varieties, (iii) the
fishermen got a better share of those varieties having high consumer
preference, (iv) the share of marketing margins accruing to retailers vary from
14 to 23 per cent.
2.8. Studies Relating to Socio-economics

Sathiadhas and Venkataraman (1981)64 studied the impact of

mechanised fishing on the socio-economic condition of the fishermen of
Sakthikulangar - Neendakara are of Kerala. This study found that there was
improvements in housing, literacy, employment, infrastructure, production,
exports and earnings of the region. It, however, recognised the rise in the level
of indebtedness of the fishermen households which was attributed to the bank
loans taken by the households for purchase of fishing vessels. The study
further pointed out the lack of a fishing harbour as the major constraint
affecting the development of the project area.

Balakrishnan and Alagaraja (1984)56 examined the reasons for the

clashes between the mechanised boat owners and the indigenous craft owners
leading to heavy damages in the year 1978 in the coast areas from
Jagathapattinam in Pudukkottai District to Mallip attinam in Thanjavur
district. It was suggested that the forming of Peace Council comprising of the
local R.D.O. as Chairman and representatives from State Fisheries
Department, mechanised boat owners and indigenous craft owners as members
worked satisfactorily to end the clashes. The Peace Council drew schedule of
restricted fishing for mechanised boats for three days in a week and traditional
boats for four days were strictly kept up by the respective boat owners without
any violation, while all the types of boats operate during day time. Since the
system of regulated fishing works satisfactorily, the same may be extended t o
other regions where the clashes between these two sectors exist.

Vedavyasa Rao and Sriramachandra Murthy (1993)66 have

elaborately discussed about various controversies and complexities in
management of inshore fishery resources of India. They concluded that none of
the management measures adopted in the country can be considered as
successful. Taking into various complexities of issues in management of
fishery resources such as heavy fishing pressure in the inshore fisheries of the
country, its impact on sustainability of resource and deepening conflicts among
the resources users, they put-forth the following suggestions in policy making:
(a) provide increased role to the local or regional fishing cornmunities in the
formulation of regulatory measures and their managerial responsibility; (b)
ensure positive access in favour of local fishing communities; (c) formulate
regulatory measures with a strong conservation policy through careful
regulation of fishing effort and restrictions on gears; and (d) incorporate a
system of fishing zones within the regional management scheme transmuting
the conflict to co-existence or even symbiosis.

Tewari, Acharya and Singh (1997)57 described the findings of a

macro-level study and a participatory appraisal study of demographic
characteristics of fishing communities in India, carried out in the context of the
project "Strengthening of research and training in population and development
dynamics of rural fishing communities". The marine fishing fleet, marine
fisher-folk population, marine fish production, coastal environmental problems,
and perceptions and views of the fisher-folk are outlined. Findings indicate
that production has increased along with the increase in the number of
fishermen and boats. However, overexploitation, deterioratioii in environment
quality, fall in catch per unit effort, high price of fuel and equipment, and high
labour and service charges are detrimental to the rate of growth of fisheries. It
is concluded that proper management of resources and judicious exploitation
are necessary.

2.9. Other Studies

Srinath Krishna (1988)68 made a study on the food consumption

pattern and nutritional status of a marine fishermen community in
Vypeenkara, Cochin during the year 1982-83. She conducted a survey by
selecting 150 households and the particulars regarding total quantity of food
bought every week and the frequency of consumption were collected through
interview schedule. She concluded that the major problems encountered in the
development of fishermen community has been their low nutrient intake. The
high incidence of malnutrition of this particular community mainly attributed
to two factors namely low purchasing power and non-availability of protective
foods like lea@ and other vegetables in the coastal areas. Lack of alternative
sources of protein mainly results from low purchasing power. She suggested
that the most important step in the uplifiment of the community is to increase
the purchasing power by increasing the income from fisheries and introducing
supplementary occupations, so that at least the requirements for protein and
calories are met.

