CECW-EH Department of the Army EM 1110-2-1612

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Engineer Manual Washington, DC 20314-1000 30 April 1999
1110-2-1612

Engineering and Design

ICE ENGINEERING

Distribution Restriction Statement

Approved for public release; distribution is
unlimited.
 DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EM 1110-2-1612
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
CECW-EH Washington, DC 20314-1000

Manual
No. 1110-2-1612 30 April 1999

Engineering and Design

ICE ENGINEERING

1. Purpose. This manual, composed of three parts, presents in Part I the current guidance for the plan-
ning, design, construction, and operation and maintenance of ice control and ice suppression measures for
Corps of Engineers projects; provides in Part II the current guidance for dealing with ice jams and the
resultant flooding, including preventive measures; and gives in Part III the current guidance for engineering
and operational solutions to ice problems on rivers used for navigation.

2. Applicability. This manual is applicable to all USACE commands having responsibility for civil
works design, construction, operations, and maintenance.

3. Discussion. All Corps projects subjected to freezing temperatures have ice problems, such as: ice
buildup on lock walls, hydropower intakes, and lock approaches; ice accumulation in navigation channels;
ice passage over spillways that scours the downstream channels; and ice damage to shore structures and
shorelines, etc. Therefore, ice control measures should be considered for both new and existing projects to
improve operations and safety in cold regions. In Part I this manual discusses ice formation processes,
physical properties, and potential solutions to associated problems. Part II considers the problem of ice
jams and ice jam flooding, and discusses a broad range of mitigation measures. Part III of this manual
addresses the considerations that arise from winter navigation on inland waterways, including the conduct
of river ice management studies and the preparation of river ice management plans.

4. Distribution statement. Approved for public release, distribution is unlimited.

FOR THE COMMANDER:

ALBERT J. GENETTI, JR.

Major General, USA
Chief of Staff

This manual supersedes EM 1110-2-1612, dated 31 December 1996.

 DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EM 1110-2-1612
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
CECW-EH Washington, DC 20314-1000

Manual
No. 1110-2-1612 30 April 1999

Engineering and Design

ICE ENGINEERING

Table of Contents

Subject Paragraph Page

Chapter 1
Introduction
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 1-1
Applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 1-2
Explanation of terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 1-2
Ice impacts on Corps activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4 1-2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5 1-8

PART I: ICE PROPERTIES, PROCESSES, AND PROBLEM SOLUTIONS

Chapter 2
Review of Ice Processes and Properties
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 2-1
Physical properties of ice and fresh water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 2-1
Mechanical properties of freshwater ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3 2-3
Frazil ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-4 2-7
Thermal ice growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-5 2-9
Dynamic ice cover formation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6 2-12
Ice cover breakup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7 2-13
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-8 2-15

Chapter 3
Ice Control
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 3-1

Section I. Mechanical Ice Control

Ice control using flexible structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2 3-2
Ice control by rigid or semirigid structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3 3-15
Ice control by structures built for other purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4 3-28
Ice control not using structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-5 3-35

Section II. Thermal Ice Control

Design of air bubbler systems to suppress ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-6 3-35
Point-source bubbler system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-7 3-39
Use of thermal effluents and warm water for ice control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-8 3-40

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Effects on river ice of warm water releases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-9 3-44

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-10 3-54

Chapter 4
Hydraulic Computations and Modeling of Ice-Covered Rivers
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 4-1

Section I. Modeling River Ice Covers

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2 4-2
Modeling ice covers with known geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3 4-2
Modeling wide-river ice jams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4 4-3
Roughness of the ice accumulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-5 4-6
Limitations of ice modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-6 4-6

Section II. The ICETHK Model

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-7 4-8
Ice covers with known geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-8 4-8
Equilibrium ice jam theory and ICETHK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-9 4-8
Ice in overbank areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-10 4-9
Structure and operation of ICETHK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-11 4-9

Section III. The HEC-RAS Model

General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-12 4-9
Ice covers with known geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-13 4-11
Ice jam thickness calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-14 4-12
Solution procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-15 4-12
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-16 4-13

Chapter 5
Ice-Affected Stage-Frequency Analysis
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1 5-1
Ice effects on river stage and flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-2 5-1
Data sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3 5-2
Form of frequency analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4 5-3
Approaches for developing ranked data tabulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5 5-5
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-6 5-11
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-7 5-11

Chapter 6
Ice Forces on Structures
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1 6-1
Main types of icestructure interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2 6-1
Dynamic forcesgeneral . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3 6-2
Vertical piers or piles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4 6-2
Dynamic forcesinclined piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5 6-5
Dynamic forcesconical towers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-6 6-6
Transverse forces on piers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7 6-6

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Static forcethermal expansion 6-8 6-6

References 6-9 6-6

Chapter 7
Sediment Transport
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 7-1
Sediment transport under ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2 7-1
Effects of winter navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3 7-2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4 7-10

Chapter 8
Bearing Capacity of Floating Ice
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 8-1
Bearing capacity of ice blocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2 8-1
Bearing capacity of ice covers for loads of short duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-3 8-3
Experience values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-4 8-3
Empirical methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-5 8-4
Method based on the theory of elastic plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6 8-5
Bearing capacity of ice covers for loads of long duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-7 8-8
Other considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-8 8-10
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-9 8-10

Chapter 9
Model Tests
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-1 9-1
Modeling broken ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2 9-1
Modeling sheet ice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-3 9-1
Model calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-4 9-2
Model distortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-5 9-2
Considerations in choosing modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-6 9-2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-7 9-3

PART II: ICE JAMS AND MITIGATION MEASURES

Chapter 10
Ice Jam Flooding in the United States
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-1 10-1
Ice jam flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-2 10-1
Ice jam flood losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-3 10-2
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10-4 10-5

Chapter 11
An Ice Jam Primer
Review of ice types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-1 11-1
Types of ice jams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2 11-2
Causes of ice jams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3 11-4
Predicting ice jams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-4 11-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-5 11-5

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Chapter 12
Ice Jam Mitigation Techniques
Ice jam flood control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-1 12-1
Types of mitigation measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-2 12-1
Selecting mitigation measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-3 12-2
Permanent measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-4 12-3
Advance measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-5 12-10
Emergency management for ice jam flooding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-6 12-15
Emergency measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-7 12-16
Case studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-8 12-21
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-9 12-23
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12-10 12-23

PART III: WINTER NAVIGATION ON INLAND WATERWAYS

Chapter 13
River Ice Management Study
Section I. Study Concept
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-1 13-1
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-2 13-1
Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-3 13-1

Section II. Study Elements

River system definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-4 13-1
Ice problem identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-5 13-2
Ice forecasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-6 13-2
Structural solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-7 13-3
Operational solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-8 13-3
Recommended plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13-9 13-4

Chapter 14
River Ice Problem Identification
Surveys needed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-1 14-1
Hydrology and hydraulic studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-2 14-1
Identification of ice problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-3 14-2
Ice problems around navigation projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-4 14-3
Ice problems occurring between navigation projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-5 14-7
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14-6 14-12

Chapter 15
Ice Forecasting
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-1 15-1

Section I. Long-term water temperature forecasts

Objective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-2 15-1
Model description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-3 15-1

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Model operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-4 15-4

Model results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-5 15-5
Model accuracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-6 15-5

Section II. Mid-winter ice forecasts

Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-7 15-6
Forecast model description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-8 15-7
Hydraulic model description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-9 15-9
Thermal model description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-10 15-10
Ice model description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-11 15-12
System parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-12 15-15
Physical parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-13 15-16
Initial conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-14 15-17
Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-15 15-17
Model output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-16 15-18
Model calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-17 15-18
Model operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-18 15-19
Location of field measurement sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-19 15-19
Initial conditions generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-20 15-21
Boundary conditions generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-21 15-21
Modes of operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-22 15-22
Model results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-23 15-22
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15-24 15-25

Chapter 16
Ice-related Hydrometeorological Data Collection and Monitoring
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-1 16-1

Section I. Numerical data

Near real-time data collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-2 16-1
DCP system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-3 16-1
Water temperature measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-4 16-3
GOES satelliteWRSC authorization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-5 16-8
Direct ground readout station . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-6 16-8
Water Control Data System (WCDS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-7 16-8

Section II. Imagery

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-8 16-9
Aerial photography by hand-held camera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-9 16-9
Aerial videotapes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-10 16-12
Ground-based video . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-11 16-16
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16-12 16-17

Chapter 17
Navigation in Ice
Introduction 17-1 17-1
Environment 17-2 17-1
Vessel shape 17-3 17-2

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Subject Paragraph Page

Auxiliary icebreaking devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-4 17-2

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-5 17-3
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17-6 17-7

Chapter 18
Structural Solutions for Navigation Projects
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-1 18-1

Section I. Floating Ice Dispersion

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-2 18-1
High-flow air systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-3 18-1
Air system components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-4 18-1
Effectiveness of the air systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-5 18-4
Design of a high-flow air system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-6 18-5
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-7 18-7
Flow Inducers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-8 18-10

Section II. Ice Passage Through Dams

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-9 18-11
Submergible tainter gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-10 18-12
Roller gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-11 18-12
Conventional tainter gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-12 18-12
Gate limitations in winter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-13 18-12
Other ice passage schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-14 18-14

Section III. Anti-icing and Deicing at Locks and Dams

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-15 18-14
Electrical heating of lock and dam components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-16 18-15
Providing electricity for heating to locks and dams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-17 18-17
Mechanical removal of ice from lock walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-18 18-18
Surface treatments to reduce ice adhesion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-19 18-20
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18-20 18-22

Chapter 19
Operational Solutions
Section I. Vessel Scheduling or Convoying
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-1 19-1
Operational choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-2 19-1
Transit scheduling or convoying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-3 19-1

Section II. Operational Techniques at Locks and Dams

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-4 19-2
Physical ice removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-5 19-2
Methods used at locks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-6 19-4
Methods used at dams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-7 19-5

Section III. Operational Use of Thermal Resources at Locks and Dams

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-8 19-5

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Subject Paragraph Page

Man-made energy sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-9 19-5

Unconventional energy sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-10 19-5
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19-11 19-7

Appendix A
Glossary

Appendix B
Ice Jam Mitigation Case Studies

Appendix C
Typical River Ice Management Study

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Chapter 1
Introduction

1-1. Purpose

This manual provides a general coverage of the field of ice engineering as it pertains to the responsibilities
of the Corps of Engineers. For convenience, it is divided into three parts: first, Ice Properties, Processes,
and Problem Solutions; second, Ice Jams and Mitigation Measures; and third, Winter Navigation on
Inland Waterways. This manual does not address the environmental impacts of ice.

a. Role.

(1) Part I gives fundamental information about ice and about the hydraulics of ice-affected river flow.
It presents current guidance for the planning, design, construction, and operation and maintenance of ice-
control and ice-suppression measures for Corps of Engineers projects. It also supplies basic information
on selected problems for which ice is a significant engineering factor.

(2) Part II addresses ice jams and related flooding, including prevention and remediation methods. The
information presented is intended to be useful to interested parties outside of the Corps of Engineers, as
well as within.

(3) Part III gives the current guidance for engineering and operational solutions to ice problems on
rivers used for navigation throughout the winter. These solutions can contribute to efficient, cost-effective,
reliable, and safe navigation during ice periods. Part III also presents guidance for developing River Ice
Management Plans for specific rivers or river systems.

b. Scope.

(1) In Part I, Ice Properties, Processes, and Problem Solutions, Chapter 2 discusses ice processes,
namely formation, growth, and decay, and the physical and mechanical properties of ice. In Chapter 3 the
focus is on techniques for mechanical and thermal ice control in lakes and rivers. Chapter 4 describes
methods for modeling the hydraulics of ice-affected rivers and determining the associated water-surface
profiles, while Chapter 5 presents approaches for assessing ice-affected stage-frequencies for rivers.
Chapter 6 discusses ice-induced forces on riverine, coastal, and offshore structures for inclusion in design
considerations. Chapter 7 presents guidance on estimating the effects of ice covers on sediment transport in
alluvial channels. Chapter 8 deals with evaluating the bearing capacity of sheet ice for stationary and
moving loads as a function of ice thickness and ice conditions. Chapter 9 discusses small-scale ice physical
modeling that can be conducted to test concepts for resolving ice problems in all types of water bodies.

(2) In Part II, Ice Jams and Mitigation Measures, Chapter 10 presents a general overview of the
problem of ice jams and ice jam flooding. Chapter 11 gives a brief review of ice types as a basis for
discussing the types of ice jams, their causes, and their prediction. Chapter 12 covers the broad range of
methods used to reduce or eliminate ice jam difficulties.

(3) In Part III, Winter Navigation on Inland Waterways, Chapter 13 discusses the conduct of a river
ice management study, a system-wide approach to solving winter navigation problems. In Chapter 14 the
broad range of river ice problems affecting winter navigation is summarized, and guidance for identifying

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and conducting surveys of these problems is given. Chapter 15 presents river ice forecasting concepts and
methodologies. Systems and techniques for the collection of hydrometeorological data are covered in
Chapter 16, including numerical information as well as imagery. Chapter 17 presents basic information
regarding navigation in ice, and includes discussion of alternatives for increasing the ease and efficiency of
such operations. Chapter 18 addresses structural solutions to ice problems at navigation structures. Lastly,
Chapter 19 covers operational solutions to winter navigation problems.

(4) Appendix A, Glossary, provides abbreviations and definitions of terms used throughout this
manual. Appendix B, Ice Jam Mitigation Case Studies, is related to Part II and provides details for many
solutions successfully applied to a wide variety of ice jam problems. Appendix C, Typical River Ice
Management Study, associated with Part III, outlines and organizes the elements necessary to a river ice
management study, which would lead to a formal River Ice Management Plan.

1-2. Applicability

This manual is applicable to all USACE commands having civil works design, construction, or operations
responsibilities.

1-3. Explanations of Terms

Abbreviations and special terms used in this manual are listed in Appendix A, Glossary.

1-4. Ice Impacts on Corps Activities

Figure 1-1 shows the area of North America where temperatures in winter are below freezing over a
sufficient length of time for ice to form in rivers, streams, and lakes. Ice in streams and waterways affects
Corps projects for navigation, flood control, water supply, and power generation. It can also result in ice
jams and lead to flooding at river discharges that would be trouble-free under open-water conditions.
During spring breakup, especially, ice may severely damage riprap installations and other riverine
structures. Offshore and coastal structures in the Arctic and in subarctic regions, and specifically along the
Alaska coastline, need to be designed to withstand the significant forces exerted by sea ice driven by wind
or current. Ice in navigable waterways adversely affects many Corps activities and creates the need for
specific ice management measures.

a. Ice interference with lock and dam operations. Corps of Engineers navigation projects cannot
operate properly when ice accumulates at locks, dams, and related facilities. A few examples illustrate how
ice at navigation projects leads to accelerated damage and increased maintenance needs, greater demands
on personnel, and more dangerous working conditions. Ice interferes with the movement of lock and dam
gates (Figure 1-2) and places added loads on structural components. Lock widths are often not fully usable
owing to the accumulation of broken ice in recesses behind miter gates (preventing full gate opening) and
the buildup of ice collars on one or both walls of the chamber (Figure 1-3). Broken ice is pushed into lock
chambers ahead of tows, sometimes limiting the length of tow that can fit. Floating mooring bitts freeze in
place, becoming useless. The passing of ice at dams, while simultaneously trying to maintain navigation
pool levels and avoid downstream scour, is often difficult or impossible.

b. Ice effects at flood control projects. Problems at flood control projects are often similar to those
at navigation facilities. Dam gates are particularly susceptible to freezing in place because of leaking seals
and resulting ice buildup, especially if gates are moved infrequently. Hoisting chains, trunnion arms, etc.,
may become so loaded with ice as to be too heavy for lifting mechanisms. Personnel

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Figure 1-1. Cold regions in North America. A-line is southernmost boundary of the
area where the average temperature of the coldest winter month is -18C (0F) or less
and ice covers navigable waters for at least 180 days of the year; B-line is the southern
border of the area where the average temperature of the coldest winter month is
between -18 and 0C (0 and 32F) and ice covers navigable waters for 100180 days.

walkways can become dangerously coated with ice from water spray. If not conducted cautiously, water
releases from reservoirs may have the effect of dislodging downstream river ice, leading to ice runs, ice
jams, and subsequent flooding.

c. Ice effects on water supply and power plants. Frazil ice and brash ice can accumulate on trash
racks, thereby blocking water intakes of water supply systems, water intakes at hydropower plants, or
cooling water intakes at thermal power plants. Excessively rough ice accumulations may lead to undue
head losses in water supply and power canals.

d. Ice effects on river stage. A stationary river ice cover, whether an ice sheet or a jam, introduces an
additional boundary and therefore increases energy losses. This translates to an increase in stage compared
to open-water conditions for the same discharge. Numerical models for river hydraulics must be able to
account for the effects of ice if they are to reliably describe river flows and stages. The

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Figure 1-2. Ice accumulation on dam gates

Figure 1-3. Ice collar on lock wall

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resistance offered by an ice cover will lead to upstream water storage, resulting in rapid stage rise and
possible flooding, and simultaneously will lead to a drop in stage and a discharge deficit downstream from
the ice cover. If the stage drop is severe enough, downstream water intakes may become exposed, affecting
municipal and industrial water supplies, especially during periods of drought or very low flow.

e. Ice effects on sediment transport and scour. The presence of a floating ice cover roughly doubles
the wetted perimeter of a wide channel, which in turn modifies the magnitude and distribution of the
velocities and, thus, the boundary and internal shear stresses. For a movable bed channel, an ice cover
may, therefore, affect the bed sediment transport and the suspended sediment transport characteristics of
the stream and modify the channel geometry and the bed regime. For an abrupt thickening of an ice
accumulation, such as the toe of an ice jam, there may be significant bed scour because of the deflection of
the flow against the bed. When this happens in the vicinity of a riverine structure, such as a bridge pier, the
resulting scour may eventually cause structural failure.

f. Ice-related shore and structure damage. Damage caused by normal ice conditions in ice-prone
rivers is often minor. But in more severe ice seasons, scour and ice-force damage to shorelines, pilings,
piers, and levees may become significant. Unprotected earth surfaces at shorelines can be severely gouged
and eroded. Particularly during ice breakup, ice floes shearing along the riverbank or striking river training
structures may severely damage riprap or erode the banks. Public and private riverside structures can be
weakened, distorted, or even destroyed.

g. Ice forces on structures. The design of riverine, lake, coastal, and offshore structures to be built in
ice-prone areas, such as riprap installations, river training structures, docks, bridge piers, artificial islands,
or oil drilling platforms, needs to take into account the potential forces exerted by ice runs at breakup or by
large ice floes driven by currents or wind stresses (Figure 1-4). These forces will depend on ice thickness,
ice mechanical properties, and the anticipated mode of failure of the ice (crushing, bending, or buckling).

h. Ice jam flooding. River ice jams may contribute to winter and early spring flood damage (Figure 1-
5). Ice blockages in main stems and tributaries cause stages to rise and force water out of the channel over
the floodplain, even when discharges are low compared to warm-water floods. Ice jam floods, while
usually not as extensive as open-water floods, often take place with little or no warning. The factors and
relationships that determine the probability of ice jams and ice jam flooding are more complex than those
for open-water flooding. This means that the extensive statistical analysis methods applied to normal
flooding phenomena are not readily applicable to ice-related occurrences. Many mitigation measures have
been developed for preventing or reducing ice jam floods; these methods may be structural or nonstructural,
and they may be deployed on a permanent, advance, or emergency basis. Effective Corps emergency
management responses depend on fully understanding ice jam phenomena.

i. Ice effects on navigation. Ice-prone rivers in the U.S. directly serve 19 states containing 45% of
the Nations population. These rivers also serve as conduits to eight other river states and connect the
U.S. heartland to world markets through the Gulf of Mexico, the St. Lawrence Seaway, and the ports of the
Northwest. The principal rivers among these that generally support year-round navigation are the Ohio
River (including the Monongahela and Allegheny rivers), the Illinois Waterway, and the Upper Mississippi
River from Keokuk, Iowa, downstream to Cairo, Illinois (its junction with the Ohio). Elsewhere, ice
formation on the Great Lakes and their connecting channels and in the Upper Mississippi River above
Keokuk generally forces the suspension of commercial navigation during most of the winter season. The
presence of sheet ice or brash ice in any of these waterways slows navigation considerably (Figure 1-6),
may damage the hull or propulsion systems of vessels, and can cause the breakup of tows.

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Figure 1-4. Ice action on bridge piers

Figure 1-5. Flooding caused by an ice jam

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Figure 1-6. Towboat in ice

Broken ice caused by multiple vessel passages may accumulate in navigation channels or under adjacent
sheet ice, further exacerbating navigation difficulties. When ice causes navigation to stop or to become
significantly curtailed on these waterways, the portions of the local, regional, and national economies
dependent on waterborne transportation may be adversely affected.

j. Ice problems for towboat operators. Aside from the obvious effects of ice on the navigation
industry, such as increased demands on personnel, accelerated wear and tear on equipment, and increased
maintenance requirements for towboats and barges, ice imposes several limitations on tow operations that
directly affect the industrys efficiency. The first of these is reduced tow size. The added resistance caused
by the heavy ice accumulations means that towboats are not able to push as many barges through the ice as
through open water. Thus, for the same operating costs, less tonnage can be moved when ice is extensive.
The next limitation is lower travel speeds. Again, this is a function of the extra energy needed to move a
tow through ice accumulations, and it varies with the amount of ice in the waterway. And, finally, there are
the delays at locks already enumerated, including ice restrictions on usable lock widths dictating narrower
tow configurations.

k. Ice effects on industry, commerce, and the general public. When freight is delayed or stopped on
ice-prone rivers by adverse ice conditions, the effects are felt by industries served by river transportation.
And, as industry is affected, so also are commerce and the general public, since they rely directly or
indirectly on industrial payrolls. Ice problems can curtail shipments of fuels, industrial feedstocks, finished
goods, road salt, etc. These delays may lead to a range of results, from added transportation costs for
alternative shipping modes to industrial plant cutbacks with associated layoffs. Delayed movement of
goods leads to the depletion of reserve stockpiles, added inventory carrying costs, and extra labor costs for
additional handling of bulk products. Road salt shortages may result in hazardous road conditions. Fuel
shortages affect both industry and homes; often when fuel is scarce, industrial cutbacks (and layoffs) are
implemented to ensure at least minimum service to hospitals and residences. Major interruptions in

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industrial raw materials lead to terminating process heating, and this can result in costly shutdown and
restarting expenses.

1-5. References

a. Required publications.
None.

b. Related publications.

ER 1110-2-1458
Hydraulic Design of Shallow-Draft Navigation Projects.

EM 1110-2-1611
Layout and Design of Shallow-Draft Waterways.

Ashton 1986
Ashton, G.D., ed. 1986. River and Lake Ice Engineering, Water Resources Publications, Littleton,
Colorado.

Beltaos 1995
Beltaos, S., ed. 1995. River Ice Jams, Water Resources Publications, Highlands Ranch, Colorado.

Michel 1971
Michel, B. 1971. Winter Regime of Rivers and Lakes, CRREL Monograph III-B1a, U.S. Army Cold
Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

Michel 1978
Michel, B. 1978. Ice Mechanics, Les Presses de lUniversite Laval, Quebec, Canada.

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Chapter 2
Review of Ice Processes and Properties

2-1. Introduction

Each year, ice grows on and disappears from the Nations rivers and lakes in tune with the cycles of nature.
Unless the ice causes problems, such as flooding or blocking the arteries of commerce, few people pay
more than cursory attention. Because of this, the very great variety of ways in which ice initially forms,
grows, and accumulates, and finally disappears, are relatively unknown to the casual observer. Ice
processes on lakes are different from those on rivers. And for both lakes and rivers, the size of the water
body affects which processes take place. Ice owes its existence to the thermal processes of phase change
and heat transfer, but its evolution is greatly influenced by physical and mechanical processes. Thus, this
chapter introduces the wide variety of ice formation, evolution, and destruction mechanisms and identifies
the principal thermal, physical, and mechanical properties that govern them.

2-2. Physical Properties of Ice and Fresh Water

a. Water properties. In ice engineering, ice is most often encountered in contact with liquid water.
Therefore, it is important to be aware of the physical properties of water to fully understand the interaction
of ice and water. The physical properties of greatest importance are density and specific heat.

(1) Density. The density of water (mass per unit volume) is temperature-dependent, as are many of its
physical properties. The changes in water density with temperature are relatively small over the normal
range of water temperature, but these small changes can have large-scale results. The primary example of
this is the thermal stratification of lakes and reservoirs. The density change of water in response to
temperature is unusual compared to almost all other substancesthe density of water does not increase
continuously with decreasing temperature but has a maximum at 4EC (39.2EF). A further temperature
decrease causes the density of water to decrease. This density maximum has a profound effect on the
thermal stratification of lakes and reservoirs in winter. The density of water as a function of temperature is
reasonably well described by the following equation (Heggen 1983)

D = 1000.0 & 1.955 10&2 *2 & 4.0*1.68

where D is the density of water in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3), and 2 is the temperature in degrees
Celsius. In English units the equation is

D = 1.940 & 1.413 10&5 *2 & 39.2*1.68

where D is the density of water in slugs per cubic foot (slugs/ft3) and 2 is the temperature in degrees
Fahrenheit. At 0EC (32EF), the density of water is 999.80 kg/m3 (1.94 slugs/ft3 or 62.42 lb/ft3 specific
weight).

(2) Specific heat. Specific heat is a measure of the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of
one unit mass of fluid one unit degree under constant pressure. The specific heat of water is much larger
than the specific heat of most materials. As a result, a relatively large amount of heat must be added to or

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extracted from water to change its temperature. The specific heat of water as a function of temperature is
described by the following equation (Heggen 1983)

C p' 4174.9 % 1.6659 (e r/10.6 % e &r/10.6)

where r = 34.5 2 for 2 < 34.5EC, 2 being the temperature in degrees Celsius, and Cp is the specific heat
in joules per kilogram per degree Celsius (J/kg EC). In English units

C p' 0.99716 % 3.9789 10&4 (e r/19.08 % e &r/19.08)

where r = 94.10 2 for 2 < 94.10EF, 2 being the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit, and Cp is the specific
heat in British Thermal Units per pound per degree Fahrenheit (Btu/lb EF). At 0EC (32EF), Cp =
4218.13 J/kg EC (1.0075 Btu/lb EF).

(3) Density stratification in natural water bodies. Stratification results from differences in density and
temperature occurring in a vertical section of a lake or reservoir. Lighter fluids float on top of denser,
heavier fluids. In the summer months, the temperature of the water in a lake or reservoir will be much
greater than 4EC (39EF), and warmer water will float on top of colder, denser water. As a result, in
summer the water near the surface will be warmer than the water found at depth. In the winter months,
when the temperature of the water in the lake or reservoir is at 4EC (39EF) or less, the less dense water will
be the colder water and this water will float on top of the warmer, denser water, which has a temperature
closer to 4EC (39EF). As a result, in winter the water near the surface will be colder than the water found
at depth. This warmer water found at depth in lakes and reservoirs forms a thermal reserve. If available
in sufficient quantities, this reserve can be used to melt ice at the water surface by bringing up the denser,
warmer water using bubblers (see Chapter 3) or mechanical diffusers.

(4) Mixing. The density difference between 0 and 4EC (32 and 39EF) is small, and it does not take
much mixing action to overcome the stratification. Turbulence is a very effective mixer. All rivers,
streams, and channels with any appreciable flow velocity are turbulent and therefore will be well-mixed
vertically and will exhibit virtually no stratification. Therefore, there is almost no thermal reserve located
at depth in flowing rivers, streams, or channels that can be exploited for melting ice. Lakes and reservoirs
may be well-mixed to some depth owing to the turbulence created by wind. Ponds and shallow lakes may
be well-mixed throughout their entire depth during times when there are strong winds blowing. The
presence of an intact ice cover will generally protect the water below from the influence of the wind and
promote stratification.

b. Density of freshwater ice. The density of freshwater ice is 916.8 kg/m3 at 0EC (1.779 slugs/ft3 or
57.2 lb/ft3 specific weight at 32EF). Like most materials, ice becomes denser with decreasing temperature
(at 30EC [22EF], the density of ice is about 920.6 kg/m3 [1.786 slugs/ft3 or 57.5 lb/ft3 specific weight]).
The density of ice is affected by the presence of impurities, with the two most common impurities being
air bubbles and unfrozen water. The presence of air bubbles tends to reduce the density, and unfrozen
water tends to increase the density. Unfortunately, for ice found on natural water bodies, little can be said
about the amount of these impurities without resorting to direct and somewhat difficult measurements.
As a result, for engineering calculations, the approximation for the density of ice of 915917 kg/m3
(1.7751.779 slugs/ft3 or 57.157.2 lb/ft3 specific weight) is probably adequate.

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c. Thermal properties. The thermal properties most often needed are the thermal conductivity of ice
and the latent heat.

(1) Thermal conductivity. Thermal conductivity describes the ability of ice to transmit heat under a
unit temperature gradient. The temperature dependence of thermal conductivity is described by

k i ' 2.21 & 0.0112

where ki is the thermal conductivity in watts per meter per degree Celsius (W/m EC) and 2 is the
temperature in degrees Celsius. In English units

k i ' 1.27 & 0.0061 (2 & 32)

where ki is the thermal conductivity in British Thermal Units feet per hour per square foot per degree
Fahrenheit (Btu ft/[hr ft2 EF]) and 2 is the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit. The thermal conductivity of
ice is greater than that of concrete (0.811.40 W/m EC {0.470.81 Btu ft/[hr ft2 EF]}) and wood
(0.140.21 W/m EC {0.080.12 Btu ft/[hr ft2 EF]}) but much less than that of metal (for example, copper
388 [224], aluminum 209 [120], and steel 49 [3]). Ice is a not a great insulator, but it is not much of a heat
conductor either. The thermal conductivity of ice is significantly influenced by air bubbles and the
inclusion of unfrozen water. But as with the density determination, the amount of both of these impurities
in ice in natural water bodies is usually not known, and as a result their influence is usually ignored.

(2) Latent heat. Pure water freezes at 0EC (32EF) under standard atmospheric pressure. When water
freezes, 333.4 J/g (143.3 Btu/lb) of latent heat is released. This is a substantial amount of heat, especially
when compared to the 4.217 J/g (1.813 Btu/lb) it takes to change the temperature of water 1EC (1.8EF).

2-3. Mechanical Properties of Freshwater Ice

Mechanical properties are important parameters that control the forces that ice may exert upon structures
and the deformation of ice under load. Ice is a complex material whose behavior under load can range from
brittle to ductile, depending on its structure, the rate of load application, and temperature. Because of these
factors, the values of ice properties also vary with the measurement techniques and conditions. Only a brief
summary of the mechanical properties of freshwater ice is presented below. The reader interested in ice
rheology and ice mechanics should consult more specialized texts such as Pounder (1965), Michel (1978),
or Ashton (1986).

a. Ice strength. Strength is defined as the maximum stress that a test specimen can support
immediately before failure. Its value will thus depend on the mode of failure (e.g., bending or flexure,
crushing or compression, shear), the type of failure (namely brittle or ductile), the presence of flaws in the
ice, and, as already mentioned, the test technique. In the following, only brittle failure will be considered,
since it corresponds to the relatively high loading rate more commonly associated with ice impact on
structures when driven by water flow or wind.

(1) Bending or flexural strength. The ice bending or flexural strength is the maximum stress that an
ice sheet or ice floe can withstand when subjected to a vertical load at the edge of the ice sheet, e.g., when
riding up an inclined slope or striking an inclined bridge pier. A number of studies have measured ice

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flexural strength (Frankenstein 1968, Lavrov 1969, Gow 1977). From these, the expected bending strength
of competent, columnar freshwater ice ranges from a low of 0.5 MPa (70 psi) for relatively large specimens
tested by the cantilever beam method to a high of 1.2 MPa (170 psi) for small, simple beam specimens.
This range of values also reflects differences in results obtained depending on whether the tests were
conducted with the top of the ice under tension or the bottom of the ice under tension and the corresponding
variation in crystal size.

(2) Crushing or compressive strength. The ice compressive strength is the maximum stress before
failure that ice can withstand when subjected to in-plane loads, i.e., normal to the ice floe thickness, as
when being pushed against a vertical surface or bridge pier. The main factors that affect the crushing
strength of ice are the crystal size, the rate of loading (strain rate), and the ice temperature. On the
average, for columnar ice and snow or frazil ice at about 10EC (14EF) and in the brittle range of failure,
i.e., for relatively high rate of loading, the crushing strength is in the range of 8 to 10 MPa (1.1 to 1.5 kpsi).
Michel (1978) gives the following equation for estimating the ice crushing strength

F = 9.4 105 d &1/2 % 3 *2*0.78 (2-1)

where

F = crushing strength (pascals)

d = crystal size (centimeters)

2 = temperature (degrees Celsius).

(3) Breakthrough loads. The bearing capacity of ice is discussed in some detail in Chapter 8. For
short-term duration loads, the allowable load P that a floating ice sheet can support is proportional to the
square of the ice thickness h, that is

P = A h 2. (2-2)

For most practical purposes, the value for A can be taken as 1/100 when P is expressed in metric tons
(1000 kg) and h in centimeters (A can be taken as 1 when P is expressed in meganewtons and h in meters),
and for P in tons and h in inches, then A can be taken as 1/16.

b. Elastic modulus. The elastic modulus E describes the relationship between stress and strain. For
the case of ice, the elastic modulus has been found to depend on the ice temperature, crystal structure, and
the rate of stress application. Also, creep in ice can occur soon, especially at high stress levels, requiring
that strain be measured extremely quickly after the application of the stress (Ashton 1986). As for the
other mechanical properties of ice, the measured values of the elastic modulus also depend on the
measurement techniques. As a result, estimates of the elastic modulus can range widely, and values esti-
mated or measured in the field for the elastic modulus of intact freshwater ice range from about 0.4 to
9.8 GPa (55 to 1350 kpsi). The elastic modulus of ice grown in large laboratory tanks ranges from about
4.3 to 8.3 GPa (600 to 1150 kpsi), whereas the elastic modulus of small laboratory specimens is typically
higher. Values for extensively cracked or deteriorated ice may be much lower.

c. Characteristic length. The characteristic length Lc of a floating ice sheet is a measure of the extent
of the zone of deformation when the ice is subjected to a vertical load. It also governs the initial size of ice

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floes resulting from the breakup of a sheet ice cover. This parameter is expressed in terms of the ice
thickness h and modulus of elasticity E by

1/4
Eh 3
Lc = (2-3)
12( 1 & <2

where ( is the specific weight of water and < is the Poissons ratio of ice, usually taken to be 0.3. From
elastic analysis, the radius of the area of deformation is approximately equal to 3 characteristic lengths.
Field measurements (Sodhi et al. 1985) have shown that the characteristic length of competent freshwater
ice is about 15 to 20 times the ice thickness, with the higher ratio corresponding to cold ice and the lower
values for warm ice in late winter or early spring.

d. Field measurements. There is no simple, reliable method to measure the compressive strength of
ice in the field. It is often necessary to collect ice samples for testing in the laboratory under controlled
conditions. The flexural strength and the elastic modulus can, on the other hand, be measured in the field
with a minimum of equipment (IAHR 1980) using one of the techniques described below.

(1) Cantilever beam. A cantilever beam of length L (= 5 to 8 h) and width B ( 2 h) is cut in the ice
sheet (Figure 2-1a). A load P is applied to the tip of the beam and the corresponding deflection * is
measured. The elastic modulus E is given by

2
4 L P
E = . (2-4a)
B h *

If PN is the failure load of the cantilever beam, the flexural strength is calculated by

PNL
Fb = 6 . (2-4b)
Bh 2

To make the results as reliable as possible, the saw cuts at the root of the cantilever beam should be
rounded to avoid local stress concentration and resulting early failure of the beam.

(2) Simple beam. A beam of length L and width B cut from the ice sheet is placed on two supports
and loaded in the beam center with a load P that yields a deflection * (Figure 2-1b). The corresponding
value of the elastic modulus is

3
P L
E = . (2-5a)
4 B* h

The flexural strength is obtained for the maximum load at failure PN by

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a. Cantilever beam method.

b. Simple beam method.

c. Plate deflection method.

Figure 2-1. Determination of the mechanical properties of ice

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3 PNL
Fb = . (2-5b)
2Bh 2
(3) Plate loading. The characteristic length Lc of ice can be directly measured by loading an ice sheet
with a load P (e.g., a drum that can be filled with water from a safe distance away) and measuring the
corresponding plate deflection * as near the edge of load application as possible, as shown in Figure 2-1c.

P
Lc = (2-6)
8(*

where ( is the specific weight of water. For Equation 2-6 to be valid, the ratio of the radius a of the load
area to the characteristic length should not exceed 0.2, i.e.

a a
. # 0.2. (2-7)
Lc 17h

Stated another way, a should not exceed 3 to 4 ice thicknesses.

2-4. Frazil Ice

Frazil ice is formed in turbulent, supercooled water. Supercooled water is at a temperature below its
equilibrium freezing point; for pure water the freezing point is, by definition, 0EC (32EF) at atmospheric
pressure. Supercooling takes place in lakes and rivers in turbulent, open-water areas when the air
temperature is significantly less than 0EC (32EF). Usually an air temperature of 8EC (18EF) or lower is
required. The requirement for open water can be understood by noting that, if the water surface is covered
with ice, the temperature at the ice/water interface must be at the equilibrium freezing point, and all heat
transfer from the water would stop when the water cooled to 0EC (32EF). As a result, the formation of
frazil is always associated with open water. The level of supercooling should not be overestimated; it will
usually not exceed several hundredths of a degree Celsius, and in no case will it exceed 0.1EC (0.18EF). As
a result, supercooling is detectable only with laboratory-grade thermometers. Frazil ice appears first as
small crystals (0.1 millimeter to several millimeters, 0.004 inch to one or two tenths of an inch) that are
distributed more or less uniformly throughout the region of turbulence. In rivers, for example, this is likely
to be throughout the entire depth. Each crystal starts out as a perfect disk, whose major diameter is 10 to
12 times its thickness. This disk shape is the form by which frazil is chiefly known, but, with time, frazil
ice evolves through a number of processes to form larger and larger ice masses. Eventually, it will become
a stationary, floating ice cover that may be many kilometers (miles) long.

a. Frazil ice formation. During the formation stage, the initial frazil ice crystals are created.
Formation is characterized by supercooled water, turbulent flow, the rapid growth of disk-shaped crystals,
and the creation of new crystals by secondary nucleation (explained below). The length scales of the ice
associated with this stage range from several micrometers to perhaps a few millimeters (i.e., between a
hundredth and a tenth of an inch). This stage usually takes place during cold periods when the heat loss
from the open water surface is intense.

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(1) Nucleation. It is now known that the frazil crystals do not spontaneously appear through
nucleation in the water column. Nucleation is a general term, referring to the formation of a new phase of a
substance from a parent phase. In our case, the parent phase is obviously water, and the new phase that is
appearing is, of course, ice. We know now that frazil ice crystals are formed from seed crystals, which are
ice crystals introduced from outside the natural water body. Seed crystals can come from a number of
different sources: vapor evaporating from the water surface, upon encountering cold air, can sublimate into
ice crystals, which fall back onto the water surface and are entrained by the turbulent motion of the flow;
small water droplets generated by breaking waves; bubbles bursting at the water surface; splashing; and
snow and sleet. But seed crystals are not the whole story.

(2) Secondary nucleation. It is observed that once a very few seed crystals are introduced into
turbulent supercooled water, very quickly many new crystals are created through secondary nucleation.
Collisions of existing crystals with hard surfaces (including other crystals) is thought to be the main
mechanism through which new frazil ice crystals are formed. These new crystals can then further increase
the rate of secondary nucleation with a multiplicative effect. Because the frazil ice crystals are suspended
in supercooled water, they are also growing in size. The water temperature will dynamically reflect the
balance of the latent heat released by the growing crystals and the heat transfer from the water surface.
Eventually, the rate of latent heat released is enough to return the water temperature to the icewater
equilibrium temperature (0EC [32EF]).

b. Frazil ice evolution and transport. Frazil ice evolves and is transported after it forms. Frazil
evolves in form largely from the individual crystals joining together to form larger masses. The evolution
of frazil is characterized by water more or less at the equilibrium temperature, and frazil in the form of
flocs, anchor ice, and floes. The length scales of the ice associated with this stage range from several
millimeters to many meters (i.e., a fraction of an inch to tens of feet). The frazil is largely moving under
the influence of the flow velocity of the river or stream, generally at the surface. After cold nights, it is
typical to see frazil slush, formed of frazil flocs, moving along at the water surface of northern rivers and
streams. This ice may travel long distances, moving for many days and may eventually form large moving
floes. Eventually, through a process termed juxtaposition, the frazil floes may form stationary, floating ice
covers of uniform thickness that may be quite large and last for the entire winter season. Other con-
figurations of ice covers may form by a variety of mechanisms, depending on the dynamics of the frazil ice
upon its arrival at the site of stationary ice, and depending on the hydraulic conditions at the covers leading
edge. Frazil slush and floes may be entrained in the flow beneath the initial cover to form thicker
accumulations. In extreme cases, these floating covers can become very thick, as in the relatively rare
instance where a hanging dam forms. Frazil ice may be deposited on or eroded from the underside of the
cover throughout the winter. The crystal structure of ice covers formed from frazil ice reflects its origin,
and the ice crystals tend to be small and randomly oriented.

c. Problems caused by frazil ice. Frazil ice can cause a number of problems. If areas of streams or
channels remain open for long periods during cold weather, large amounts of frazil ice can be formed,
carried downstream by the flow velocity, and eventually deposited in a relatively slow velocity reach of the
river to form a freezeup ice jam. Freezeup ice jams can block substantial portions of the river cross
section. This blockage may raise upstream water levels enough to cause flooding, or may serve as the site
of a breakup ice jam later in the winter season. Upstream water levels may also be raised if large amounts
of frazil ice are deposited on the channel bottom as anchor ice to form anchor ice dams. Anchor ice dams
are relatively rare, and usually occur in steep, shallow rivers and streams. Water intakes can experience
significant problems with frazil ice if they are operated when the water is supercooled. The crystals in the
supercooled water will be growing in size and will stick to any object they contactincluding intake trash

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racksas long as these objects are at a temperature below freezing. Given the effective heat transfer rates
provided by flowing water, any object in the water that is not heated will quickly be at the temperature of
the supercooled water and will accumulate frazil. Sufficient frazil can accumulate on the trash rack to
effectively block it and completely stop the flow of water into the intake, often with severe consequences.

d. Control of frazil ice. An intact, stable ice cover will always prevent the production of frazil ice by
insulating the water surface and preventing the large heat loss rates responsible for supercooled water. If
an ice cover can be successfully created and kept in place over a reach of a river that is normally open
during periods of cold weather, frazil ice problems can be completely avoided or substantially reduced.
The techniques for creating and maintaining a stable ice cover are described in Chapter 3. Another tech-
nique for preventing supercooled water is to mix warm water with the supercooled water and raise the
water temperature to the icewater equilibrium temperature, or slightly above. This technique is especially
effective near water intakes, where the quantity of warm water required can be modest. Finally, if the
actual production of frazil ice cannot be controlled, mechanical removal of the frazil, using techniques
described elsewhere in this manual, may be the only recourse.

2-5. Thermal Ice Growth

a. Static ice formation. Ice formation on water in which the flow velocity plays no role is called
static ice formation. This includes ice formed on lakes and ponds during periods of low winds, and on
rivers and streams in which the flow velocity is approximately 0.3 m/s (1 ft/s) or less. Static ice formation
starts in a very thin layer of supercooled water at the water surface and is probably initiated by the
introduction of seed crystals. The ice grows at the ice/water interface as a result of heat transfer upward
from the interface, through the ice, to the atmosphere. Ice grows in hexagonal crystals with three a axes of
symmetry in what is called the basal plane, and one c axis perpendicular to the basal plane. The orientation
of the ice crystals in a static ice cover can vary, depending on the initial formation process. However, once
an initial ice cover is formed, continued thermal growth of the initial ice crystals tends to favor the
development of vertical c axes. Often, ice crystals in a static ice cover look like pencils with the c axes
as the leads, and are called columnar. Because the impurities in the water are pushed to the boundaries
of columnar crystals during growth, a relatively high concentration of impurities is trapped between the
crystal boundaries. Owing to the trapped impurities, melting begins at the crystal boundaries during warm
periods and a phenomenon called candle ice often develops. In candle ice, innumerable single crystals are
no longer frozen together, but rather are leaning on each other for support. A small impact, such as a
wave, or a well-placed kick, can collapse the entire mass. Another form of ice found during static ice
growth results from the presence of a snow cover on the ice and is called snow ice. Snow ice is formed
when the weight of a snow cover on the ice sheet is sufficient to depress the ice and cause water to flood up
through cracks and saturate the lower layers of the snow. Snow ice is granular, opaque, and white, and it
has small, randomly oriented crystals.

b. Thermal balance of ice covers. The thermal balance of ice covers is found by summing all the
modes of heat transfer between the ice cover and the atmosphere, and between the ice cover and the water
below (Ashton 1986). One important aspect of the thermal heat balance is the heat input through solar
radiation (sunlight), especially in the spring, when the hours of daylight are increasing. The ratio of the
reflected sunlight to the incident sunlight is defined as the albedo of the surface. (An albedo of unity indi-
cates that all of the solar radiation is reflected, while an albedo of zero means that all of the radiant energy
is absorbed.) Ice covers that look white tend to have high albedos. For example, an ice surface covered
with fresh snow can have an albedo of 0.9; ice covers composed of snow ice can have albedos as high as
0.6 to 0.8. In contrast to this, ice covers that are composed of clear columnar ice (black ice) may have

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albedo values as low as 0.2. An attractive and relatively easy way to modify the thermal balance of ice,
especially to promote the melting and weakening of the ice cover to reduce the threat of ice jam flooding, is
to decrease its albedo by applying a dark material or dust to the top surface to increase the absorption of
solar radiation. Depending on the type of dust used and amount applied, the albedo can be reduced to 0.15
or 0.2.

c. Estimating thermal ice growth. Predicting the thickness of a natural ice cover attributable to
thermal growth is a classic problem of ice engineering. The differential equation describing the thermal
growth rate can be formulated by assuming the following:

C That the ice is a homogenous, horizontal layer.

C That the ice is growing only at its horizontal interface with the water.

C That the thermal conditions in the ice are quasi-steady.

C That the heat flux from the water is negligible.

C That the heat fluxes are in the vertical direction only.

C That the heat loss rate from the ice surface to the atmosphere is a linear function of the temperature
difference between the ice surface and the air.

Under these assumptions, the heat transfer rate through the ice cover to the atmosphere is equivalent to that
of a steady heat flux through a composite slab. The thermal growth rate of the ice is found as

Mh 1 Tm & T a
= (2-8)
Mt D8 h 1
%
ki Hia

where

h = ice thickness

Tm = temperature at the water/ice interface (assumed to be the icewater equilibrium temperature,

or 0EC [32EF])

t = time

Ta = air temperature

ki = thermal conductivity of the ice

Hia = heat transfer coefficient from the ice surface to the atmosphere

D = ice density

8 = ice latent heat.

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Although Equation 2-8 is nonlinear, it is readily solved to yield the following standard model of ice
thickness as a function of air temperature

h j = (B % hk)2 % 2 A(U j & Uk) & B (2-9)

where

hj = calculated ice thickness on day j

hk = ice thickness on day k, either observed or calculated (note that j > k, meaning that day j occurs
after day k).

ki
A=
D8
ki
B=
Hia

j
Uj = G (T m & Tai)
i'1

k
Uk = G (T m & Tai)
i'1

Uj = Accumulated Freezing Degree-Days (AFDDs) recorded between the onset of freezeup

(day 1) and day j

Uk = AFDDs recorded between the onset of freezeup and day k (note that Uj $ Uk).

If the heat conduction through the ice cover is the controlling rate in the overall energy flux, then B can be
ignored and, if the initial ice thickness is assumed to be zero, then the classic result is found

h j = " Uj (2-10)

where

2ki
" = .
D8

Typical values for " are presented in Table 2-1. In this case the ice thickness is proportional to the square
root of the accumulated freezing degree-days.

d. Remarks. It is not surprising that, for natural ice covers, the assumptions upon which the standard
model is based may not always hold true, and other processes, not included in the standard model, may also
influence the thermal growth rate of the ice. For example, the presence of snow on the

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Table 2-1
Typical Values of " (after Michel 1971)

Ice Cover Condition "* "

Windy lake w/no snow 2.7 0.80

Average lake with snow 1.7-2.4 0.50-0.70

Average river with snow 0.4-0.5 0.12-0.15

Sheltered small river 0.7-1.4 0.21-0.41

* AFDD calculated using degrees Celsius. The ice thickness is in centimeters.

AFDD calculated using degrees Fahrenheit. The ice thickness is in inches.

ice cover may influence the heat transfer rate from the ice surface to the atmosphere. In theory, this
influence could be accounted for in the standard model if the snow depth and the snow thermal conductivity
were known. The ice surface may also be flooded if the weight of the accumulated snow is greater than the
buoyant force of the ice cover. This will cause part of the snow to become saturated by water flowing
upward through cracks in the ice. This saturated snow is able to freeze relatively rapidly, forming snow
ice. In addition, the heat flux from the ice surface to the atmosphere is composed of several modes of heat
transfer, including shortwave radiation, longwave radiation, evaporation, and sensible heat loss. The actual
heat transfer rate is only approximated by the relationship included in the standard model. As a result, Hia,
the heat transfer coefficient, may not be a constant but may vary with the meteorological conditions. Given
all this, however, the standard model represented by Equation 2-9 still represents a good, practical model of
ice growth. To go beyond the standard model requires an extensive data collection, and, to date, there has
been no indication that the additional effort would be rewarded by a more accurate model.

2-6. Dynamic Ice Cover Formation

When an ice covers growth is dominated by the interaction between the transported ice pieces and the
flowing water, the cover is said to form dynamically. This is the counterpart of the thermal formation and
growth described earlier. Almost all river ice covers are formed dynamically. All ice covers that form in
this way progress upstream from an initiation point as ice is brought to the leading upstream edge of the ice
cover by the flow of the river. Many different and separate processes may occur at the leading edge,
depending on the hydraulic flow conditions and the form of the arriving ice. The various processes at the
leading edge are described in a general way in the following.

a. Bridging. At very low flow velocities and relatively high concentrations of surface ice, it may be
possible for the ice cover to spontaneously arch across the open width of the channel and stop moving. It is
generally not possible to predict where these bridging locations will be without historical knowledge. To
assure the initiation of an ice cover at a specific location, ice control booms or hydraulic control structures,
or both, may be necessary.

b. Juxtaposition. At relatively low flow velocities, ice floes arriving at the leading edge may simply
come to a stop and not underturn. In this way the ice cover will progress upstream by juxtaposition. The
maximum flow velocity at which juxtaposition happens depends on the floe geometry and the channel
depth. Generally, ice control booms will function properly only if juxtaposition of the arriving ice is
possible.

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c. Underturning of floes. At higher flow velocities, the arriving floes may not be stable but may
instead underturn. If the flow velocity is not too high, these underturned floes will remain at the leading
edge of the ice cover.

d. Ice cover shoving. Shoving in the ice cover can happen over a wide range of flow velocities. The
cover collapses in the downstream direction and becomes thicker if the forces acting on it exceed its ability
to withstand those forces. The strength of an ice cover formed from many separate pieces of ice increases
with its thickness, so that when shoving takes place, the strength of the ice cover is increased. An ice cover
may repeatedly shove and thicken as it progresses upstream. If the ice cover is treated as a granular
material, its strength characteristics and its final thickness can be estimated.

e. Under-ice transport of floes. At relatively high flow velocities, the ice floes arriving at the leading
edge of the ice cover may be underturned and transported under the ice cover for considerable distances.
At this point, further upstream progression may be halted until the deposition of the floes somewhere
downstream of the leading edge reduces the channel conveyance sufficiently to cause the upstream water
levels to rise and the flow velocities at the leading edge to be reduced.

f. No ice cover progression. The ice cover will stop progressing upstream if the flow velocities at
the leading edge remain too high. In this case open water will remain upstream of the leading edge
throughout the winter season. This will result in the production of frazil ice in the open-water area all
winter, which may lead to the formation of freezeup jams or other problems downstream.

2-7. Ice Cover Breakup

Breakup transforms a completely ice-covered river into an open river. Two extreme forms of breakup
bracket the types of breakup commonly found throughout most of North America. At one extreme is
thermal meltout. During an ideal thermal meltout, the river ice cover deteriorates through warming and the
absorption of solar radiation and melts in place, with no increase in flow and little or no ice movement. At
the other extreme is the more complex and less understood mechanical breakup. Mechanical breakup
requires no deterioration of the ice cover but rather results from the increase of river discharge. The
increase in flow induces stresses in the cover, and the stresses in turn cause cracks and the ultimate
fragmentation of the ice cover into pieces that are transported by the channel flow. Ice jams take place at
locations where the ice fragments stop. Severe and sudden flooding can result when these ice jams form or
when they release. Actual breakups take place most often during warming periods, when the ice cover
strength deteriorates to some degree and the flow in the river increases because of snowmelt or
precipitation. Therefore, most river ice breakups actually fall somewhere in between the extremes of
thermal meltout and mechanical breakup. As a general rule, the closer that a breakup is to being a
mechanical breakup, the more dramatic and dangerous it is because of the increase in flow and the large
volume of fragmented ice produced.

a. Thermal meltout. Every river in North America will experience a thermal meltout every spring
unless a mechanical breakup occurs first. Thermal meltouts will not take place at all points on a river
simultaneously, but will occur at different locations at different rates depending on the latitude, local
climate, and ice exposure. Thermal meltouts happen because of heat transfer into the ice cover by
convection to its underside from the water, by convection from the warm air to its top, and radiation, both
longwave (infrared) and shortwave (sunlight). The transfer of heat from the water to the underside of the
ice cover can be very substantial, especially if there is open water upstream that provides an area in which
the flowing water can absorb heat from the atmosphere. In almost all cases, the albedo of open-water areas

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will be much less than the albedo of the ice cover. As a result, the open-water areas will absorb more solar
radiation than ice-covered areas. When the flowing water passes under the ice cover, a portion of the extra
heat provided by this lower albedo will be available to melt its underside. Generally, the albedo of snow on
the ice surface or snow ice will be quite large and little solar radiation will penetrate the ice cover. The
creation of meltwater on the surface will drastically lower the albedo and help the ice absorb sunlight. The
ice cover can also deteriorate internally without much of a loss of thickness if solar radiation is able to
penetrate it. The absorbed solar radiation causes melting in the interior of the ice that results in a loss of
structural integrity of the cover, as described previously in paragraph 2-5a. This is most likely to happen if
the ice cover is composed of columnar crystals. Fine-grained ice covers, composed of snow ice or frazil
ice, are much less susceptible to internal deterioration through absorption of solar radiation.

b. Mechanical ice cover breakup. Breakup does not happen simultaneously everywhere along a river
network. Often breakup occurs first on smaller tributaries, and then proceeds haphazardly to the main stem
rivers. This can result in severe ice jams at the confluence of tributaries and the main stems. Breakup can
progress upstream or downstream, depending on the local weather and the flow direction of the river. On
rivers that flow north, or flow from a warmer area to a colder area, breakup often progresses from
upstream to downstream. Generally, if downstream locations release their ice first, fewer ice jams will
result than if the breakup front progresses from upstream to downstream. Every breakup is different, but
there are a few broad similarities in the sequence of a breakup that can be described. The mechanical
breakup always occurs in response to an increase in flow in the river, with a corresponding increase in
stage.

(1) Formation of shore cracks. Shore cracks are longitudinal cracks running parallel to the banks of
the rivers. Shore cracks form as a result of changes in water level. Controlling factors are the material
properties of the ice, ice thickness, channel width, and the type of attachment of the ice cover to the channel
bank (hinged or fixed). Only a small increase or decrease in discharge is necessary to cause shore cracks,
and they are usually common soon after runoff into a river has begun to increase. The presence of shore
cracks does not necessarily indicate the immediate onset of breakup. They may be present throughout the
winter season.

(2) Cracking of the ice sheet into individual floes. Transverse cracks (across the channel) will appear
soon after the river stage has begun to increase. The first cracks will generally create relatively large ice
floes, a river-width wide, and many river-widths long, but sometimes the ice covers are immediately broken
into much smaller floes. The actual mechanisms responsible for creating the individual floes have not yet
been positively identified.
(3) Movement of floes. As the stage continues to increase, the ice floes will begin to move. If the floes
are relatively large, they may be held in place by sharp bends, constrictions, bridge piers, etc., until a
substantial increase in stage is reached. If the floes are relatively small, and there are no constraints, they
may begin to move after a small stage increase. As a rule of thumb, the stage must rise 1-1/2 to 3 times the
ice thickness before the ice moves. Once the floes begin moving, they are quickly reduced in size,
eventually attaining a diameter that is roughly 4 to 6 times the ice thickness.
(4) Formation of ice jams. Ice jams form when the moving ice floes reach a location in the river where
its ice transport capacity is exceeded. This is most likely at places where an intact ice cover remains, the
slope of the river decreases, a geometric constraint exists, etc. At these locations, the ice stops moving and
jams. This type of ice jam is a breakup ice jam. Ice jams substantially reduce the channel flow
conveyance. As a result, water levels upstream of an ice jam can rise substantially and quickly, causing
flooding and transporting ice into the floodplain. The probable maximum thickness and roughness of ice
jams can be estimated and used to estimate the probable flood stages (see Chapter 4).

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2-8. References

a. Required publications.
None.

b. Related publications.

Ashton 1986
Ashton, G.D., ed. 1986. River and Lake Ice Engineering, Water Resources Publications, Littleton,
Colorado.

Frankenstein 1968
Frankenstein, G.E. 1968. Strength of Ice Sheets, National Research Council of Canada, Associate
Committee on Geotechnical Research, Technical Memorandum No. 92, pp. 7987.

Gow 1977
Gow, A.J. 1977. Flexural Strength of Ice on Temperate Lakes, Journal of Glaciology, Vol. 19, No. 81,
pp. 247256.

Heggen 1983
Heggen, R.J. 1983. Thermal Dependent Properties of Water, Journal of Hydraulic Engineering,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 109, No. 2, pp. 298302.

IAHR 1980
International Association for Hydraulic Research. 1980. Standardization of Testing Methods for Ice
Properties, Journal of Hydraulic Research, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 153165.

Lavrov 1969
Lavrov, V.V. 1969. Deformation and Strength of Ice, Translation TT 70 50130, National Science
Foundation, Washington, D.C.

Michel 1971
Michel, B. 1971. Winter Regime of Rivers and Lakes, Monograph III-B1a, U.S. Army Cold Regions
Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

Michel 1978
Michel, B. 1978. Ice Mechanics, Les Presses de lUniversit Laval, Qubec, Canada.

Pounder 1965
Pounder, E.R. 1965. The Physics of Ice, Pergamon Press Ltd., Oxford, England.

Sodhi et al. 1985

Sodhi, D.S., C. Martinson, and W.B. Tucker III. 1985. Determining the Characteristic Length of
Floating Ice Sheets by Moving Loads, Proceedings, Fourth International Offshore Mechanics and Arctic
Engineering Symposium, Dallas, Texas, 1721 February 1985, Vol. 2.
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Chapter 3
Ice Control

3-1. Introduction

a. Purpose. The practice of ice control is aimed at influencing or modifying the behavior of ice in the
annual cycle of ice formation, growth, and decay. For example, ice control may be employed to promote ice
cover formation or stabilization at a time much earlier than it would occur under normal conditions. In
other words, ice control can lead to the formation of a stationary ice cover where the natural ice condition
at a given time in the winter may be open water and the continuous production of frazil ice, causing
freezeup ice jams downstream. In some cases, it is possible to control the timing and location of ice
breakup. Some forms of ice control are used to prevent ice formation or limit ice thickness, with resulting
benefits for navigation, for structures subjected to ice forces, or for downstream areas liable to breakup ice
jams.

b. Approach. Ice control is divided into two broad areas: mechanical control and thermal control.

(1) Mechanical control focuses on ice retention: creating a stationary ice cover or retaining moving ice
in a chosen location. Most of these techniques are intended to influence the beginning of the ice-
formationgrowthdecay cycle, but a few are designed to address the ending portions of this cycle. Most
mechanical ice control is achieved by flexible, often seasonally deployed, structures, such as ice booms, or
by rigid (or semirigid) structures, such as weirs, artificial islands, piers, groins, cribs, or dolphins (Tuthill
1995). An ice boom is a barrier made from floating pontoons or timbers anchored by chain and wire rope.
Booms are used to initiate an ice cover, thereby minimizing frazil ice generation. Booms also benefit
navigation and hydropower production by retaining ice later in the winter and early spring. Examples of
rigid structures are the ice piers that have been constructed on the Ohio River above Cincinnati. These are
simply large bridge piers or cells placed fairly close together to slow, stop, or redirect ice flow. A tow may
take shelter below these piers during an ice run. In general for navigable waterways, mechanical ice
control measures need to permit the continuance of navigation during winter (Perham 1988a). For
example, navigable ice booms provide an open section to allow vessel passage. Most major inland rivers
have a 2.7-meter (9-foot) navigation depth and handle barge traffic. Harbors and fleeting areas on most of
these navigable rivers are present in almost any type of river reach, including the inside and outside of
bends, at confluences, and in straight reaches. Structural ice control measures would most likely have to be
located outside of the harbors and fleeting areas to permit free access of barge tows to moorings and wharfs
and to accommodate cross-stream traffic (Perham 1988b).

(2) Thermal control is employed to maintain open water where ice covers would normally occur, or to
at least limit the thicknesses of ice that normally would grow. Air bubblers, for example, are used to bring
up warmer water from some depth to melt ice or at least retard its growth. Waste heat, introduced to a
river, harbor, or lake from thermal power plants or industrial processes, is also an effective means of
thermal control. (An offshoot of air bubblers is a high-flow air system, which releases large quantities of
air at some depth to induce diverging horizontal water velocities at the surface. These surface currents
prevent ice or debris from passing or they deflect ice or debris away from critical areas. These systems are
discussed in Part III, Chapter 19.)

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Section I
Mechanical Ice Control

3-2. Ice Control Using Flexible Structures

Ice booms are the most widely used type of flexible sheet ice retention structure. The first such structures
were long booms of logs chained or wired end to end into a long line across a water body. The logs
provided flotation as well as structural strength. Sometimes, several logs were bolted side by side to obtain
sufficient flotation. The booms were anchored onshore and to boom docks (rock-filled timber cribs) in
midstream. The trash booms used at hydroelectric plants to keep floating debris from power canals are
similar and may have been the first to use a continuous wire rope for structural strength. The most
common type of ice boom consists of large floating timbers held in place by a wire rope structure and
buried anchors (Figure 3-1). The weight of the wire rope structure and junction plates is carried by
supplemental floats. Ice booms have been installed primarily by hydroelectric power companies to minimize
the volume of ice impinging on their trash racks, to minimize the formation of frazil ice, and to keep head
losses to a minimum. The boom or series of booms collects floating ice and accelerates the formation of an
ice cover upstream. When the discharge is controlled, as at a power station, a decrease in flow will further
accelerate ice cover formation. Booms have been installed to restrain and thereby minimize the ice
contribution to ice jams or ice pileups on shore that can block water intakes. Booms assist navigation by
holding brash ice and floes in place so that they do not flow downstream and block narrow channels.
Booms are not intended to restrain ice at breakup, but under quiescent hydraulic conditions they may serve
this purpose.

Figure 3-1. Typical ice boom arrangement.

a. Features of flexible structures. Flexible cable or wire rope structures are used to hold floating ice
booms in place. The structures themselves are compliant but strong, and their ability to stretch or flex in
response to the impact of moving ice sheets has prevented failure. They are used on generally accessible

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bodies of water where one must control ice in winter while permitting unrestricted water use during the
warm months. The ice cover that they help form and stabilize protects water intakes and navigation
channels against excessive ice encroachment. The most important advantages of flexible structures are:

The main structural components usually have a negligible effect on water flows.

The structures (except for buried anchors) are readily installed prior to the ice season and removed
afterward.

The structures can withstand the passing of ice breakups.

A variety of standardized components are available for a wide range of loads.

The structures can be worked on using common maritime equipment, such as barges, cranes,
winches, and tugs.

A list of flexible structures is given in Table 3-1.

b. Boom configuration. As shown in Figure 3-2, booms have been built in many configurations:
some crossing the entire width, some with a gap to permit navigation, some restraining ice on only one side
of the channel, and some more or less in the middle of a lake with open passage around both ends. The
boom units are chained to wire rope boom cables, which connect to the shores or to midchannel anchor
cables, usually at 30- to 122-meter (100- to 400-foot intervals), depending on the load. Until recently, the
most common type of boom section was a 0.3- 0.6- 6-meter (1- 2- 20-foot) timber. The use of
steel boom units of rectangular or circular cross section is gaining acceptance owing to reduced
maintenance costs and improved performance compared to traditional timber booms.

c. Function. Boom structures can be installed across a portion of a river or across the entire width,
according to the amount of control needed. The floating timbers intercept moving ice floes, frazil slush,
and brash ice to form an unconsolidated ice cover upstream of the boom. Within 10 days the ice cover
usually consolidates by the ice pieces freezing together. To be effective, an ice boom must restrain an ice
cover at the surface without restricting water flow, and it must move up and down with the ice cover. An
unconsolidated ice cover develops most rapidly when the water velocity (bringing ice floes to the boom) is
as large as possible without causing appreciable quantities of ice to pass beneath the boom. Field tests
showed that this velocity for a straight, 2.7-meter-deep (9-foot-deep) channel was 0.46 m/s (1.5 ft/s). This
value is also optimum for the deeper but somewhat irregular Beauharnois Canal (located in Canada); the
smooth ice cover that develops there allows efficient power generation in winter. In several major instal-
lations the mean velocities vary from 0.29 to 0.84 m/s (0.95 to 2.75 ft/s).

d. Site considerations. Locations where ice booms have been used successfully share common
characteristics. The discharge is fairly constant and there are no abrupt changes in cross-sectional area. A
boom can be used in fairly deep water, anywhere from 3 to 18 meters (10 to 60 feet) or more. Successful
booms require a stable river bottom, i.e., one unaltered by sediment transport. If water velocities are too
high, the ice floes can be drawn under the boom. A location that sustains a natural ice cover, even if only
occasionally, is generally feasible. Accepted design criteria to achieve good boom performance are a
Froude number, based on flow depth, no greater than 0.08, and a surface velocity no greater than 0.69 m/s
(2.25 ft/s). Higher values indicate that ice thickening conditions may be present or that upstream pro-
gression of a retained ice accumulation may not be possible. At some sites, physical or numerical modeling
may be necessary to select the optimum location.

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Figure 3-2. Ice boom configurations

e. Boom components. Although ice booms vary in function and appearance, their wire rope
structures are similar. The boom cables are longer than the spacing between the anchors, giving each boom
span a sag configuration. In existing structures, boom cable length exceeds the span length by values
ranging from 6 to 25 percent, corresponding to sag ratios (maximum offset of cable from the span divided
by the span length) of 0.15 to 0.30. The greater the cable length is, the lower the tension in the cable is, but
sag ratios in excess of about 0.20 excessively increase material quantities and cost.

(1) Individual wire ropes are connected by steel junction plates that are supported by buoys or floats.
Galvanized wire ropes are often used for longer life, although the strength of the galvanized wire is
10 percent less than that of uncoated wire when new.

(2) Figure 3-3 shows a variety of ice boom designs. Designs h, i, and k have been used as shear
booms for waterborne trash and logs; the floating material is expected to slide along the upstream face of
the boom. The proper combination of buoyancy and stability can be determined through tests and analysis.
Wooden timbers can lose effectiveness by becoming waterlogged, another factor prompting the current
transition to steel boom units.

(3) Anchor types for ice booms vary, depending on the type of riverbed and bank materials.
Depending on width, a structure that reaches from shore to shore will have anchors onshore and midstream
anchors along the river bottom. Midstream anchor lines from the river bottom to the floating parts are
generally about 12 times longer than the water depth. Typical anchors are shown in Figure 3-4. The cell
structure is sometimes used at the midstream end of a spur boom, which reaches only part way across a
river.

f. Examples of flexible booms (Perham 1983). An example of river ice control using an ice boom is
found on the St. Marys River at Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan. Soo Harbor covers a large area, and
immediately downstream from the harbor is a 183-meter-wide (600-foot-wide) man-made navigation
channel called Little Rapids Cut. Below the cut lies Lake Nicolet, with its low velocity flows. The channel
is dredged to a minimum depth of 8.2 meters (27 feet), and ocean-going vessels and lake carriers of various
sizes up to 1000 feet (305 meters) long use it. Ice broken from Soo Harbor by passing ships would
accumulate in Little Rapids Cut, so much so that at times the river discharge was retarded and

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a. Rectangular pontoon boom g. Double steel pontoon boom

b. Round timber boom h. Shear boom

c. Single rectangular timber boom

d. Plastic tube boom i. Shear boom

j. Wooden pole boom

e. Synthetic fiber rope boom

f. Double rectangular timber boom k. Triangular-skirted pontoon boom

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a. Deadman and pedestal (end, land)

e. Grouted chain (midpoint, in water)

b. Deadman and wire rope (end, land)

f. Grouted weldment (midpoint, in water)

c. Sheet piling cell (end, in water)

d. Steel anchor (endpoint in water) g. Piling and crossbeam (end, midpoint, land, in
water); two or more are needed

Figure 3-3. Cross sections of ice boom timbers

and pontoons for a variety of ice boom designs

Figure 3-4. Typical ice boom anchors

unacceptably high water levels would develop in the harbor. Also ferry traffic to an island community was
frequently disrupted.

(1) An icehydraulicnavigation model study of Soo Harbor and Little Rapids Cut determined the
optimum location, orientation, and size for a floating ice boom. A boom with a 76-meter-wide (250-foot-
wide) navigation opening was designed, built, and installed in 1975 at the upstream end of Little Rapids
Cut. Later, two gravity structures (see paragraph 3-3c) were placed upstream of the boom to inhibit some
troublesome lateral movement of the ice sheet along the western shore. The booms and the structures were

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removed in the spring and reinstalled in the fall. Artificial islands eventually replaced the gravity structures
(see paragraph 3-3d). This work was done as part of a now-completed demonstration program; the booms
continue to be used because they provide stability to the ice cover during storms and intermittent ship
transits, and they minimize ice interference with the ferry (Perham 1985).

(2) One of the largest booms to be installed in recent times (1981) is 2380 meters (7800 feet) long and
located in Lake St. Francis upstream of the Beauharnois Canal in Canada (Figure 3-5). It was designed to
accommodate ship navigation and was extensively tested as a model. The Lake ErieNiagara River boom,
although older, is 2680 meters (8800 feet long).

(3) A boom of similar construction was built in 1982 on the Allegheny River upstream of its
confluence with Oil Creek at Oil City, Pennsylvania (Figure 3-6). Oil City has a long history of ice jams
and floods that were caused by large deposits of frazil ice downstream of the confluence in a deep section
of the river. The accumulations especially restrict flows from ice breakup on Oil Creek, which precedes ice
breakup on the Allegheny River. The ice cover upstream of the boom typically stabilizes in early winter,
reducing the frazil ice supply to the freezeup jam below the Oil Creek confluence.

(4) The 2680-meter-long (8800-foot-long) Lake ErieNiagara River ice boom, located at the head of
the Niagara River at the east end of Lake Erie, promotes ice arching and decreases the frequency and
severity of lake ice runs into the Upper Niagara River. Retention of Lake Erie ice reduces the frequency of
ice jams and ice blockages of hydroelectric intakes upstream of Niagara Falls. In 1997, the original timber
pontoons were replaced with steel pipe boom units. This change is expected to increase the ice retention
capacity of the boom and reduce maintenance costs.

g. Boom design considerations. There are a number of loads and other actions that must be
considered when designing an ice boom (Foltyn and Tuthill 1996). Fluctuations in water level may allow
the boom to pound on the bottom if it is too close to shore. Because of the resulting damage, this should be
avoided. Generally, the amount of ice that will bleed through a small gap between the end of the boom and
shore is negligible. The total force on the ice boom is

Fi ' fw fa % fg % f p % fk & fs fv (3-1)

where

fw = water drag force on ice cover

fa = wind drag force on ice cover

fg = gravity force

fp = water flow pressure at beginning of ice cover

fk = impact forces from collecting ice floes

fs = shear force between ice and shore

fv = forces resulting from vesselicestructure interaction.

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Figure 3-5. Plan view of the Lake St. Francis ice boom built in 1981

Most of these are self-explanatory or will be explained more fully in the example problem. The shear force
between the ice and shore fs is currently indeterminate, but field observations have shown that ice loads
attributable to an unconsolidated ice cover come from the area upstream of the boom that measures four or
five times the river width in length. In other words the drag forces on the ice cover in excess of four or five
B (the river width) are taken by the shore and are not felt by the boom. Boom unit stability should be
considered, as well as the maximum ice restraint capacity of the boom unit.

(1) The restraint characteristics of a generally applicable timber configuration are given in Figure 3-7.
The timber has a no-load submergence of 0.75 and a connection point upstream on the bottom. The curves
show that the ice restraint force will be about the same for anchors pulling horizontally and anchors pulling
downward at a small angle " = tan1 0.08 until the tilt $ of the timber is about 35 degrees. At 35 degrees,
the " = 0 curve changes slope rapidly and diverges from the " = tan1 0.08 curve. The physical problem
here is that, as the tilt angle nears 40 to 45 degrees, the ice can slide over the timber; this tends to make this
portion of the curves unreliable. The restraint capacity of a boom timber increases by the cube of the
timber width.

(2) The override effect can be and is used for rectangular boom-unit cross section as a protective
measure that helps the boom survive the high loads imposed at breakup. Generally, the rectangular-section
timber booms have a load capacity ranging from 74 kg/m (50 lb/ft) to 298 kg/m (200 lb/ft), depending
upon boom design and ice type. There are double pontoons that have load capacity of over 744 kg/m
(500 lb/ft) for rectangular boom-unit sections. The overtopping resistance of the 0.76-meter-diameter (2.5-
foot-diameter) circular-section boom units on Lake Erie is approximately 1120 kg/m (750 lb/ft), four times
greater than the maximum ice resistance of the original timber boom units. The load capacity depends on
the buoyancy, the righting couple or moment, and the anchor location.

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Figure 3-6. Plan view of the Allegheny River ice boom built in 1982

(3) A failure analysis should be made of the multicomponent structure to estimate the increased loads
exerted on members adjacent to a component that fails. The structure also should be evaluated for its
response to a solid ice sheet that only acts at one or two locations along the boom, and to an ice sheet that
starts moving while frozen to the floating timbers. The calculated forces in these cases could be extremely
high. Under such circumstances the load increase may not be distributed uniformly to the anchor points.

h. Example problem of ice boom design. This example is based on a power canal 3.2 kilometers
(2 miles long) and 3.0 meters (10 feet) deep with a 7.6-centimeter-thick (0.25-foot-thick) ice cover. It is
54.9 meters (180 feet) wide at the bottom and 61.0 meters (200 feet) wide on the top. The hydraulic slope
with an ice cover is 3.81 104. The canal is essentially straight and aligned with the prevailing winds
which can reach 27.7 m/s (91 ft/s) at 9.1 meters (30 feet) above the surface. The bottom has a Mannings
roughness coefficient of 0.032 and a Froude number of 0.11, which is higher than desired. The initial ice
cover roughness coefficient is 0.05. The composite roughness coefficient is 0.041, determined using
Equation 4-2. Equation 3-1 above has a number of unknowns to be determined:

f w = (w Ri S (5B) (3-2)

where

( w = specific weight of water = 62.4 lb/ft3 (1000 kg/m3)

Ri = hydraulic radius influenced by the ice, assumed at 5 feet (1.5 meters)

S = uniform flow slope

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Figure 3-7. Ice restraint for a 0.3- 6.1-meter (1- 20-foot) boom timber for the conditions indicated

B = channel width

fw = 62.4 5 3.81 104 5 200 = 119 lb/ft (177 kg/m)

fa = c Da U 2 5B (3-3)

where

c = drag coefficient, which can vary between 1.7 103 and 2.2 103

Da = air density, kg/m3 (lb/ft3)

U = mean wind speed at the 30-foot (9.1-meter) height, ft/s (m/s)

fa = 2.2 103 0.00257 (91)2 5 200 = 70 kg/m (47 lb/ft)

fg = (i 5B h S (3-4)

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where

(i = specific weight of ice = 918 kg/m3 (57.3 lb/ft3)

h = ice thickness = 0.076 meters (0.25 feet)

fg = 57.3 5 200 0.25 3.81 104 = 8.2 kg/m (5.5 lb/ft).

The values of fp and fk are considered negligible. The value of f s is taken into account by using 5B and f v is
not considered in this case. So, repeating Equation 3-1,

Fi = fw fa % fg % f p % fk & fs fv

Fi = 119 + 47 + 5.5 + 0 + 0 0 0 = 255.7 kg/m 171.5 lb/ft.

That is 255.7 kilogram-force per lineal meter (171.5 pounds-force per lineal foot) of boom, assuming the
wind is blowing downstream. For calculating the tension in the boom cables, see Foltyn and Tuthill
(1996).

i. Other flexible structures. Two other types of flexible structures may be described, frazil collector
lines and fence booms. Both of these concepts were examined experimentally in the 1970s and early 1980s,
but only the fence booms have received additional study and development in more recent years. Similar in
concept to frazil collector lines, frazil nets have been used to promote ice cover formation upstream of
hydroelectric dams in Sweden.

(1) Frazil collector lines, or line arrays, are made from nylon, polypropylene, polyester, or wire rope.
An array is anchored in a stream, and active frazil ice freezes to each line (Figure 3-8a). Overnight
accumulations 10 to 13 centimeters (4 to 5 inches) in diameter on each line are common. As the lines and
frazil ice float on the streams surface, the entrapped interstitial water is practically stationary and freezes
quickly to form an ice cover over the entire line array (Figure 3-8b); even 0.64- and 0.79-centimeter-
diameter (1/4- and 5/16-inch-diameter) wire ropes are buoyed up by the frazil ice accumulations. In
concept, covering a troublesome open-water reach of a canal or stream with one or several sets of steel or
synthetic fiber lines seems feasible. The ideal combination of unit length and frequency of units needed to
prohibit further supercooling was never determined. If the lines are naturally buoyant, an array can be
anchored where it will freeze into the ice sheet without being buoyed by frazil ice; it would then become a
reinforcement and a means for supplemental restraint. Arrays of buoyant lines could also be used to
stabilize existing large ice sheets by holding them in place against flow forces after they crack free from
shore. The idea would be for the lines to expand the area that a buoy, or a timber, might be expected to
reliably influence. An example is shown in Figure 3-9. Such cracks can result from water level changes,
ship passages, or warm water discharges. Also, several sets, probably without the shore anchors shown in
Figure 3-9, have the potential for delaying spring ice movement on a section of river. The loss of a line
array during ice breakup would be a possibility, and the consequences of this loss must be considered.

(2) A fence boom is a structure supported across a stream by steel cables and resting on the streambed
(Figure 3-10). The fence boom has little effect on streamflow before icing conditions start. Its appearance
is that of a slatted snow fence or a wooden grate. It is stable when connected to single anchor points buried
in each bank because of the curved shape it takes in response to the hydrodynamic and static water
pressures acting on it. Active frazil ice generated in the stream attaches to the vertical

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a. Array of lines, 4.9 15.2 meters (16 50 feet)

b. Resulting ice cover

Figure 3-8. Frazil collector lines

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Figure 3-9. Line array anchoring an ice sheet that has cracked free from shore

Figure 3-10. Fence boom, 1.2 meters (4 feet) high, across the Mascoma River,
New Hampshire

bars and eventually fills in the spaces between the bars from the streambed to the surface. Water flows
continuously, so the frazil ice blockage causes the water level upstream of the boom to rise and overflow
the blockage. This, in turn, increases the elevation of the region that can be blocked by frazil ice.
Eventually, a pool is created upstream, with water flowing over the top of the fence boom (Figure 3-11).
An ice cover develops and progresses upstream until a surface flow velocity of 0.69 m/s (2.25 ft/s) is
reached. Field tests of the original fence boom were successful, but it was tested in only one small river.

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Figure 3-11. Pool formed by the action of frazil ice on a fence boom

Streambed erosion was a problem, pointing to the need for bed protection. A similar free-standing fence
boom is used to form an ice cover upstream of a small hydropower project in northern Japan.

3-3. Ice Control by Rigid or Semirigid Structures

Rigid or semirigid structures may or may not have moving parts. They are appreciably more rigid than a
typical ice boom, but their deflection in response to the horizontal push of an ice sheet is on the same order
as the deflections that develop in the ice sheet itself. Because these structures are generally unyielding, they
are particularly susceptible to ice sheet impact and thermal expansion loads. The state of the art in design
today is generally based on the conservative values of load and stress developed for dams and bridges. A
list of rigid or semirigid structures is given in Table 3-2.

a. Pier-mounted booms. Boom elements attached to piers may be either movable (e.g., the Montreal
ice-control structure) or fixed (e.g., the spillway barrier at the Sigalda Project in Iceland).

(1) The Montreal ice-control structure (Figure 3-12) was built primarily to compensate for the ice
conditions caused by the narrowing of the St. Lawrence River because of construction of the Expo 67
Worlds Fair. The structure, which is permanent, originally used floating steel booms or stop logs set
between concrete piers to collect ice floes and help stabilize an ice cover earlier in winter than would
normally be the case. The booms were designed to move vertically in guide slots in the piers, kept ice-free
by radiant electric heat. The 2.04-kilometer-long (1.27-mile-long) structure cost approximately $18 million
in 196465. The operating levels for the booms were determined by model studies and analysis of the
backwater effects from the formation of the ice cover downstream in Montreal Harbor and below. At these
levels the large quantities of ice expected from the Lachine Rapids upstream can be stored beneath the ice
cover. The structure was designed using dam technology to provide high structural integrity. The booms
were designed to float, but they were not allowed to turn over as they might do with a flexible rope
structure. In spite of their strength, they were susceptible to damage by the concentrated impact loads of
moving ice sheets. Also, the operation of the structure has been affected by

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Figure 3-12. Montreal ice-control structure (looking southwest and upstream);

LaPrairie Basin is in the background

the same hydraulic factors as the other booms. Owing to continued operational difficulty, the boom units
were eventually removed. The piers alone were found to be adequate to form an upstream ice cover.

(2) Reinforced concrete beams of great depth are used at some reservoirs to restrain ice while water is
being discharged over a spillway or into a canal. The spillway barrier shown in Figure 3-13 is located on
the Sigalda power project reservoir on the Tungnaa River in Iceland, about 160 km (100 miles) east of
Reykjavik. The space below it provides 4.9 meters (16 feet) of clearance. Ice remains naturally on the
reservoir under all but the most severe flood conditions. The barrier is designed to retain ice during the
latter low-frequency, high-discharge events. Three miles (4.8 kilometers) downstream of Sigalda, a boom
protects the entrance to the power canal of the Hraunyjafoss power project. During periods of frazil ice
generation, the frazil agglomerations collect at the reinforced concrete boom (Figure 3-14). The structure
functions as a shear boom when a portion of the river flow is used to convey the frazil ice over an adjacent,
gated sluiceway. Model studies showed that the deep, fixed boom would be more effective at keeping ice
from the power canal than was a large (but relatively smaller) floating timber boom. Fixed structures such
as these are useful where the water level changes little. If seiches are large or the operation of ships is an
important consideration, then a fixed boom would probably not be appropriate.

b. Stone groins. A groin is usually a rigid structure built out from shore to protect it from erosion, to
trap sediment, or to direct the flow. Groin arrangements have been used for ice control at the Manasan
Falls control structure on the Burntwood River in northern Manitoba, Canada, and at Hestefoss on the
upper Pasvik River in northern Norway. At both places there are groins opposite each other across the
river, and the Pasvik system has additional groins. Both arrangements are supplemented by ice booms
upstream of the groins.