Timothy Bostock (1991)69 described simple technologies to cut post-

harvest losses and thereby raising the income of small-scale fisher-folk. One of
the more fundamental problems encountered in small-scale fisheries is that the
catch often does not earn the revenue that it could. A study carried out on
fresh fish marketed to Delhi from Veraval, Gujarat i n 1986 indicated annual
economic losses of around Rs.70 million due to down gradation of fish as a
direct result of quality deterioration. The author, being a fisheries adviser of
BOBP, identified a number of specific problems related to economic loss
through close association with several small-scale fishing communities in
Kanyakumari District of Tamil Nadu: (a) Introduction of aluminium fish
container which has the advantages of durability, tight fitting lid, leak-proof,
easily borne on the head or hips and easily accepted by women fish vendors;
(b) making use of elevated open drying rack system for drying fishes since the
traditional drying method suffered losses; (c) development of ice and ice box
system which provides an overnight storage facility and fetch premium price to
the fishermen. Overall, all the above three activities described attempt t o
address community problems by applying simple, known technologies and by
testing basic economic viability, i.e. an increase in the individual fisherman's
earning potential.
 Ibrahim (1992)60 examined the economic implications of the rise and
growth of capitalism in Kerala fisheries exclusively depending on secondary
data, This study looked at fisheries development of the state from a dialectical
perspective attributed all the major problems experienced by the fishery sector
such as declining fish production, resource depletion, deterioration of
traditional fishery, conflicts between traditional fishermen and mechanised
boatman, declining per capita availability of fish and sky rocketing fish prices,
to the growth of capitalist pattern of fishing.

Devaraj et. al., (1996)61 evaluated the growth of fishing industry in the
east coast of India which consists of the coastal states of West Bengal, Orissa,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Pondicherry. They came to the conclusion
that during the past three decades the availability of fishing area has been
increased; the number of mechanised vessels increased by about 10 times from
1,228 in 1961 to 12,223 in 1991; the marine fish production i n the east coast
increased by 3.4 times i.e. the average landings increased from 1,87,000 tonnes
in 1960-64 to 6,34,252 tonnes in 1990-94; the annual average yield during
1990-94 was 42.3 per cent of the potential yield and there is a production gap of
57.7 per cent. Their view was that the inshore area (less than 50 rn depth) is
intensively exploited and there is considerable scope for intensifjTing the effort
in the offshore area (more than 50 m depth).

Hansen (1996)" presented that small pelagic comprise almost half of

the world marine fish catches, which were once considered mainly for the
reduction industry. Now, based on the increasing demand for fish for human
nutrition, new efforts to increase the food uses of these small fish are
developed. An examination is made of improved methods of handling and
preserving the fish, which may provide nutrition and food security to the world
a t large.

Jacob Jerold Joel and Ebenezer (1996)68 made a study on present

status of trawl fishery a t Colachel for a period of five years from 1990 to 1994.
The study indicated that the annual average gross income per fishing trip
worked out to a minimum of Rs.8,121 in 1990 to a maximum of Rs.22,683 i n
1994. Therefore, it was found that trawl fishing at Colachel was more
productive and profitable.

D1cruz (1998)" studied that co-operative had been recognised as an

important institution for the socio economic upliftment of fisher-folk in Kerala.
But the historical background shows failure since 1917. Matsyafed formed in
the year 1984. After a decade, the co-operative umbrella of Matsyafed
comprises 292 primary co-operative societies with an average membership of
502, covers about 7 5 per cent of activk fishermen of the state. On a n average
12.5 per cent active fishermen of the State were provided soft loan assistance
for acquiring means of production through Integrated Fisheries Development
Project (IFDP). The beneficiaries repaid 77 per cent of the loan amount of the
first two phases. The fish auctioned through the primary co-operatives over
the years was only one per cent of the State's marine fish landings, need
attention for further improvement. The improving trend of performance
indicators of IFDP and the attempt for resource mobilisation of Rs.210 crores
under IFDP phase IV for the period 1996-2002 are expected to provide impetus
for the take off in the co-operativisation processes of Matsyafed. If future
course of action is not set in the right direction, catastrophe cannot be avoided.

Motongwa (1998)65 in his article presented that the marine fisheries

provide food protein, employment and income for the coastal population and
the surrounding inhabitants in Kenya. Both a n artisanal and commercial
fishery are carried out, although the artisanal fishery dominates and supports
approximately 6,500 fishermen. Fishing is done in shallow waters using beach
seines, traps, fishing lines and cast nets as major gears. During the last
decade, the total annual marine fish output has varied &om 5,000 to 8,000
tonnes. Approximately, 80 per cent of the total fish landing come from shallow
coastal waters and 18 per cent fiom offshore trawlers. The fisheries have been
overshadowed by shoreline and water-dependent tourism activities and the
development of residential and commercial establishments. Marketing of fish is
majorly done by middlemen on whom the fishermen also depend for vessels for
a price resulting in poor returns. The bulk of the fish landed along the Kenyan
coast is to a greater extent consumed locally. Generally, the production of the
marine fish and other products has declined in the last two years due to lack of
adequate capacity to utilise the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)effectively in
the Indian Ocean and the inefficiency in transforming semi-processed fish
products to standard finished outputs. In order to assist in fish marketing,
fishermen's co-operatives have been encouraged. They are aimed at ensuring
fair practices and reasonable returns to the fishermen for their landings.