(1) The Burntwood River was made part of the Churchill River Diversion, and its flows in winter were
increased from 28 to 850 m3/s (990 to 30,000 ft3/s). Model studies indicated that frazil ice generation in
the reach above Manasan Falls could lead to hanging dams, ice jams, and flooding in

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Figure 3-13. Fixed ice boom at Sigalda Reservoir, Tungnaa River, Iceland

Thompson, a city 6.4 kilometers (4 miles) downstream. The control structure at Manasan Falls was
constructed to increase the upstream water levels sufficiently to promote the formation of a stable ice cover.
It consists of two rock-filled groins creating a trapezoidal opening (Figure 3-15). The two groins have
upstream filters and seals, and the ends of the groins were protected by 0.9- to 1.2-meter-diameter (3- to 4-
foot-diameter) armor rockfill. The armoring material has remained stable at flows up to 850 m3/s
(30,000 ft3/s) and at average water velocities in the gap exceeding 5.8 m/s (19 ft/s). The channel con-
striction provides the required stage and velocity conditions for upstream ice cover formation behind a
boom. A larger hydroelectric dam planned for a nearby site will provide the ultimate solution to the
problem.

(2) On the Pasvik River, a substantial amount of frazil and anchor ice is formed in the reach above the
powerhouse at Hestefoss. Natural anchor ice dams as high as 3 meters (10 feet) can form, but they are
poorly anchored to the riverbed and can break, causing heavy ice and transient water flows. The river was
made narrower in the rapids area by installing stone groins to promote ice bridging and to stabilize the ice
dams (Figure 3-16). To reduce the surface area of open water and the amount of anchor ice, timber booms
were installed above the rapids and a plastic pipe boom was installed below the rapids in the forebay of the
powerhouse. In 1970, after 2 years of observations, the stone groins were functioning as expected.

(3) The technology for groins is described in shore protection manuals. The applications described for
ice are not as simple as they seem, but groins may be the least expensive and most reliable method of ice
control at a particular site.

c. Removable gravity structures. A problem developed with the St. Marys River ice-control boom in
the harbor at Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, because the ice cover above the west arm of the boom would
break free from shore and move laterally into the open ship track. Although the loads from the ice sheet
were within the expected range, their distribution was different enough to cause damage when the boom
timbers were frozen solidly into the ice cover. Damage could be prevented if the ice cover could be kept

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Figure 3-14. Inlet structure at Hraunyjafoss Power Canal, Tungnaa River, Canada

from rotating. The only method that could be used at that time was a removable gravity structure. The
main structure used was a scow, surcharged to a total weight of 2.45 105 kilograms (270 tons) and sunk
in shallow water (Figure 3-17). The scow was also secured with ship anchors. In the spring it was
refloated and moved away. The method has worked very well.

(1) Later, observers noticed that sewage plant effluents weakened part of this ice cover on the
St. Marys River. Thus, the ice-holding capability of the scow was supplemented by placing a stack of crane
weights in the shallow water of Soo Harbor, about halfway between the scow and the ice boom. The
reinforced concrete crane weights key together when stacked and are bound into a unit by wire ropes. The
six crane weights weigh a total of 8.6 104 kilograms (95 tons). They helped to reduce the rotating ice
sheet problem to a manageable level.

(2) The holding force available from gravity devices depends not only on the weight of the device in
water but also on the coefficient of friction between the device and the bottom; a value of 0.3 was used in
the Soo Harbor analysis. The force level was estimated from the expected action of water and wind drag

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Figure 3-15. Ice-control groins and booms on the Burntwood River, Manitoba, Canada

on the maximum expected ice sheet. Eventually, all the removable devices in Soo Harbor were replaced by
artificial islands.

d. Artificial islands. In the same manner that natural islands help hold ice in place, artificial islands
can be used to help form, stabilize, and retain an ice cover in certain locations. One example is the Lake
St. Peter section of the St. Lawrence River, about 80 kilometers (50 miles) downstream of Montreal,
Canada (Figure 3-18). Lake St. Peter is about 13 kilometers (8 miles) wide and 32 kilometers (20 miles)
long and has an average depth of 3 meters (10 feet). Passing through the middle of the lake is a 244-meter-
wide (800-foot-wide) navigation channel dredged to a depth of 10.7 meters (35 feet). The water flow
velocity in most of the lake averages about 0.3 m/s (1.0 ft/s), while in the channel it is 0.5 m/s (1.6 ft/s).

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Figure 3-16. Ice-control groins and booms on the Pasvik River, Hestefoss, Norway (showing the maximum
ice conditions)early March)

Figure 3-17. Rock-filled scow stabilizing the ice cover is Soo Harbor, Michigan

(1) To prevent floods in Montreal Harbor, a passageway for ice floes, slush, and frazil ice is
maintained by icebreakers from Montreal Harbor to Quebec City. At times, however, ice sheets would
break free and be moved by wind and water to clog the passageway. Occasionally, a strong northeast wind
would move the floating ice back upstream. Some light-tower bases helped hold the ice, but more
stabilization was needed.

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Figure 3-18. General plan and location of artificial islands, ice booms, and light pier in Lake St. Peter,
St. Lawrence River

Figure 3-19. Cross sections of artificial islands in Lake St. Peter

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(2) Several ice-control structures were evaluated in various parts of Lake St. Peter and at Lavaltrie,
upstream in the river. Ice booms were successful but pile clusters did not perform well because the lake
bed was probably too weak for the pilings to sustain the high ice forces. Artificial islands of three types
were built to anchor the ice cover. The most stable type for the existing conditions is shown in Figure 3-
19a. The second type (Figure 3-19b), which cost much less to build, is only as high as the mean winter
high water level. A third type was formed by placing riprap around the substructures of old light piers.
The islands were successful in forming and retaining a stable ice cover, and the winter navigation season
was increased by an average of 30 days. In more recent years, additional islands and booms have been
installed, and navigation to Montreal now lasts the entire winter. The islands, especially the low ones,
require maintenance because the foundations have settled and the slopes have been eroded by moving ice.

(3) In 1980 three artificial islands were constructed in Lake St. Louis on the St. Lawrence River,
upstream of Montreal. The islands are permanent and located east of Ile Perrot and north of the navigation
channel (Figure 3-20). The islands were designed and constructed to help stabilize the ice cover north of
the navigation channel, particularly during the spring breakup and the opening of the navigation season,
eliminating the problem of large ice floes obstructing navigation. The effectiveness of the artificial islands
has not been fully assessed.

(4) Artificial islands have been helpful in some locations, but they were chosen only after the ice
movements had been studied. These islands provide good lateral stability to the ice cover, but a small
change in water elevation will fracture the ice near the islands. Ice on the lee side may move away from the
island, but ice on the windward side will remain in position. Islands armored with stone cost more initially
but have lower maintenance costs.

e. Timber cribs. Timber cribs are enclosed frameworks built of timber and packed with stone to
make strong, stable structures. Many small dams were built using this type of construction and have lasted
for 80 years or more. Log boom docks are usually stone-filled timber cribs.

(1) An example of ice-restraining timber cribs is at the Narragaugus River flood control project,
1.6 kilometers (1 mile) upstream of the seacoast town of Cherryfield, Maine (Figure 3-21). The upstream
face of each crib is sloped. Treated timbers were used in the construction. Three cribs are located in a
triangular pattern about 38 meters (125 feet) upstream of a 2.1-meter-high (7-foot-high) dam and spillway.
The ice cover normally contacts the crib at approximately midheight. The effectiveness of the timber cribs
has not been measured, but they have remained in good condition for over 20 years. During this period
severe ice jams have not occurred in the town, but the contribution of the timber cribs is unknown. The
dam is undoubtedly the most important part of the project; the importance of the delay in ice cover
movement at the dam caused by the cribs depends greatly on the tide water level.

(2) Timber cribs have been used to support navigation light towers in several locations, such as Lake
St. Francis and Lake St. Peter near Montreal on the St. Lawrence River. In this capacity, they have also
helped to keep the ice cover in place, but their usefulness on large lakes is in doubt. On poor foundation
material, the crib is supported by timber pilings (Figure 3-22). Four small light piers were built on this
type of subsurface structure in 1958 in Lake St. Francis. After receiving structural damage from ice
thrust, more piles were added and the concrete cap was changed from a flat slab to a smaller cylinder. The
resistance to ice thrust based on a stability analysis was thus increased to between 2.9 and 4.6 104 kg/m
(between 10 and 15.5 tons/ft). Later, however, the cribs were replaced by conical, concrete light piers
designed for a much larger ice force of 1.52 105 kg/m (51 tons/ft).

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Figure 3-20. Artificial islands in Lake St. Louis, St. Lawrence River

f. Weirs. Weirs are low-head dams built across streams to raise the water level. A weir of sufficient
height forms a diversion pool with the low velocities that permit the formation of an ice cover. This, in
turn, precludes the formation of frazil ice and anchor ice. The ice cover is restrained by the streambanks
and the structure because of the narrow width. The weir can be built from stone, concrete, or timbers
(Figure 3-23). A common feature is the capability of adding flashboards or stop logs to increase water
levels for winter operations.

(1) The performance of a low-head weir as an ice-control structure was observed by U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers personnel on the Israel River in New Hampshire (Figure 3-24). The site was once the location
of a small hydropower dam. The weir was constructed using rock-filled gabion baskets containing an
impervious sheet piling and covered by a concrete cap. The low-flow discharge passes

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Figure 3-21. Ice-holding timber cribs in the Narragaugus River, Maine

through four 1.2-meter-wide (4-foot-wide) spillways. Indications were that the weir has only a small
influence on the ice regime of the river.

(2) Weirs can help other structures to promote the formation of an ice cover by reducing the local flow
velocities in the pool. An ice-control arrangement in the St. Lawrence River at Massena, New York, used a
stone weir to raise the water level at an ice-control boom. The stones had to be about 1.5 meters (5 feet) in
diameter to be stable. The boom consisted of a series of floating scows positioned between timber cribs.
The flow velocities were 3.0 to 4.6 m/s (10 to 15 ft/s). Construction of the St. Lawrence Seaway project in
the late 1950s eliminated this site.

(3) A 12-meter-high (40-foot-high) ice-control dam (Figure 3-25) was built on the Chaudiere River at
St. George, Quebec. Upstream of the spillway section, ice gratings fixed between concrete piers retain ice
floes. The gratings, however, are located far enough upstream of the weir crest to have little effect on the
weirs performance. Operable gates to one side of the spillway section are used to maintain a fairly
constant pool elevation.

g. Pilings and dolphins. Piles that support a wharf or pier can anchor or retain an ice sheet. The
effects of the vertical uplifting forces and horizontal forces from ice sheets must be considered for
structures using exposed pilings. Piling clusters, or dolphins, have received greater consideration for
restraining ice. These are usually formed by a cluster of closely driven piles secured at the top with wire
rope. Model tests of a line of individual pile clusters indicate that good ice retention is possible. An
installation of several timber clusters in Lake St. Peter in 1962, however, failed early in winter. The cause
was attributed mainly to a very weak foundation and large ice forces. Tests show that dolphins have
surprisingly little resistance to steady lateral pulls.

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Figure 3-22. Stone-filled timber cribs and concrete caps used as light tower bases

(1) A dolphin in the Cap Cod Canal, Massachusetts, resisted ice forces for several years but eventually
failed from the action of ice floes moving in water currents with velocities up to 3 m/s (10 ft/s). The
replacement dolphin in the 10-meter-deep (33-foot-deep) water was made of 21 steel H-piles.

(2) Besides vertical and horizontal forces, the effect of ice abrasion is an important consideration. It is
possible for ice to sever timber pilings in a matter of hours. Oak pilings are fairly ice resistant, but timber
structures may last only about 20 years, partly as a result of ice abrasion. Timbers can be protected

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Figure 3-23. Timber weir

Figure 3-24. Ice-control weir, 2.0 meters (6.5 feet) high, on the Israel River,
New Hampshire, with a moderate flow passing over the top

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Figure 3-25. Weir and stationary grating on the Chaudiere River, Quebec, Canada

by steel armor. Concrete can also be adversely affected by ice abrasion and by the spalling of material
from repetitive freezing and thawing of ice on its surface.

h. Ice piers. Ice piers are structures set in the river to protect a fleeting area against moving ice. The
piers take the brunt of the impact and pressure forces and either stop the ice or deflect it to move around the
ice pier location. Barges and tows are anchored downstream of the ice piers, which have anchoring chains
for this purpose. The piers may be rectangular reinforced concrete structures, 4.9 7.6 3.0 meters (16
25 10 feet) high above water, or they may be similar to cylindrical sheet piling cells as in Figure 3-26.

i. Drift deflectors. A drift deflector is usually a barge or barges set on a diagonal with one end
against the shore to deflect material floating with the currents outwardly away from shore. This method is
seen to work well on the inside of bends, where the normal water currents have a natural component away
from the shore. A fleeting area immediately downstream could be protected by a drift deflector. A large
ice deflector arrangement was proposed for installation (but not built) at Montgomery Locks and Dam, on
the Ohio River, to reduce the amount of ice entering the lock during winter navigation. As shown in Figure
3-27, three barges and a mechanical linkage type of anchoring were proposed. A towboat was to move it
between its open and closed positions and also break ice. A similar function is sometimes provided by
barge tows on the Mississippi River waiting for lockage at Chain of Rocks Canal and at Lock and Dam
No. 17. Ice passage at these sites is no problem.

3-4. Ice Control by Structures Built for Other Purposes

The formation and retention of ice covers can be aided by structures that were not built for that purpose.
Flows at any dam with discharge regulation capability can be manipulated to help an ice cover form. Other
structures, such as wicket dams and bridge piers, aid in the formation and retention of ice covers simply by
their presence.

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Figure 3-26. Cylindrical sheet piling mooring cells upstream of a navigation dam can
help to stabilize the ice cover in winter

a. Hydroelectric dams. It is possible to aid the formation of an ice cover on rivers by increasing flow
depths and decreasing flow velocities at strategic times during the early winter. This capability must be
accompanied by a comprehensive understanding of the hydraulics and ice conditions on the river and how it
responds to various meteorological influences. Usually, ice sheet retention structures are needed too.

(1) An example is the operation of the Beauharnois Canal and powerhouse on the St. Lawrence River
about 40 kilometers (25 miles) west of Montreal, Quebec. Here, the Coteau diversion structure sends
nearly all the flow of the St. Lawrence River at Lake St. Francis down the 24- kilometer-long by 914-
meter-wide (15-mile-long by 3000-foot-wide) canal to pass through the powerhouse and into Lake St.
Louis. The installed capacity of the plant is 1564 MW.

(2) The Beauharnois Canal has a forebay ice boom spanning the canal and six upstream booms that
contain gaps allowing ice floes to pass through and collect at the forebay boom. The forebay boom is
instrumented for forces so that the operators can tell when an ice cover is starting there, even when the
canal is obscured by blizzards. In early winter, a small icebreaker breaks ice in Lake St. Francis to
increase the collection of ice on the canal. At this time, average flow velocities in the canal are reduced
from 0.70 to 0.46 m/s (from 2.3 to 1.5 ft/s), which allows an ice cover that is smooth on its underside to
form there. Higher velocities would cause a rougher ice cover to develop, reducing power generation. The
formation process takes from a week to 10 days; after the ice cover stabilizes behind the booms, the flows
are increased gradually to near-summer levels, 0.70 m/s (2.3 ft/s). The short-term flow reductions are
more than compensated for by improved flow conditions throughout the remainder of the winter. The force
instruments monitor the stability of the ice cover throughout the winter. Over the many years it took to
develop this equipment and these procedures, the power plant has improved its winter output by
approximately 200 MW.

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Figure 3-27. Diagram of a proposed movable ice

deflector composed of three barges and a towboat, which
could be deployed to protect an upper lock entrance from
ice accumulation

(3) Another example of operator control is the International Section of the St. Lawrence River, which
is controlled by the hydroelectric plants at Massena, New York, and Cornwall, Ontario. Six ice booms are
located about 64 kilometers (40 miles) upstream of the dam. The progression of the ice cover is monitored
closely. River flows are adjusted according to the location of the ice edge and the weather conditions so
that a smooth ice cover will develop; this minimizes head losses attributable to ice during winter.

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(4) As the ice edge nears the high-velocity reach a couple of miles below Iroquois Control Structure,
the vertical lift gates are lowered 4.6 to 6.1 meters (15 to 20 feet) into the water. This cuts off the supply
of ice floes to the downstream reach, where a hanging dam might develop. The unconsolidated ice cover
continues to develop from the dam up to its local limit of the Galop Cut at Cardinal, Ontario.

b. Wicket dams. A wicket dam comprises a series of rectangular elements or wickets that are
propped side by side and on end to form a sloping dam face (Figure 3-28). A typical wicket measures
0.3 1.1 4.9 meters (1 3.5 16 feet). The elements are raised and lowered by a barge-mounted crane,
and usually they increase the upstream water level from 1.8 to 2.4 meters (6 to 8 feet). They have been
used on the Ohio and Illinois Rivers for maintaining minimum depths for navigation during times of low
flows. As an added benefit, these structures help to form and maintain ice covers.

Figure 3-28. Typical section of a navigable pass portion of a wicket dam

c. Light piers and towers. Light piers and towers are used to mark the locations of navigation
channels and courses. These structures can be built on land, but many are built offshore, where they
become frozen into the ice sheet. Should the ice sheet break free from shore, a high force can be applied to
the pier or tower. If the force is great enough, either the ice or the tower will yield. Ice loading also
develops on a light pier structure when the ice on the channel side of the structure has been broken or
removed while the ice cover is still intact between the light pier and the shore. The thrust is probably from
thermal expansion of the solid ice.

(1) Timber cribs were used for substructures until about 20 years ago, but reinforced concrete and
steel shells are now used. New light piers are usually cone-shaped where they touch the ice; the slope of
the cone is usually 45 degrees. A typical light pier is shown in Figure 3-29. As in most designs where ice
is involved, it is important to select a realistic design ice thickness. For this light pier, a thickness of
0.6 meters (2 feet) was selected based on previous measurements of 0.46 to 0.49 meters (1.5 to 1.6 feet).
More recent measurements showed, however, that ice thicknesses may reach 0.79 meters (2.6 feet); a
design ice thickness of 0.9 meters (3 feet) is now used.

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Figure 3-29. Light pier built in 1968 on Lake St. Peter, Canada

(2) A U.S. Coast Guard light pier that was built in Lake St. Clair is shown in Figure 3-30. The base
of the light pier is stabilized by a ring of sheet steel pilings and a central arrangement of driven piles. Its
conical top is welded to the upper end of the sheet piling ring. The core of the pier is filled with stone,
while reinforced concrete fills the cone and the top of the pile cylinder. A relatively small tower and light
are mounted on top.

(3) The all-steel light tower shown in Figure 3-31 is located about 4.8 kilometers (3 miles) offshore in
Maumee Bay on Lake Erie. A key to the towers survival is undoubtedly its large wheel-like base, which is
fixed in place by several pilings.

d. Bridge piers. Bridge piers often constrict the river flow, and ice floes may collect at the piers in
early winter to form an unconsolidated ice cover. Border ice growth on the piers can increase this
narrowing effect at the waters surface if the spacing is small. Under some circumstances, however, this
channel narrowing may lead to water velocities that are too high to allow an ice cover to form. Dynamic,
static, and thermal ice pressures and ice abrasion must be considered in designing bridge piers.

e. Breakwaters. A breakwater is a structure protecting a shore area, harbor, anchorage, or basin

from wave action. Stationary breakwaters can increase ice cover stability and bear the brunt of forces from
moving ice that would otherwise affect the areas protected by the breakwaters. This is not generally the
case with floating breakwaters.

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Figure 3-30. Light pier in Lake St. Clair, Michigan

(1) Breakwaters may be constructed from rubble mounds, cast concrete elements, concrete caissons,
sheet-piling cells, or cribs, or be prefabricated and moved into place. In the United States, breakwaters
built on the open coast are generally of rubble-mound construction. Occasionally, they are modified into a
composite structure by using a concrete cap for stability. An innovative 5.8-meter-high (19-foot-high)

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Figure 3-31. Steel light tower on Maumee Bay, Lake Erie. The tower has a square cross section

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pack ice barrier constructed of ballasted steel pipe protects the coast line of the Saroma Lagoon in northern
Japan.

(2) Normally, the wave forces on shore structures are comparable in magnitude to the maximum
probable pressure that might be developed by an ice sheet. As the maximum wave forces and ice thrust
cannot occur at the same time, usually no special allowance is made for overturning stability to resist ice
thrust. However, where heavy ice may occur, either in the form of a solid ice sheet or floating ice fields,
adequate precautions must be taken to ensure that the structure is secure against sliding on its base. Other
problems such as gouging, abrasion, local failures, ice ride-up, and ice cover transport of materials exist.

3-5. Ice Control Not Using Structures

a. Channel improvements. The cost of channel improvements is usually very high, and often there
are many other social and environmental factors that influence their implementation. The best way to
predict how certain improvements will affect the winter operation of a waterway is to accurately simulate
the present and future conditions in a physical, hydraulic model. Changes that reduce average water
velocities and velocities at local points of acceleration generally help to form and maintain an ice cover.
The most reliable improvements are to make the channel deeper and straighter and to remove midstream
obstructions that cause high-velocity zones. However, it is important to consider the effect of channel
modification on the breakup ice regime. For example, deepening the channel at a location to reduce
velocity and encourage ice formation may create an initiation point for a breakup ice jam.

b. Ice-sheet tying. Large, broken pieces of ice can be tied together with rope to keep them from
moving from one location and to another. Broken ice can be tied to shorefast ice in the manner that was
used on the Mississippi River at Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, in 1981 for an emergency ferry track. Holes
were drilled through the ice about 0.9 meters (3 feet) from both sides of the crack. A forearm-sized stick of
wood with a rope centrally attached was set across each hole beneath the ice. The two rope ends were tied
together across the crack to make a tight connection. The ropes were tightened by twisting them with
another stick (Figure 3-32). Braided rope 0.6 to 1.3 centimeters (1/4 to inch) in diameter worked best.
Ties spaced from 3 to 9 meters (10 to 30 feet) apart were sufficient. A line spanning several sheets
provided more reliability in some instances. Unless they were covered with snow, lines frozen to the
surface melted free because of solar radiation.

c. Ice-sheet bridges. A section of border ice can be sawed out and placed diagonally across the river.
Drift ice coming from the upper reaches of the river is halted by this barrier and freezes into a solid ice
cover. The purpose of bridges is to develop ice covers on rapids, where tremendous quantities of anchor
ice and frazil ice are generated. In practice, the ice bridge would be created below the rapids with the idea
that an ice cover would progress upstream through the rapids. This technique has been used successfully to
promote ice arching at a channel constriction on the Lule River in Sweden, upstream of the Vittjarv power
station. Also, U.S. Coast Guard icebreakers have dislodged large floes from Soo Harbor, Michigan,
allowing them to drift to the head of Little Rapids Cut to form an ice arch.

Section II
Thermal Ice Control

3-6. Design of Air Bubbler Systems to Suppress Ice

Air bubbler systems can suppress ice formation and allow navigation in harbors, ports, and waterways
during periods when thick ice would otherwise halt it. This section provides general guidelines useful in

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Figure 3-32. Ice sheet retention by tying with lines, Mississippi River, Prairie du
Chien, Wisconsin, 1981

design and feasibility studies of such systems, briefly describes a computer program now available at
CRREL for use in detailed deicing decisions, and illustrates the nature of the suppression actually effected
by a bubbler system with an example simulation.

a. Principles of operation. A bubbler system uses an air-driven water jet to induce convection of
warm water against an ice cover, thereby melting it or suppressing its growth. Figure 3-33 presents a
cross-sectional schematic view of a bubbler system. A compressor (A) delivers air into a supply line;
(B) the air flows through the diffuser line (C) and is discharged through orifices distributed along its length.
A plume of bubbles forms and continually entrains the surrounding water as it rises (region D). Near the
surface (region E), the plume spreads under the ice cover, initially in a relatively thin layer (region F), but
gradually entraining more water and dissipating (region G). Convection transfers the thermal energy
contained in the water to the underside of the ice cover in regions E, F, and G, causing it to melt.

Figure 3-33. Schematic diagram of bubbler system

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(1) The most important requirement for successful performance of an air bubbler system is a supply of
warm (at least 0.2EC (32.4EF)) water. In enclosed harbors, large lakes, or connecting channels between
large water bodies, winter water temperatures are generally adequate to supply the necessary thermal
energy to support local suppression of an ice cover. In faster flowing rivers (mean velocity greater than
about 0.4 to 0.6 m/s (1.3 to 2 ft/s)), bubbler systems cannot be expected to be very effective, for two
reasons. First, in such rivers the winter water temperatures during the period of ice cover seldom exceed
0.1EC (32.2EF); hence, the thermal energy necessary for melting is not present. Second, at such velocities,
the warm water flowing against the undersurface of the ice cover is already transferring heat to the ice
cover as fast as a bubbler system could; hence, melting is happening as fast as it would with a bubbler
system. Before a bubbler system can be designed, or the operational strategy (such as intermittent opera-
tion) formulated, measurements should be made to determine the temperatures present and the extent of the
thermal reserve.

(2) Other performance requirements that must be assessed are the width of open water or extent of thin
ice required for the system to be effective. Even well-operating bubbler systems with adequate warm water
available will freeze over during the short periods of intense winter cold. The open water produced will
seldom be as wide as the usual channel. However, for navigation the role of ice suppression is to provide a
relief zone in an otherwise solid ice cover. This relief zone can be either within or to one side of the
channel. Vessels can often operate effectively with such a relief zone where they could not operate in a
uniformly thick ice cover.

b. Design parameters. Parameters that the designer of a bubbler system can control are the
compressor output pressure and air discharge rate; the supply line diameter (length of which is generally
dictated by the site geography); diffuser line diameter and submergence depth; and orifice diameter and
spacing. The designer should realize that the various parameters interact with each other to determine the
ultimate performance of a particular system.

(1) Output pressure must be sufficient to overcome the hydrostatic pressure at the diffuser line depth
and the frictional losses in the supply and diffuser lines, and yet provide a pressure differential at the
orifices to drive the air out at the desired rate. The required air discharge rate is determined by the system
geometry (length, pipe diameters, etc.). Typical air discharge rates used in field installations have been on
the order of 2.8 10-3 m3/minute per meter (0.03 ft3/minute per foot) of line. A given system is generally
either discharge-limited or pressure-limited by the compressor characteristics and system geometry.
Ideally, a balanced design would result in discharge/pressure output at the peak efficiency point of the
compressors performance.

(2) The supply and diffuser line diameters should be large enough that the pressure drop attributable to
friction along the line is small, so that a uniform air discharge rate can be maintained along the line.
Methods exist for the iterative solution of the manifold-type problem and these methods have been
incorporated in the computer simulation described below. Often, a small increase in line diameter will
significantly reduce friction losses, resulting in considerably more uniform air discharge rates. Typical line
diameters at field installations are between 3.8 and 7.6 centimeters (1.5 and 3 inches).

(3) Submergence depth is generally governed by operational limitations, such as depth of water body
or required clearance for vessel drafts. The deeper the submergence is, the more water will be moved by a
given discharge rate and hence the more suppression effected, but a larger compressor pressure is needed as
the depth increases. In some cases, very large depths require pressures that make it desirable to suspend
the line above the bottom.

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(4) Typical orifice diameters are on the order of 0.12 centimeters (3/64 of an inch), and typical spacing
is about one third of submergence depth. Orifice diameters that are too large can result in all the air
leaving the diffuser line at one end. The pressure, diameter, and discharge are interrelated and cannot be
easily separated from the total system design.

(5) If the far end of a diffuser line can be opened, water can be easily pumped out when the system
begins operation after a shutdown. System performance is not affected by the type of pipe used (plastic or
metal), so materials should be chosen on the basis of maintenance, reliability, and operational
considerations.

c. Computer simulation. A computer simulation of the performance of an air bubbler system has
been developed which allows typical winter air temperature records to be input, and it outputs the evolution
of the thermal reserve, ice cover thicknesses, and width of open water. The program has been proven valid
with field data obtained from an installation operated in 1974 at Howards Bay, Superior, Wisconsin. The
program is written in FORTRAN, but could be easily adapted to other computer languages. The
simulation is done in four parts, outlined below.

! Diffuser line analysis:

Input = diffuser and supply line lengths and diameters, orifice size and spacing, submergence depth,
compressor output pressure.

Output = air discharge rates from orifices, air discharge from compressor.

! Induced plume analysis and heat transfer analysis:

Input = temperature profile at initial time.

Output = water discharge rates, impingement temperature, heat transfer rates to ice cover.

! Ice melting analysis:

Input = initial ice thickness profile, air temperature.

Output = evolution of ice cover thickness or width of open area, or both.

! Thermal reserve analysis:

Output = change in thermal reserve, new temperature profile.

d. Example simulation. Figures 3-34 through 3-37 show an example of the simulation results.
Figure 3-34 shows the daily average air temperature variation, Figure 3-35 the initial water temperature
profile, Figure 3-36 the variation in width of open water, and Figure 3-37 the variation in ice thickness at
different distances from the bubbler centerline. The comparison of field observation to simulation results is
shown in Figure 3-36. Note that the field installation was shut down after 45 days.

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Figure 3-34. Average daily air temperatures at Superior, Wisconsin, 1974

3-7. Point-Source Bubbler System

Line-source bubblers are intended to suppress ice over long, narrow extents for uses such as navigation.
Often, however, ice suppression is needed at one or more single locations, such as a pile, a local structure,
or other places where a long line is inappropriate. A point-source bubbler can be used at such locations.

a. Flow characteristics. The difference between line-source and point-source bubbler systems is the
geometry of the resulting flow field. The flow induced by a number of line sources tends to be two-
dimensional, with the upwelling flow directed horizontally away from the line. The flow induced by a point
source is conical to the surface with an outward radial flow occurring at the surface. In both cases the rate
of melting, and hence the effectiveness, depends directly on the product of the water temperature and the
local velocity. The velocity decreases with distance away from the location where the bubbles encounter
the water surface, so that the largest melting rates occur directly above the air supply locations.

b. Temperature requirements. The conditions described for success of a line-source system are also
necessary for the success of a point-source system. It must be emphasized that above-freezing water
temperatures are required in the water body. Further, if many point sources are used, the thermal reserve in
a small enclosed water body may become exhausted over the course of a winter; hence, prudent placement
of a small number of bubblers is often more effective in such cases.

c. Design. The design parameters are much the same as for line-source systems. Information and
assistance in the use of computer simulations written in FORTRAN to assess the performance of both

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Figure 3-35. Water temperature, Howards Bay, Wisconsin, 1974

point-source bubblers and line-source bubblers may be obtained from CRREL. One further note is in
order: it is known that the outward spreading radial surface flow will plunge below the surface at a radial
distance of about six or seven times the depth. A point source bubbler will not be effective at greater
distances from the air source location.

3-8. Use of Thermal Effluents and Warm Water for Ice Control

Most rivers have sources of warm water that either already suppress some ice formation or may be used to
cause some ice suppression. The most obvious are power plants that discharge heated water into the river.
Typically, there will be a narrow band of open water for some distance downstream of these plants when
the river is otherwise ice covered. In other cases reservoirs, even with ice covers, may contain water above
the freezing point of 0EC (32EF). When this water is released, it will flow some distance downstream
before it begins to freeze. This section describes the effect on ice covers of these sources of warm water
and provides approximate means of estimating this effect.

a. Sources of warm water. Besides the two main sources of warm water in winter mentioned above,
there are other sources such as the discharge of treated sewage, warm waste water from industrial plants,
and, occasionally, warm springs; but generally, all of these release too little heat to cause more than very
local effects on the natural ice cover. In seeking to use warm water as an aid to river ice management, it is
important to realize under what conditions the warm water may be effective, and the extent of the influence.

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Figure 3-36. Half-width of open water, assuming no thermal depletion, Howards Bay, Wisconsin, 1974

(1) Both fossil fuel power plants (using coal or oil) and nuclear power plants require cooling in the
process of generating electrical power. This cooling generates waste heat that is then discharged into the
environment, either directly to the atmosphere by use of cooling towers, or indirectly by first discharging
the heat to a water body that then transfers the heat to the atmosphere. If an existing plant already has
cooling towers, it is unlikely that the plant will be able to discharge the heat to a water body because of the
large capital costs of having two cooling systems. However, many plants do use rivers as the heat sink.
The warm water released results in ice suppression that in some instances can be helpful in managing ice
problems. Power plants operate either as base load plants, at a more or less constant capacity, or as
peaking power plants to supply power at the time of greatest demand. The actual operating characteristics
can only be ascertained from the utility companies directly. In Figure 3-38, the waste heat discharge of a
power plant on the Mississippi River, 11 kilometers (7 miles) upstream of Lock and Dam No. 15, during
January and February of 1980, is shown to illustrate the nature of the output that might be expected.
During January of 1980, a large part of the plant was shut down for maintenance, and even after that the
plant was not running continuously at full load. As a consequence, the waste heat discharge was variable.
Nearly all plants maintain a record of input and output water temperatures, which, along with the cooling
water discharge rates, enables calculation of the waste heat discharge. The waste heat discharge is
determined from these data according to

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Figure 3-37. Ice thickness, assuming no thermal depletion, Howards Bay, Wisconsin, 1974

Q = (CpN(Tout Tin (3-5)

where

Q = waste heat release rate, Btu/hr (J/hr)

( = specific weight of water, 62.4 lb/ft3 (1000 kg/m3)

Cp = specific heat of water, 1.0 Btu/lbEF (4.2 103 J/kgEC)

N = cooling water discharge rate, ft3/s (m3/s)

Tin = intake cooling water temperature, EF (EC)

Tout = outfall cooling water temperature, EF (EC).

As an example, in early February one unit of the plant whose output is shown in Figure 3-38 had an intake
temperature of 32EF (0EC), an outfall temperature of 49EF (9.4EC), and a discharge rate of 2.5 m3/s
(89 ft3/s). Thus, in English units,

lb Btu 89 ft 3
Q = 62.4 1.0 49 F& 32 F
ft 3 lbF s
= 94,400 Btu/s = 340 106 Btu/hr, or in SI units, 99,600 kW.

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Figure 3-38. Record of waste heat discharge from a power plant that uses
Mississippi River water for cooling. Prior to 8 February, much of the plant was down for
maintenance; thereafter, it operated alternately between full and partial load.

This rate of energy release is greater than the electrical output of the plant, since typically coal and oil
plants have 40 percent efficiency, and nuclear plants have even less at about 33 percent. Thus, coal plants
discharge as heat energy to the cooling water about 1-1/2 times the amount of electrical energy put out over
the transmission lines, and nuclear plants about twice as much. These ratios are useful for quick
assessments of ice suppression, as will be discussed below.

(2) In many reservoirs, the water beneath the ice cover is above the freezing point. When this water is
released during the winter, it takes some time and distance before it is cooled by the atmosphere down to
the freezing point, after which further heat loss results in ice formation. If the warm water release
encounters ice before it has cooled to the freezing point, it will melt the ice until the water is at the freezing
point. The extent of melting or the distance to cool to the freezing point depends on both the release flow
rate and the water temperature. This distance depends also on how cold the atmosphere is. Methods to
predict the distance or extent of melting are described below. The biggest uncertainty is the temperature of
the reservoir water, which is usually below the 4EC (39EF) temperature of maximum density, and depends
on the particular sequence of meteorological conditions at the time of freezeup and the extent of
throughflow during the winter. Water released from the bottom of reservoirs will usually be warmer than
water released from near the top. Direct measurement of the release water temperature is the most certain
way of assessing the flow temperature.

b. Warm water in the context of ice production. In the Pittsburgh District on the Ohio River, there
are nine power plants that discharge warm water at a total rate of about 5500 megawatts over a distance of
201 kilometers (125 miles). At 10EC (14EF), the heat loss from open water over this reach is about
15,000 megawatts, so that the warm water reduces ice production by about 37 percent. At 20EC (4EF),
the loss from open water is about 30,000 megawatts, so the warm water reduces ice production by about
18 percent. If the ice is 5 centimeters (2 inches thick), the ice production rate under natural conditions is

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equivalent to a heat loss rate of about 7500 megawatts at 10EC (14EF) and 15,000 megawatts at 20EC
(4EF), so the reduced ice production is on the order of 75 percent at 10EC (14EF) and 37 percent at
20EC (4EF). In the Huntington District there are four power plants on the Ohio River that discharge a
total of 4200 megawatts over a distance of 499 km (310 miles). The heat loss from open water over this
reach at 10EC (14EF) is on the order of 40,000 megawatts, so the warm water reduces ice production by
about 10 percent. At 20EC (4EF), the reduction is on the order of 5 percent.

(1) Clearly, the magnitudes of warm water discharge are small when compared with the overall energy
exchange rates between the river and the atmosphere, and cannot be expected to mitigate ice problems over
the entire reaches. Close to the plants, however, the suppression can be significant in affecting local ice
conditions.

(2) The fact that large quantities of warm water are discharged into the river does not mean that the
water temperatures are excessively high. In fact, in winter the temperatures of the warm water discharges
rapidly approach the freezing point. In one observation, for example, 914 meters (3000 feet) downstream
of the Riverside Power Plant on the Mississippi River, the highest water temperature in a plume from a
200-megawatt release was only 1.7EC (35EF). However, even small increases in water temperature above
the freezing point can stop ice from thickening. As an example, if the air temperature is 20EC (4EF) and
the ice is 15 centimeters (6 inches) thick, the thickening rate is about 4.8 centimeters (1.9 inches) per day, if
the water temperature is at the freezing point. If the water velocity is 0.46 m/s (1.5 ft/s) and the
temperature is 0.089EC, or 0.089EC above freezing (32.16EF, or 0.16EF above freezing), it will stop the
thickening, that is, the heat transferred to the ice from the water exactly equals the heat loss to the
atmosphere. Under the same conditions, but with 30.5-centimeter-thick (12-inch-thick) ice, a water
temperature of 0.06EC (32.10EF) stops further thickening. Thus, one of the effects of warm water
discharge into a cold river is to limit the ice production that otherwise might occur.

3-9. Effects on River Ice of Warm Water Releases

Warm water effects are discussed below by first evaluating natural conditions, and then discussing various
modes of heat introduction to the river.

a. Natural conditions. To assess the effects on river ice of a warm water discharge, it is important to
appreciate the magnitude of temperatures, natural ice conditions in the river, and the heat losses to the
atmosphere that cause ice formation. The water temperatures of rivers more or less follow the average air
temperatures through the annual cycle until those temperatures go below the freezing point. At that time,
the water, instead of cooling below the freezing point, forms ice in proportion to the heat loss to the
atmosphere, and the ice acts as a buffer preventing further temperature decline. Throughout the period of
ice cover, water temperatures remain very close to the freezing point, both as a consequence of turbulent
mixing, which prevents stratification, and as a consequence of continually flowing past the ice cover, which
is a heat sink for the river water. Only in still water or at extremely slow velocities can any significant
stratification develop. There is a minor heat gain from energy stored in the bottom sediments during the
preceding summer (ONeill and Ashton 1981), and a minor gain from viscous dissipation or friction in the
flow, but these gains are very small relative to the heat losses at the surface. In general, when there are
significant amounts of ice present in a river, the assumption that the water temperature is at 0EC (32EF) is
very accurate. This is particularly useful when assessing the effects of adding warm water, since all the
energy of the warm water is used either to melt ice or is lost to the atmosphere in open water areas.

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(1) Ice conditions in a river vary widely from site to site, depending on many factors. These are
discussed in other chapters. From the standpoint of the effects of warm water, the ice may be classified as
moving or stationary. If the ice is moving, the effect of the warm water is to reduce the volume of ice
passed downstream in proportion to the amount of heat discharged. Nearly all the energy discharged into
flows with moving ice is used to melt ice. In the case of an intact, stationary ice cover, the waste heat is
used to melt the ice or suppress its otherwise natural thickening, as well as being directly lost to the
atmosphere in the open-water areas formed by the warm water. In a sense, the open water areas formed in
the ice cover act as a short circuit to the atmosphere for some of the waste heat, at least to the extent that
the heat transfer rate is greater at larger values of the water-versus-air-temperature difference than would
be true for an open-water surface at 0EC (32EF).

(2) This leads directly to the subject of natural heat losses from rivers in winter. Two cases are
importantthe open-water case and the ice-covered case. In the case of open water, the heat losses may be
calculated using detailed energy budget methods, which consider the daily or diurnal variations of long
wave radiation gains and losses, short wave radiation gains, sensible heat losses to the air attributable to
either free convection (when the air is still) or forced convection (when the air is windy), and evaporation
losses. The variables involved include time of year, time of day, latitude, air temperature, humidity, wind
speed, and cloud cover. For some studies, such energy budget methods are necessary, but they involve
considerable calculation effort, plus field data as input. For many studies a simpler method is adequate for
estimates of the effects of warm water discharge. This method consists of simply combining all the energy
budget effects into a single heat transfer coefficient applied to the difference between the water temperature
and the air temperature (Ashton 1982). The heat loss per unit area of open water surface qwa is then given
by

qwa = Hwa(Tw Ta) (3-6)

where

Hwa = heat transfer coefficient

Tw = water temperature

Ta = air temperature.

H wa depends on all the variables that determine the energy budget, but is typically between 15.3 and
25.6 W/m2 EC (between 2.7 and 4.5 Btu/hr ft2EF), with the higher values associated with higher wind
speeds. As an example, if the air temperature is 12.2EC (10EF) and the water temperature is 0.56EC
(33EF) and Hwa = 19.9 W/m2EC (3.5 Btu/hr ft2EF), the heat loss in English units is

Btu Btu W
qwa = 3.5 (33 & 10 F) ' 80.5 ' 256 (3-7)
2 2
hr ft F hr ft m2

(3) Once an ice cover is on top of the water, it acts to insulate the water, with the insulation effect
increasing as the ice thickens. A snow layer increases the insulation effect even more. And, since the water
below is at 0EC (32EF), the heat losses are directly transformed into ice production. A simple layer
analysis enables estimates of the heat loss through the ice (and snow) cover. As shown in Figure 3-39, the
air temperature is denoted by Ta, the top surface ice temperature by Ts, the bottom surface ice temperature
by Tm ,which is always at the meltingfreezing temperature of 0EC (32EF). The thermal

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Figure 39. Schematic diagram showing notation and heat

transfer equations governing the heat flow from a water
body through an ice cover to the atmosphere (32 EF = 0 EC)

conductivity of the ice is denoted by ki and the ice thickness by h. It is important to note, particularly for
thin ice covers, that the top surface temperature is not the same as the air temperature; if it were, there
would be negligible heat loss to the atmosphere and no ice thickening. As a first approximation, which is
very good for most purposes, the heat flow may be analyzed as a quasi-steady state process such that the
temperature profile in the ice varies linearly from Tm to Ts over the thickness of the ice. The heat flow
through the ice is then given by

ki
qi = (T m & T s). (3-8)
h

The heat loss to the atmosphere from the ice qia can be written similar to that from an open-water surface
with Ts substituted for Tw in Equation 3-6 to give

qia = Hia(Ts Ta) (3-9)

The heat flow through the ice equals the heat loss at the surface, so that qia = qi, which allows Ts to be
eliminated between Equations 3-8 and 3-9 and gives

T m & Ta
qi = qia ' . (3-10)
h 1
%
ki Hia

This result may be compared to the heat losses from an open-water surface to show the insulating effect of
the ice cover. In Figure 3-40, the ratios of heat losses (qi) through the cover to the open-water losses (qwa)
are shown as functions of ice thickness. For the range of heat transfer coefficients usually found,
15 centimeters (6 inches) of ice reduces the heat loss by 50 percent or more.

(4) This heat flux through the ice is also the heat flux upward from the bottom surface, which causes
the ice to thicken at the bottom. The thickening rate is inversely proportional to the heat of fusion (L) times
the specific weight of ice, so that the thickening rate is given by

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Figure 3-40. Ratio of heat loss through ice cover (qi) to heat loss from an open-water surface (qwa) versus ice
thickness, for three values of the heat transfer coefficient, Hwa (or the equivalent Hia for heat transfer from ice
to air)

dh 1 T m &T a
= . (3-11)
dt (i L h 1
%
k i Hia

For most practical river ice problems, the specific weight (i, the heat of fusion L, and the thermal
conductivity ki may be treated as constants with values for pure ice as follows:

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(i = 57.2 lb/ft3 (916 kg/m3)

L = 144 Btu/lb (3.35 105 J/kg)

ki = 1.30 Btu/hr ft EF (2.25 W/m EC).

Using these values gives the thickening rate

dh T m &T a
= 0.0029 ( ft / day). (3-12a)
dt 1
0.769h
Hia

In SI units, this becomes

dh T m &T a
= 0.00028 (m/ day). (3-12b)
dt 1
0.444h
Hia

As an example, for Tm = 0EC (32EF), Ta = 20.6EC (5EF) (very cold), h = 0.15 meters (0.5 feet), and
Hia = 19.9 W/m2EC (3.5 Btu/hr ft2 EF), the thickening rate is 0.049 meters/day (0.16 feet/day) or about
5 centimeters (2 inches) per day. When the ice is 30 cm (1 foot) thick, for the same conditions, the
thickening rate drops to 3 centimeters (1.2 inches) per day. Figure 3-41 shows thickening rates to be
expected as functions of average daily air temperature and ice thickness, assuming Hia = 19.9 W/m2EC (3.5
Btu/hr ft2 EF).

(5) The above calculations overestimate the thickening rate, or rate of ice production, if there is a snow
cover on the ice. Typically, the thermal conductivity of the snow cover is about one-tenth that of the ice
cover, so it has the insulating effect of ten times its thickness of solid ice.

(6) There are several purposes to the above calculations. First, they may be used to estimate rates of
ice production as a function of air temperature and ice thickness. Second, the results of the calculations
show that the ice production is greatly reduced as the ice thickens, which, in turn, suggests that the
effectiveness of warm water discharged into a river is greatest when the ice is thicker, since a smaller
amount of heat is required to stop the growth of the ice cover. Thus, while warm water discharge may not
have a great effect in preventing initial ice formation, it may have a significant effect in limiting ice
production over significant reaches of the river.

(7) In summary, there are two main effects of warm water released into ice-covered rivers. First, the
heat locally suppresses the ice completely and creates open-water areas near the point of release. Second,
the heat acts to limit the ice thickness at regions downstream and beneath the ice cover. Both effects may
be calculated using methods described below. The effectiveness of the warm water depends a great deal on
specific site conditions and the nature of the ice formation that would occur otherwise.

b. Fully mixed releases. The water released from a reservoir is generally above freezing and
completely suppresses ice for a certain distance downstream, and partially suppresses the ice further
downstream beneath the ice cover. There are methods available (Ashton 1979) to simulate these effects
that take into account the unsteady nature of the air temperatures and release rates, but they are too

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Figure 3-41. Rate of ice thickening versus ice thickness, for five values of average daily air temperature; Hia =
19.9 W/m2EC (3.5 Btu/hr ft2 EF) is assumed

detailed for full treatment here. Instead, some steady-state example calculations are presented, as well as
some results from unsteady simulations, so as to give an appreciation of whether or not a warm water
release causes a significant effect. Occasionally, the effluent from a power plant is diffused uniformly
across the receiving river flow, but this is more the exception than the rule. In general this form of release
on larger rivers results in insignificant lengths of open water, but a definite suppression of the ice growth
(thickness) downstream.

(1) Three example cases are considered: a reservoir discharging 1000 ft3/s (28.3 m3/s) at 36EF (2.2EC)
into a river 400 feet wide (122 meters), a reservoir discharging 5000 ft3/s (141.6 m3/s) at 36EF (2.2EC) into
a river 500 feet (152 meters) wide, and a very large power plant of nominal capacity of 2400 megawatts
discharging 4800 megawatts of waste heat through a diffusing system into a river 2000 feet (610 meters)

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wide. As a first approximation, the area of open water, and hence the distance to the upstream edge of the
ice cover, can be determined for low air temperatures by estimating the heat transfer coefficient and
applying it to the average temperature difference between the water and the air.

(2) Example 1.

(a) Conditions.

! Reservoir discharge: 1000 ft3/s (28.3 m3/s) at Tw = 36EF (2.2EC)

! Available heat discharge (in English units):

Q = (Cp N (Tw Tm ) = 62.4 1.0 1000 3600 s/hr (36 32)

Q = 899 106 Btu/hr (or 263 106 W in SI units)

Q
Open-water area: A = Q/qwa =
Hwa (T w & T a)

! Width of open water : W = 400 feet (122 meters)

! Length of open water : L = A/W

! For Hwa = 3.5 Btu/hr ft2EF (19.9 W/m2EC):

Ta T w Ta A L
EF (EC) EF (EC) ft2 (m2) ft (m)

20 (6.7) 12 (6.7) 21.4 106 (19.9 105) 53,500 (16,300)

10 (12.2) 22 (12.2) 11.7 106 (10.9 105) 29,200 (8,900)

6 5
0 (17.8) 32 (17.8) 8.0 10 (7.4 10 ) 20,100 (6,100)

10 (23.3) 42 (23.3) 6.1 106 (5.7 105) 15,300 (4,700)

(b) Discussion. This reservoir release maintains open water in the river downstream a distance up to
10 miles (16 kilometers) when the weather is mild in winter, and the distance shortens to a little less than 3
miles (5 kilometers) when the weather is very cold (note that for this case 10EF [23.3EC] is the average
daily temperature and not the extreme overnight low). The heat release is equivalent to 240 megawatts,
which is about the rate of heat released from a fossil-fueled power plant of nominal capacity of 160
megawatts. The discharge over 2 months adds up to 120,000 acre-ft (1.48 108 m3), and requires a
significant reservoir if it is to have that capacity of warm water at the beginning of the ice-covered period.

(3) Example 2.

(a) Conditions.

! Reservoir discharge: 5000 ft3/s (141.6 m3/s) at Tw = 36EF (2.2EC)

! Available heat discharge (in English units):

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Q = (Cp N (Tw Tm) = 62.4 1.0 5000 3600 s/hr (36 32)

Q = 4490 106 Btu/hr (or 1316 106 W in SI units)

Q
! Open-water area: A = Q/qwa =
Hwa (T w & T a)

! Width of open water: W = 500 feet (152 meters)

! Length of open water: L = A/W

! For Hwa = 3.5 Btu/hr ft2 EF (19.9 W/m2EC):

Ta T w Ta A L
EF (EC) EF (EC) ft2 (m2) ft (m)

20 (6.7) 12 (6.7) 107 106 (99.4 105) 214,000 (65,200)

6 5)
10 (12.2) 22 (12.2) 58 10 (53.9 10 117,000 (35,700)

0 (17.8) 32 (17.8) 40 106 (37.2 105) 80,000 (24,400)

6 5
10 (23.3) 42 (23.3) 31 10 (28.8 10 ) 61,000 (18,600)

(b) Discussion. This is a large reservoir release with open water about 11.6 miles (18.7 kilometers)
downstream even at 10EF (23.3EC) air temperature. The heat release is equivalent to 1200 megawatts,
which is about the heat released from a fossil-fueled power plant of 800-megawatts capacity. The
discharge over 2 months is 600,000 acre-ft (7.4 108 m3).

(4) Example 3.

(a) Conditions. A large power plant of nominal capacity 2400 megawatts is discharging
4800 megawatts through a diffusing system into a river 610 meters (2000 feet) wide. Temperature rise in
the river depends on its flow, but under the simplified assumptions used here, the open-water area can be
calculated approximately without that knowledge, since it is based on the required water surface area to
remove the heat content. This surface area depends on the temperature difference between the water and
the air, and the water temperature will be very near 32EF (0EC).

! Available heat discharge:

106 Btu/hr
Q= 4800 MW
0.293 MW

Q = 16,400 106 Btu/hr

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Q
! Open-water area: A = Q/qwa =
Hwa (T q & T a)

! Width of open water: W = 2000 feet (610 meters)

! Length of open water: L = A/W

! For Hwa = 3.5 Btu/hr ft2 EF (19.9 W/m2EC), and

Tw Ta = 32EF (0EC) Ta:

Ta T w Ta A L L
EF (EC) EF (EC) ft2 (m2) ft (m) mi (km)

20 ( 6.7) 12 (6.7) 390 106 (362 105) 195,000 (65,200) 37 (60)

10 (12.2) 22 (12.2) 213 106 (198 105) 106,000 (35,700) 20 (32)

6 5
0 (17.8) 32 (17.8) 146 10 (136 10 ) 73,000 (24,400) 14 (23)

10 (23.3) 42 (23.3) 111 106 (103 105) 56,000 (18,600) 11 (18)

(b) Discussion. This is a very large power plant and a very large river. The effect on the ice is open
water for many miles or kilometers downstream when the air is mildly cool, but only 16 to 24 kilometers
(10 to 15 miles) when the air temperatures are around 0EF (17.8EC). The simplified assumption, namely
that the open-water area is based only on the area required to remove the heat added, is probably not very
accurate here, since the complete mixing by the diffuser probably results in water temperatures sufficiently
close to freezing that ice will form on top of the slightly warm water if the flow is not too fast. For such a
case, a more detailed analysis would be needed. If skim ice forms, however, the warm water still prevents
the ice from thickening as much as it would without the addition of heat. Note also that we did not need to
know the velocity of the flow or the depth, but merely needed to assume that the flow was fast enough to
mix the warm water, and carry it downstream.

c. Side channel releases. The most usual method of disposing of a power plants waste heat to a
river is to release it directly at the side of the river. This case is more difficult to analyze because now the
rate of transverse mixing of the warm water plume across the river must be considered. As a general rule,
the open-water area resulting from a side channel release is quite narrow, on the order of 15 to 30 meters
(50 to 100 feet), but very long, on the order of miles or kilometers. While some of the heat is transferred
directly to the atmosphere through the open-water area, a significant amount of the heat is transferred to the
bottom of the adjacent ice cover and to the bottom of the ice cover downstream of the end of the open
water. From the standpoint of maximum decrease of the volume of ice that would be produced in the river
without waste heat, this is the most effective use of the waste heat since, once under the ice cover, nearly all
of the heat is used to retard ice thickening or to melt it. Simulations are available that enable estimates of
the lengths and widths of open water and the amount of ice suppression that results beyond the open water,
but they depend on the amount of heat released, the flow velocity, air temperature, depth of the river, and
the mixing characteristics of the river. For straight reaches of river, the simulations seem to yield
reasonable estimates of open-water extents.
(1) Figure 3-42 shows parametric plots of the lengths and widths of open water that may be expected
from a side channel release of warm water into rivers of 1- and 3-meter (3.3- and 9.9-foot) depths, with
flow velocities of 0.5 m/s (1.6 ft/s), as functions of air temperature and rates of heat release. These figures
are useful for gaining an appreciation of the nature of the ice suppression. Figure 3-42a shows

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a. Length versus air temperature, heat discharge b. Width versus air temperature, heat discharge
fixed at 150 megawatts fixed at 150 megawatts

c. Length versus heat discharge rate, air tempera- d. Width versus heat discharge rate, air temperature
ture fixed at -10 EC (14 EF) fixed at -10 EC (14 EF)

Figure 3-42. Length and width of open water resulting from side channel release of warm water into a river
of either 1- or 3-meter (3.3- or 9.9-foot) depth, as functions of air temperature and heat discharge rate. In
all cases the flow velocity is 0.5 m/s (1.6 ft/s)

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that, as the air gets colder, the length of open water decreases significantly. The length of open water is
also much shorter for the deeper river than for the shallower river. Figure 3-42b shows that the width of
open water is little affected by the depth, but of course it is narrower at lower air temperatures. Figures 3-
42c and 3-42d show the effect of different rates of heat release on the lengths and widths of open water. As
expected, both the length and width increase with increasing warm water discharge.

(2) Not apparent from the various plots of Figure 3-42 are the relative amounts of heat from the warm
water that are transferred directly to the atmosphere through the open water or that are transferred to the
underside of the ice. Less than 30 percent of the heat is transferred through the open water to the air in all
cases. This means that 70 percent of the heat is transferred to the ice cover, and either retards thickening or
causes thinning of the ice. This effect of the waste heat may extend for many miles or kilometers further
downstream, beyond the end of the open-water reach. These effects have been simulated by numerical
analysis but are too complex to be described quantitatively here, since the effects vary from site to site.
Some general statements can be made, however. The rate of heat transfer to the bottom of the ice cover is
more or less proportional to the product of the velocity and the amount by which the water temperature is
above freezing. Even temperature differences as small as 0.06EC (0.1EF) have effects that are important,
so that any field measurements must use accurate thermometers. The deeper the water is, the further
downstream the waste heat will affect the ice. For depths on the order of 1 meter (3 feet), the warm water
will have cooled to very near freezing in about 5 kilometers (3 miles), while for depths of about 3.7 meters
(12 feet), the effect will extend for as far as 16 kilometers (10 miles).

d. Mid-channel releases. Rarely is waste heat from a power plant discharged in the middle of a river.
If it were, the effects would be similar to a side channel release and result in a long, narrow open- water
stretch. The open water would be wider than a side channel release but shorter because the warm water
now mixes and spreads on both sides of the thermal plume, rather than only on one side. There may be
cases where it would be desirable from an ice management viewpoint to release an existing source of warm
water other than at the side. Before doing this, a simulation of the effects should be made to estimate
whether the ice suppression would be effective at the particular site.

3-10. References

a. Required publications.
None.

b. Related publications.

Ashton 1979
Ashton, G.D. 1979. Suppression of River Ice by Thermal Effluents, CRREL Report 79-30, U.S. Army
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

Ashton 1982
Ashton, G.D. 1982. Theory of Thermal Control and Prevention of Ice in Rivers and Lakes, in: Advances
in Hydrosciences, Vol. 13, Academic Press, New York, p. 131185.

Foltyn and Tuthill 1996

Foltyn, E.P., and A.M. Tuthill 1996. Design of Ice Booms, Cold Regions Technical Digest 96-1,
U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

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ONeill and Ashton 1981

ONeill, K., and G.D. Ashton 1981. Bottom Heat Transfer to Water Bodies in Winter, Special Report 81-
18, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

Perham 1983
Perham, R. 1983. Ice Sheet Retention Structures, CRREL Report 83-30, U.S. Army Cold Regions
Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

Perham 1985
Perham, R. 1985. Determining the Effectiveness of a Navigable Ice Boom, Special Report 85-17,
U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

Perham 1988a
Perham, R. 1988a. Inventory of Ice Problem Sites and Remedial Ice Control Structures, Special Report
88-7, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

Perham 1988b
Perham, R. 1988b. Ice Control in River Harbors and Fleeting Areas, Special Report 88-12, U.S. Army
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

Tuthill 1995
Tuthill, A.M. 1995. Structural Ice Control: Review of Existing Methods, Special Report 95-18,
U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

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Chapter 4
Hydraulic Computations and Modeling of Ice-Covered Rivers

4-1. Introduction

This chapter describes the general concepts for numerical modeling of the hydraulics of ice-covered
channels and contains background material and the equations used. The calculation of the hydraulics of
rivers for open water conditions (i.e., water-surface profiles) has a long history and well established
procedures. One of the complications imposed by ice on rivers is the difficulty of calculating the hydraulic
parameters of interest when the flow is affected by an ice cover or an ice jam. Section I of this chapter
presents the general principles and equations for modeling river ice covers. Over 30 years ago, the Corps
of Engineers Hydrologic Engineering Center (HEC) formulated the first version of the program known as
HEC-2 for calculating the hydraulics of open-channel flow (U.S. Army 1990). In an effort to model the
effect of an ice cover, a utility program called ICETHK was developed at CRREL to be used in
conjunction with HEC-2. Section II of this chapter describes the ICETHK model. More recently, the HEC-
RAS model (for River Analysis System) was developed by the Hydrologic Engineering Center as a
replacement for HEC-2. HEC and CRREL collaborated to include river ice as an integral part of the
structure of the new model. As such, HEC-RAS overcomes several limitations that exist in ICETHK, and
it applies to a wider variety of river ice situations. The ice-handling characteristics of HEC-RAS are
described in Section III.

a. ICETHK. ICETHK is a useful engineering tool, since many flood studies and hydraulic design
projects require the calculation of ice-affected stages. Before the development of ICETHK, the calculation
of ice-affected backwater profiles using HEC-2 was painstaking, requiring many iterations. The model has
two strong points. First, ICETHK is used in conjunction with HEC-2, the most commonly used backwater
model in the United States, and river geometry data in the HEC-2 format are widely available. Second,
ICETHK is designed to help the user understand ice jam processes and is relatively easy to use. The
original ICETHK model has been supplanted by an improved ice routine in HEC-RAS, but it is described
in this chapter for those who may continue to find it useful and because of its strong association with the
well-established HEC-2 model.

b. HEC-RAS. The HEC-RAS model of river hydraulics contains code that enables the user to model
ice-covered channels at two levels. The first level applies to an ice cover with known geometry. In this
case, the user specifies the ice cover thickness and roughness at each cross section. Different ice cover
thicknesses and roughnesses can be specified for the main channel and for each overbank, and both the
thickness and roughness can vary along the channel. The second level addresses a wide-river ice jam. In
this case, the ice thickness is determined by an ice jam force balance. The ice jam can be confined to the
main channel or can include both the main channel and the overbanks. The material properties of the wide-
river jam can be selected by the user and can vary from cross section to cross section. The user can specify
the hydraulic roughness of the ice jam, or HEC-RAS will estimate the hydraulic roughness on the basis of
empirical data.

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Section I
Modeling River Ice Covers

4-2. General

The common formation of ice covers on rivers during the cold winter months arises in a variety of ways.
How an ice cover forms depends on the channel flow conditions and the amount and type of ice generated.
In most cases, river ice covers float in hydrostatic equilibrium because they react both elastically and
plastically (the plastic response being termed creep) to changes in water level. The thickness and rough-
ness of ice covers can vary significantly along the channel and even across the channel. A stationary,
floating ice cover creates an additional fixed boundary with an associated hydraulic roughness. An ice
cover also makes a portion of the channel cross-sectional area unavailable for flow, i.e., that part occupied
by the ice. The net result is generally to reduce the channel conveyance, largely by increasing the wetted
perimeter and reducing the hydraulic radius of a channel, but also by modifying the effective channel
roughness and reducing the channel flow area.

4-3. Modeling Ice Covers with Known Geometry

The conveyance of a channel or any subdivision of an ice-covered channel, Ki, can be estimated using the
Manning equation:

1.486 2/3
Ki = A i Ri (4-1)
nc

where

nc = composite roughness

Ai = flow area beneath the ice cover

Ri = hydraulic radius modified to account for the presence of ice.

The composite roughness of an ice-covered river channel can be estimated using the Belokon-Sabaneev
equation as

2/3
3/2 3/2
nb % ni
nc =
2
(4-2)
where

nb = roughness value for the bed

ni = roughness value for the ice.

The hydraulic radius of an ice-covered channel is found as

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Ai
Ri = (4-3)
Pb % B i

where

Pb = wetted perimeter associated with the channel bottom and sideslopes

Bi = width of the underside of the ice cover.

It is interesting to estimate the influence that an ice cover can have on the channel conveyance. For
example, if a channel is roughly rectangular in shape and much wider than it is deep, then its hydraulic
radius will be approximately cut in half by the presence of an ice cover. Assuming that the flow area
remains constant, we see that the addition of an ice cover, having a roughness equivalent to the bed
roughness, reduces conveyance by 37 percent.

4-4. Modeling Wide-River Ice Jams

The wide-river ice jam is probably the most common type of river ice jam (Figure 4-1). In this type, all
stresses acting on the jam are ultimately transmitted to the channel banks. The stresses are estimated using
the ice-jam force balance equation:

d Fx t 2 Jb t
% = DN g Sw % Ji (4-4)
dx B

where

Fx = longitudinal stress (along stream direction)

t = the accumulation thickness

Jb = shear resistance of the banks

B = accumulation width

DN = ice density

g = acceleration of gravity

Sw = water surface slope

Ji = shear stress applied to the underside of the ice by the flowing water.

This equation balances changes in the longitudinal stress in the ice cover and the stress acting on the banks
with the two external forces acting on the jam, namely the gravitational force attributable to the slope of the
water surface and the shear stress of the flowing water on the jam underside.

a. Assumptions. Two assumptions are implicit in this force balance equation: that Fx , t, and Ji are
constant across the width, and that none of the longitudinal stress is transferred to the channel banks

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Figure 4-1. Schematic profile of a wide-river ice jam. Note that the ICETHK model applies to the equilibrium
section of the jam where ice thickness and flow are relatively uniform. HEC-RAS applies to the entire jam except
grounded portions, if any

through changes in stream width or horizontal bends in the plan form of the river. In addition, the stresses
acting on the jam can be related to the mean vertical stress using the passive pressure concept from soil
mechanics, and the mean vertical stress results only from the hydrostatic forces acting in the vertical
direction. In the present case, we also assume that there is no cohesion between individual pieces of ice, a
reasonable assumption for ice jams formed during river ice breakup.

(1) In this light, the vertical stress, Fz , is

Fz = (e t (4-5a)

in which

1
(e = DNg (1 & s) (1 & e) (4-5b)
2

where

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e = ice jam porosity (assumed to be the same above and below the water surface)

s = specific gravity of ice.

(2) The longitudinal stress is then

Fx = kx Fz (4-6)

where

kx = tan2 (45 + N/2)

N = angle of internal friction of the ice jam.

(3) The lateral stress perpendicular to the banks can also be related to the longitudinal stress as

Fy = k1 Fx (4-7)

where

kl = coefficient of lateral thrust.

(4) Finally, the shear stress acting on the bank can be related to the lateral stress

Jb = k o Fy (4-8)

where

ko = tan N.

b. Reformulation of the force balance equation. Using the above expressions, we can restate the ice-
jam force balance as

dt 1 J ko k1 t
= DN g Sw % i =F (4-9)
dx 2 kx (e t B

where

F = shorthand description of the force balance equation.

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4-5. Roughness of the Ice Accumulation

Ice roughness can be calculated as a function of ice thickness or as a function of ice piece size. Existing
field data show that thick jams are typically made up of larger ice pieces and are hydraulically rougher than
thin jams. Relationships based on Nezhikhovskiys (1964) data relate Mannings n for the ice cover to the
ice accumulation thickness. The relationships take the form of a similar equation by Beltaos (1983).
Nezhikhovskiys data were measured in wide canals, 23 meters (6.69.8 feet deep), for ice floes, dense
slush, and loose slush.

a. Thick breakup jams. For breakup ice jams with ice accumulations greater than 0.46 meters
(1.5 feet) thick:

&0.23
H 0.40 0.40
n i = 0.0588 ti = 0.0690 H &0.23 ti (4-10)
2

where

H = total water depth

ti = measured thickness of the ice accumulation.

b. Thin breakup jams. A second relationship for breakup ice jams applies to ice accumulations less
than 0.46 meters (1.5 feet) thick:

&0.23
H 0.77 0.77
n i = 0.0506 ti = 0.0593 H &0.23 ti (4-11)
2

c. Freezeup jams. A third relationship predicts the roughness of a freezeup ice jam:

&0.23
H 0.54 0.54
n i = 0.0249 ti = 0.0292 H &0.23 ti (4-12)
2

d. Roughness summary. Nezhikhovskiys data and the curves produced by these three equations are
plotted in Figure 4-2.

4-6. Limitations of Ice Modeling

Although there are a number of limitations that arise from the assumptions required to solve the ice-jam
force balance in practical situations, the models have produced good results in a number of applications.
There are two general classes of limitations: those associated with the circumstances of the jam formation,
and those describing the material properties of the jam.

a. Limitations attributable to circumstances of jam formation. Both HEC-RAS and ICETHK

assume one-dimensional, gradually varied, steady flow. This may be in error when the ice jam formed
during a surge or other transient flow event. However, the extent to which the ice jam is influenced by

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Figure 4-2. Nezhikovskiys ice roughness values. The data are plotted in log-log format with the ice-thickness
versus ice-roughness relationships used in the ICETHK model

the unsteady flow cannot be estimated at this time. Neither HEC-RAS nor ICETHK can estimate where an
ice jam will occur. This information must be entered by the user.

b. Limitations attributable to jam material properties description. The collection of ice floes that
make up the jam are assumed to be a granular material with known properties. The determination of these
properties requires that the ice jam be floating in hydrostatic equilibrium. The result is that grounded ice
jams, where the ice jam is resting fully or partially on the channel bottom, cannot be well described by this
approach. This may have the largest influence at the downstream end or toe of the jam in the calculated

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results. However, it has generally been found that this description produces reasonable results in the toe
area.

Section II
The ICETHK Model

4-7. General

ICETHK is an ice utility program that is used in conjunction the HEC-2 backwater model to simulate an
equilibrium ice jam profile (Tuthill et al. 1998). ICETHK uses the results of hydraulic calculations from
HEC-2, with an ice cover, to produce new estimates of ice thickness and ice roughness for the reach of
river being modeled. HEC-2 is then used to recalculate the hydraulic conditions with the updated ice values
from the previous ICETHK run. The HEC-2 and ICETHK iteration cycles continue until the change in ice
thickness between successive iterations is acceptably small.

4-8. Ice Covers with Known Geometry

The utility program ICETHK cannot be used to model ice covers with known geometry (i.e., the ice cover
thickness and roughness are known at every cross section). If the ice cover geometry is known, this
information can be entered into HEC-2 directly using the IC card. The reader is referred to the HEC-2
Manual (U.S. Army 1990) for this information.

4-9. Equilibrium Ice Jam Theory and ICETHK

a. Definition of an equilibrium ice jam. ICETHK treats each reach between adjacent cross sections
as individual equilibrium reaches. The equilibrium form of Equation 4-9 above can be found by setting the
differential term with respect to x, the longitudinal distance, to zero. Equilibrium ice jam theory assumes
that the downstream forces on the ice cover are resisted by the accumulations internal strength and bank
shear. In this case it is assumed that the downstream forces are the water drag on the ice accumulations
underside and the downstream component of the ice accumulations weight. The ice accumulations ability
to transfer these downstream forces to the banks depends on its internal strength and thickness, and the
models governing equations determine the minimum ice thickness at which this force balance can occur.

b. Ice thickness calculation. ICETHK calculates ice thickness by three processes: juxtaposition,
wide-river jam, and thinning by erosion. In this manual, only the wide-river ice jam will be discussed. In
this case the wide-river jam can be simplified to a quadratic algebraic equation to reflect the ice jam forces
in an equilibrium reach.

DN
1 & DN g t 2 & (g DN S f B & 2C ) t & Ji B = 0 (4-13)
D i

where

= coefficient related to the internal strength of the accumulation, ranging from 0.8 to 1.3

D, DN = densities of water and ice, respectively

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g = acceleration due to gravity

t = thickness of the ice accumulation

Sf = friction slope (assumed equal to the water surface slope)

B = channel width at bottom of ice cover

Ci = cohesion factor for ice can range from zero for breakup jams to 958 Pa (20 lb/ft2) for
freezeup jams

Ji = shear force on underside of accumulation, approximated by D g(yi/2) Sf, where yi = under-ice

depth.

This quadratic equation can be solved directly.

4-10. Ice in Overbank Areas

Once flow depth in the floodplain reaches a threshold value, ice thickness in the overbank areas is
determined by the same steps and equations as the channel ice thickness. The threshold floodplain depth is
defined by a specified factor times the ice thickness before breakup. The use of the same calculation
method to calculate ice thickness in the overbank area (i.e., the same method as is used for the main channel
area) relies on the assumption that the ice-on-ice shear between the channel and floodplain ice is
approximately equivalent to the bank shear of a jam remaining in the channel.

4-11. Structure and Operation of ICETHK

ICETHK is designed as a utility program for HEC-2. Figure 4-3 shows the programs overall structure and
the interaction between ICETHK and HEC-2. Square-cornered boxes signify ICETHK programs and sub-
programs, while boxes with rounded corners indicate external input and output files. Overall, the structure
is fairly simple: ICETHK reads hydraulic data from a HEC-2 output file. Then the thickness and
roughness of the equilibrium ice accumulation are calculated. If water current velocity is greater than the
threshold velocity for thinning, thinning of the ice accumulation is calculated, as previously described. If
juxtaposition is possible, thickening from juxtaposition is found. The shoving thickness of the accumula-
tion is then calculated, and the greater of the shoving and juxtaposition thicknesses is selected. The thick-
ness of the initial (parent) ice cover is used as a minimum. This means that the cover cannot thin beyond
the parent ice thickness. It also means that, if a solution is not possible by juxtaposition or shoving, the
parent ice thickness will be used. Next, the ice roughness is calculated as a function of accumulation
thickness. If floodplain flow depth is greater than a user-defined threshold value, the process described for
the main channel is repeated to calculate ice thickness in the overbank areas. Finally, the resulting ice data
are inserted into the original HEC-2 input file, creating a new input file.

Section III
The HEC-RAS Model

4-12. General

HEC-RAS allows the user to model ice-covered channels at two levels. The first level is an ice cover with
known geometry. In this case, the user specifies the ice cover thickness and roughness at each cross

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Figure 4-3. Structure of the ICETHK model. Square-cornered boxes indicate programs and subprograms. ICETHK
subprograms lie within the large dashed line box. External files (both input and output) are indicated by round-cornered
boxes

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section. Different ice cover thicknesses and roughnesses can be specified for the main channel and for each
overbank and both can vary along the channel. The second level is a wide-river ice jam. In this case, the
ice jam thickness is determined at each section by balancing the forces on it. The ice jam can be confined
to the main channel or can include both the main channel and the overbanks. The material properties of the
wide-river jam can be selected by the user and can vary from cross section to cross section. The user can
specify the hydraulic roughness of the ice jam or HEC-RAS will estimate the hydraulic roughness on the
basis of empirical data. Published documentation (U.S. Army 1998a, 1998b, 1998c) should be consulted
for a fuller discussion of HEC-RAS.

4-13. Ice Covers with Known Geometry

Separate ice thicknesses and roughnesses can be used in HEC-RAS for the main channel and each
overbank, providing the ability to have three separate ice thicknesses and ice roughnesses at each cross
section. The ice thickness in the main channel and each overbank can also be set to zero. The ice cover
geometry can change from section to section along the channel. The suggested range of n values for river
ice covers is listed in Table 4-1.

Table 4-1
The Suggested Range of Mannings n Values for a Single Layer of Ice and for Ice Jams

Single Ice Layer

Type of Ice Condition Manning n Value

Sheet ice Smooth 0.008 to 0.012

Rippled ice 0.01 to 0.03

Fragmented single layer 0.015 to 0.025

Frazil ice New, 0.3-0.9 m (13 ft) thick 0.01 to 0.03

0.91.5 m (35 ft) thick 0.03 to 0.06

Aged 0.01 to 0.02

Ice Jams

Mannings n Value
Thickness
m (ft) Loose Frazil Frozen Frazil Sheet Ice

0.1 (0.3) -- -- 0.015

0.3 (1.0) 0.01 0.013 0.04

0.5 (1.7) 0.01 0.02 0.05

0.7 (2.3) 0.02 0.03 0.06

1.0 (3.3) 0.03 0.04 0.08

1.5 (5.0) 0.03 0.06 0.09

2.0 (6.5) 0.04 0.07 0.09

3.0 (10.0) 0.05 0.08 0.10

5.0 (16.5) 0.06 0.09 --

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4-14. Ice Jam Thickness Calculation

HEC-RAS estimates the ice jam thickness using Equation 4-9 above. No assumptions are made with
respect to there being an equilibrium reach or not. As a result, the entire equation is solved, including the
differential term with respect to x, the longitudinal length along the channel.

a. Force balance. To evaluate the force balance equation, the under-ice shear stress must be
estimated. The under-ice shear stress is

Ji = D g Ric S f (4-14)

where

Ric = hydraulic radius associated with the ice cover

Sf = friction slope of the flow.

b. Hydraulic radius. The value of Ric can be estimated as

ni 3/2
Ric = Ri (4-15)
nc

c. Roughness. The hydraulic roughness of an ice jam can be estimated using the empirical relation-
ships derived from the data of Nezhikovskiy (1964). These are the relationships described in para-
graph 4-5. Note that only the relationships for breakup ice covers are available.

4-15. Solution Procedure

The ice jam force balance equation is solved using an approach analogous to the standard step method. In
this, the ice thickness at each cross section is found, starting from a known ice thickness at the upstream
end of the ice jam. The ice thickness at the next downstream section is assumed and the value of F found.
The ice jam thickness at this downstream cross section, tds , is then computed as

tds = tus % F L (4-16)

where

tus = thickness at the upstream section

L = distance between sections

F = (Fus % Fds)/2.

The assumed value and computed value of tds are then compared. The new assumed value of the down-
stream ice jam thickness is set equal to the old assumed value plus 33 percent of the difference between the

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assumed and computed value. This local relaxation is necessary to ensure that the ice jam calculations
converge smoothly to a fixed value at each cross section. A maximum of 25 iterations is allowed for
convergence. The above steps are repeated until the values converge to within 0.03 meters (0.1 foot) or to
a user-defined tolerance.

a. Tests for reasonableness. After the ice thickness is calculated at a section, the following tests are
made:

The ice thickness cannot completely block the river cross section. At least 0.30 meters (1.0 foot)
must remain between the bottom of the ice and the minimum elevation in the channel available for
flow.

C The water velocity beneath the ice cover must be less than 1.5 m/s (5 ft/s) or a user-defined
maximum velocity. If the flow velocity beneath the ice jam at a section is greater than this, the ice
thickness is reduced to produce a flow velocity of approximately 1.5 m/s (5 ft/s) or the user-defined
maximum water velocity.

The ice jam thickness cannot be less than the thickness supplied by the user. If the calculated ice
thickness is less than this value, it is set equal to the user-supplied thickness.

b. Simultaneous solution scheme. It is necessary to solve the force-balance equation and the energy
equation simultaneously for the wide-river ice jam. However, difficulties arise because the energy equation
is solved using the standard step method, starting from the downstream end of the channel and proceeding
upstream, while the force-balance equation is solved starting from the upstream end and proceeding
downstream. The energy equation can only be solved in the upstream direction because ice covers and
wide-river jams exist only under conditions of subcritical flow. To overcome this incompatibility and to
solve both the energy and the ice jam force-balance equations, the following solution scheme was adopted.

(1) A first guess of the ice jam thickness is provided by the user to start this scheme. The energy
equation is then solved using the standard step method starting at the downstream end. Next, the ice jam
force-balance equation is solved from the upstream to the downstream end of the channel. The energy
equation and ice jam force-balance equation are solved alternately until the ice jam thicknesses and water
surface elevations converge to fixed values at each cross section. This is global convergence.

(2) Global convergence occurs when the water surface elevation at any cross section changes less than
0.02 meters (0.06 feet), or a user-supplied tolerance, and the ice jam thickness at any section changes less
than 0.03 meters (0.1 foot), or a user-supplied tolerance, between successive solutions of the ice jam force-
balance equation. A total of 50 iterations (or a user-defined maximum number) is allowed for convergence.
Between iterations of the energy equation, the ice jam thickness at each section is allowed to vary by only
25 percent of the calculated change. This global relaxation is necessary to ensure that the entire water
surface profile converges smoothly to a final profile.

4-16. References

a. Required publications.
None.

b. Related publications.

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Beltaos 1983
Beltaos, S. 1983. River Ice Jams: Theory, Case Studies, and Applications, Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 109, No. 10, pp. 13381359.

Nezhikovskiy 1964
Nezhikovskiy, R.A. 1964. Coefficient of Roughness of Bottom Surfaces of Slush Ice Cover, Soviet
Hydrology, Selected Papers, No. 2, pp. 127150.

Tuthill et al. (1998)

Tuthill, A.M., J. L. Wuebben, and J. G. Gagnon. 1998. ICETHK Users Manual, Version 1, Special
Report 98-11, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

U.S. Army 1990

U.S. Army 1990. HEC-2 Water Surface Profiles, Hydrologic Engineering Center, U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, Davis, California.

U.S. Army 1998a

U.S. Army 1998a. HEC-RAS River Analysis System: Hydraulic Reference Manual, Hydrologic
Engineering Center, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Davis, California, June.

U.S. Army 1998b

U.S. Army 1998b. HEC-RAS River Analysis System: Users Manual, Hydrologic Engineering Center,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Davis, California, June.

U.S. Army 1998c

U.S. Army 1998c. HEC-RAS River Analysis System: Application Guide, Hydrologic Engineering Center,
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Davis, California, June.

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Chapter 5
Ice-Affected Stage-Frequency Analysis

5-1. Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to provide techniques for the determination of stage-frequency distributions
for rivers subject to periods of ice. Such analyses can be important for projects dealing with ice-affected
flooding, clearance for bridges or hydraulic structures, tailwater elevations for hydroelectric plants, water
intake elevations, and shore protection design. In contrast to open-water flooding, where high water levels
directly result from excessive water discharge, ice-affected flooding results from added resistance to flow
and blockage of flow caused by accumulations of ice. Water discharge during ice-induced flooding is
typically low relative to open-water floods. Consequently, a flood-frequency analysis based on peak annual
discharges will often miss most, if not all, ice-affected events, even though the stages may be among the
highest on record. Thus, ice-induced flooding must be analyzed in terms of stage frequency, which is
primarily influenced by the ice regime.

5-2. Ice Effects on River Stage and Flooding

The formation of an ice cover or ice jam on a river roughly doubles the wetted perimeter of a wide channel.
The added resistance to flow, along with the reduction in flow area caused by the ice, results in higher
stages than a comparable open-water discharge would produce. This is particularly true for the case of ice
jams, which can cause flood stages comparable to rare open-water events, despite discharge exceedance
probabilities on the order of 0.5 or greater. These accumulations include freezeup jams, formed by the
collection of pieces of floating ice during the periods of relatively steady flow experienced when the ice
cover initially forms early in the winter season, as well as breakup jams, which form during the often highly
unsteady flow conditions when the ice cover breaks up because of a significant rainfall event, snow melt, or
other increase in runoff.

a. Ice jam flow profiles. Most ice jams are the result of ice moving downstream until it encounters an
intact downstream ice cover, or other surface obstruction. Figure 5-1 illustrates the longitudinal profile of
a typical fully developed jam. Downstream from the jam, the flow may be uniform (at least in a reach-
averaged sense). At the downstream end, or toe, of the jam, the ice accumulation results in a gradually
varied flow profile in the transition reach, as water depth increases toward the deeper normal-flow depth
associated with the thicker, rougher ice conditions. If the ice jam is long enough, a fully developed or
equilibrium-jam reach may form, in which ice and flow conditions are relatively uniform. From the
upstream end, or head, of the jam, flow depths again transition toward the lower uniform-flow depth
associated with the open-water conditions upstream.

b. Ice jam data. Ice-related flooding tends to be local and highly site specific. While ice jams may be
relatively common at a given site, they cannot be predicted with certainty in any given year, and may be
totally absent at other sites nearby, even along the same river. Without prior field observations, it is
generally difficult to predict where, or even if, jams will form along a river. Thus, ice-affected frequency
analysis emphasizes historical data, even though they may be scarcer and less reliable than the open-water
data. The available information may range from detailed hydrographic records to observations by local
residents. At a minimum, it is necessary to have some information on where, when, and with what fre-
quency ice events happen. The types of available data will determine the form and reliability of the
frequency analysis that can be conducted.

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Figure 5-1. Typical ice jam profile

5-3. Data Sources

Ice jam floods often occur when flow rates are relatively low, perhaps no more than a 0.5-exceedance-
probability discharge, and water levels are normally high only in the vicinity of the ice and in a backwater
zone upstream. Their relatively small geographic extent (perhaps a few river miles or kilometers) and short
duration (from a few hours to a few days for breakup events) make it unlikely that detailed field
information will have been gathered at most sites. Even in cases where hydrographic gaging records exist
for a site, the potential for gage freezeup because of cold weather, ice effects on the gage rating curve, the
location of the gage relative to the ice accumulation, or direct ice action on the gage can reduce their
reliability for ice events. Because ice jams are site-specific, it is generally not possible to transpose stage
data from other sites along the river. Hence, it is often necessary to resort to other sources of data, sources
that are often overlooked or regarded as unreliable for analysis of open-water flooding. Sources of
historical data might include:

USGS or Corps gaging station reports or files.

C Corps District or Area Office files.