Vijayakumaran and Haridas (1998)66 remarked that the marine fish

production in India has been more or less stagnant in the recent past. The
mean annual production of 2.7 metric tonnes is nearly 70 per cent of the
estimated potential of 3.9 metric tonnes from the EEZ. Coastal region upto 70
metre depth is the main contributor. In multi-species, multi-gear fisheries
catch per unit effort is a poor indicator of stock or gear efficiency. 0.239 million
fishing crafts are being operated along the Indian coast. Marine Fishing
Regulations Act (MFRA) has now been enacted in the maritime states
earmarking zones for each type of fishing craft. The Maritime Zones Act 1976
defines the area under territorial waters, continental shelf, EEZ and the
maritime zones of India. Regulation of Fishing by Foreign Fishing Vessels Acb
1981 contains provisions to allow fishing by foreign owned vessels. The
provisions of Deep Sea Fishing Policy (1991) now rescinded are explained.
There is an urgent need for comprehensive regulation to cover all fishing
operations i n the EEZ to ensure responsible fishing. Future strategies for
sustainable production are also discussed.

Somvanshi, V.S., et. al., (1999)67 have studied the current status of the
Monitoring, Control and Surveillance (MCS) system in India, its
implementation and proposed strengthening a t national and state levels, with
special reference to Gujarat State. It has been remarked that the progress in
increasing fish catches narrows the gap between the potential estimate and the
current yield from the marine sector and the application of MCS is essential in
the fisheries sector for maintaining long-term sustainability and for
conservation of fish stocks for the future.

The literature review attempted above is not exhaustive though

substantial. The review reveals that while several studies are available on the
fisheries of a few regionslstates, there is hardly any noteworthy work relating
to fisheries development in other statedregions. India being a country of
continental size, the very long coast line and enormously vast continental shelf,
very large fishing population. Characterised by widely varying geographical,
demographic, social, cultural, educational and economic background and states
with different levels of economic development and fishery potential, inter-
regional differences in fisheries development are quite likely to occur.

The Union Territory of Pondicherry is a maritime one with unique

problems and features, no comprehensive and systematic study on fisheries
development of this Territory has been carried out till date. The ensuing
chapters are the outcome of humble effort to fill up this research gap.
 Notes and References

Chakraborty, D., R.V. Nair and G. Balakrishnan, (1973), Some characteri-

stics of marine fish production in India, Proc of the Symp on Living
Resources of the Seas around India, Mar.Fish.Infor.Serv., T&E Ser.,
pp.102-113.

Srinivasan, A,, (1981), Small scale marine fisheries of Tamil Nadu,

CMFRI, Cochin, Bulletin, 30-B.

Saxena, B.S., (1984), Management of shrimp fishery with particular

reference to India, Seafood Export Journal, 26(5): pp.23-29 and 26(6):
pp.9-17.

Subba Rao, N., (1986), Economics of Fisheries, Daya Publishing House,

Delhi.

Sekar, C., S. Senthlnathan and S. Isabella Rani, (1993), Marine fish

production in Tamil Nadu, Department of Agricultural Economics, Tamil
Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore, pp .29-32.

Sathiadhas, (1997), Production and Marketing Management of Marine

Fisheries in India, Daya Publishing House, Delhi.

Devaraj, M, R. Sathiadhas, and R. Reghu, (1998), Technoeconomic

assessment of marine fish production, marketing and capacity utilization
of processing plants in Gujarat, Mar.Fish.Infor.Serv., T&E Ser., pp.1-9.

Ammini, P.L., (1999), Status of marine fisheries in Kerala with reference

to ban of monsoon trawling, Mar.Fish.Infor.Serv., T&E Ser., No.160.

Dibakar Naik, (2001), An economic analysis of marine fish marketing in

Orissa, Research Project submitted to Orissa University of Agriculture
and Technology, Bhubaneshwar, Orissa.

Shiyani, R.L., (2002), Growth performance of marine fisheries in Gujarat -

Disaggregate analysis, J.Mar.Biol.Ass.India, Vo1.44(1&2), pp. 145-154.

Mini, K.G. and M. Srinath, (2003), Trawl fishery of Tamil Nadu (1985-
2000): An appraisal, Mar. Fish. Infor, Serv. T&E Ser., No.175.
Singh, A and V.K. Gupta, (1983), Marketing of marine fish: Some policy
issues of fisheries development in India - Some aspects of policy
management, Concept Publishing Company, New Delhi.

Kalavathy, M.H., (1985), The organization of fish marketing in Madras

fishing harbour, BOBPNVP/39, pp. 1-10.

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