State and local water resources and Civil Defense offices.

C Prior flood insurance studies.

Historical societies, museums, town offices, libraries.

C Newspapers, books, photographs.

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Interviews with local residents.

C Environmental indicators, such as tree scars, structural markings or damage, and vegetation trim
lines.

5-4. Form of Frequency Analysis

To analyze ice-influenced flood frequency, mixed populations must be considered. Depending on the
objectives of the overall project, it may be necessary to split the sample population into two or more
subsets, such as open water, freezeup, solid ice cover, and breakup. Separate frequency distributions could
be derived for any population subset, but in most cases a single, annual flood-frequency distribution is
desired. As described by Morris (1982), this could be derived in two ways. If the annual frequency curve
is derived directly from annual peak data that have not been segregated, it is called a mixed-population
frequency curve. If the annual frequency curve is derived from two or more frequency curves developed
from separate populations, it is called a combined-population frequency curve. The combined-population
approach should be used when frequency curves derived from mixed populations exhibit sudden breaks in
curvature (Morris 1982). These sudden breaks are often caused by several large events that depart from
the trend of the remainder of the data and may arise from hurricane events in a normal rainfall series,
rainfall events in a snowmelt dominated series, or, in the present case, ice-influenced flooding. Details on
mixed-population analysis can be found in Morris (1982) and in a publication of the Interagency Advisory
Committee on Water Data (U.S. Geological Survey 1982).

a. Mixed-population frequency analysis. When determining the stage-frequency distribution for a

mixed population, one must first tabulate the annual peak stage for each year of record. These annual
peaks are then ranked in descending order of severity, and the exceedance probability, in terms of plotting
position, is determined for each event. There are several plotting-position equations that can be used,
perhaps the most common of which is the Weibull equation:

P = m/N + 1 (5-1)

where

P = exceedance probability corresponding to the event of rank m

m = rank of the event

N = total number of events.

(1) The Weibull equation was developed so that the exceedance probability associated with the highest
ranked event would be correct, on the average. Another commonly used plotting-position equation, which
is an approximation of the Beard, or median, plotting-position equation (Morris 1982), is

P = m 0.3/N + 0.4. (5-2)

The median plotting-position equation was developed so that the exceedance probability associated with the
largest event would have an equal chance of being too high or too low.

(2) Once the plotting positions have been determined, the exceedance probability and stage coordinates
are plotted on the appropriate probability paper. An analytical frequency curve may then be calculated

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using a selected probability distribution. The Interagency Advisory Committee on Water Data (U.S.
Geological Survey 1982) recommends that the log-Pearson type III distribution, with a weighted skew
coefficient, be used to model annual peak discharges. However, the interagency committees conclusions
and generalized skew coefficient map were based on annual peak data that were not segregated according to
causal factors. Morris (1982) suggests that, unless the annual series in a number of stations clearly contain
non-zero skew coefficients, one should use the log-normal distribution. Further, it is not clear what form of
distribution ice-affected stages should follow. In view of these uncertainties, it is suggested here that the
log-normal distribution be used, owing to its simplicity, with all stages referenced to the zero-discharge
stage. However, since ice-affected stages are primarily governed by the ice regime and its interaction with
channel geometry, extrapolation beyond the range of observed data is risky. Because discharges are
normally low for ice events, the frequency curve can become highly nonlinear as flow enters the floodplain.
Further, as discharge increases, a point will be reached where no stationary ice accumulation is possible
and a discontinuous distribution of stages can occur as the dominant factor governing stage reverts from ice
processes to water discharge. As such, it is normally sufficient to graphically fit a curve through data
plotted on log-normal paper. The upper limits on ice-affected stages are discussed later.

b. Combined-population frequency analysis. For a combined-population frequency analysis, the

annual peaks for each subpopulation must be tabulated similarly to the way described above for the mixed-
population case.

(1) The first step is to identify the significant causal factors and determine a method for separating
events into subsets. One option is to separate data populations by season (such as open water, ice covered,
freezeup jamming, and breakup jamming). Such seasons must be based on different hydrometeorological
conditions and not be arbitrary periods, such as calendar months. However, if the data are separated into
too many subsets, one or more of the subsets may contain a few large events and many small ones (Morris
1982). This causes the frequency curves of these subsets to be unreasonably steep, and a combined annual
curve will predict unreasonably high magnitudes for extreme events.

(2) The procedure for combining multiple frequency curves developed from independent annual series
can be expressed in general form as

Pc = 1 (1 P1) (1 P2) ... (1 Pn) (5-3)

= 1 Bni = 1 (1 Pi) (5-4)

where

Pc = exceedance probability of the combined-population frequency curve for the selected

discharge

P1, P2, ... Pn = exceedance probabilities associated with selected discharge from curve numbers 1, 2,
through n

n = number of frequency curves to be combined.

If only two curves are combined, this reduces to

Pc = P1 + P2 (P1)(P2) (5-5)

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These equations assume that each of the frequency curves used to develop a combined curve is independent,
a valid assumption when combining open-water and ice-influenced events.

5-5. Approaches for Developing Ranked Data Tabulations

The discussion above has assumed that annual peak data were available for each population to be analyzed.
In this paragraph, we consider how the ranked data tabulations can be developed, given the variability in
data quantity and quality mentioned previously. There are two general approaches. The first is a direct
analysis of historical data. The second is an indirect analysis based on data synthesized from estimates of
discharge and an understanding of ice jam mechanics. The latter method is significantly more difficult than
it is for the case of open-water flooding, but at the same time is typically more necessary because of the
likelihood that few or no historical ice-affected data will be available. Further, it is the only feasible
approach if the ice regime has changed or will be changed as a result of project construction that makes
historical data obsolete. Frequently, the best approach is to use a combination of the direct and indirect
methodologies.

a. Direct approach. If reliable hydrometric data are available at the site, and the desired product is a
combined-frequency analysis of the open-water and ice-covered flows, the analysis is relatively
straightforward. The maximum open-water and ice-covered stages should be tabulated for each water year.
The two event types are independent because they have different causes (water quantity versus ice
processes) and are not mutually exclusive (an open-water flood can occur in the same year as an ice-
affected flood). Each of these populations can then be analyzed using standard techniques, as discussed
earlier. If the desired subpopulation is ice jam events, however, a variation in technique is required, since
ice jams do not typically form every year at a given site.

(1) Morris (1982) discusses several options for the somewhat comparable case of analyzing hurricane
events. One applicable approach is to redefine the number of events in the plotting-position formula as
being equal to the total number of years of record analyzed. This tacitly assumes that the record is
continuous and that all events in the subpopulation have been identified. Morris also suggests that the
frequency curve be developed by drawing a best-fit line by eye, rather than using regression equations, so
that outliers do not unduly affect the derived line. Because of the small sample size typical of this type of
analysis, there can be significant uncertainty in the accuracy of the resultant frequency curve.

(2) Very often, there is no long-term, reliable gaging station at the project site, and it becomes
necessary to combine information from several sources of varying accuracy and reliability. There may also
be years in which no data were recorded, but it is not clear whether there was no event or whether it simply
was not recorded. This inhomogeneity of data can reduce the reliability of the resulting frequency curve. If
the record is clearly incomplete, consideration should be given to employing the indirect method of analysis,
with checks against the available historical data, as discussed later.

(3) When analyzing a data set with multiple data sources, it is necessary to determine which one is the
most reliable, when more than one data source records an event, and also to determine the maximum stage
that may have occurred in years when there were no reports on ice-affected stages. While there is no
standard technique for this integration of data sources, a reasonable methodology has been given by Gerard
and Karpuk (1979), as outlined briefly below.

(a) Perception stage. One must determine the minimum stage (or perception stage) that would be
recorded by various data sources. This perception stage is defined as the minimum stage required for a

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given source to perceive and record an event. For example, for a gaging station, the perception stage would
be the minimum stage it was capable of recording, while for a local resident, it would be that stage below
which the event would have gone unnoticed or unremembered. Newspaper accounts would require an event
of interest to its readers, and photographs would require an event significant enough for a person to want a
permanent record (unless the event was captured incidental to a different subject). The significance of the
perception stage is that, if a source was in a position to observe events during a given year, but didnt
report any, then one can presume that the maximum stage during that year was less than the perception
stage of the source. This simple constraint provides an objective means of merging data from several
sources and of increasing the record length beyond the recorded number of events.

(b) Environmental indicators of stage. Environmental indicators, such as structural markings and
high-water marks, can be used, providing one knows when they happened. The same is typically true for
other environmental evidence, except that it is sometimes possible to date old tree scar data by analyzing
tree rings. This has been used with success in prior studies to document high-water levels that were several
decades old. In either case, analysis can be complex, since a stable object would have to have been located
at a proper location and elevation to allow recording, and the markings would have had to be high enough
and long lasting enough to persist through subsequent floods.

(c) Record length. In this method, the record length will vary with stage. Record length for an
individual peak is equal to the number of years in which any source with a perception stage lower than that
peak was present on the river. For example, assume that the hypothetical data in Table 5-1 came from
three different sources, such as 1) the memory of a local resident, 2) an early water-level gage, and 3) a
more recent water-level gage. Perception stages of 2.7, 0.9, and 0 meters (9, 3, and 0 feet), relative to a
zero-flow stage, have been assigned to these sources. Further, assume that the local resident was present
throughout the period of record, but that the first water-level gage operated only in years 714 and the final
gage operated in years 1520, except when it malfunctioned during year 19. Under this scenario, if the
third source recorded a stage of 0.88 meters (2.89 feet), the record length associated with that event would
correspond to only the 5 years for which that source reported data. If the first data source had reported a
stage of 3.05 meters (10 feet) during the first 6 years, the record length for that event would equal the total
number of years that any of the three sources were active, since any of the three sources would have
recorded the event had they been present.

(d) Stage ranking. This method also requires a modified technique for determining the rank of peak
stages. When the data are tabulated for such a scenario, the rank for an individual peak is determined by
ranking all peaks having a perception stage less than or equal to the value of the peak. Thus, peaks above
2.7 meters (9 feet) would be ranked in terms of the entire data set, but peaks between 0.9 and 2.7 meters (3
and 9 feet) would only be ranked with those events from the second and third sources, since an event of that
magnitude may have occurred during the years when only the first source was active and gone unnoticed.
As noted in Table 5-2, this can result in two or more peaks being assigned equal rank, but their record
length will differ.

(4) Plotting positions can now be calculated using standard formulations and the redefined values of
record lengths and rank, and the stage-frequency distribution determined as before. Although this method
allows a logical means of combining inhomogeneous data sets, the discontinuities in record lengths and
rank can persist as discontinuities in plotting positions. Although there are a number of available plotting-
position formulas (the Weibull simulation was used in Table 5-2), they all basically divide rank by record
length without any other reference to the associated stage. Thus, it is possible for an event of record length
20 and rank 7 to have the same calculated plotting position as an event of record length 14 and rank 5. For
example, if the missing record from year 19 had an actual stage of less

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Table 5-1
Example Historic Data Set

Perception Stage Stage

Data Record
Year Source* m ft m ft Length

1 1 2.7 9 3.20 10.5 20

2 1 2.7 9

3 1 2.7 9

4 1 2.7 9

5 1 2.7 9 3.66 12.0 20

6 1 2.7 9 3.05 10.0 20

7 1,2 0.9 3

8 1,2 0.9 3 4.59 15.05 20

9 1,2 0.9 3 0.96 3.15 13

10 1,2 0.9 3 1.18 3.88 13

11 1,2 0.9 3 1.00 3.28 13

12 1,2 0.9 3 1.19 3.89 13

13 1,2 0.9 3

14 1,2 0.9 3 2.88 9.46 20

15 1,3 0.0 0 6.58 21.59 20

16 1,3 0.0 0 2.48 8.15 13

17 1,3 0.0 0 0.88 2.89 5

18 1,3 0.0 0 5.22 17.12 20

19 1 2.7 9

20 1,3 0.0 0 1.97 6.45 13

* Key:
1. Memory of a local resident
2. Early water-level gage
3. Recent water-level gage

than 2.48 meters (8.15 feet), then the record length for the event in year 16 would have been 14 and the
plotting position would have been 0.333, equal to that for the event in year 14. By similar reasoning, it is
possible to calculate a given stage as being more probable than a lesser stage, which is clearly not realistic.
If such an overlap of data groups occurs, it is generally slight, and is best treated as data scatter with the
final frequency-distribution curve smoothed by eye.

b. Indirect method. The indirect method of stage-frequency analysis uses stage data synthesized from
estimates of discharge frequency and knowledge of ice processes. While data synthesis is more difficult
than in the open-water case, it is also more necessary because of the general lack of appropriately sited
gaging stations or other sources of historical data. Further, it is the only feasible approach if the ice regime
has changed or will be changed, making historical data obsolete. Major obstacles to be overcome include
estimating the appropriate ice conditions and assessing the frequency of ice jamming at a particular site.

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Table 5-2
Example Data Tabulation

Record
Year Stage, m (ft) Perception Stage, m (ft) Length Rank Plotting Position

15 6.58 (21.59) 0.0 (0) 20 1 0.048

18 5.22 (17.12) 0.0 (0) 20 2 0.095

8 4.59 (15.05) 0.9 (3) 20 3 0.143

5 3.66 (12.0) 2.7 (9) 20 4 0.190

1 3.20 (10.5) 2.7 (9) 20 5 0.238

6 3.05 (10.0) 2.7 (9) 20 6 0.286

14 2.88 (9.46) 0.9 (3) 20 7 0.333

16 2.48 (8.15) 0.0 (0) 13 5 0.357

20 1.97 (6.45) 0.0 (0) 13 6 0.429

12 1.19 (3.89) 0.9 (3) 13 7 0.500

10 1.18 (3.88) 0.9 (3) 13 8 0.571

11 1.00 (3.28) 0.9 (3) 13 9 0.643

9 0.96 (3.15) 0.9 (3) 13 10 0.714

17 0.88 (2.89) 0.0 (0) 5 5 0.833

(1) As in the open-water case, discharge and meteorological data may be used to generate probable
ice-related events for each year of record. The period stage-frequency distribution is then developed using
the appropriate ice-cover-period or ice-jam-period discharge frequency, available ice data, an analysis of
probable ice-related water levels (i.e., HEC-RAS, see Chapter 4), and some estimate of jam frequency.

(2) The first step is a year-by-year analysis of flow records to determine the maximum annual
discharge for each desired subpopulation. Ideally, these values would reflect the instantaneous peak flows,
since they are the ones that determine the severity of ice effects. On the other hand, a careful review of the
records is required to ensure that the flows are from the ice-jam period, and not an open-water peak
following the final breakup ice run. If necessary, these data may be transposed from gage data elsewhere
on the river, transposed from other rivers in the vicinity, or estimated using a precipitation-runoff model.
Next, representative ice conditions must be estimated for the range of expected breakup events. Such
information might include estimates of ice thickness, ice-cover or ice-jam roughness, position of the ice
jams toe and head, and the upstream length of river contributing ice to a jam.

(3) Lacking field data, it is very difficult to predict where, and with what frequency, jams will form
along a river, and analysis is often limited to estimating upper and lower limits of probable stages. If a jam
is known (or assumed) to form at a given location, it is possible to estimate the maximum resulting flood
levels. It can be shown that, for a given scenario of water discharge and ice conditions, the maximum
water levels will occur within the equilibrium portion of the jam described earlier. Since ice and flow
conditions are relatively uniform within the equilibrium reach, it is a fairly simple matter to estimate the
water levels in this portion of the jam. Depending on where a jam forms, and whether there is a sufficient
upstream ice discharge to form a jam long enough to develop an equilibrium reach, actual water levels may
be less and the estimate will be conservative.

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(4) Thus, if no site information is available, the range of possible ice conditions might be assumed to
include the limiting conditions of a solid cover of sheet ice and a fully developed equilibrium ice jam. The
solid-ice-cover case would represent the minimum ice-affected stage, while the equilibrium-ice-jam case
would represent the maximum stage possible for a given discharge. If, for example, we were to assume
that the problem at hand is an analysis of flooding attributable to breakup jams in the spring, and that little
or no information exists for the ice regime, a suggested procedure is as follows.

(a) List peak flows. Develop a table of peak flows for the period of breakup, as discussed above.
These flows should be estimates of the instantaneous peak flows, since they are the ones that govern the
maximum severity of the event.

(b) Define range of flows. From this tabulation of flows, select a range of flows from discharges too
low to cause breakup of the ice cover to discharges where all ice would move downstream without
jamming. These estimates might be based on personal observations, observations by local residents, notes
on nearby gaging records, sharp breaks in the trend of continuous stage measurements, or other sources of
information. These estimates might also vary through the winter because of variations in ice strength. If
such estimates are not possible, select a range of flows representative of all historical breakup period flows.

(c) Calculate stages. For a number of discharges covering the range of flows defined in the preceding
paragraph, calculate the stages associated with both the solid-ice-cover and equilibrium-ice-jam cases using
either a numerical model such as HEC-RAS or manually using a procedure such as the one outlined in
Beltaos (1983).

(d) Develop rating curve. Using the above information, develop a stage-discharge rating curve for
both the lower bound of a solid ice cover and the upper bound of an equilibrium ice jam.

(e) Rank stages. From the tabulation of historical discharges and the stage-discharge rating curve,
develop a ranked tabulation of estimated historical stage data. As in the direct method, a stage-probability
distribution may now be developed for the upper and lower bound cases by assigning plotting positions and
plotting on log-normal paper.

(5) The task of developing a compromise distribution from these upper and lower bound distributions
remains, and one should consider limiting conditions on the stage-discharge relations. The first limit is the
discharge (or stage) at which the ice cover is expected to break up, as described above in paragraph 5-
5b(4)(b). If this lower limit can be estimated, then it can be assumed that the solid-ice-cover curve is
appropriate for all discharges below that level.

(6) If a large floodplain exists at the site, it may provide an upper limit on ice-induced stages. Since
ice-related discharges are typically low relative to open-water events, once the stage is high enough to allow
water to enter the floodplain, the slope of the stage-discharge curve should flatten considerably. Further,
with continued increases in discharge, a point may be reached at which no stable ice jam is possibleall
ice will simply be transported downstream. The development of an ice jam can also be limited by the
volume of ice available for accumulation. If there is some physical limit to the upstream river length
contributing ice (e.g., the presence of an upstream dam), there may be an insufficient ice supply to develop
an equilibrium jam at the project site. Thus, extrapolation of ice-induced stages to more extreme events is
generally not reliable, particularly if such limiting factors are not considered.

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(7) Beyond imposing such limits, developing a compromise distribution between the ice-cover and ice-
jam distributions is largely a matter of engineering judgment. If the results are to be used for project
design, it might be desirable to conservatively assume that ice jams always form and employ that
distribution. However, for the determination of average annual damages, even a few reliable historical data
could be of immense help in the interpretation of the two analytically derived distributions. By comparing a
historical observation with the analytical estimates for a comparable event (and using judgment), a
compromise best-estimate of the stage for an event of that magnitude can be developed.

(8) If no such data are available, some idea of the frequency of significant ice jamming in the vicinity
of the site can be helpful (e.g., do jams occur every other year, or in about 3 out of 10 years?). Although
not related to specific years, this general information can be used in the development of a compromise
curve (Figure 5-2) by employing the methodology of Gerard and Calkins (1984) as follows:

Figure 5-2. Development of a compromise distribution

(a) Probability of stage exceedance because of jamming. If the probability that a significant ice jam
may form in a given year is P(J) = m/N (m being the estimated number of jam events in N years), then the
probability P($J) of a given stage being equaled or exceeded in a given year is given by

P($J) = P(J) P($ | J) (5-6)

where P($ | J) is the probability of the stage being exceeded if an ice jam forms (i.e., a conditional
probability). P($ | J) corresponds to the probability coordinate of the upper bound for a given stage.

(b) Probability of stage exceedance because of a solid ice cover. The probability P($C) of the stage
being exceeded when a solid ice cover exists is likewise given by

P($C) = P(C) P($ | C) (5-7)

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where P(C) = 1 P(J) is the probability of a significant ice jam not occurring (and therefore the peak stage
being associated with a solid ice cover), and P($ | C) is the conditional probability of the stage being
exceeded if a significant ice jam does not form (the lower bound).

(c) Probability of stage exceedance because of ice in general. As the ice cover and ice jam situations
are mutually exclusive, the probability P($) of a stage being equaled or exceeded is given by

P($) = P($J) + P($C). (5-8)

Thus, if a jam forms in about 3 out of every 10 years, P(J) = 0.3 and

P(C) = 1 P(J) = 1 0.3 = 0.7.

For a given stage, P($ | J) and P($ | C) are determined from the upper and lower bound frequency curves,
respectively. Equation 5-8 can then be used to calculate the compromise probability P($) of a given stage
being exceeded.

(9) Repeating this procedure for the range of breakup flows allows the development of a compromise
frequency curve between the upper and lower bounds. However, at the lower end it should merge with the
solid-ice-cover case at a point where the discharge would be too low to cause ice-cover breakup, and the
upper end must be reconciled with the limits imposed by floodplain flow or a finite ice supply as discussed
earlier. It must be emphasized that extrapolation of ice-induced stages to extreme events is generally not
reliable, particularly if such limiting factors have not been considered.

5-6. Summary

This chapter has reviewed methodologies for the analysis of ice-related flood frequency. Since ice-induced
flooding is dominated by ice processes, rather than water quantity, we have emphasized the need for a
stage-related, rather than discharge-related, analysis. Further, since detailed data for ice-affected events are
typically unavailable, and the site-specific nature of ice-related flooding generally precludes transposing
data from other sites, methodologies are outlined for performing the analysis based on limited historical
data and data synthesized from discharge records and estimates of ice conditions.

5-7. References

a. Required publications.
None.

b. Related publications.

Beltaos 1983
Beltaos, S. 1983. River Ice Jams: Theory, Case Studies, and Applications, Journal of Hydraulic
Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 109, No. 10, pp. 13381359.

Gerard and Calkins 1984

Gerard, R.L., and D.J. Calkins. 1984. Ice-Related Flood Frequency Analysis: Application of Analytical
Estimates, Proceedings, Cold Regions Specialty Conference, Canadian Society for Civil Engineering,
Montreal, Quebec, pp. 85101.

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Gerard and Karpuk 1979

Gerard, R.L., and E.W. Karpuk. 1979. Probability Analysis of Historical Flood Data Journal of the
Hydraulics Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 105, No. HY9, pp. 11531165.

Morris 1982
Morris, E.C. 1982. Mixed-Population Frequency Analysis, Training Document No. 17, U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers, Hydrologic Engineering Center, Davis, California.

U.S. Geological Survey 1982

U.S. Geological Survey 1982. Guidelines for Determining Flood Flow Frequencies, Bulletin 17B,
Interagency Advisory Committee on Water Data, Hydrology Subcommittee, U.S. Geological Survey,
Office of Water Data Coordination.

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Chapter 6
Ice Forces on Structures

6-1. Introduction

Basically, three approaches may be taken to determining ice forces on structures:

Analytical, using the mechanical properties of ice and theory of applied mechanics.

C Experimental, using measurements from full-scale structures or scale models.

Empirical, using the experience of successful and unsuccessful structures.

There are at present many difficulties with a strictly analytical approach, and current practice tends to
depend more on empirical procedures, modified to some degree by experimental and analytical results. The
concept of a design ice pressurenormally regarded as total ice force, divided by projected area of contact,
normal to the direction of ice actionis firmly entrenched in engineering practice and is generally useful,
being analogous to concepts of wind pressure or soil pressure. It must be emphasized, however, that ice
pressure is not the same as ice strength, and that the relationship between pressure and strength depends on
the geometrical relationship and other details of icestructure interaction. The ice strength should be
defined in relation to a particular test procedure and should be regarded as a material property.

6-2. Main Types of IceStructure Interaction

Most cases of ice action on structures fall into one of the four following categories. This chapter covers the
first two types of forces only. Research on the second two types is still being conducted and the reader
should contact appropriate research organizations.

a. Dynamic ice forces. These forces come from floating ice sheets and floes driven by streamflow,
currents, or wind. This is normally the critical mode of action for structures in rivers and may be so in
some lake situations. If the structure face subject to ice impact is vertical, the ice normally fails by
crushing and splitting, and the forces that develop are horizontal. If the structure face is sufficiently
inclined, the ice fails by bending and shear, and both horizontal and vertical force components are
developed.

b. Static ice forces. These forces come from a more or less intact ice sheet subject to thermal
expansion and contraction, or subject to steady pressure from wind or currents. Normally, the ice does not
fail, but deforms plastically around the structure.

c. Ice forces from a mass of broken pack or rubble ice driven against a structure. This happens
in a river ice jam or along lake shores. The ice pack acts somewhat like a granular soil. Pile-up on shore
and forces on ice booms, bridges, and other structures fall into this category.

d. Uplift and drawdown forces. These forces are associated with adhesion of floating ice to piles,
etc. Forces are generated when static water pressures change because of tides, reservoir operation, lake
level changes, etc.

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6-3. Dynamic ForcesGeneral

Most ice sheets are large enough so that impact forces are limited by ice failure in the weakest mode
permitted by the mechanics of the interaction as the structure penetrates the icecrushing, splitting, shear,
or bending. For smaller sheets or wide structures, the maximum force may be limited by the kinetic energy
available at the moment of impact and complete penetration may not occur.

a. Vertical surfaces. With vertical piles, pier noses, etc., failure usually takes place by crushing at
the surface of contact (Figure 6-1). Spalling may occur on top and bottom ice surfaces, and thin sheets
may buckle. A neat slot is often left as the ice moves past. (If the ice sheet is large enough, current drag
can maintain a steady speed.) Smaller sheets may crush briefly and then stop, rotate and move
downstream, or they may split longitudinally.

b. Inclined surfaces. The mode of ice failure for inclined faces is variable and complex (Figure 6-2).
At angles of greater than 75 degrees between the pier nose and the horizontal, crushing failure is most
likely. At intermediate angles of inclination, some ice may crush, while other ice rides up and breaks in a
three-dimensional pattern. If the inclination angle is less than 60 degrees, failure is nearly always by
shearbending. Factors such as friction, pier-width-to-ice-thickness ratio, and cracks in the sheet affect the
preference for crushing or bending failure. Horizontal forces from bending failure are far less than forces
from crushing failure; therefore, inclined faces are desirable. However, other considerations (economics,
catching of driftwood, etc.) have led to a decline in the popularity of severely inclined faces for river piers.

c. Conical structures. Conical towers are favored for coastal and ocean structures (e.g.,
lighthouses), since ice fails by bending into wedge-shaped slabs (Figure 6-3).

d. Force fluctuations. A more or less universal characteristic of dynamic ice forces is the presence of
rapid force fluctuations, which may be periodic or random, or both. Their significance depends on the
dynamic response characteristics of the structure. No special allowance for forced vibrations has normally
been made in pier design. In the case of sloping structures, a lower-frequency periodic fluctuation results
from a ride-up and break sequence.

6-4. Vertical Piers or Piles

Currently, all bridges are designed using AASHTO specifications. A standard of 2.76 MPa (400 psi) is
used as the crushing strength of the ice, and the design load is obtained by multiplying this times the ice
thickness and times the pier width

P
= 2.76 MPa (400 psi ). (6-1)
bh

Analysis and experiments indicate the existence of something like the following basic relationship

P
= C i " m " Fc " k (6-2)
bh

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Figure 6-1. Ice failing against a vertical surface

Figure 6-2. Ice failing against an inclined surface

Figure 6-3. Ice failing against a conical surface

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where

P = horizontal force developed

Ci = indentation coefficient

m = plan shape coefficient

Fc = compressive strength of ice

b = width or diameter of pile or pier normal to ice movement

h = ice thickness

k = contact coefficient.

The ice pressure P/bh is therefore equal to the ice crushing strength Fc multiplied by three coefficients. The
indentation coefficient Ci is found experimentally and analytically to be a function of b/h, as given by
Figure 6-4. The shape coefficient m is not very sensitive to plan shape and is usually taken as 0.9 for
semicircular noses. Korzhavin (1971) quoted the contact coefficient as in the range of 0.4 to 0.7. The
combination m . k is therefore on the order of 0.5.

a. Effective ice strength. The current Canadian bridge design code provides for effective ice
strength values ranging from 0.69 to 2.76 MPa (100 to 400 psi), and for modifying factors, dependent on
b/h, that follow the curve shape of Figure 6-1 but imply an included m . k value of about 0.5. The
background to these code values is difficult to explain in a few words since it has undergone successive
modifications. However, the Canadian code does recommend an effective ice strength of

0.69 MPa (100 psi) when breakup occurs at melting temperatures and the ice moves in small pieces
that are essentially disintegrated.

1.38 MPa (200 psi) when breakup occurs at melting temperatures but the ice moves in large pieces that
are generally sound.

2.07 MPa (300 psi) when breakup consists of an initial movement of the entire ice sheet or when large
sheets of sound ice strike piers.

2.76 MPa (400 psi) when breakup occurs with an ice temperature significantly below the melting point
and the ice movement consists of large sheets.

The AASHTO 1978 interim specifications have essentially adopted the Canadian code.

b. Other considerations. If values of ice compressive strength are determined for a specific situation,
insertion into Equation 6-2 of values of Ci taken from Figure 6-4 will probably give reasonable values of P
when m . k is taken as about 0.5. Note that because of the dependence of Ci on b/h, ice force does not
reduce in proportion to pier width, especially at low values of b/h. In the limit, a knife-edge pier will still
experience substantial forces.

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Figure 6-4. Indentation coefficient versus b/h

6-5. Dynamic ForcesInclined Piers

The problem of calculating the forces on inclined piers has been attacked analytically many times since the
19th century, with considerably varying results, depending upon the assumptions made. Because of these
variable results, the approach has usually been to consider static forces rather than dynamic forces that
vary with time. Some formulas make the force proportional to bh, and others to h2. Experimental evidence
is insufficient to settle the question, but intuition suggests that the truth lies somewhere between these
extremes. On the basis of dimensional analysis, it appears to be immaterial which is used, because the
ratio of force to bh or to h2 should depend in part on the aspect ratio b/h, as in the vertical case.

a. Reduction coefficient. The current Canadian code takes a conservative approach to inclined piers
by providing reduction coefficients to the basic formula of Equation 6-2. If the angle of the pier nose to the
horizontal is less than 75 degrees, a reduction factor of 0.75 is used, and if the angle is less than
60 degrees, 0.50 is used.

b. Example. Consider an ice sheet 3 feet (0.9 meters) thick failing against a 5-foot-wide (1.5-meter-
wide) pier that slopes 65 degrees with respect to the horizontal. Assume the compressive strength of the ice
to be 400 psi (2.76 MPa). Equation 6-1 gives

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P = (0.75) (400 psi) (36 in.) (60 in.) = 648,000 lb.

In SI units

P = (0.75) (2.76 MPa) (0.9 m) (1.5 m) = 2.79 MN.

6-6. Dynamic ForcesConical Towers

In the case of conical towers, the ice failure pattern is complex and the force on the pier apparently depends
substantially on the resistance of the broken ice to displacement, as well as on breaking forces. Generally
speaking, the horizontal force depends primarily on the ice thickness, the strength in bending, and the cone
angle, but also on the waterline diameter and the coefficient of friction between ice and cone. For steep
angles, results are sensitive to assumed friction and the crushing mode of failure may occur. Since very
few conical structures have been built, the state of the art is constantly changing and consultation with a
research organization such as CRREL is recommended for particular problems.

6-7. Transverse Forces on Piers

The 1978 Canadian code provides that the transverse force shall be not less than 15 percent of calculated
axial force, or the appropriate component based on angle of approach, if known. This provision implies
penetration of the ice by the pier nose and is not intended to provide for sideways impact on a vertical face,
which might produce very large forces.

6-8. Static ForceThermal Expansion

Equations are available that predict the temperature of ice based on an energy balance between the
atmosphere and the ice. The atmospheric parameters needed are air temperature, air vapor pressure, wind,
and cloud cover. The thermal expansion of unrestrained ice behaves as most normal materials do. The
thermal strain is equal to a thermal expansion coefficient times the change in temperature. If the ice is
restrained or partially restrained, the stressstrain law for ice must be used to predict the thermal stress.
This law is nonlinear with stress and is time-dependent. For example, if the ice temperature changes
slowly, the induced thermal stress will have time to relax owing to creep of the ice. Hence, the rate of
temperature change is an important factor in predicting thermal stresses. The effect of a snow cover is to
slow down the rate of temperature change. Even a thin snow cover can reduce thermal stresses drastically.
Recent practice in Canada is to design for 146219 kN/m (10,00015,000 lb/ft) for dams and other rigid
structures. For flexible structures, such as sluice gates, 73 kN/m (5000 lb/ft) is used. Values measured by
the Bureau of Reclamation on reservoirs are from 51 to 292 kN/m (3500 to 20,000 lb/ft). The higher value
is for a reservoir with steep, rocky banks. Closely spaced spillway piers at a dam are designed with an
increased effective pier width. The effective pier width is equal to the actual pier plus one-third of the pier
spacing distance.
6-9. References

a. Required publications.
None.
b. Related publications.

Korzhavin 1971
Korzhavin, K.N. 1971. Action of Ice on Engineering Structures, Draft Translation, TL 260, U.S. Army
Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

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Chapter 7
Sediment Transport

7-1. Introduction

Ice and low temperatures play many roles in sediment transport and shoreline change. Ice formed on a
shore or riverbank may isolate and thereby protect the soil. Ice formation can, however, cause significant
local shoreline damage by gouging ordinarily stable beach or bank formations, removing protective
vegetation, adfreezing sediment at the ice/soil interface, and entraining sediment within the ice structure.
During spring breakup this nearshore ice may migrate considerable distances before melting and releasing
the entrapped sediment. Even if the rate at which material is removed from a river or steep coastal bluff is
small, it can be significant since this material is not easily replaced in nature. Ice jams, frazil dams, or
other ice irregularities that cause a constriction of flow can increase velocities and cause scour. These
same features can also deflect the flow of a river against an erodible bank or bed area.

a. Ice also affects the general hydraulics of a system. In a coastal zone, for example, ice tends to
damp the effects of winds, waves, and currents during severe winter storms. The influence of the
development and presence of an ice foot on nearshore bathymetry is, as yet, undefined. This nearshore
bathymetry is important in the dissipation of wave energy during ice-free periods.

b. A complex interaction exists among the ice cover, fluid flow, and sediment and bed forms. The
presence of an ice cover roughly doubles the wetted perimeter of a wide channel, which in turn affects the
magnitude and distribution of water velocities and the boundary and internal shear stresses. In addition, the
lower water temperatures associated with the presence of ice affect fluid properties, such as viscosity,
which in turn alter the fall velocities of sediments. As an added element of complexity, the boundary
roughness is not constant, since the roughness of both the sediment bed and ice cover may vary with
composition, form, and time.

7-2. Sediment Transport Under Ice

Sediment discharge in ice-covered streams has not been widely studied to date. The techniques of
measuring sediment discharge for periods of ice cover are quite different from those used during open-
water conditions. People and equipment have problems functioning during severe winter conditions. The
relatively unknown nature of the interaction of ice with sediment transport and the variability of ice
conditions that affect this interaction also present a problem. While there have been some studies to
evaluate the resistance to flow for ice-covered streams, there has been little documentation of sediment
transport or bed forms for ice-covered streams. Because of the uncertain accuracy of winter measurements,
even the limited amount of field data available is subject to question.

a. The effects of temperature on sediment transport have received fairly extensive study but are not
yet fully understood. The primary effect of temperature is to change the viscosity of the water (the
kinematic viscosity of water more than doubles when the temperature drops from 80EF [27EC] to near
freezing). The decrease in sediment particle fall velocity attributable to this increase in water viscosity
should increase suspended sediment discharge.

b. In general it might be expected that the added resistance to flow caused by an ice cover would
reduce flow velocities and thereby increase water depth. Because of the reduction in flow velocity, bed

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shear stress and sediment discharge would also be reduced. However, when an ice jam or a hanging dam is
present, flow may be impinged and the bed may be scoured.

c. Changes in water velocity may also affect bed shear and alluvial bed form. If the bed form is
altered, the bed roughness and flow velocity may change substantially. Depending on a number of initial
conditions, such as bed form, sediment characteristics, and flow regime, a decrease in water temperature
could increase, decrease, or have very little effect on sediment transport. Although the effects of water
temperature on sediment transport have been under study for some time, the resulting information is
contradictory and confusing.

d. The effect of an ice cover on sediment transport and alluvial bed form has received almost no
study. From related work on sediment transport in closed conduits, it appears that the presence of a
surface boundary has a strong effect on the water velocity profile and on the distribution of pressure and
shear stress.

e. The hydraulic roughness of ice covers has been studied by numerous researchers in the past, but
because of the variability of ice conditions, a wide range of roughness values has resulted. Values of
Mannings n have ranged from 0.008 to 0.10, corresponding to smooth sheet ice ranging up to thick ice
jams. As with alluvial bed roughness, the ice roughness may vary with location on a river and with time.
In addition to the shear resistance of a smooth ice cover, ripples (somewhat similar to those on an alluvial
bed) may form, and there may be additional roughness from frazil deposits or other ice irregularities.

f. In summary, while it is clear that, for otherwise constant conditions, the addition of an ice cover
should reduce flow velocity and sediment transport, the magnitude of this change is unknown. In addition
there are the unknown influences of the ice cover on a shift in alluvial bed form and of the interaction of ice
cover effects with water temperature effects. The limited amount of work on this is inconclusive and often
contradictory. Further research is needed to allow accurate measurement or analysis of sediment transport,
erosion, and deposition with ice present, as well as analysis of the combined influence of an ice cover,
water temperature, and an alluvial riverbed on river flow depths and velocities.

7-3. Effects of Winter Navigation

Winter navigation may aggravate any natural effects of ice by disrupting the natural ice cover. Similarly,
an ice cover may alter and even amplify the effects of navigation on system hydraulics and sediment
transport. Specific sites have been studied to gain an understanding of the mechanics of the interaction
between large-scale navigation and the hydraulics of a river system. This mechanistic approach is required,
since vessel-related effects consist of short periods of intense and rapid activity between long periods of
relatively mild conditions. In addition, until recently, few ships have operated through the entire winter in
the areas studied.

a. In navigable waterways, there are several ways in which vessel passage can affect sediment
transport and shoreline erosion, including direct movement of ice in contact with vessels, propeller wash,
wave action, and other hydraulic effects. The significance of these effects depends on a number of local
conditions, and the presence of other transport agents, such as natural currents or waves.

(1) Shore damage by lateral ice movement caused by vessel passage is ordinarily small, being limited
to early or unstable ice conditions and shore areas close to the navigation track. The resulting damage,
while possibly significant, is unpredictable, infrequent, and difficult to quantify. A long section of

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shoreline may or may not be affected in any one year. As a result, structural shore protection would be
difficult to apply and most likely be uneconomical. The regulation of vessel speeds in affected areas during
periods with certain ice conditions may provide the best method of preventing damage.

(2) Propeller wash, while sometimes significant, is generally unaffected by the presence of ice. It is
also localized and distant from the shore, and so will not be considered here.

(3) Wave action is normally associated with ship-induced shoreline erosion. When a ship is in motion,
a system of diverging and transverse waves develops. Diverging waves form the familiar V-shaped wave
pattern associated with ship passage, while transverse waves form a less noticeable wave train that follows
a vessel and is oriented normal to the sailing line. The waves produced by large-scale navigation are
generally much smaller and less damaging than those produced by recreational craft, particularly when
vessel speed and distance to shore are considered.

(4) Although ship waves and other hydrodynamic effects of vessel passage have been studied in terms
of vessel maneuverability and power requirements, the effects of vessel passage are not yet understood in
terms of natural flow patterns and distribution, and adverse environmental effects. Information for periods
of ice cover is almost nonexistent.

b. When a vessel is in motion, even in deep water, the water level in the vicinity of the ship is lowered
and the ship with it (vessel squat). For the same ship, this effect increases as vessel speed increases or as
water depth decreases. When a ship enters restricted water areas, there is a considerable change in flow
patterns about the hull. The water passing beneath the hull must pass at a faster rate than in deep water,
and as a result there is a pressure drop beneath the vessel that increases vessel squat. In a channel that is
restricted laterally, this effect is further exaggerated. A vessel in a laterally restricted channel may
encounter a condition that tends to push the bow away from one side of the channel and draw the stern
toward it. These effects can occur independently when a channel is restricted either laterally or vertically
and unrestricted in the other direction.

c. There is, however, another problem associated with the water level drop caused by the presence
and movement of a ship in restricted waters. This water level drop in the vicinity of the ship is in effect a
trough that extends from the ship to the shore and that moves along the river or channel at the same velocity
as the ship. As the ships speed increases, the moving trough deepens. One can understand the
phenomenon of nearshore drawdown and surge during vessel passage in terms of the moving trough. In
sufficiently deep water, the moving trough appears as a fluctuation in the elevation of the water surface (the
transverse wave). To an observer in a shallow or nearshore area where the depressed water level
approaches or reaches the riverbed, it appears that the water recedes from the shoreline as the ship passes,
then rushes in to an above-normal level, and finally returns to the normal level after the vessel-induced
surface waves are damped.

d. For sediment transport to take place, near-bottom water velocities must exist that are sufficient to
overcome a sediment particles resistance to motion. These water velocities may be caused by ambient
river conditions, wind-driven waves, general turbulence, or ship-induced effects and might be enhanced by
channel configuration or ice irregularities. During vessel passage, large and rapid changes in river velocity
and direction can occur.

e. To analyze the mechanics of sediment transport during vessel passage, two-dimensional near-
bottom velocity measurements were made. An example of these measurements is presented in Figure 7-1
for a passage of the Cason J. Callaway at Six Mile Point on the St. Marys River. As shown in Figure 7-1,
the point of observation was approximately 152 meters (500 feet) offshore in 3 meters

7-3
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Figure 7-1. Ship-induced water movements
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(10 feet) of water, while the navigation track was another 213 meters (700 feet) offshore. The ambient
downstream water velocity was approximately 0.1 m/s (0.3 ft/s). The direction of the near-bottom water
movement rotated 360 degrees during the passage of the Callaway, with velocities in all directions
significantly greater than the ambient downstream current.

f. Water level measurements and directional water velocity measurements have been made at a
number of locations under various conditions during the passage of ships. A set of water level and velocity
measurements is shown in Figure 7-2 that illustrates the trough effect near the shoreline (in this instance,
the river level temporarily fell below the base of the staff gage) and the complex velocity pattern that
developed at an offshore point because of vessel passage. Velocity direction is indicated as an arrow at any
particular point, with the magnitude of the velocity and time as the axes. The velocity meter was located
approximately 40 meters (130 feet) from the shore in 0.9 meters (3 feet) of water. The velocities shown
were measured within 20 centimeters (8 inches) of the bottom. The water level gage was located near the
shore in about 20 centimeters (8 inches) of water. The ship that caused the situation illustrated in Figure 7-
2 was the J. Burton Ayers, moving upriver near Nine Mile Point on the St. Marys River under ice-free
conditions. The Ayers is 189 meters (620 feet) long, and has an 18-meter (60-foot) beam, with a midship
draft of 7 meters (23 feet). The vessel was traveling at 17 km/hr (10.6 mph) and passed approximately 244
meters (800 feet) from the shore.

g. Figure 7-3 shows ice level changes at three offshore locations near Six Mile Point on the St. Marys
River. The ice was approximately 38 centimeters (15 inches) thick. The ship passing the section was the
Seaway Queen, moving upriver at 13.8 km/hr (8.6 mph). The ship is 219 meters (720 feet) long, with a
beam of 22 meters (72 feet) and a midship draft of 5.2 meters (17 feet), and passed (305 meters) 1000 feet
offshore. The typical river cross section at this location is shown in Figure 7-4. The two lower curves
shown in Figure 7-3 illustrate ice level changes at two different locations on a line approximately normal to
the direction of ship movement in different depths of water (labeled E1 and E2). The top curve (labeled H1)
shows the ice level change at a point 46 meters (150 feet) upstream on a line parallel to the line containing
points E1 and E2. The time at which the bow and stern crossed the perpendicular range line (E or H) is
indicated on each curve by dashed lines. The figure illustrates the trough effect in different depths of water
at differing distances from shore, as well as the movement of the trough with the ships passage. Note that
the time displacement between E1 and H1 corresponds to the distance between the two range lines divided
by the ships speed.

h. Figure 7-5 shows ice elevation changes and the associated velocity pattern near the bottom as the
Edward L. Ryerson passed down river. The ice was 28 centimeters (11 inches) thick. The range line used
(E) is the same as that described in Figure 7-3. The ice level and velocity pattern are measured at a
location about 91 meters (300 feet) from the shore, where the river depth is about 1.8 meters (6 feet). The
ship is 222 meters (730 feet) long, has a beam of 22.8 meters (75 feet) and a draft of approximately
7.9 meters (26 feet), and was traveling at 11 km/hr (7 mph) about 305 meters (1000 feet) offshore.
Figure 7-5 illustrates the ice level response to the moving trough and associated velocity pattern for a
downbound vessel. Ice level fluctuations as large as 0.8 meters (2.6 feet) have been observed.

i. Three modes of transport of granular bottom sediments have been observed during both ice-
covered and ice-free conditions. They are bed load, which is typified by a pattern of slowly migrating sand
ripples on the riverbed; saltation load, where individual sand grains move in a series of small arcs
beginning and ending at the riverbed; and a process called explosive liquefaction.

(1) Saltation transport has often been observed during the passage of large vessels. This can be
explained by the ship-induced velocity increases, examples of which are shown in Figures 7-2 and 7-5.

7-5
7-6

30 Apr 99
EM 1110-2-1612
Figure 7-2. River level and near-bottom velocity pattern with upbound ship
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Figure 7-3. Ice level changes with upbound ship

Figure 7-4. Cross section of the St. Marys River near Six Mile Point

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Figure 7-5. River level and near-bottom velocity pattern with downbound ship

(2) On several occasions, explosive liquefaction has occurred during the passage of large, deeply
loaded vessels at speeds higher than normal. Divers have observed explosive liquefaction while working in
the surf zones of lakes and oceans. It may also be observed from shore as waves break. In the presence of
a reasonably horizontal velocity field, the action occurs in two steps. The bed expands upward,
immediately followed by a dispersion into suspension mass in the water current. In the absence of a
current, the bed simply quakes or expands and individual particles move upward. Bed equilibrium is
rapidly reestablished by gravity forces.

j. Since the drawdown and surge mechanism usually sets up water velocities in opposite directions,
their effects have a tendency to cancel. However, natural currents or a sloped bottom can act in
conjunction with vessel effects to cause a net sediment transport downstream or offshore toward the
navigation channel.

k. During winter ice conditions, the passage of the moving trough can cause the grounding of an ice
cover in shallow water and nearshore areas, and nearshore cracks in the ice may develop running roughly
parallel to the water depth contours. With recurring moderate water level fluctuations, these hinge cracks
do not completely refreeze and can provide an ice-movement relief mechanism. Continuing vertical and
horizontal movement of the ice cover may cause the accumulation of ice debris (which resembles pressure
ridges) at these active cracks. Depending upon the characteristics of crack formation, ice dams extending
to the riverbed may develop at the cracks (Figure 7-6).

l. The mechanism described above may have effects beyond shoreline erosion. Large areas of
grounded ice that result from the packing of brash ice under the ice cover or increased frazil production
because of increased open-water areas may have an impact on benthic environments and may transmit ship-
induced vibrations to the shore and shore structures. The reported effects of these vibrations range from
aesthetically disturbing to structurally damaging. In wetlands or shoaling areas, damage may occur

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Figure 7-6. Active crack profile

even though erosion is negligible. In shallow water, ship-induced velocity and water level changes could be
large, possibly disrupting vegetation by water and ice movement. An ice cover might even ground and
directly strike the bed during vessel passage. Rapid water pressure changes might also be significant.

m. When a large enough ship-induced moving trough passes through a shallow water area, the
movement of bottom sediment may disrupt benthic environments, and the translatory movement of the
water has been observed to cause water, sediment, vegetation, and even small fish to be sprayed up through
the cracks and onto the ice. During a specific vessel passage, about a dozen fish of various species,
ranging in length up to about 15 centimeters (6 inches), were washed through a nearshore crack and onto
the ice. It is possible that other smaller organisms went unnoticed.

n. Disruption of an ice cover may also have some as yet undefined effect on ice movement and
damage caused by natural ice forces. In the case of relatively ice-free rivers, such as the Detroit or the
St. Clair, the disruption of an ice cover on the lakes upstream may allow large quantities of ice to enter the
rivers. This can cause bottom scour and ice pile-up at bends and the upstream ends of islands. The large
forces that may result from such ice runs can also pose a special threat to shore protection structures.

o. In most coastal areas, natural shoreline modification forces, such as waves and currents, are far
more significant than any vessel-related effects, and generally the shipping lanes do not come near enough
to the shore for vessels to have a noticeable effect. In some protected areas this may not be true. After
disruption of a natural ice cover, ice movement problems could be particularly important in coastal areas
where significant wind exists to push the ice.

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7-4. References

a. Required publications.
None.

b. Related publications.

Wuebben 1995
Wuebben, J.L., ed. 1995. Winter Navigation on the Great Lakes: A Review of Environmental Studies,
CRREL Report 95-10, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover,
New Hampshire.

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Chapter 8
Bearing Capacity of Floating Ice

8-1. Introduction

When a river, lake, or sea is subjected to air temperatures below the freezing point for an extended period
of time, an ice cover forms, whose thickness depends on the intensity of this freezing temperature, its
duration, and other factors. This subject is discussed in detail in Chapter 2 of this manual. The thickness
of this ice cover may be measured mechanically by a crew that operates on the ice cover. It may also be
measured remotely, say from an airplane or balloon, by means of electromagnetic waves. This chapter
discusses the bearing capacity of floating ice and the methods of predicting it.

8-2. Bearing Capacity of Ice Blocks

First, consider an ice block of uniform thickness floating in water (Figure 8-1). Because the specific weight
of ice is less than that of water, the ice block floats. It may also carry an additional load P.

a. To determine the bearing capacity of this floating block, subjected centrally to a static load P,
consider its vertical equilibrium before it is totally submerged, as shown in Figure 8-1. The equilibrium
equation, for z # h, is

P + Ah (i = Az (w (8-1)

where

P = vertical resultant of the load

A = horizontal area of the ice block

(w = specific weight of water

(i = specific weight of ice.

The other symbols are defined in Figure 8-1. Bearing capacity is reached when z approaches h.
Substituting the limiting case h = z into Equation 8-1 yields

Pmax = Ah ((w (i). (8-2)

This is the largest load the ice block can carry. For larger loads P, the block will sink. It may be of
interest to note that without the load P, the submerged depth of the block, according to Equation 8-1, is

(i
zo = h . (8-3)
(w

b. Following are two illustrative examples of Equation 8-2.

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Figure 8-1. Floating ice block with a centrally placed load P

(1) Determine the bearing capacity of an ice block of thickness h = 3 feet (0.9 meters) and a surface
area A = 100 ft2 (9.29 m2 ) for a centrally placed static load P. According to Equation 8-2, with (w =
62.4 lb/ft3 (1000 kg/m3 ) and (i = 57.3 lb/ft3 (918 kg/m3 ), the largest weight the ice block can carry is

Pmax = 100 3 (62.4 57.3) = 1530 lb.

In SI units

Pmax = 9.29 0.9 (1000 918) = 686 kg.

(2) For an ice block of constant thickness h = 2 feet (0.6 meters), determine the surface area A needed
to carry a centrally placed load of P = 3000 pounds (1361 kilograms). From Equation 8-2 it follows that
the required area is

P
Areq $ .
h (w & (i

With (w = 62.4 lb/ft3 (1000 kg/m3 ) and (i = 57.3 lb/ft3 (918 kg/m3 ), it follows that

3000
Areq $ = 294 ft 2 (or 27.7 m 2 in SI units) .
2 62.4 & 57.3

For example, a square area of 17 17.3 (5.2 5.3 meters) will achieve this aim.

c. When the resultant of the load is not centrally placed on the ice block, the ice block will tilt. This
will result in a linearly varying pressure p at the bottom surface of the block. The bearing capacity for this
case may be determined as done previously, except that now, in addition to vertical equilibrium, the
moment equilibrium has to be considered. Note that when the eccentricity of the load resultant exceeds a
certain limit, namely when the loading moment is larger than the restoring moment, the ice block will tip
over. When the load is dynamic the analysis is more involved. Then, the equations of motion for the ice
block have to be coupled with the dynamic equations for the fluid base.

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8-3. Bearing Capacity of Ice Covers for Loads of Short Duration

When the dimensions of the ice plate are very large compared to its thickness, the ice cover is relatively
flexible in the vertical direction and a vertical load P will deflect the plate, as shown in Figure 8-2. Thus,
in addition to the constant pressure po caused by the uniform weight of the ice cover, there will also occur a
variable pressure p(x,y) caused by the boat effect of the deflected cover (Ashton 1986).

Figure 8-2. Deflection of large ice plate from vertical load P

a. As is well known, sufficiently large loads will break through the ice. For this problem, the bearing
capacity of the ice cover depends on the strength of the cover to resist the vertical deformations.

b. To date there is no generally accepted method for calculating the bearing capacity of flexible ice
covers. One of the reasons is that ice is a complex material, complicated further by the fact that the bottom
part of a floating cover is near the melting temperature. Another reason is a lack of researcher interest in
break-through tests on frozen lakes or rivers, especially at low temperatures. Still another is the general
lack of coordination between the theoretical and empirical testing efforts conducted throughout the world.
In the meantime, there is a need for estimating the bearing capacity of large ice covers subjected to a
variety of loads. To achieve this, a number of approaches used in various countries are presented and
discussed.

8-4. Experience Values

Individuals who often use ice covers for transportation develop a knowledge of the bearing capacity of ice
covers of given thickness and quality through experience. To enable an interested party to make a rough
estimate of the ice thickness needed for safe movement of people and vehicles, Table 8-1 is included. In
determining the effective ice thickness to be used with Table 8-1, any thickness of snow ice (i.e., ice that
is white owing to entrained air bubbles) should be set as equivalent to half that thickness of clear black
ice. For example, if the measured thickness of the ice cover is 76.2 centimeters (30 inches), of which 25.4
centimeters (10 inches) is snow ice, the effective ice thickness should be considered as 50.8 + 25.4/2 =
63.5 centimeters (20 + 10/2 = 25 inches).

8-3
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Table 8-1
Approximate Ice Load-Carrying Capacity (Note: Read the text before using table.)

Necessary Ice Thickness* at Average Ambient

Temperature for Three Days - cm (inches)

Total Weight, -9 EC and Lower Distance Between

Type of Vehicle Metric tons (tons) 0 to -7 EC (32 to 20 EF) (15EF and Lower) Vehicles m (ft)

Tracked 6.6 (6) 25.4 (10) 22.9 (9) 15.2 (50)

11.0 (10) 30.5 (12) 27.9 (11) 19.8 (65)

17.6 (16) 40.6 (16) 35.6 (14) 24.4 (80)

22.0 (20) 45.7 (18) 40.6 (16) 24.4 (80)

27.6 (25) 50.8 (20) 45.7 (18) 30.5 (100)

33.1 (30) 55.9 (22) 48.3 (19) 35.1 (115)

44.1 (40) 63.5 (25) 55.9 (22) 39.6 (130)

55.1 (50) 68.6 (27) 63.5 (25) 39.6 (130)

66.1 (60) 76.2 (30) 71.1 (28) 45.7 (150)

Wheeled 2.2 (2) 17.8 (7) 17.8 (7) 15.2 (50)

4.4 (4) 22.9 (9) 20.3 (8) 15.2 (50)

6.6 (6) 30.5 (12) 27.9 (11) 19.8 (65)

8.8 (8) 33.0 (13) 30.5 (12) 32.0 (105)

11.0 (10) 38.1 (15) 35.6 (14) 35.1 (115)

* Freshwater ice.
When the temperature has been 0 C (32 F) or higher for a few days, the ice is probably unsafe for any load.

8-5. Empirical Methods

An often used formula for single vehicles is

P = Ah2 (8-4)

where P is the allowable load, h is the effective ice cover thickness, and A is a coefficient that depends on
the quality of the ice, the ice temperature, the geometry of the load, the kind of units used, and the factor of
safety. To ensure safe movement of single vehicles crossing lake or river ice at temperatures below 0EC
(32EF), the straightforward and practical formulas P = h2/16 or h ' 4 P have been used for decades.
These formulas are for English units in which P is in tons and h is in inches. Although not strictly
equivalent, similar practical formulas for SI units are P = h2/100 or h ' 10 P , where P is in metric tons
(1000 kg) and h is in centimeters, and P = h2 or h ' P , where P is in meganewtons and h is in meters.
These formulas are all for black ice below 0EC (32EF), and appropriate adjustments to thicknesses to
account for snow ice should be computed as in paragraph 8-4. The following are illustrative examples of
Equation 8-4.

a. Determine the allowable load of an ice cover with the smallest ice thickness h = 25.4 centimeters
(10 inches).

8-4
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30 Apr 99

h2 1010
P = = = 6.25 tons .
16 16

In metric units, this is

h2 25.4 25.4
P = = = 6.45 103 kilograms (6.45 metric tons) .
100 100

b. Determine the smallest ice thickness needed to safely carry one person of weight P = 200 lb =
0.1 ton (90.7 kilograms = 0.0907 metric ton).

h = 4 P = 4 0.1 = 1.26 inches

Expressed in metric units, the required thickness is

h = 10 P = 10 0.0907 = 3.0 centimeters.

8-6. Method Based on the Theory of Elastic Plates

An analytical method for determining the bearing capacity of an ice cover for loads of short duration is
based on the elastic bending theory of thin plates in conjunction with a crack criterion. The method
consists of the following three steps

C Determination of the maximum stress Fmax in the floating plate attributable to a given load.

Determination of the load Pcr at which the first crack occurs, utilizing the crack criterion Fmax # Ff,
where Ff is the failure stress.

Correlation of Pcr with the breakthrough load Pf. This step is needed because, according to field
tests for various plate and load geometries, the occurrence of the first crack does not cause
breakthrough.

The failure stress Ff is usually obtained by loading a floating ice beam, cut out from the ice cover under
consideration as shown in Figure 8-3, to failure and then by computing the largest bending stress at which
it failed.

a. With the equation DL4w + (w = q for the response of a homogeneous ice cover, in which w is its
deflection, subjected to a uniform load q over a circular area, as shown in Figure 8-4, in conjunction with
the crack criterion Fmax < Ff,

1
Pcr = Ff h 2 (8-5)
3 (1 % <) C(")

8-5
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Figure 8-3. Stress test of floating ice beam

Figure 8-4. Homogeneous ice cover subjected to a uniform load over a circular area

where

h = ice cover thickness

v = Poissons ratio of the ice cover

a = radius of the loaded area subjected to the uniform load

q = P/(Ba2)

" = a/(D/()1/4

8-6
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30 Apr 99

( = specific weight of the liquid base

D = Eh3/[12(1 v2)]

E = Youngs modulus of the ice cover

L4 = biharmonic operator, e.g. (M4/Mx4 + 2M4/Mx2My2 + M4/My4) in Cartesian coordinates

C(") = given in Figure 8-5.

") for Equation 8-5

Figure 8-5. C("

b. To demonstrate the use of Equation 8-5, consider an ice cover with h = 30.5 centimeters
(12 inches), E = 3.45 GPa (500,000 lbf/in.2), v = 0.34, for a circular load distribution with radius a =
102 centimeters (40 inches). According to Figure 8-6, the resulting (D/()1/4 = 554 centimeters (218 inches)
and hence " = 40/218 (or 102/554) = 0.18. According to Figure 8-5, the corresponding C(") = 0.38. Thus

1
Pcr = F h 2 = 0.65 Ff h 2 .
3 (1 % 0.34) 0.38 f

8-7
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Figure 8-6. Graph required to solve Equation 8-5

8-7. Bearing Capacity of Ice Covers for Loads of Long Duration

For loads that do not cause an instantaneous breakthrough, the ice cover deforms at first elastically, and
then with time it continues to deform by creep, especially in the vicinity of the load. Depending upon the
load intensity and geometry, as well as upon the ice cover properties, the resulting time displacement graph
may be of the type shown in Figure 8-7. In the case of the upper curve (I), although the ice cover was able
to carry the load immediately after the load was placed on it, there exists a time to failure tf at which the
load breaks through the cover. Attempts to analyze problems of this type have not been conclusive to date.
In the absence of a reliable method for predicting the bearing capacity of ice plates subjected to loads of
long duration (storage of equipment, parking of vehicles, and airplanes), Figure 8-8 is presented for
estimates. Note the drop of the breakthrough load with time. Thus, a stored item that is safe when placed
on the ice cover may break through after a certain time period tf.

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Figure 8-7. Time-displacement graph of ice deformity

Figure 8-8. Bearing capacity reduction for loads of long duration

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8-8. Other Considerations

Practically, there are a few things one should be aware of when operating on the ice. Cracks are almost
always present because of thermal expansion. Most of these are called dry cracks because they do not go
to the bottom of the ice sheet (note the concept that all thermal expansion is in the upper portion of the
sheet because the bottom is always at 0EC [32EF]). These dry cracks do not have an appreciable effect on
bearing capacity. However, wet cracks that do penetrate the entire sheet should be approached at 50 per-
cent acceptable load and one should try to cross them at an angle near 90 degrees.

a. When parked, i.e., the long-term load situation, one should look for any signs of water coming up
through the ice and beginning to flood the area. If this occurs, MOVE, because breakthrough is almost
inevitable; this water is an additional load.

b. Throughout the preceding paragraphs, we have stressed the importance of temperature and inferred
daily average air temperatures. This was done because this is the information available, but it is the ice
temperature that is important. So, remember that snow cover, as an insulation, slows ice temperature
change. Also, experience has shown that an added safety factor is necessary when there has been a recent
big drop in air temperature. Apparently, this causes a thermal shock leading to additional cracking. Many
accidents to experienced operators have occurred after a rapid drop in air temperature.

8-9. References

a. Required publications.
None.

b. Related publications.

Ashton 1986
Ashton, G.D., ed. 1986. River and Lake Ice Engineering, Water Resources Publications, Littleton,
Colorado.

8-10
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Chapter 9
Model Tests

9-1. General

Small-scale laboratory modeling of hydraulic structures (locks, dams, weirs, spillways, etc.) and vessels
under open-water conditions is now common, and the modeling laws, criteria, and techniques are well
established. The presence of ice adds serious complications to small-scale modeling because it adds a
boundary at the top surface of the water body having different surface characteristics than the bed of the
waterway. Moreover, whenever the mechanical properties of ice affect the problem under study, these
must be duplicated in the model. The basic principle of dynamic similitude or modeling is to reproduce in
the model the forces that govern the problem under consideration (gravity forces, inertia forces, viscous
forces, shear forces, mechanical forces, etc.) in such a way that the ratio between any two forces in the
model is equal to the corresponding ratio in the prototype. Except for a few cases, all these forces usually
play some role in the actual physical phenomena of interest. Thus, strict adherence to the principle of
dynamic similitude will lead to the conclusion that the phenomena can only be studied at full scale. It then
becomes necessary to relax the principle of similitude, and to choose to model exactly only those forces that
primarily affect the problem under consideration. Simultaneously, the scale effects, or errors introduced
by imperfect modeling of the secondary forces, are held to a minimum by judicious model design.
Therefore, it is important at the outset to correctly identify the primary forces that govern a particular
phenomenon before attempting to study it in a physical model. This must be done to decide whether the
necessary modeling techniques are available and how the model data can be extrapolated to full scale. In
the present state of the art of ice modeling, phenomena that are strongly affected by heat transfer, e.g.,
refreezing of broken ice, icing of structures and the like, are not amenable to physical modeling.

9-2. Modeling Broken Ice

In phenomena that do not involve a solid ice sheet, but only ice floes, the main forces to consider are
usually gravity forces, but also may include buoyancy forces, inertia forces, and possibly shear forces
ascribable to water flowing underneath the stationary floes (e.g., ice held at a retaining structure such as an
ice boom). If ice-on-ice friction is not considered to be critical, artificial ice floes can be used instead of
real ice floes in the model, as long as the density of the material is equal to that of ice (e.g., polyethylene).
The model study can then be made in an unrefrigerated facility with significant reduction in cost. An
example of such a study is found in Calkins et al. (1982).

9-3. Modeling Sheet Ice

When the phenomenon to be studied involves the failure or breaking of an initially intact ice cover (e.g., ice
forces on structures), the mechanical properties of ice (bending strength, crushing strength, shear strength,
and ice friction) become important and must be properly modeled in the laboratory.

a. Model ice grown from a solution of salt or urea in water has been developed that can yield the
required properties, as long as the model scale is greater than some limiting value. This limiting scale will
depend upon the mode of failure of the ice sheet. (For example, the limiting scale is approximately 1:40 for
ice failing in bending.) A refrigerated facility is necessary for this type of modeling. Discussion of a model
study conducted in a refrigerated facility is given in Deck (1985) and in Gooch and Deck (1990).

9-1
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30 Apr 99

b. Some artificial materials have been developed that are claimed to reproduce the properties of real
ice, but their composition is proprietary, their handling is often messy, and even though they can be used in
a warm environment, the cost of the experiments is similar to those in refrigerated facilities.

9-4. Model Calibration

Once a modeling technique has been chosen and the physical model built, it should be calibrated or verified.
This process usually consists of the following steps: adjustment of bed roughness to reproduce the water
surface profile without ice (this is the normal model verification for conventional hydraulic models);
verification of head losses with simulated ice cover for known field conditions; and verification of the
similitude of ice processes for known field conditions, such as ice breakup, ice drift pattern, and velocity.
Even if this last verification is only qualitative, it is necessary to ascertain that the model is simulating
observed natural phenomena. The objective of the calibration of a hydraulic model is to reproduce field
conditions under more or less normal conditions, so that the model can be used to predict the effects of
abnormal conditions or those produced by man-made changes with a good degree of confidence. In an
icehydraulic model, it is not sufficient to reproduce water levels at various discharges as in a conventional
hydraulic model. The ice phenomena also have to be correctly simulated. Many ice phenomena are not
fully understood. If they are not carefully observed and documented at the particular field site to be
modeled, it is unlikely that they can be simulated correctly in the model.

9-5. Model Distortion

While undistorted models, i.e., models with the same scale in both the horizontal and vertical directions, are
by far preferable, distorted hydraulic models may have to be used when modeling long reaches of wide
rivers. This is accomplished by exaggerating the vertical scale relative to the horizontal scale. The distor-
tion does impose, however, a reevaluation of the roughness to be used in the model to correctly simulate the
head losses occurring in nature. The distortion affects the scale of the thickness and mechanical properties
of the ice to be formed in the model, as well as the extrapolation of the model test results to full-scale
conditions. The distortion ratio, i.e., the ratio of vertical scale to horizontal scale, should be kept to a
minimum and, under the present state of the art, no greater than 4 to 1.

9-6. Considerations in Choosing Modeling

While proper physical hydraulic modeling must follow some basic scientific and engineering principles, it
still remains as much an art as a science. This is even more true when ice effects are involved. In this
regard, the experience of the engineer in charge of a model study is a critical ingredient to the success of the
study and to the reliability of its results. Physical modeling can be a very powerful tool in deciding among
various potential designs for a project or among proposed solutions to a particular problem, in optimizing
an initial design, in providing rational answers to objections to a proposed design or project, and in
detecting potentially undesirable effects of a proposed design or solution, which may not have been foreseen
otherwise, or not predicted by numerical modeling. While a physical model study often is a costly
endeavor, when properly conducted, it can point the way to design or construction savings that often will
more than offset its cost.

9-2
9-7. References

a. Required publications.
None.

b. Related publications.

Calkins et al. 1982

Calkins, D., D. Deck, and D. Sodhi. 1982. Hydraulic Model Study of Port Huron Ice Control Structure,
CRREL Report 82-34, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover,
New Hampshire.

Deck 1985
Deck, D. 1985. Cazenovia Creek Physical Ice Model Study, Report to U.S. Army Engineer District,
Buffalo, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire
(unpublished).

Gooch and Deck 1990

Gooch, G., and D. Deck 1990. Model Study of the Cazenovia Creek Ice Control Structure, Special
Report 90-29, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.
Part II: Ice Jams and Mitigation Measures
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Chapter 10
Ice Jam Flooding in the United States

10-1. General

Flooding and flood-related events cause greater damage and more fatalities than any other natural disaster.
About 80 percent of all presidential disaster declarations are the result of flooding (Federal Emergency
Management Agency 1992a). Flood damages averaged $3.3 billion and flood-related fatalities averaged
about 100 annually over a recent 10-year period (U.S. Army 1993, 1994). The most common type of flood
is the result of a major rainfall or snowmelt. A second type of flood happens suddenly, as in the case of
dam failures or intense rainfall that generates a flash flood. A third category of flood results from an ice or
debris jam. Flood stages during an ice jam (Figure 10-1) can increase more rapidly and attain higher levels
than those associated with open-water conditions. Ice jam flooding may take place outside the regulatory
floodplain, often when the river flow would not otherwise cause problems. Many laws and regulations
have been developed to reduce national vulnerability to flooding. Most American communities have
floodplain regulations designed to prevent future development in areas subject to conventional open-water
flooding. Some communities are protected by structural controls, such as dikes, levees, and flood control
dams. Mitigation measures specifically designed to protect against ice jam flooding are used less
commonly.

10-2. Ice Jam Flooding

In many northern regions, ice covers the rivers and lakes annually. The yearly freezeup and breakup
commonly take place without major flooding. However, some communities face serious ice jam threats

Figure 10-1. Ice jam flooding

10-1
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every year, while others experience ice-jam-induced flooding at random intervals. The former often have
developed emergency plans to deal with ice jam problems, but the latter are often ill-prepared to cope with
a jam. In a 1992 survey, Corps District and Division offices reported ice jam problems in 36 states,
primarily in the northern tier of the United States (Figure 10-2). However, even mountainous regions as far
south as New Mexico and Arizona experience river ice. Of the 36 states, 63 percent reported that ice jams
occur frequently, and 75 percent rated ice jams as being serious to very serious (White 1992). Ice jams
affect the major navigable inland waterways of the United States, including the Great Lakes. A study
conducted in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont identified over 200 small towns and cities that reported
ice jam flooding over a 10-year period (U.S. Army 1980). In March 1992 alone, 62 towns in New
Hampshire and Vermont reported ice jam flooding problems after two rainfall events. Table 10-1 lists
some of the major ice jams recently recorded.

Table 10-1
Recent Major Ice Jams in the United States

Place Date Type (Damages)

Montpelier, Vermont March 1992 Breakup ($5 million)

Allagash, Maine April 1991 Breakup ($14 million)

Salmon, Idaho February 1984 Freezeup ($1.8 million)

Port Jervis, New York/ February 1981 Breakup ($14.5 million)

Matamoras, Pennsylvania

Mississippi River/ December 1989 Breakup (>$20 million)

Missouri River Confluence

a. Characteristics of ice jams and ice jam flooding. Because ice jam floods are less common and
more poorly documented than open-water floods, it is more difficult to characterize these events compared
to open-water flooding. In addition, because of the complex processes involved in the formation and
progression of ice jams and the highly site-specific nature of these jams, these events are more difficult to
predict than open-water flooding. The rates of water level rise can vary from feet per minute to feet per
hour during ice jam flooding. In some instances, communities have many hours of lead time between the
time an ice jam forms and the start of flooding. In other cases, the lead time is as little as 1 hour. Although
the actual time of flooding may be short compared to open-water floods lasting days to weeks, significant
damage can result. The winter weather conditions often prevalent when ice jams occur also add to the risks
and damages associated with ice jam flooding.

b. Example from Montpelier, Vermont, 1992. In March 1992, an ice jam developed at 0700 in
Montpelier, Vermont. By 0800 the downtown area was flooded (Figure 10-3). During the next 11 hours,
the business district was covered with an average of 1.2 to 1.5 meters (4 to 5 feet) of water. The flood
happened so quickly that there was not sufficient time to warn residents so that they could protect their
property and possessions. Even after water levels dropped, damage related to the flooding continued as
cold weather caused freezing of wet objects. Damages of less than 1 day were estimated at $5 million
(Federal Emergency Management Agency 1992b).

10-3. Ice Jam Flood Losses

a. Loss of life. Ice jam flooding is responsible for loss of life, although the number of fatalities in the
United States is considerably less than those from open-water flooding. In the last 30 years, at least seven
people have died as a result of ice jam flooding. Six of the deaths were attributed to rescue

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Figure 10-2. Ice jam flooding occurs in shaded states

attempts; the other death occurred from injuries sustained when a basement wall collapsed because of
pressure from flood waters and ice.

b. Dollar costs. Ice jams in the United States cause approximately $125 million in damages
annually, including an estimated $50 million in personal property damage and $25 million in operation and
maintenance costs to Corps navigation, flood control, and channel stabilization structures.

c. Interference with navigation. Ice jams have suspended or delayed commercial navigation, causing
adverse economic impacts (Figure 10-4). Although navigational delays are commonly short, they may
result in shortages of critical supplies, such as coal and industrial feedstocks, and lead to large costs from
the operation of idle vessels (U.S. Army 1981). Ice jams sometimes cause damage to navigation lock gates.
Other chapters of this manual provide detailed information on the effects of ice on navigation and the range
of strategies to mitigate the effects.

d. Reduced hydropower production. Ice jams also affect hydropower operations, stopping
hydropower generation by blocking intakes, causing high tailwater, making reduced discharge necessary, or
damaging intake works (Figure 10-5). Lost power revenue attributable to such shutdowns can be
substantial.

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a. Winooski River

b. Downtown area

Figure 10-3. Views of Montpelier, Vermont, ice jam (March 1992)

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Figure 10-4. Towboats and barges in ice

e. Channel erosion and damage to channel training structures. The presence of an ice jam can
result in scouring and river bed and bank erosion that may lead to bridge or river bank failure
(Figure 10-6). Ice jams can damage stream channels and improvements, so that the overall vulnerability to
flooding is increased. Riprap can be undermined or moved out of place. Ice-jam-related damage to river
training structures costs millions of dollars each year.

f. Other costs. Indirect costs associated with ice jams include loss of fish and wildlife and their
habitat. Scour and erosion associated with ice jams may destroy habitat, such as eagle roosting trees, and
mobilize toxic materials buried in sediment. Some scouring may, however, be beneficial to wildlife habitat
as well. Shallow, vegetation-choked wetlands may be opened, allowing for fish and waterfowl spawning
and brood habitat.

10-4. References

a. Required publications.

None.

b. Related publications.

Federal Emergency Management Agency 1992a

Federal Emergency Management Agency. 1992a. Floodplain Management in the United States: An
Assessment Report, FIA-18, Boston, Massachusetts.

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Figure 10-5. Jam immediately downstream of power plant, Fox River, near Ottawa,
Illinois

Figure 10-6. Bank scour caused by a breakup jam, St. John River, near Allagash,
Maine

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Federal Emergency Management Agency 1992b

Federal Emergency Management Agency. 1992b. Interagency Hazard Mitigation Team Report
(Montpelier, VT), FEMA-938-DR-VT, Boston, Massachusetts.

U.S. Army 1980

U.S. Army. 1980. Section 206: Flood Plain Management Assistance - Historical Ice Jam Flooding in
Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, U.S. Army Engineer Division, New England, Waltham,
Massachusetts.

U.S. Army 1981

U.S. Army 1981. RIM: River Ice Management, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering
Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

U.S. Army 1993

U.S. Army 1993. Annual Flood Damage Report to Congress, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
Washington, DC.

U.S. Army 1994

U.S. Army 1994. Annual Flood Damage Report to Congress, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
Washington, DC.

White 1992
White, K. D. 1992. Ice Jam Statistics Recorded on Data Base, Ice Engineering Information Exchange
Bulletin No. 2, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

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Chapter 11
An Ice Jam Primer

11-1. Review of Ice Types

Ice forms in freshwater bodies whenever the surface water cools to 0EC (32EF) or a fraction of a degree
lower. There are many types of ice, depending on the precise mode of formation and evolution (Ashton
1986). See Chapter 2 for a thorough review.

a. Sheet ice. The ice that forms in calm water, such as lakes or reservoirs, or in slow-moving river
reaches where the flow velocity is less than 0.5 m/s (1.5 ft/s), is termed sheet ice. Ice crystals formed at the
water surface freeze together into skim ice that gradually thickens downward as heat is transferred from the
water to the air through the ice layer. Sheet ice usually originates first along the banks and expands toward
the center of the water body. In slow rivers, the sheet ice cover may also be created by the juxtaposition of
incoming frazil pans generated in faster reaches upstream. Sheet ice that grows statically in place is often
called black ice because of its appearance. An ice cover may also thicken at the top surface when water-
soaked snow freezes to form snow ice that has a milky white appearance because of small air bubbles.

b. Frazil ice. Frazil ice (Figure 11-1) consists of small particles of ice formed in highly turbulent,
supercooled water, such as river rapids or riffles, during cold, clear winter nights when the heat loss from
the water to the atmosphere is very high. As the frazil particles are transported downstream, they join
together to form flocs that eventually rise to the surface where they form frazil pans or floes. Frazil is often
described as slush ice because of its appearance.

Figure 11-1. Frazil ice and frazil pans, Salmon River, Idaho

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c. Fragmented ice. This type of ice is made up of ice pieces that originated as consolidated frazil ice
pans or from the breakup of sheet ice growing at the surface of slow-moving water.

d. Brash ice. Brash ice is an accumulation of ice pieces up to about 2 meters (6 feet) in maximum
dimension, resulting from the breakup of an ice cover by increasing water flow or by vessel passage. It is
of particular concern in navigation channels and lock approaches.

11-2. Types of Ice Jams

An ice jam is a stationary accumulation of ice that restricts flow. Ice jams can cause considerable
increases in upstream water levels, while at the same time downstream water levels may drop, exposing
water intakes for power plants or municipal water supplies. Types of ice jams include freezeup jams, made
primarily of frazil ice; breakup jams, made primarily of fragmented ice pieces; and combinations of both.

a. Freezeup jams. Freezeup jams are composed primarily of frazil ice, with some fragmented ice
included. They occur during early winter to midwinter. The floating frazil may slow or stop because of a
change in water slope from steep to mild, because it reaches an obstruction to movement such as a sheet ice
cover, or because some other hydraulic occurrence slows the movement of the frazil (Figure 11-2). Jams
are formed when floating frazil ice stops moving downstream, makes the characteristic arch across the
river channel, and begins to accumulate. Freezeup jams are characterized by low air and water
temperatures, fairly steady water and ice discharges, and a consolidated top layer of ice.

Figure 11-2. Frazil pans slowing down, being compressed, and breaking off in an
arch shape. The downstream movement of the pans will eventually stop. Flow is from right
to left

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b. Breakup jams. Breakup jams happen during periods of thaw, generally in late winter and early
spring, and are composed primarily of fragmented ice formed by the breakup of an ice cover or freezeup
jam (Figure 11-3). The ice cover breakup is usually associated with a rapid increase in runoff and
corresponding river discharge attributable to a significant rainfall event or snowmelt. Late season breakup
is often accelerated by increased air temperatures and solar radiation.

Figure 11-3. Initial breakup of sheet ice

(1) The broken, fragmented ice pieces move downstream until they encounter a strong, intact
downstream ice cover, other surface obstruction to flow, or other adverse hydraulic conditions, such as a
significant reduction in water-surface slope. Once they reach such a jam initiation point, the fragmented ice
pieces stop moving, begin to accumulate, and form a jam (Figure 11-4). The ultimate size of the jam (i.e.,
its length and thickness) and the severity of the resulting flooding depend on the flow conditions, the
available ice supply from the upstream reaches of the river, and the strength and size of the ice pieces.

(2) Midwinter thaw periods marked by flow increases may cause a minor breakup jam. As cold
weather resumes, the river flow subsides to normal winter level and the jammed ice drops with the water
level. The jam may become grounded as well as consolidated or frozen in place. During normal spring
breakup, this location is likely to be the site of a severe jam.

c. Combination jams. Combination jams involve both freezeup and breakup jams. For example, a
small freezeup jam forms in a location that causes no immediate damage. Before the thaw, the jam may
provide a collecting point for fragmented ice that floats downstream. On the other hand, it could break up
at the same time as the remainder of the river. Since the jam is usually much thicker than sheet ice, it
significantly increases the volume of ice available to jam downstream.

d. Other factors. In some rivers, frazil ice does not cause freezeup jams; instead, it deposits beneath
sheet ice in reaches of slow water velocities. These frazil ice deposits, called hanging dams, are

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Figure 11-4. Breakup jam

many times thicker than the surrounding sheet ice growth, and will tend to break up more slowly than
thinner ice. Such a frazil deposit could also provide an initiation point for a later breakup jam, as well as
increase the volume of ice available to jam downstream.

11-3. Causes of Ice Jams

River geometries, weather characteristics, and floodplain land-use practices contribute to the ice jam
flooding threat at a particular location. Ice jams initiate at a location in the river where the ice transport
capacity or ice conveyance of the river is exceeded by the ice transported to that location by the river's
flow.

a. Change in slope. The most common location for an ice jam to form is in an area where the river
slope changes from relatively steep to mild. Since gravity is the driving force for an ice run, when the ice
reaches the milder slope, it loses its momentum and can stall or arch across the river and initiate an ice jam.
Water levels in reservoirs often affect the locations of ice jams upstream as a result of a change in water
slope where reservoir water backs up into the river. Islands, sandbars, and gravel deposits often form at a
change in water slope for the same reasons that ice tends to slow and stop. Because such deposits form in
areas conducive to ice jamming, they are often mistakenly identified as the cause of ice jams. While these
deposits may affect the river hydraulics enough to cause or exacerbate an ice jam, the presence of gravel
deposits is usually an indication that the transport capacity of the river is reduced for both ice and
sediment. Ice jams located near gravel deposits should be carefully studied to determine whether the gravel
deposit is the cause of the jam or a symptom of the actual cause.

b. Confluences. Ice jams also commonly form where a tributary stream enters a larger river, lake, or
reservoir. Smaller rivers normally respond to increased runoff more quickly than larger rivers, and their ice
covers may break up sooner as a result of more rapid increases in water stage. Ice covers on smaller rivers

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will typically break up and run until the broken ice reaches the strong, intact ice cover on the larger river or
lake, where the slope is generally milder. The ice run stalls at the confluence, forming a jam, and backing
up water and ice on the tributary stream.

c. Channel features. Natural and constructed features in a river channel may play a role in the
locations of ice jams. River bends are frequently cited as ice jam instigators. While river bends may
contribute to jamming by forcing the moving ice to change its direction and by causing the ice to hit the
outer shoreline, water slope is often a factor in these jams as well (Wuebben and Gagnon 1995, Urroz and
Ettema 1994). Obstructions to ice movement, such as closely spaced bridge or dam piers, can cause ice
jams. In high runoff situations, a partially submerged bridge superstructure obstructs ice movement and
may initiate a jam. In smaller rivers, trees along the bank sometimes fall across the river causing an ice
jam. Removing or building a dam may cause problems. In many parts of the country, small dams that
once functioned for hydropower have fallen into disrepair. Communities may remove them as part of a
beautification scheme or to improve fish habitat. However, the effects of an existing dam on ice conditions
should be considered before removing or substantially altering it. It is possible that the old dams control
ice by delaying ice breakup or by providing storage for ice debris. Dam construction can also affect ice
conditions in a river by creating a jam initiation point. On the other hand, the presence of a dam and its
pool may be beneficial if frazil ice production and transport decrease as a result of ice cover growth on the
pool.

d. Operational factors. Some structural or operational changes in reservoir regulation may lead to
ice jams. For example, changes in hydropower operations can inadvertently cause ice jam flooding. Sudden
releases of water, such as those characteristic of peaking plants, may initiate ice breakup and subsequent
jamming. On the other hand, careful reservoir regulation during freezeup or breakup periods can reduce ice
jam flood risks.

11-4. Predicting Ice Jams

Very few methods for predicting ice jams exist, and those that do are highly site-specific, requiring
knowledge of the location of the jam initiation point. Because freezeup jams rely heavily on periods of
intense cold that produce large quantities of frazil, they can be somewhat easier to predict than breakup
jams, which are caused by a site-specific combination of complex physical processes. Evaluation of
historical ice, meteorological, and hydrological records is necessary for developing a prediction method for
either type of jam. For example, Zufelt and Bilello (1992) used historical records, along with river
geometry, to develop a method to predict the progression of freezeup jams in Idaho. Their model results
showed that ice jam flooding at that location could be related to the accumulated freezing degree-days and
the duration of periods of extreme cold (Figure 11-5). Wuebben and Gagnon (1995) ranked meteorological
and hydraulic parameters for known jam and no-jam events in North Dakota to determine the likelihood of
breakup jam flooding, with good results. They selected model parameters after studying the physical
processes at the site, and all relate to the stage and ice thickness the time of breakup. Table 11-1 presents
the parameters and their assigned weighting factors.

11-5. References

a. Required publications.
None.

b. Related publications.

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a.

Figure 11-5. Example freezeup prediction model for Salmon River, Idaho. The curves
apply to antecedent periods (Phase I) of less than 500 (Fahrenheit) or 278 (Celsius) AFDD
(left) and more than 500 (Fahrenheit) or 278 (Celsius) AFDD (right)

Ashton 1986
Ashton, G.D., ed. 1986. River and Lake Ice Engineering, Water Resources Publications, Littleton,
Colorado.

Urroz and Ettema 1994

Urroz, G.E., and R. Ettema. 1994. Application of Two-Layer Hypothesis to Fully Developed Flow in
Ice-Covered Curved Channels, Canadian Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 101-110.

Wuebben and Gagnon 1995

Wuebben, J.L., and J.J. Gagnon. 1995. Ice Jam Flooding on the Missouri River near Williston, North
Dakota, CRREL Report 95-19, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover,
New Hampshire.

Zufelt and Bilello 1992

Zufelt, J.E., and M.A. Bilello. 1992. Effects of Severe Freezing Periods and Discharge on the Formation
of Ice Jams at Salmon, Idaho, CRREL Report 92-14, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering
Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

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b.

Figure 11-5. (Concluded)

Table 11-1
Upper and Lower Threshold Limits and Weighting Factors in Wuebbens Complex Threshold Model for Prediction of Ice
Jams at Williston, North Dakota

Parameter Lower Threshold Upper Threshold Weight

EFDDmax, F days (C days) 1700 (944) 2600 (1444) 2

Qmax, ft3/s (m3/s) < 25000 or > 86800 30000 < xi < 70000 1
(<708 or > 2458) (850, xi < 1982)

Julian day of EFDDmax 150 165 1

Julian day of Qmax 155 170 1

Julian day of EFDDmax - Julian day of <-8 or > 10 -5 < xi < 7 2

Qmax

Lake Sakakawea stage, ft MSL (m 1835 (559.3) 1840 (560.8) 1

MSL)

Total snowfall, in (cm) 20 (50.8) 40 (101.6) 2

Timing of snowfall, in (cm) < 5 (12.7) after JD = 90 > 10 (25.4) after JD = 90 or > 1
5 (12.7) after JD = 120 1

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Chapter 12
Ice Jam Mitigation Techniques

12-1. Ice Jam Flood Control

a. General. Until the 1970s, flood control concentrated largely on open-water flood events and was
considered primarily a Federal responsibility. Large structural solutions such as levees or flood-control
dams were built. Now, the Federal Government requires local and State governments to share the costs,
and Government policies favor small-scale, locally funded projects. In light of significantly reduced
budgets, innovative ice jam mitigation techniques that require low maintenance and low up-front costs,
have low environmental impacts, and yield excellent results in terms of reduced flooding damages are being
developed. Many of these are appropriate for design and implementation in smaller cities and towns.

b. Effects of flood insurance. In 1990 the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) initiated
the Community Rating System to reward local hazard mitigation efforts by reducing flood insurance
premiums in communities that adopt relocation, hazard area acquisition, and other mitigation policies.
Clearly, Federal flood hazard policy is demonstrating an increasing emphasis on mitigation. Mitigation
works to change the nature of the threat, decreases vulnerability to damage and reduces exposure to the
hazard (Drabek and Hoetmer 1991).

12-2. Types of Mitigation Measures

A number of ice jam flood mitigation measures are possible. These measures can be of a structural or non-
structural nature, appropriate to control breakup jams or freezeup jams. Some are permanent, some are
deployed in advance of an anticipated flood threat, while others are deployed under emergency conditions
when a jam has formed and flooding has occurred.

a. Structural measures. Structural measures for ice jam control may incorporate features that can be
used to alleviate open-water flooding, as well as those designed specifically for ice jam floods. The cost of
such measures includes construction, operation, and land acquisition, as well as costs associated with
recreation and environmental mitigation. Unfortunately, while they are often very successful, structural
solutions tend to be expensive. Structural solutions remain appropriate on rivers where chronic or serious
threats persist, and where the extent of potential damages justifies the cost. Although the majority of the
structural mitigation techniques are, by their very nature, permanent, some are designed to be removable.
These removable structures are usually installed at the beginning of winter and removed after spring
breakup when the threat of ice jam flooding no longer exists. A few removable structures are designed to
be deployed after an ice jam threat has been identified and, in this respect, can be considered advance
mitigation measures.

b. Nonstructural measures. These measures are designed to modify vulnerability to the flood threat
or to reduce the severity of the ice jam and of the resulting flood. They are generally less expensive than
structural solutions. The majority of the nonstructural techniques are used for advance and emergency
measures when serious ice jam flooding is imminent or under way. For example, if sufficient warning is
provided, ice can be weakened (by cutting or dusting) before an ice jam takes place. Blasting and
mechanical removal are often employed only as emergency mitigation measures once ice jams have
happened. The creation of ice storage zones upstream from a known jam site to minimize the amount of ice

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reaching the jam site is a permanent measure, since these areas, once established and properly maintained,
can be used year after year.

c. Freezeup jam mitigation. Freezeup ice jam control usually targets the production and transport of
the frazil ice that causes jams. This may be accomplished by encouraging the growth of an ice cover that
insulates the water beneath, decreasing the production of frazil ice. The ice cover collects and incorporates
frazil ice that is transported from upstream. This reduces the amount of ice moving downstream.

d. Breakup jam mitigation. Breakup ice jam control focuses on affecting the timing of the ice cover
breakup, thereby reducing the severity of the resulting jam to the point where there is little or no flooding.
Breakup mitigation may also aim at controlling the location of the ice jam by forcing the jam to occur in an
area where flooding damages will be inconsequential.

12-3. Selecting Mitigation Measures

Table 12-1 summarizes the currently available jam mitigation techniques and indicates whether they are
applicable to freezeup or breakup jams and whether they are appropriate for permanent, advance, or
emergency measures. In paragraph 12-4 and those following, the ice jam mitigation methods are described
in detail: first, those that are primarily permanent measures; second, those appropriate for advance
measures; and third, those applicable to emergency situations. Traditional flood-fighting methods, namely
floodproofing, sandbagging, levee closing, or evacuation, are obviously applicable to ice jam floods. They
are only briefly summarized under the pertinent subparagraphs.

a. Mitigation strategy. The best mitigation strategy often combines structural and nonstructural
measures, such as an ice boom associated with temporary modifications in the operation of an upstream
water control dam, as well as permanent, advance, or emergency measures. Table 12-2 lists common ice
jam mitigation strategies and corresponding techniques.

b. Data collection. Following an ice jam flood, when an ice jam control program is developed to
prevent similar events from recurring, it is first necessary to determine the type of jam, source of ice, local
and remote causes of the jam, and meteorological and hydrological conditions that led to the jam formation.
To address all of these points, an ice jam data collection program, as described by White and Zufelt (1994)
or Elhadi and Lockhart (1989), should be an integral part of an ice jam mitigation effort. Data collection
should not be limited to the immediate vicinity of the jam location. It is important to study upstream and
downstream areas, since the source of ice and the actual causes of ice jamming at a particular site may be
far removed from the actual jam location. This data-gathering phase of the program is critical to selecting
the jam mitigation strategy and corresponding mitigation techniques best appropriate to the site under
study.

c. Coordination. Successful ice jam mitigation often requires multi-jurisdictional cooperation and
interagency coordination. For example, a catastrophic breakup ice jam on the Delaware River in February
1981 affected three states and caused $14.5 million in damages. After extensive collaboration among
Federal and State agencies in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and New York, a diversion channel was proposed
to be built physically in New Jersey that also provided major flood loss reduction benefits to New York and
Pennsylvania.

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Table 12-1
Ice Jam Mitigation Methods

Technique Jam Type Type of Mitigation

Structural

Dikes, levees, floodwalls F,B P

Dams and weirs F, B P

Ice booms F, B P, A

Retention structures B P

Channel modifications F, B P

Ice storage zones B P, A

Nonstructural

Forecasting F, B A, P

Monitoring and detection F, B E, A, P

Thermal control F, B E, A, P

Land management F, B P

Ice cutting B A

Operational procedures F, B A, P

Dusting F, B E, A

Ice breaking F, B E, A

Mechanical removal F, B E, A

Blasting F, B E, A

Traditional Techniques

Floodproofing F, B P

Sandbagging F, B A, E

Evacuation F, B A, E

Levee closing F, B A, E

Key: B = Breakup jam P = Permanent measure

F = Freezeup jam A = Advance measure
E = Emergency measure

12-4. Permanent Measures

In this paragraph, several measures are briefly discussed that can be considered for the permanent or long-
term correction of ice jamming problems. See Part I, Chapter 3, Ice Control, for greater detail and
description of certain of these measures.

a. Dikes, levees, and floodwalls. Dikes, levees, and floodwalls physically separate the river from
property to be protected. These measures protect against open-water floods as well as ice jam floods.
However, designs adequate for open-water protection may not be adequate to handle ice jam stages that
cause physical damage.

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Table 12-2
Ice Jam Mitigation Strategies and Applicable Techniques

Protect surrounding areas from flood damages

Dikes, levees, and floodwalls
Floodproofing
Floodplain land-use management
Sandbagging
Levee closing
Evacuation

Reduce ice supply

Thermal control
Revised operational procedures
Ice booms
Dams and weirs
Ice storage zones
Dusting
Ice retention

Increase river ice and water conveyance

Channel modifications
Revised operational procedures

Control ice breakup sequence

Detection and prediction
Ice booms
Ice cutting
Ice breaking
Revised operational procedures

Displace ice dam initiation location

Dams and weirs
Ice piers, boulders, and cribs
Ice booms
Ice breaking
Channel modifications

Remove ice
Thermal control
Ice breaking
Mechanical removal
Blasting

b. Dams and weirs. Dams are used to affect the thermal and flow regimes of a river. As breakup jam
control structures, dams are designed to suppress or change the duration or timing of ice jam formation
downstream by intercepting the solid ice pieces coming from upstream. For freezeup jam control, a dam
promotes the formation of an upstream stable sheet-ice cover to minimize the generation of frazil ice that
could result in the formation of a freezeup jam. For example, gates may be designed to allow run-of-river
flow during most of the year, but in the winter be closed at freezeup so rapids are inundated (Figure 12-1).
This eliminates local frazil ice production, reduces the supply of frazil moving downstream, and slows the
freezeup jam progression.

(1) A dam designed to reduce ice jam flooding can be part of a multi-objective community project,
where benefits for open-water flood control, navigation, recreation, water supply, irrigation, or hydropower
justify much of the construction costs.

(2) For smaller rivers, when financial or environmental constraints eliminate consideration of major
structural works, relatively low-cost alternatives can still provide significant ice jam control. For freezeup
control, a still experimental fabric tension weir (Figure 12-2), supported by cables anchored at the banks,
may be an economically feasible alternative. For breakup control, a permeable,

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Figure 12-1. Lancaster, New Hampshire, ice-control structure

Figure 12-2. Tension weir

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cable-supported wire mesh, similar to submarine net (Figure 12-3), may be strung across the stream to
temporarily hold ice from upstream while the downstream reaches of the stream are cleared of ice. These
two types of structures are removable and can be seasonally deployed. However, they often require local
bed and bank protection against scour for stability and effectiveness. Provisions to allow part of the flow
to divert around the structures to limit the upstream flow depth may be required.

c. Ice booms. Ice booms are the most widely used type of ice-control structure (Figure 12-4). They
are a series of timbers or pontoons tethered together and strung across a river to control the movement of
ice. Booms are flexible and can be designed to release ice gradually and partially when overloaded. Ice
booms are relatively inexpensive and can be placed seasonally to reduce negative environmental impacts.

(1) Booms commonly stabilize or retain an ice cover in areas where surface flow velocities are
0.69 m/s (2.25 ft/s) or less and relatively steady. In some cases, a weir or small structure can improve
hydraulic conditions at the ice boom location, especially on small, steep streams. Some booms are located
at the outlets of lakes or reservoirs to keep ice from entering downstream ice-jam-prone reaches.

(2) Conventional ice booms may be used in breakup situations to hold back the ice for a brief time,
allowing the initiation of emergency response measures, such as evacuation or sandbagging. Booms can be
placed to direct the movement of ice pieces away from an intake or navigation channel. Ice-control booms
are also used to promote ice cover formation during freezeup as part of freezeup ice jam mitigation efforts.

d. Ice retention. Ice retention structures control breakup jams by promoting the initiation of an ice
jam at a suitable location where flooding will cause little or no damage. Fragmented ice is captured and
retained upstream from the retention structure to create the ice jam. Ice retention structures can range from
suspended structures, such as a submarine net or vertically oriented ice booms, to streambed structures,
such as concrete piers (Figure 12-5), large boulders, or rock-filled cribs placed at regular intervals across
the width of the stream. Provision for a floodplain or diversion channel may also be required to limit the
rise in upstream water levels and the corresponding loads on the structural elements, as well as to limit the
upstream flooding potential.

(1) Suspended structures may be placed seasonally but require adequate permanent anchoring to
withstand the ice forces. These structures are generally more suited to smaller rivers and streams. The size
and anchoring of projecting structures, such as piers, boulders, or cribs, must be determined to withstand
the anticipated ice forces, and their spacing is a function of the average ice floe size.

(2) Retention structures for ice jam control do not block the entire river width, and thus allow for
recreational navigation and fish passage. Therefore, they can be installed permanently. The bed of the
stream may need to be protected against scour around all elements of this type of structure to ensure that
they remain stable.

e. Channel modification. Modifications to the river channel can improve the passage of ice through
reaches where ice jams tend to form, such as changes in slope, river bends, slow moving pools, and cons-
trictions. Dredging or excavation can widen, deepen, or straighten the natural channel. Old bridge piers
and natural islands and gravel bars can be removed. Diversions (Figure 12-6) can bypass ice and water
flow around the normal jamming sites, lowering the upstream stage. When diversion channels are used,
they should be designed to remain dry except during floods, so that they will be available to function as
open-water channels and not contribute to the downstream ice supply. A diversion channel can improve the
performance of an ice-control structure. If an ice-control dam or weir is used to control a

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Figure 12-3. Submarine net

breakup ice run, an associated high-level diversion could be used to limit the discharge reaching the
structure, reducing river stages to prevent local flooding, and ensuring the stability of the ice being retained.

f. Creation of ice storage zones. Breakup ice jam frequency and flood levels can be reduced through
storage of ice upstream from damage-prone areas in ice storage zone sites (Figure 12-7). Ice storage zones
reduce the volume or rate, or both, of ice moving to a downstream jam location. By developing low
overbank areas, where ice can easily leave the channel during breakup, perhaps supplemented by dikes or
booms to redirect ice movement, the volume of ice passing downstream can be substantially reduced. The
ice left behind settles in side channels, the floodplain, or on the riverbanks. Another approach is designing
and creating ice storage zones to enhance natural jamming. Measures such as minor channelization, tree
removal, bank regrading, berm construction, and installation of booms, piers, or other in-stream structures
can be employed to initiate an ice jam at a location where ice storage will be maximized, damage will be
minimal, and potential for failure and release of the jammed ice is low.

g. Thermal control. Thermal control of ice jams uses an existing source of warm water to melt or
thin a downstream ice cover. Water, even a fraction of a degree above freezing, can be quite effective in
melting ice over a period of days or weeks (Wuebben and Gagnon 1995).

(1) External heat sources include cooling water discharges from thermal power plants, wastewater
treatment plant effluent, and groundwater. The thermal reserve provided by water in nearby lakes and
large reservoirs may also be a source of warm water for thermal control. Because water reaches its
maximum density at a temperature of about 4EC (39EF), colder water in lakes tends to stratify above
warmer water. An ice cover can form on the water surface, even though the water at depth is still well

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a. Prior to freezeup

b. After freezup

Figure 12-4. Ice boom on Allegenhy River near Oil City, Pennsylvania

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Figure 12-5. Ice piers for breakup control

above freezing. Warm water can be brought to the surface using air bubblers, pumps, or flow enhancers.
In the case of a reservoir, a low-level outlet in a dam may be used to release warm water.

(2) Warm water inputs can thin an ice cover prior to breakup, so that it will not provide a jam
initiation point. Warm water inputs can also reduce the volume of ice available to jam. Thermal control
may be used to melt or thin an existing ice jam, thereby increasing the flow area within the jam and
decreasing upstream water levels.

h. Floodplain land-use management and mapping. The best strategy for reducing flood losses is to
keep people and property out of the floodplains. Appropriate land-use planning would dramatically reduce
the flood damage potential. This is particularly applicable in areas that experience chronic flooding.
Floodplain mapping is essential for careful land-use decision making. More than 20,000 communities have
floodplain maps prepared by the National Flood Insurance Program. Since most flood insurance studies
were prepared for open-water flood events, ice jam flooding may not conform exactly to the regulatory or
mapped floodplains. However, these maps remain useful tools for determining general floodplain
boundaries and elevations.

i. Floodproofing. There are four basic types of floodproofing to minimize damage to individual
structures during floods (Figure 12-8). These are: 1) raising or relocating of a building, 2) barrier
construction, 3) dry floodproofing, and 4) wet floodproofing. Specific techniques of floodproofing are
presented in the Corps manual on floodproofing (U.S. Army 1991).

(1) Raising a building usually involves jacking it up and setting it on a new, higher foundation, so that
the inhabited areas and utilities are above predicted flood levels. Care must be taken that the new
foundation can withstand the expected forces from the water flow and ice and debris loading. Sometimes

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Figure 12-6. Schematic of diversion channel for ice jam flooding control

this requires openings to allow flow through the new foundation. Relocation of the building to higher
ground is quite effective but not always possible or acceptable.

(2) While raising or relocating buildings are very effective methods of floodproofing, barrier
construction can be equally effective in some cases. Barriers such as berms or floodwalls are constructed
around a building to prevent floodwaters from reaching it. Openings in the barrier (for example, a
driveway) should be avoided. Possible sources of flow through the barrier, such as seepage through the
barrier and inflow from water or sewage lines, must be considered in barrier design.

(3) Dry floodproofing involves sealing the outside of the building to prevent floodwaters from entering.
Dry floodproofing is usually only considered for cases where flood levels are less than a few feet above the
base of the building, because at higher levels the pressure of the water (and ice) can collapse walls.

(4) Wet floodproofing allows the flood waters to enter a structure while at the same time minimizing
damage by relocating utilities, such as furnaces or hot water heaters, above predicted high water levels.
Wet floodproofing can be used where construction of barriers and dry floodproofing are not feasible.

12-5. Advance Measures

Mitigation measures deployed in anticipation of actual ice jam flooding are known as advance measures.
These measures are used to reduce vulnerability to ice-jam-related flooding. Some emergency measures,
such as ice removal, may also be initiated in advance of flooding.

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Figure 12-7. Ice storage zone combined with ice retention structure

a. Forecasting. Because of the highly site-specific nature of ice jams, limited available data on ice
jams, and the complexity of the hydrological, meteorological, and hydraulic processes involved in the
formation of ice jams, forecasting ice jam flooding on a general level is not yet feasible. However, it is
possible to analyze various ice jam parameters and develop a range of values that can be used to estimate
the likelihood of a particular ice jam occurring under certain conditions (Wuebben et al. 1992). As more
communities adopt flood detection systems, forecasting potential to reduce losses improves. Refer to
Chapter 11, paragraph 11-4, for additional discussion of ice jam forecasting.

b. Monitoring and detection. The effects of ice jam flooding are often more localized than those of
open-water floods. Therefore, it is difficult to generalize ice jam data regionally. Since analytical tech-
niques are less developed than those for open water floods, there is a stronger need for local historical data
to serve as the basis for policy making. Simple remote gages to collect data on river ice movement and
breakup are useful. Water level gages can detect any rapid increase in river stage, which often precedes ice
breakup. Automated temperature sensors help to verify whether conditions are conducive to ice jam
formation or breakup. Ice motion detectors (Zufelt 1993) can be imbedded in intact ice covers prior to
breakup to give advance warning of the initiation of breakup upstream from a likely jam site (Figure 12-9).
Existing gages can be augmented with telemetry transmitters that send data directly to a local monitoring
center or State and Federal agencies (e.g., National Weather Service or U.S. Geological

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Figure 12-8. Floodproofing techniques (U.S. Army 1991)

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12-13

Figure 12-9. Schematic of ice motion detectors

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30 Apr 99

Survey) by telephone, radio, or satellite. An effective warning system must include a fully developed
response system, in addition to a detection system, to save lives and reduce property damages.

c. Ice cutting. Mechanical or thermal ice cutting creates areas of weakness in an ice cover. This
technique may be used to cause a stable ice sheet to break up earlier than normal, preventing it from acting
as an obstruction to movement of upstream ice. On the other hand, ice cutting in selected locations can
create a flow path for ice and water at breakup, reducing the probability of jamming. Ice cutting
(Figure 12-10) involves carving trenches in the ice, either mechanically (using a chainsaw, a trenching
machine, a backhoe, or some other convenient device) or thermally (using a source of warm water or a
substance that reacts chemically with the ice and melts it). The trenches can be partial or the full depth of
the ice. They may follow the natural thalweg of the river channel, be cut along the edges of the channel to
facilitate movement of the ice sheet, or be cut in a pattern designed to weaken the ice sheet. Ice cutting must
be carefully timed to avoid refreezing the slots.

d. Revised operational procedures. Flow control may be available at dams or navigation structures
located upstream or downstream from an ice jam problem site. The pool level can be raised or lowered to
change the location of jamming in the river above the pool. Lowering the pool level early in the winter may
expose some frazil ice production areas that would otherwise be covered. Lowering the pool after an ice
cover has formed allows additional runoff storage before breakup. Discharge can be lowered at critical
periods during ice formation to lower velocities and induce rapid and more extensive ice cover formation
downstream. At breakup, lower discharge can decrease ice jam flooding or, in some cases, eliminate ice
jam formation.

e. Dusting. By dust is meant any dark substance that can be spread on the ice in a thin layer to
absorb solar radiation and thereby alleviate possible jam conditions before the fact. Covering ice surfaces
with a thin layer of dark material induces more rapid melting and ice weakening (Figure 12-11).
Conventional materials include coal dust, fly ash, top soil, sand, and riverbed material. Initial tests with
biodegradable materials, such as leaves, mulch, and bark, show promising results (Haehnel et al. 1996).
These types of materials are more easily spread than sand or coal dust by means of commercially available
seeders and spreaders, but the materials must be dry enough to flow freely for even distribution and to
avoid freezing. The rough surface of an actual jam creates so many shadows that dusting is generally not
effective. Wind can be a problem, causing the finer dusting materials to drift or snow to drift over the dust
(Moor and Watson 1971). Moor and Watson describe a reach of the Yukon River downstream of Galena,
Alaska, which has regularly caused ice jams. Dusting this reach each spring, 2 to 3 weeks before breakup,
weakens the ice sufficiently that the frequency of jams is much less there since the practice started. Ideally,
the dust should be applied as early as possible but after the last snowfall.

(1) In general, the ice could be weakened by dusting in any reach where the cover regularly stops the
ice run and causes a jam. The degree of melting depends on the quantity and material properties of the
material deposited, solar radiation, and snowstorms. In areas where there are late snowstorms, several
applications may be necessary. The melting period may be too short for significant reduction in ice volume
or weakening if breakup takes place rapidly. The possible adverse environmental impacts of dusting
materials must be considered before they are applied.

(2) The dusting operation should spread the material layer as evenly as possible. A surface
concentration of about 50 percent should be the goal; too much dusting material insulates the ice rather
than acting to promote deterioration. Important factors are time, the higher sun angles in the late spring,
and good luck in avoiding snowstorms that would cover the dust. Agricultural aircraft generally apply

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Figure 12-10. Ice cutting

the dust, which keeps costs fairly low. Moor and Watson (1971) give a cost of 34.9 cents (1970 dollars)
per lineal foot (100 feet wide) ($1.14 per lineal meter [30.5 meters wide]) in a remote section of Alaska.
White and Kay (1997) give 31.7 cents (1994 dollars) per lineal foot (30 feet wide) ($1.04 per lineal meter
[9.1 meters wide]) for dusting on the Platte River, Nebraska.

(3) The particle size can vary, depending on what is available. Moor and Watson (1971) quote
0.5 pounds per square yard (0.27 kg/m2) for sand and 0.35 pounds per square yard (0.19 kg/m2) for fly
ash. V.I. Sinotin (1973) gives similar rates: for 0.04-inch (10-millimeter) diameter dust he suggests
0.18 pounds per square yard (0.10 kg/m2) and for 0.2-inch (51- millimeter) dust, 0.92 pounds per square
yard (0.50 kg/m2).

(4) A logical offshoot of dusting is to pump water and bottom materials onto the ice surface. This is
limited to streams with silt or sand bottoms and, according to Moor and Watson (1971), is ten times more
expensive than aerial dusting. However, the approach does have application where the stream is too
narrow or sinuous for aerial work, or where environmental considerations preclude adding material to the
stream.

12-6. Emergency Management for Ice Jam Flooding

Emergency measures are those taken after an ice jam has formed and flooding is imminent or already
happening. The effectiveness of the emergency response may be reduced unless an emergency action plan
exists that specifically refers to ice jams. Comprehensive emergency management includes four phases:
preparedness, response, recovery, and mitigation. See Natural Disaster Procedures,

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Figure 12-11. Ice dusting

ER 500-1-1, for additional information and guidance. Emergency planners should have a clear line of
command for multi-governmental management of ice jam flooding events. Plans should be tested in
advance to be sure that all phases can be carried out and that all necessary materials and equipment are
available when needed. Before implementing emergency measures, it is necessary to monitor the river ice
conditions upstream as well as downstream from the jam site so as to select the best measures and to
eliminate those that may only displace the flooding problem to another location. Early ice monitoring can
also provide lead time to allow other emergency measures to be taken. For example, the jam progression
rate is important in freezeup ice jams, particularly when severe cold conditions conducive to rapid
progression are forecast. For breakup jams, knowledge of the upstream ice thickness, extent, and relative
strength is needed in estimating the remaining ice supply to the jam. The downstream ice conditions also
need to be assessed, if only to determine whether or not there is sufficient open-water area to receive ice
when the jam releases.

12-7. Emergency Measures

Ice jam emergency response measures include the specific measures of ice breaking, mechanical ice
removal, and ice blasting, plus the traditional flood fighting efforts of evacuation, levee closing, and
sandbagging, all of which qualify as advance measures.

a. Icebreaking. This technique is only usable in a few rivers. Ice covers can be broken prior to
natural breakup using icebreaking vessels or construction equipment (Figure 12-12). Downstream
movement of the broken ice should be enhanced to prevent localized breakup ice jams. Icebreaking is
particularly useful to ease navigation in larger rivers and lakes. See Chapter 17 for a more comprehensive
discussion of icebreaking.

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Figure 12-12. Icebreaking vessel

(1) When the channel depth is sufficient and the ships are available, icebreakers are certainly the
easiest, safest, and possibly the cheapest way to break up a jam. This operation is carried out by the
captains, who are responsible for the safety of their ships, so little more needs to be said regarding safe
operations. However, icebreaker operation can be expensive, and icebreakers cannot be used in small
rivers of limited depth. The availability of an icebreaker on short notice and the difficulty of access to the
ice in upstream reaches can also limit this method.

(2) Reinforced lake tugs and river icebreakers are used to clear harbors and rivers, primarily in the
Great Lakes system. On large rivers open to commercial navigation, towboats are used to break a channel
through level ice or localized ice accumulations. The most powerful towboats available are needed for this
purpose. Ideally, two or more towboats work en echelon (staggered, one behind and to the side of the
other), with the largest or more powerful towboat in the lead. The following ship has to be careful to
ensure an equal width channel. If it crosses the path of the leader, the resulting narrow section will
inevitably cause a jam and the downstream channel will no longer keep itself clear.

(3) Occasionally, if circumstances permit, an icebreaking vessel can work in conjunction with blasting
(discussed below). The propeller wash and wave action of the ship will help to quickly clear the ice
loosened by the blasting, and the ship will offer a factor of safety for the people on the ice. A combined
operation like this will require extra cooperation as well as good communication.

(4) When a river ice jam is very thick, two towboats of essentially equal power have been used
together. They mate-up bow to bow, and while the propeller wash of one boat loosens and erodes the ice,
the second boat holds the first in position. This operation takes a great deal of skill and coordination
between the pilots.

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(5) Air cushion vehicles (ACVs) can break large extents of relatively smooth sheet ice covers, usually
in areas where the sheet ice may stop the ice run and initiate a jam. The advantages of an ACV are its
speed and maneuverability and its ability to operate in shallow water areas. Disadvantages are that it
breaks but does not move the ice, it cannot operate over rough ice accumulations because of potential
damages to its flexible skirts, and operation in cold weather can lead to severe icing of the propulsion
system.

(6) Construction equipment can be used to break up an ice cover or an existing jam, either from the
shore or, if the ice is safe, from the river itself. It is generally best to begin at the downstream end of the ice
cover and work upstream, so the broken ice will be carried away by the flow. A heavy weight or wrecking
ball can be dropped repeatedly on the ice surface to break up the ice (Figure 12-13). Ice can be broken
either to form a channel or weaken the ice in specific locations.

Figure 12-13. Icebreaking using a heavy wedge suspended from a crane

b. Mechanical removal. Mechanical removal involves taking the ice out of the river and placing it
elsewhere using bulldozers, backhoes, excavators, or draglines, starting from the downstream end of the ice
accumulation (Figure 12-14). This, of course, eliminates any downstream problems, but it is neither cheap
nor fast. This approach is most effective on small streams, because the time required to excavate makes
the technique prohibitive on larger rivers. Also, there are significant safety concerns associated with
equipment operation on wide or deep rivers. The approach is limited to dry jams in relatively shallow
streams. In other words, this approach is used generally for midwinter jams on small streams after the
flooding has receded. The idea is to create a small channel within the jam. The lack of access for heavy
equipment to an ice jam site frequently is an impediment to mechanical removal of ice.

(1) In February 1978 it cost approximately $11,500 (1978 dollars) to make a 790-meter (2600-foot)
channel with one Caterpillar 235 backhoe. When the ice blocks are small and thin, mechanical clearing

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a. Using a dragline

Figure 12-14. Ice removal

does not present too great a problem. When the blocks are around 3.0 3.0 0.6 meters (10 10
2 feet) or larger, small equipment is generally inadequate.

(2) Each site is different, so that equipment and methods used are up to the operator, who must be
aware of the problems of power lines, poor bottom, and access. An immediate problem is disposing of the
ice. Usually, it can be pushed to each side, leaving a channel about one-third the normal river width. In
reaches where the channel has been severely restricted by man-made works, it may be necessary to remove
all the ice.

c. Ice blasting. A popular solution to ice jam problems, blasting breaks up an ice cover or loosens an
ice jam so that it is free to move. Successful blasting takes time and careful planning and execution.

(1) Absolute prerequisites to successful blasting are: 1) enough flow passing down the river to trans-
port the ice away from the site, and 2) sufficient open-water area downstream to receive the ice.
Otherwise, the ice will simply re-jam elsewhere and cause problems for another community. Blasting has
been used to remove or weaken strong lake ice that initiated breakup jams at tributarylake confluences, or
to create a relief channel within a grounded jam to pass water and decrease upstream

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b. With a backhoe

Figure 12-14. (Concluded)

water levels. As with icebreaking and mechanical removal, it is recommended that blasting proceed
upstream from the toe of the jam.

(2) The ideal time to blast a jam is just after it has formed. In actuality, a jam is never blasted this
quickly because a blasting crew and governmental approval cannot be mobilized until the jam is well
formed and flooding has begun. If the flow has dropped because of cold weather or has moved into another
channel so that after a blast there will not be enough water to carry the loosened ice downstream, the
blasting should be canceled.

(3) While very dramatic, blasting is not a quick or easy solution. Blasting requires planning to locate
and acquire the explosives, the equipment to drill holes, and the personnel. At all times when the crew is
working on the jam, a lookout should be on duty upstream to sound the alarm if the jam lets go by itself.
At least two people are required to drill holes, and depending on the roughness of the surface, at least four
more to carry the charges to the holes. Add a blaster, a supervisor, and two people to load the charges and
you have a crew of 11. With good luck this crew can blast two rows of charges along 0.8 kilometers
(about a half mile) of river per day, possibly more when a routine has been established.

(4) To be effective, the charge should be placed below the surface of the ice, which may be dangerous
or impossible during an ice jam event. If the sheet ice or jam is stable, holes can be drilled at regular
intervals from the surface to receive the charges. If not, the charges need to be dropped from a helicopter
into existing openings (if any) in the ice cover.

(5) To blast from the top of the ice, certain procedures should be followed to maximize the degree of
success. It is important that each charge be placed in the water immediately below the ice so that the large

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gas bubble resulting from the blast will be most effective in breaking the ice. The charges should be
weighted to sink, but also roped to the ice surface so that they remain as close as possible to the ice
underside and are prevented from being carried downstream by the current. As shown in Figure 12-15
(adapted from Mellor 1982), the diameter of the hole of the crater in the ice is primarily a function of
charge weight, and is relatively independent of ice thickness. For example, a charge size of 18 kilograms
(about 40 pounds) will create a hole of 12 to 14 meters (40 to 45 feet) in diameter for ice thicknesses
ranging from 0.3 to 1.8 meters (1 to 6 feet). Two more or less parallel rows of charges, set close enough so
that the craters intersect, usually give the best results by creating a wide enough channel to preclude most
secondary jamming. The thalweg of the river should be located and the blasting line placed along it as
much as possible.

(6) Although any kind of explosive can be used, experience has shown that ANFO works well. ANFO
is a mixture of fuel oil with ammonium nitrate fertilizer. The mixture must be detonated with a strong
booster such as a stick of dynamite, TNT, or other special booster charges sold by powder companies. The
ANFO charge must be kept dry, and it is recommended that it be placed in a plastic bag that can also hold
the weight (such as a brick or sandbag) necessary to sink the charge. ANFO will dissolve with time if a
misfire takes place. This will avoid leaving live charges on the river bottom. As a guide, it is preferable to
use Primacord for all downhole and hookup lines. The charge is then set off with one electric cap that is
taped to the Primacord at the last moment after the blasting party is off the ice (see Figure 12-16).

(7) Safety and environmental concerns must be addressed before implementation. A formal safety
plan covering all operations is necessary. It should comply with both local and Federal regulations. Such
matters as person in charge, communication, transportation, warning personnel, etc., should be fully
covered. In particular, blasting in populated or developed areas may lead to damages to surrounding
buildings from falling ice chunks. In general, blasting should be a last resort.

d. Evacuation. The principle behind evacuation is to move people at risk from a place of relative
danger to a place of safety via a route that does not pose significant danger. Local law enforcement
departments usually serve as lead organizations employing standard operating procedures. Winter weather
conditions should be taken into consideration when planning evacuation timing, equipment, and routes.

e. Levee closing. If ice jam flooding has been predicted, levees should be closed immediately and
interior drainage pumps prepared for possible activation. Again, winter weather conditions that can hinder
levee closing, such as snow drifts or frozen valves, should be identified. Monitoring water levels at levees
may aid in the identification of possible overflow sites before there is serious damage.

f. Sandbagging. Although ice can cause significant damage to sandbags used as protective barriers,
the use of sandbagging as an emergency response measure can be very effective in reducing damages at
particular facilities or locations. For example, sandbagging around sewage treatment plants or low points
on roads or river banks can significantly reduce flood losses (see Figure 12-17).

12-8. Case Studies

In Appendix B, seven case studies are presented that describe the solutions chosen to mitigate ice jamming
problems in a wide variety of locations. The methods employed include thermal control, improved natural
storage, ice retention, mechanical removal, floating ice booms, revised operational procedures, a

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30 Apr 99
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Figure 12-15. Crater hole diameter as a function of ice thickness and charge weight
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Figure 12-16. Ice blasting

permanent ice control dam, an ice control weir, land acquisition, aerial dusting, floodproofing, and reloca-
tion. Review of these case studies will provide the opportunity to connect ice jam problems with
successfully implemented solutions.

12-9. Conclusion

Each measure for dealing with ice jams described in this chapter has its own advantages and disadvantages.
The decision as to which method to use may be easy. The difficult problem, particularly in the case of
emergency measures, is to decide if any work is necessary. Will the jam go out by itself? How great a
hazard really exists? Experience is helpful for this decision, but ice jams are not that common and few
people have the opportunity to observe many jams for logical comparison. Thus, advice from local people
familiar with the particular stream and its history is invaluable.

12-10. References

a. Required publications.
None.

b. Related publications.

ER 500-1-1
Natural Disaster Procedures

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30 Apr 99

a. To protect sewage treatment plant

Figure 12-17. Use of sandbags in Oil City, Pennsylvania, in anticipation of ice jam
flooding

Drabek and Hoetmer 1991

Drabek, T.E., and G.J. Hoetmer, eds. 1991. Emergency Management: Principles and Practice for Local
Governments, International City Management Association, Washington, DC.

Elhadi and Lockhart 1989

Elhadi, N.E., and J.G. Lockhart, eds. 1989. New Brunswick River Ice Manual, New Brunswick
Subcommittee on River Ice, Inland Waters Directorate, Environment Canada, Fredericton,
New Brunswick, Canada.

Haehnel et al. 1996

Haehnel, R., C. Clark, and S. Taylor 1996. Dusting River Ice with Leaf Mulch To Aid in Ice
Deterioration, Special Report 96-7, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory,
Hanover, New Hampshire.

Mellor 1982
Mellor, M. 1982. Breaking Ice With Explosives, CRREL Report 82-40, U.S. Army Cold Regions
Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

Moor and Watson 1971

Moor, J.H., and C.H. Watson 1971. Field Tests of Ice Prevention Techniques, Journal of the
Hydraulics Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 92, no. HY6, pp. 777789.

12-24
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b. To protect downtown buildings

Figure 12-17. (Concluded)

Sinotin 1973
Sinotin, V. I. 1973. Recommended Practice for Combating Ice Jams, Draft Translation, TL 400,
U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

U.S. Army 1991

U.S. Army 1991. Flood Proofing Techniques, Programs and References, Report of the National Flood
Proofing Committee (prepared by Dewberry and Davis with French and Associates, Ltd.), U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC.

White and Kay 1997

White, K.D., and R.L. Kay 1997. Dusting procedures for advance ice-jam mitigation measures, Journal
of Cold Regions Engineering, American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 11, no. 2, pp. 130145

White and Zufelt 1994

White, K.D., and J.E. Zufelt 1994. Ice Jam Data Collection, Special Report 94-7, U.S. Army Cold
Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

Wuebben and Gagnon 1995

Wuebben, J.L., and J.J. Gagnon 1995. Ice Jam Flooding on the Missouri River near Williston, North
Dakota, CRREL Report 95-19, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover,
New Hampshire.

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Zufelt 1993
Zufelt, J.E. 1993. Ice Motion Detector System, Ice Engineering Information Exchange Bulletin No. 4,
U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

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on Inland Waterways
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Chapter 13
River Ice Management Study

Section I
Study Concept

13-1. General

Operational or structural solutions to ice problems on rivers can be applied in several ways. They can be
employed individually, case by case, to overcome the ice problems that are regarded as most important on a
given waterway or portion thereof. This approach will solve ice problems, and in so doing, it will improve
winter navigation. However, a shift of emphasis, from solving individual ice problems to maximizing the
overall efficiency of winter navigation on an entire waterway, is a better technique; this results in the need
for a comprehensive, system-wide approach. This system approach is essentially a planning process,
culminating in the development of a River Ice Management (RIM) Plan that is unique for the waterway in
question.

13-2. Objectives

The planning process works toward three objectives. First, winter navigation is to be conducted with the
highest possible efficiency, approaching that of the other seasons of the year. Second, ice interruptions to
navigation are to be kept as infrequent and as short as possible. Third, if a specific ice emergency does
happen, all reasonable and possible ice-problem solutions will have been identified and implemented where
appropriate, with the assurance that no further action could be taken to alleviate the emergency.

13-3. Elements

In the remainder of this chapter, the elements of a study leading to a River Ice Management Plan are
identified and discussed briefly. Appendix C summarizes the elements in outline form. In the remaining
chapters of the manual, these several elements, which include the various operational and structural
solutions to river ice problems affecting navigation, are addressed in much greater detail and, in several
instances, illustrated by examples.

Section II
Study Elements

13-4. River System Definition

Managing river ice is almost a basin-wide effort; so, knowing the exact configuration of the river system is
very important. The primary concern is the main, navigable stem of the river. However, non-navigable
reaches of the main stem that are bypassed by locks and canals are also of major interest. It is necessary to
know what percentage of the flow goes through each section and what the water velocities are. The
tributaries are of interest because they add ice to the system. Also to be identified are any features that
affect ice passage or accumulation, e.g., channel geometry, confluences, and man-made or natural channel
restrictions.

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13-5. Ice Problem Identification

Proper implementation of a winter navigation plan requires that problems be identified, along with their
locations and sources (see Chapter 14).

a. Certain problems are natural phenomena and are inherent to navigation during winter months. Ice
jams may limit passage through a section of river. Ice accumulation in the upstream approaches at many
locks causes shipping delays as vessels must wait for ice to be locked through.

b. Other problems are more directly induced by winter navigation. Ice builds up on the undersides of
barges, sometimes resulting in scraping and damage to the riverbed or miter gate sills. Barges having
underside ice buildup have grounded and blocked channels on the Upper Mississippi River, and the normal
dredging response to a grounding is very difficult under ice conditions. Moored barges may be broken
away by moving ice, resulting in damage to downstream structures. Increased traffic during periods of ice
may increase bank erosion significantly.

c. The source of the ice that creates the problem needs to be identified. Possible ice sources include
tributaries, upstream locks and dams passing ice, and vessels traveling out of established tracks. Once
these ice problems and their ice sources are identified, an appropriate solution, whether operational or
structural, can be considered. Not to be overlooked are possible future changes in the river system that
may have an influence on ice formation (e.g., changes in water quality affecting freezing temperature).

d. All possible scenarios are to be considered in implementing a winter navigation plan. Past ice
emergencies on the river system in question should be thoroughly examined. Emergencies have been
avoided by varying operational schemes. Solutions to ice emergencies on other river systems should also
be examined, so that nothing is overlooked. Once a winter navigation plan is developed, it should be
analyzed with all possible ice emergencies in mind and revised as necessary.

13-6. Ice Forecasting

Forecasting river ice conditions means predicting when and where ice will form, how thick it will be, the
extent of the ice cover, and how long it will last. Practically, there are two types of river ice forecasts. The
first is a Long-Term Water Temperature Forecast. This is made (starting in the fall) to predict river water
temperatures to determine when the water will reach the freezing point, making ice formation possible. The
present water temperature at the time the Long-Term Water Temperature Forecast is made must be known,
and a forecast of air temperatures must be made or be available. The water temperature response to
changes in the air temperature can be determined by examining records of water and air temperature of
previous years. This type of forecast can be made for periods of several days to several months. The
second type of forecast is a Mid-Winter Ice Forecast. Typically, these are made for periods of a week or
less, predicting the water temperature, the volume of ice that will be formed or melted, where the ice will
form or melt, the extent of the river that will be covered with ice, and the ice thickness. To make a Mid-
Winter Ice Forecast, the existing stages, discharges, water temperatures, and ice conditions along a river
must be known. Forecasts of the air temperature, tributary discharge, and tributary water temperature
must also be made or be available. Locations and amounts of possible artificial heat inputs into the river
must be known. A heat balance can be determined for the river system that will indicate the volume of ice
that will be formed or melted. The extent of the ice cover and its thickness are calculated using the river
velocity, flow depth, and type of ice. The Mid-Winter Ice Forecast will produce forecasts of the discharge,
stage, ice thickness, and water temperature at each point specified along the river. Under the RIM

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Program, forecasting methodologies to produce both types of forecasts were developed, and are described
in greater detail in Chapter 15. Each has the ability to include real-time data provided by Corps data
systems, to incorporate short-term and long-term forecasts of air temperature, and to provide the specified
outputs.

13-7. Structural Solutions

Structural solutions are covered in detail in Chapter 3 and additionally in Chapter 18. In brief, they involve
controlling ice by installing some type of structure or device where it will have a desired effect on either an
ice cover, ice floes, brash ice, frazil ice, or ice adhering to navigation structure surfaces. The desired effect
may be to divert ice away from the main channel, to prevent ice from moving out into the channel, to keep
an ice cover from being broken up by wind and wave action or by ship activities, to reduce the quantities of
ice passing a particular point, or to reduce the amount of frazil ice forming in a reach. In the vicinity of a
navigation structure, the objective may be to block or divert moving ice from a lock entrance, to pass ice
from the pool through the dam to the channel below, or to reduce or eliminate adfreezing on walls, gates,
and other surfaces.

a. A common structural solution is an ice boom, which is a line of floating logs or pontoons across a
waterway used to collect ice and stop ice movement (a navigable pass can be provided in the boom). The
boom is held in place by a wire rope structure and buried anchors. Other solutions may use weirs or groins
supplemented by booms. Artificial islands and navigation piers can also be helpful in stabilizing ice
covers. The various methods for inducing a stable ice cover to form are used in locations where ice covers
need to have additional stability to compensate for the disruptive forces of winter navigation or short-term
weather changes.

b. Structural solutions in and around navigation projects include devices that are installed to help
mitigate particular ice problems that pose a direct interference to project operation. High-flow air systems
are effective in deflecting and moving brash ice away from critical locations in a great variety of
circumstances. Flow inducers have also been installed in lock chambers to assist in keeping areas ice-free.
Ice passage at navigation dams is made more practical by certain structural features, such as submergible
dam gates, or bulkheads, which can be raised from lock chamber floors to serve as skimming weirs for
passing ice. Ice accumulation on critical surfaces such as gate recess walls, strut arm roller rails, and seals
can be effectively controlled by installing electrical heating devices of several specialized designs. Other
proven measures for controlling ice accumulation on structure surfaces are coatings and claddings.
Coatings, such as epoxies and copolymers, reduce ice adhesion forces between ice and concrete or steel
surfaces. Claddings, such as high-density polyethylene, are replaceable surfaces from which ice can be
chipped more easily than from concrete or steel.

c. Each of the possible structural approaches is effective for a particular ice problem. Many ice
problems require a combination of structural solutions, often teamed with operational solutions, to fully
mitigate the difficulties imposed by ice.

13-8. Operational Solutions

There are various operational techniques to control or mitigate ice problems at navigation projects.
Thermal methods are presented in Chapter 3, Section II, with additional discussion specific to navigation
projects in Chapter 18, Section III, and Chapter 19, Section III. Additionally, when lock and dam per-
sonnel apply the structural solutions as mentioned above or described in Chapters 3 and 18, these
applications actually become operational techniques in themselves.

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a. Moving tows in convoy, i.e., scheduling vessels to move together in large groups during periods of
heavy ice conditions, has been shown to hold some promise for the navigation industry. The appeal of this
to the Corps is that it can cause less ice to be produced in a winter season, and thus reduce the amount of
ice that has to be locked through, diverted, or passed at a navigation project.

b. At locks and dams, the operational techniques vary from physical ice removal using various tools,
to flushing ice from critical areas with towboat propwash and passing ice through the dam spillway gates.
Separate lockages of ice are sometimes required to accommodate tow traffic. Maintaining high lock
chamber pool levels can keep lock walls at a higher temperature than if they were exposed to cold air. As a
result, ice buildup on the wall surfaces may be lessened. Careful operation of seal heaters aids
substantially in reducing ice buildups at dam gates, helping to keep the gates operational.

c. Warm water discharges offer opportunities for ice suppression at certain locations. The warm
water may originate from power plant cooling systems, industrial plants, or reservoir discharges. The
distributions of these warm inflows influence their effectiveness in melting or weakening ice, or in
maintaining open-water areas.

d. Energy from unconventional sources, such as heat from groundwater, solar heating, or wind
energy, has been thought to offer promise for ice control at navigation projects. However, analyses have
shown that this would be likely only in a very few restricted cases. Nonetheless, electrical heating appears
to be the most efficient way to accomplish many ice control tasks at navigation projects. The key is to
select the most practical source for electrical energy.

13-9. Recommended Plan

The objective of the study or system analysis, composed of the foregoing study elements, is to develop a
River Ice Management Plan. In practice, it may be more reasonable to develop several alternative plans,
each of which may have attractive features. While it may not be possible to apply a strict benefitcost
analysis to most ice management plans, such criteria should at least guide the choices of the feasible
alternative plans from among the many variations and versions examined. Generally, it will be possible to
select one of the alternative plans as the most desirable, in that it provides the highest net benefit or is most
likely to eliminate chances for ice emergencies. This is then designated the Recommended Plan. The
Recommended Plan may include, among other things, structural measures for improving the winter
capabilities of navigation projects. For reasons of financial, personnel, and time resources, a realistic time
span must be assumed to accomplish these structural improvements. Therefore, it would be most
reasonable to express the Recommended Plan in terms of phases, with the individual phases chosen and
ordered according to their anticipated individual benefitcost ratios. In simple terms, as outlined in
Appendix C, a system approach covering many study elements leads to a Recommended River Ice
Management Plan for a given waterway or part thereof. The Recommended Plan then serves as a goal
toward which subsequent operational and structural decisions lead, resulting in increased efficiency of
winter navigation and the supporting operation of navigation projects.

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Chapter 14
River Ice Problem Identification

14-1. Surveys Needed

To fully understand the ice processes involved and their effects on winter navigation, the entire river system
needs to be fully defined. A general survey of the river system should be made, defining its hydraulic
characteristics under open-water conditions, as well as how these characteristics change in times of ice.
This survey should indicate how extensive the ice problems are and where they are most concentrated.
Areas of ice generation, growth, and deposition, as well as ice-cover initiation points, should be identified.
All tributaries must be considered to determine their ice inputs during freezeup, throughout the winter, and
during breakup periods. Existing hydraulic structures, such as navigation dams, locks, or hydropower
installations, should be examined to see how they influence the river system under present operating
procedures. Can these structures control flow? Do they retard velocities, thereby causing ice deposition?
Which dams pass ice and how do they pass ice? What influence does ice passed through a dam have on ice
problems downstream? What facilities exist for ice passage at locks and dams? Some dams may only be
able to pass ice during high flows, while other structures use the auxiliary lock chamber for routinely
passing ice. Questionnaire-type surveys can be employed to gain the information outlined above (Haynes et
al. 1993, Zufelt and Calkins 1985). These surveys should poll river users as well as the operators of any
structures. These and subsequent interviews with specific users will yield information about things such as
areas of ice cover, areas of ice generation, ice thicknesses, types of ice, and restrictions to flow and ice
passage. Ice problem locations can be identified, as well as other areas of concern, i.e., high traffic areas,
temporary fleeting areas, etc.

14-2. Hydrology and Hydraulic Studies

Records should be examined to determine if there have been any previous hydrological or hydraulic studies
of portions of the river system. Flood insurance studies, working numerical hydraulic models, navigation
models, and backwater studies may offer data on flow velocities, discharges, stages, operational
procedures, etc. Some existing mathematical models (such as HEC-2) have been adapted to incorporate an
ice cover into the system. Rainfall and snowmelt runoff models for tributaries may give insight into when
and with what magnitude the ice cover will break up. Past physical model studies of navigation structures
or hydropower installations can give insight into ice movement, accumulation, and passage, as well as ice
effects on tows. Ice retention in tributaries and non-navigable main stem reaches must be studied. Existing
and planned physical models can incorporate ice studies into their modeling sequence. In conducting any
hydraulic or hydrological studies, it is important to obtain as much information on the ice characteristics of
the river system as possible. Winter field observations are an invaluable source of information on ice
thicknesses and areas of ice cover. Operational logs of lock and dam facilities usually contain information
on weather and waterway conditions. Hydropower and other power plants, as well as water supply or
treatment plants, often keep records of water and air temperatures, along with ice conditions at their intake
or outfall structures. Towing companies sometimes keep records of ice conditions, especially when they
affect shipping schedules. River users and structure operators generally have a good knowledge of average
winter ice conditions and these people should be interviewed.

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14-3. Identification of Ice Problems

Ice problems should be identified by type, location, and severity. On-site observations of the problem areas
are also useful. A survey questionnaire to poll river users and structure operators is quite valuable. A
sample questionnaire is shown in Figure 14-1.

Figure 14-1. Questionnaire for collecting information on

ice problems affecting navigation projects and navigational
activities

a. Information sources. Aerial photos and video coverage of the river system during winter can
provide data on problem type and location, although problem severity is best estimated by those with
firsthand knowledge of the area. Lockmasters, towboat operators, and homeowners adjacent to the area in
question are an excellent source of data and should be polled or interviewed as necessary. Operations
personnel are usually well informed of problem areas, including emergency conditions.

b. Problem categories. There are two general problem categories: those occurring at or near
navigation structures, and those occurring in the river pools between navigation structures. Navigation
dams may experience limited ability to pass ice moving downstream because of gate-setting limitations.
Spillway gates may ice up because of leaking seals or normal operations, resulting in restrictions in
movement, overstressing of structural components, or even inoperability. Lock facilities may experience
ice accumulations in the upper and lower approaches or behind miter gates, slowing operations

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significantly. Ice may adhere to the lock miter gates, lock walls, line hooks, vertical checkpins, or floating
mooring bitts, resulting in increased winter maintenance. Problems generally associated with areas away
from navigation structures include severe ice accumulations or jams near islands and bends, tributary ice
inflows, and problems encountered near docks and fleeting areas. Following are detailed descriptions of
typical ice problems that have been reported in the past. This list, however, is not all-inclusive.

14-4. Ice Problems Around Navigation Projects

a. Ice in upper lock approach. Broken ice, carried downstream by the river current and wind, or
pushed ahead of tows, often accumulates in the upper lock approach, causing delays (Figure 14-2).
Separate ice lockages often must precede the locking of downbound tows, and flushing ice during these ice
lockages is difficult. Occasionally, a tow must back out of the lock after entry because the ice doesnt
compact in the chamber as much as expected, preventing the tow from fully entering the lock chamber and
thus causing further delays. Upbound tows may have to limit their size to be assured of enough power to
push through the accumulations of ice. Tow haulage units usually have too little power to pull the first
cuts of double lockages out of the chamber against heavy accumulations of ice. So, double trips or smaller
tows are called for. During periods of low traffic, ice accumulations sometimes freeze in place, causing
further delays and difficulty in operating the upper gates.

Figure 14-2. Ice accumulation in the upper lock approach area

b. Lock miter gates. Ice accumulations in the upper lock approach can cause pieces of ice to become
wedged between the miter gates and the wall recesses (Figure 14-3). Ice pushed into the lock chamber
ahead of downbound tows causes the same difficulties for the lower gates. The gates must be fanned or the
ice pieces prodded with pike poles to make them move out of the way. Sometimes, compressed air lances
or steam jets are used to disperse the trapped ice.

c. Ice buildup on lock walls and miter gates. During extremely cold weather, and with fluctuating
water levels in lock chambers, ice will build up on the lock walls and miter gates, forming a collar
(Figure 14-4). This collar is thickest at the upper pool level. Enough ice can build up on the walls to keep
the gates from being fully opened, thus limiting the width of tows and leaving the gates exposed to

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Figure 14-3. Broken ice accumulation between the lower

miter gate and the gate recess wall, which hinders full
recessing of the gate

damage. Even where the buildup is minimized or controlled in the gate recesses, ice on the chamber walls
can be thick enough to restrict tow widths. Most of the inland waterways that have barge traffic can place
width restrictions on the lock chambers. This is not desirable, but at least it allows navigation to continue
with narrower tows. (On river systems such as the St. Marys or the St. Lawrence, however, the usable
width of the locks is critically important, because the vessel widths cant be reduced.)

d. Floating mooring bitts. Ice pieces may jam between the floating mooring bitts and the lock wall,
rendering the bitts inoperative. Ice layers may build up on the wheels, track, or flotation tank of a bitt (Fig-
ure 14-5), causing the bitt to freeze in place; the bitt can then dangerously and unexpectedly jump upward
from its submerged position. Usually, bitts must be tied off at the top of the lock wall and remain
unavailable for winter use.

e. Vertical checkpins or line hooks. The vertical checkpins or line hooks in the lock walls may
accumulate layers of ice because of fluctuating water levels. This causes difficulties when check lines slip
and jump off the pins or hooks.

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Figure 14-4. Ice collar formation on the gate recess and chamber walls, restricting
the full opening of the miter gates and limiting the usable width of the lock

Figure 14-5. Ice interference with floating mooring bitts (arrows) in a lock chamber
wall

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f. Ice in lower lock approach. Ice may accumulate downstream of a lock because of upstream wind,
or an island, bend, or other constriction. Ice passing through the lock or over the spillway adds to this
accumulation. The continual buildup of ice may block the entrance to the lock for upbound tows.

g. Dam spillway gates. Broken ice carried downstream usually accumulates at the dam
(Figure 14-6). During periods of low flow, normal gate openings are small and will not pass this ice. Low
tailwater presents a problem of excessive scour if gates are raised high enough to pass the ice. In colder
weather, these accumulations will freeze in place, making it necessary to break up the ice to start it or keep
it moving (usually done by towboats). Some lock and dam facilities have been equipped with submergible
tainter gates specifically designed for passing ice and drift. At a few installations, the gates are rarely used
in the submerged settings, owing to excessive vibrations that could cause damage to the gate and
supporting structure of the dam. Some of these submergible gates have been retrofitted to prevent them
from being used in the submerged position. Other lock and dam facilities report no problems with
operating these gates in the submerged position. A feature of all submergible gates is that they leak more
than nonsubmergible gates. In winter, freezing of this leakage adds to the problems described in the
following two paragraphs. Three installations on the Monongahela River are equipped with split-leaf
(movable crest) tainter gates, designed for passing ice and debris. The gates seem to work well, but during
periods of low flow, towboat assistance is required to break up the ice behind the dam and start it moving.
Lock and Dam No. 16 on the Mississippi has reported that an emergency bulkhead placed in the entrance
to a roller gate bay passes ice well.

Figure 14-6. Ice accumulation upstream of the gates of a navigation dam

h. Spray icing of spillway gates. Spray from the operation of spillway gates can cause ice to form on
the pier walls or under the arms of tainter gates (Figure 14-7). This may cause jamming or stop the gates
from fully closing. In some cases, the weight of ice formed on the gate structure is so great that the
operating machinery cannot raise the gate.

i. Tainter gate seals. The side and bottom seals of tainter spillway gates may leak, causing spray.
This spray results in ice buildup on the pier walls or the gates themselves, causing operational difficulty

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Figure 14-7. Tainter gate structure and gate pier wall with icing that has accumulated
through spray and splashing in the course of winter operation

(Figure 14-8). It is possible for this ice to bridge across from the pier to the gate, rendering the gate seal
heaters ineffective. During severe cold, the gates must be moved frequently or they will freeze in place.
Attempts to operate gates when frozen in place can result in damage to the operating machinery, hoisting
mechanisms, and chains or cables.

j. Ice formation on intake trash racks. Broken ice and frazil ice can accumulate on trash racks,
causing a reduction in flow. This results in loss of water supply and possible shutdown if flows are
substantially blocked. In the case of hydropower intakes, power production may be interrupted.

14-5. Ice Problems Occurring Between Navigation Projects

The channels around islands, bends, and other constrictions tend to accumulate thick deposits of ice (Figure
14-9). During periods of significant ice, these accumulations may form jams, which can cause scouring
and eroding of bed and banks. Navigation can be interrupted or delayed and structural damage is possible,
especially during breakup of the jam. Minor jams may raise the water level upstream, while major jams
can cause severe flooding. Tows must limit their size in some problem areas.

a. River bends. River bends are often the cause of ice accumulation. The nonuniformity of depth and
velocity over a bend cross section, coupled with secondary flow circulation, results in a nonuniform ice
cover. Under open-water conditions, multiple cells of secondary currents are set up that, in general, push
surface water toward the outside of bends and bed material toward the inside of bends (Figure 14-10). If
these same circulations exist under ice conditions, one would expect thick accumulations on the outside of
bends, while the relatively tranquil flow on the inside of the bend would allow shore ice to form easily,
reducing the open surface width. Limited laboratory experiments (with a fixed bed) have shown that these
secondary currents may be modified by the presence of an ice cover, further compounding the
nonuniformity of the ice cover. In addition to this nonuniformity, vessels often have

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Figure 14-8. Tainter gate frozen in place by ice formed by leakage past the gates
side seals

Figure 14-9. Heavy accumulations of ice floes and brash ice

trouble tracking around bends under ice conditions, particularly severe bends as on the upper Monongahela
River. Figure 14-11 shows a vessel track around a severe bend. Note the wide, irregular appearance of the
track caused by transiting problems. Experience in the Pittsburgh District indicates that river bends having
110 degrees or more of curvature will cause transiting difficulties when ice is present.

b. Reduced open width of river surface. Laboratory experiments with plastic ice have shown that
there is a relationship between the characteristic size of ice floes and the open width of a channel for the
occurrence of arching and channel blockage. Once blockage has taken place, an accumulation of surface

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Figure 14-10. Transverse velocities forming secondary circulation cells in river bends

Figure 14-11. Broken, irregular vessel track around a sharp river bend, indicating
difficulties in navigating through the ice

floes may progress upstream. One mechanism that accelerates the blockage process is the growth of shore
ice, which reduces the open width of the river surface. The shore spans of bridges often freeze over quickly
during periods of low flow, and this width reduction may be enough to cause blockage when ice discharge
in the river is high. Figure 14-12 shows the Allegheny River at Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, where the open
surface width has been reduced significantly by the freeze-over of the shore spans of several bridges.
Islands may also cause a reduction in open surface width. Typically, one channel around an island carries
the major portion of flow while the other freezes over. Again, this surface-width reduction may be enough
to initiate blockage. Figure 14-13 shows an island with one of the channels frozen over.

c. Tributaries. During breakup, tributaries may discharge large quantities of ice into the main river.
If the main river is still frozen or partially ice-covered, an accumulation may result. On a large scale, this
is what happens when the Monongahela River breaks up, discharging ice into the Ohio River. Typically,
only the larger tributaries are significant and the duration of this type of problem is small. Very steep

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Figure 14-12. Shore ice formation, with bridge piers

providing added stability to the shore ice

tributaries may remain open all winter long, generating large quantities of frazil ice. The upper reaches of
the Allegheny River (above Lock and Dam No. 9) supply frazil to downstream areas through the winter.
Tributaries, whether large or small, may also have fans or bars extending into the main river. These
shallower areas tend to freeze over quickly, extending shore ice into the river and reducing the open surface
width. A special case exists on the Illinois Waterway in the vicinity of Marseilles Lock and Dam. The
river is split by a long island, with the dam at the upstream end of one channel (the north channel) and the
lock at the downstream end of the other (the south channel). The north channel is fairly steep and generates
frazil ice all winter long. The south or navigation channel is flat and generally freezes as a lake. A short
distance downstream of the lock, the two channels rejoin with a flat slope. The frazil moving down the
steep north channel suddenly loses velocity and tends to accumulate downstream of the junction.
Accumulations in this area can reach thicknesses of 1.8 meters (6 feet) and lengths of 0.8 kilometer
(1/2 mile). It is not unusual for towboats to spend 10 to 18 hours to navigate through this section.

d. Fleeting and mooring areas. Under midwinter conditions, there is often a narrow shipping track
that remains open following the channel line in an otherwise frozen river. This is characteristic of the

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Figure 14-13. River divided into two channels by an island; the main channel is open
while the secondary or back channel is ice covered

upper Monongahela River. Tows travel in these established tracks, leaving them only to move to mooring
cells, fleeting areas, or docks. If care is not taken to move to these areas by additional established tracks,
large ice pieces can be broken away from the cover and become lodged in the main shipping track.
Figure 14-14 shows a fleeting area near shore and an established navigation track following the shipping
channel.

Figure 14-14. Navigation track in the middle of the channel, with a fleeting area at
the near bank; traffic using the fleeting area can break free large floes that can move
out to block the track

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14-6. References

a. Required publications.
None.

b. Related publications.

Haynes et al. 1993

Haynes, F.D., R. Haehnel, and L. Zabilansky. 1993. Icing Problems at Corps Projects, Technical Report
REMR-HY-10, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Mississippi.

Zufelt and Calkins 1985

Zufelt, J., and D. Calkins. 1985. Survey of Ice Problem Areas in Navigable Waterways, Special Report
85-2, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

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Chapter 15
Ice Forecasting

15-1. General

Forecasting of ice conditions on inland waterways is based on the premise that, given forecasts of future
meteorological conditions and forecasts of future hydraulic conditions, it is possible, through knowledge of
thermodynamics, open channel hydraulics, ice physics, and an understanding of the behavior of the various
forms of river ice, to develop forecasts of the future ice conditions. The methodology described in this
chapter produces ice forecasts that are unique to a specific river or basin for which an Ice Forecasting
System is developed.

a. The first goal of an Ice Forecasting System is to anticipate the period when ice formation is
possible and, if possible, assign probabilities to the likelihood of formation. This type of forecast is known
as a Long-Term Water Temperature Forecast. Such forecasts are made by a computer model of the overall
heat balance of the river watershed, which indicates the long-term water temperature response to changes in
air temperature.

b. A second type of forecast is much more detailed in its results. The goals of this type of forecast
are to predict the reaches of a river where ice will form, when that ice will form, the areal extent of
stationary ice, the ice thickness, the time of breakup, and ice jams and other extreme ice conditions. This
Mid-Winter Ice Forecast is very sensitive to day-to-day changes in meteorological conditions and flow
conditions, making it apply to a much shorter time, generally 5 to 7 days. This short-term forecast requires
the development of three closely interrelated models: first, a dynamic flow model to simulate the channel
hydraulics, including the influence of ice; second, a thermodynamic model to simulate the heat transfer
between the waterway and the atmosphere; and third, an ice formation model to distribute the ice along the
waterway and to calculate the ice thickness.

c. In this chapter, general overviews of the Ice Forecasting System, including the Long-Term Water
Temperature Forecasts and the Mid-Winter Ice Forecasts, are presented. For each type of forecast, its
objective, the basic theory, the model operation, the data required for model calibration, the data required
for model operation, and the results are discussed.

Section I
Long-Term Water Temperature Forecasts

15-2. Objective

Predictions of water temperature are made primarily to estimate when the water temperature will be at or
near the freezing temperature, 0EC (32EF). It is at this time that ice can be expected to form. Advance
knowledge of the date that freezing temperatures will be reached allows efficient management of resources
necessary to deal with the problems that can be caused by ice at locks and dams and other Corps facilities,
and may assist operational planning for other navigation interests.

15-3. Model Description

River water temperatures reflect the balance of heat flow into and out of the volume of water that makes up
the river discharge. This principle forms the basis of river water temperature forecasting. At any point

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along a river, the water temperature at that point reflects the heat balance upstream of that point.
Mathematically, this temperature can be represented by a convectiondiffusion equation. However, this
equation can require a great deal of information to solve, and much of the information may not be known
for future times. An efficient alternative is a total watershed approach. This approach assumes the
following:

The temperature of the river is well-mixed vertically; that is, the temperature of the river is uniform
from the surface to the bottom. (This will be true of almost all rivers with any velocity. This may
not be true of reservoirs, lakes, or other large bodies of water without appreciable flow velocity.)

The heat flow into and out of the river water is dominated by exchanges with the atmosphere.
(This allows the prediction of the river water temperatures to be based on forecasts of future
meteorological conditions. Other heat sources, such as industrial or municipal effluents, can be
factored into the forecast by studying past response of the river water temperature. However, if the
water temperature of the river upstream of the point for which the forecast is to be made is
dominated by such sources, this approach may lead to large inaccuracies.)

The river is essentially free-flowing, having only a relatively small portion of its drainage area
covered by reservoirs or lakes, the temperatures of which are not dominated by artificial heat
sources.

a. Heat transfer components. There are many components of the heat balance that affect and
determine the actual resulting river water temperature. These include heat transfer to the atmosphere, heat
transfer to the ground, the influx of groundwater, and artificial heat sources. As stated previously, the heat
transfer is dominated by the exchange with the atmosphere. This exchange has many modes, including
long-wave radiation, short-wave radiation, evaporation, condensation, and precipitation. However, many
of these modes are difficult to forecast, and forecasts of them are not generally made. Therefore, a simple
but generally accurate means of approximating the heat transfer rate N is made based on the equation

N = hwa(Tw Ta) + q (15-1)

where

Ta = temperature of the air

Tw = temperature of the water

hwa = effective heat transfer coefficient from the water to air

q = heat inflow that is independent of the air temperature, such as solar radiation.

b. Convectiondiffusion equation. In this watershed approach, the one-dimensional

convectiondiffusion equation can be simplified to the form

DTw N
=&
Dt D Cp D
(15-2)

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where

D/Dt = total derivative

D = density of water

Cp = specific heat of water

D = mean channel depth.

c. Air Temperature Representation. In principle, the average daily air temperature over the entire
period of a year can be represented by a Fourier series. However, in practice, it is efficient to represent the
actual mean air temperature on any day by

2Bt
T a = T % " sin % 2 % T* (15-3)
T j

where

t = Julian date

T = number of days in year (365 or 366)

2 = phase angle

T = mean annual air temperature

a = amplitude

T*j = deviation in air temperature.

The deviation in air temperature represents the difference between the actual daily average air temperature
and the sum of the yearly mean temperature and the first harmonic representation of the daily average air
temperature. The values of T, a, and 2 can be found by analyzing air temperature records from previous
years that have been collected in the region where the water temperature forecasts are to be made.
Examples are shown in Table 15-1. The deviations of daily average temperature from the first harmonic
representation for all past data can be calculated. The deviations for future times are, of course, unknown.

Table 15-1
Mean Annual Air Temperatures and First Harmonic Coefficients Determined for Selected First-Order National Weather Ser-
vice Stations, for Application to the Air Temperature Representation in the Long-Term Water Temperature Forecast Model
Mean Annual Air Amplitude
Station Temperature T, C (F) a, C (F) Phase Angle q Period of Record

Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 10.16 (50.29) 12.64 (22.75) -1.9085 1965-1982

Huntington, West Virginia 12.63 (54.73) 11.66 (20.99) -1.8734 1965-1982

Covington, Kentucky 11.80 (53.24) 12.84 (23.11) -1.8866 1965-1982

Louisville, Kentucky 13.39 (56.10) 12.43 (22.37) -1.8769 1965-1982

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d. Model parameters. By substituting Equations 15-1 and 15-3 into Equation 15-2 and integrating to
solve for Tw, an equation describing water temperature is derived.* This equation is the basis of the water
temperature forecast model. There are two coefficients in this equation, the response coefficient Kr , and
the equivalent temperature Tq. The forecast of the water temperature on day j (Twj ) is based on information
known from the previous day, j 1. The forecast is made in 1-day increments, starting from the date of the
forecast. In principle, the forecast can extend indefinitely into the future. However, in practice, the
forecasts are limited by the lack of knowledge of future air temperature deviations.

e. Data required for model calibration. The unknown coefficients in the model equation, Kr and Tq,
must be determined by analyzing past air temperature records and water temperature records. This
suggests the importance of complete and accurate temperature records for forecasting. Generally, the
water temperature records are the most difficult to obtain. The unknown coefficients are estimated by a
least-squares approach. The results of calculating the response coefficient and equivalent temperature for
six stations on the Ohio River are shown in Table 15-2. In this case separate coefficients have been
calculated for two 3-month periods: October through December, and January through March. These two
periods cover the entire winter season.

15-4. Model Operation

From the analysis of previous data, the following information is knownair temperature characteristics
(mean annual air temperature, first harmonic amplitude, and phase angle), and the water temperature
response coefficient and equivalent temperature. From real-time water temperature measurement stations

* The general equation for Tw, for a specific day j, is given by:

2Bt
Tw = T % a cos " sin %2&"
j T
2B(t&1) &Kr
= Tw & T & a cos " sin %2&" e
j&1
T
&Kr &K r
= Ts 1 & e % Tq 1 & e
j

where " = tan1 (2B/KrT) .

The coefficients are estimated by minimizing a function M:

M = j Tw & T w
n
2
a
j'1

where Tw is the actual water temperature on day j, and Tw is the water temperature forecast for that day using
a j

known values of a, 2, T* and T .

j

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Table 15-2
Sample Model Coefficients for Six Stations on the Upper Ohio River, for Application to Long-Term Water Temperature
Forecasts

Response Coefficient
Kr Equivalent Temperature Tq, C (F)

Location Oct-Dec Jan-Mar Oct-Dec Jan-Mar

Emsworth L&D* 0.1737 0.0725 1.35 (2.43) 3.45 (6.21)

South Heights, 0.0637 0.0697 1.35 (2.43) 3.45 (6.21)

Pennsylvania (ORSANCO)

Montgomery L&D 0.1087 0.0706 1.27 (2.29) 3.52 (6.34)

Hannibal L&D 0.0998 0.0700 0.20 (0.36) 2.95 (5.31)

Racine L&D 0.1000 0.0633 0.20 (0.36) 1.80 (3.24)

Meldahl L&D 0.0596 0.0594 0.20 (0.36) 1.79 (3.22)

* Lock and Dam.

at each location where forecasts are to be made, the actual river water temperatures at the time of the
forecast are obtained. The forecasts of air temperature are obtained from the National Weather Service
(NWS). Generally, these are represented as deviations from the normal air temperature as described by
Equation 15-3. A diagram of the model is shown in Figure 15-1. Generally, the model is run to estimate
the period when ice formation is possible, that is, when the water temperature is 0EC (32EF). However,
this would not be a conservative estimate because unforecasted deviations in air temperature may cause the
water to reach 0EC (32EF) sometime before the actual forecasted date, and often, for a given winter season,
0EC (32EF) may never be reached. Therefore, the following nomenclature has been developed. The term
most-likely ice period is used to describe the time when the water temperature is forecasted to be 1.5EC
(34.7EF) or less. The term ice watch is used to describe the time when the water temperature is forecasted
to be 0.5 EC (32.9EF) or less.

15-5. Model Results

An example of a sample water temperature forecast is shown in Figure 15-2. This example indicates the
location of the forecast, the date of the forecast, the water temperature on the date of the forecast, and the
air temperature forecasts provided by the NWS. In this case the NWS forecasts are for normal
temperature, that is, the temperature deviations from the temperatures described by Equation 15-3 have
been set to zero. Then the example provides the actual forecasted water temperature and a description of
the most-likely ice period and the ice watch period.

15-6. Model Accuracy

To assess the accuracy of the Long-Term Water Temperature Forecast model, the Ohio River Valley
Sanitation Commission (ORSANCO) station at South Heights, Pennsylvania, has been used because of its
long period of record. There are several ways of assessing the accuracy of the forecast. The first is to
determine the mean error of the forecast, that is, the average absolute value of the difference between the
forecasted water temperature and the actual. Results of forecasts done on 14 years of records are shown in
Figure 15-3. The error is calculated based on the forecast that could be made by assuming that a perfect
air temperature forecast is available, that is, by using the actual recorded daily average air temperature. It
can be seen that, for the 25-day period following the date of the forecast, the forecasted

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Figure 15-1. Flowchart of long-term water temperature forecast model

water temperatures are more accurate than those determined by simply using the long-term mean water
temperature as an estimate.

Section II
Mid-Winter Ice Forecasts

15-7. Objectives

The objectives of the Mid-Winter Ice Forecasts are to provide accurate predictions of the reaches of a river
system where ice will be formed, the reaches of a river system where there will be stationary ice

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Figure 15-2. Typical output information of the long-term

water temperature forecast model. Successive model runs
(updates) would yield more precise estimates of the most-likely
ice period and the ice watch period

cover, the thickness of the stationary ice cover, the thickness of frazil ice deposited under the ice cover, the
water temperature in every reach, and the breakup date of the stationary ice cover. These predictions are to
be made as far into the future as possible. However, owing to limitations of weather forecasts, the ice
forecasts have a realistic limitation of 5 to 7 days.

15-8. Forecast Model Description

The Mid-Winter Ice Forecast model (Shen 1991)is composed of three submodels and several supporting
models. The Mid-Winter Ice Forecast model also has several items that must be specified; these are known
as System Parameters. The three submodels are the Hydraulic Model, the Thermal Model, and the Ice
Model. Each of these submodels is based on physical principles that will be discussed below. Moreover,
each of these submodels has several items that must be entered as input; these are the Physical Parameters
and the Initial Conditions. The Initial Conditions define the river system at the time the forecast is made.
Each submodel must also be supplied with parameters known as Boundary Conditions; these are not
determined by the ice forecast model, but rather are independently forecasted parameters (such as air
temperature and tributary discharge) that drive the ice forecast model. The ice forecast model uses the
Boundary Conditions to predict new values of the parameters supplied as Initial

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Figure 15-3. Forecast-model accuracy illustrated by plot of error as a function of days since forecast was
made. Forecast naturally has its greatest accuracy immediately following the date of forecast, after which error
generally increases with time. For comparison, error resulting from simple long-term daily average water temperatures
is also shown and seen to decrease slightly with time. For the period up to about 25 days after a forecast is made, the
error in forecasted water temperatures is more acceptable than that associated with reliance on long-term averages.

Conditions at each time step. These new values are the output of the model, and can serve as the Initial
Conditions for the following time step. The output of the model is the forecast of future ice conditions.
This is outlined in Figure 15-4. This section consists of a description of the Mid-Winter Ice Forecast
model and the required System Parameters, Physical Parameters, Initial Conditions, and Boundary
Conditions. This is followed by a discussion of the Model Output of the ice forecast model and a
description of the application of the ice forecast model to a river system. The application discussion
includes the role of supporting programs to interface the data collection program and generate the Initial
Conditions and the Boundary Conditions and also to interpret the Model Output.

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Figure 15-4. Flowchart of mid-winter ice forecast model

15-9. Hydraulic Model Description

The Hydraulic Model used is a one-dimensional, unsteady-flow model. This submodel solves two equa-
tions. The first equation is the conservation equation. It assures that the flow entering, leaving, and stored
in a reach is balanced. This equation can also consider tributary inflow and other lateral inflow. It may
also consider storage of flow in a floodplain. The second equation is termed the momentum equation. This
equation assures that the momentum entering and leaving a reach is balanced by the forces acting on that
reach. The momentum equation considers the forces of gravity, the channel friction, the hydrostatic
pressure, and the possible acceleration of the flow. Both the conservation equation and the momentum
equation are one-dimensional, that is, all properties are averaged over any cross section, and the only
dimension considered is longitudinal or along the channel.

a. Model equation solutions. Taken together, the conservation and momentum equations are
nonlinear, partial differential equations. Therefore, they cannot be solved directly, and they cannot be
represented directly in a computer. Generally, they are represented in their finite-difference form and
solved at discrete points, termed nodes. The system of nodes is used to represent the river system under
consideration. Generally, a node is a point at which information about the channel geometry is known, or
for which information is required, such as a lock and dam project. Each node is separated from the next by
a distance (the reach length) that can have different values from one node-pair to another. The closer the
spacing of nodes is (i.e., the shorter the reach length), the more accurately a river can be represented and
the more data that are then required. A river system (a main stem with tributaries) can be represented by

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such a system of nodes. It is then necessary to indicate the starting and ending node of each tributary, and
the node where the tributary and main stem join. An example of such a system is shown in Figure 15-5.

b. Influence of locks and dams. The Hydraulic Model must also be able to include the effects of
locks and dams on the conservation and momentum equations. Generally, for a dam with control gates, this
will mean fixing an upper pool or upper gage elevation at a lock and dam if the discharge is below a certain
known value. If the discharge exceeds this value, then a rating curve is supplied to determine the upper
pool stage. A lock and dam with a fixed crest spillway, for example, has a rating curve to describe its
upper pool elevation.

c. Ice effects. The influence of ice must also be taken into account by the Hydraulic Model. The
influence of ice will act to reduce the hydraulic radius of a cross section by increasing the wetted perimeter,
reduce the cross-sectional area available for flow, and introduce a roughness that will cause an additional
friction force that acts on the flow.

d. Hydraulic model output. The principal outputs of the Hydraulic Model are the discharge and the
cross-sectional area (from which the depth, velocity, and water-surface top-width are derived) for each
node for every time step.

15-10. Thermal Model Description

The Thermal Model computes a heat balance over each river reach. This submodel accounts for heat
gained or lost in the reach, and assures that this is reflected in the water temperature response of that reach.
However, because of the physical properties of water, it is not possible for the water temperature to decline
in any appreciable way below 0EC (32EF). At this point, further heat loss from the water will result in the
production of ice, and heat gain will result in the melting of ice. Once all ice in a reach has melted, further
heat gain will result in a rise in the water temperature.

a. Heat balance. Generally, the heat transfer to or from river water is dominated by the heat
exchange from the open-water surface to the atmosphere. Heat exchange with the channel bed and banks is
minor, as is heat gain from friction. Artificial heat sources, such as cooling water discharged from power
plants, can be significant and must be included. The presence of an ice cover can greatly reduce the heat
exchange with the atmosphere. In this case, the heat transferred through the ice by conduction must be
calculated. The presence of an ice cover will allow heat to leave the river water, but not to be gained by the
water from the atmosphere. When the ice is greater than about 5 centimeters (2 inches) thick, the heat
transfer rate from the water is primarily controlled by the rate at which heat can be conducted through ice.

b. Heat transfer from open water. The heat transfer from an open-water surface to the atmosphere
comprises several different modes. These modes include long-wave radiation, short-wave radiation,
evaporation, and conduction. It has been found that the daily average heat transfer rate per unit area of
open water is represented very well by an equation of the type

N = h(Tw Ta)

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Figure 15-5. River system represented by nodes and

branches, for use in the hydraulic model. Note that nodes
exist not only at lock and dam projects and at tributary junctions,
but also wherever hydraulic and channel information is known or
desired

where

N = heat transfer rate per unit area

Tw = temperature of the water

Ta = temperature of the air

h = heat transfer coefficient.

The value of the heat transfer coefficient is influenced by the atmospheric stability and wind velocity, but in
general can be considered to be a constant for a given region. This equation is of the same form as
Equation 15-1. The difference is that here we are considering a specific area or reach of the river, while
Equation 15-1 addresses the basin as a whole.

c. Heat transfer through an ice cover. Heat transfer through an ice cover is a balance of the heat lost
to the atmosphere, the heat conducted through the ice, and the heat transferred from the water to the bottom
of the ice cover. If more heat is transferred to the atmosphere than is transferred from the water to the ice,
the ice cover will grow in thickness. If less heat is transferred, the ice cover will melt. The rate of

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thickening or melting is determined by the product of the latent heat of fusion of water and the heat transfer
rate.

d. Temperature response. The temperature response of a reach of river water is determined by the
overall heat loss or gain from the reach, the volume of water contained in that reach, and the heat capacity
of the water. The overall heat loss or gain is the product of the heat transfer rate per unit area and the
surface area. Both the surface area and volume of a reach are determined by the Hydraulic Model.

e. Initial ice formation. The initial formation of ice in a reach can be quite complex, and the type of
ice formed is dependent on the hydraulic conditions in that reach. Generally, the initial ice is in the form of
very small disks that are well distributed through the depth of flow; this ice is termed frazil ice. Frazil will
tend to collect at the water surface and to move with the general flow velocity. The Thermal Model can
calculate the heat loss and calculate the amount of ice formed. However, the formation of a stationary
cover ice is determined by the Ice Model (see paragraph 15-11). The presence of open water implies the
formation of frazil, and the presence of a stationary ice cover will imply the thickening or melting of that
cover.

f. Thermal model output. The output of the Thermal Model is the water temperature at each node
for every time step. If the water temperature is at 0EC (32EF), the volume of ice formed or melted will also
be calculated. If the reach is open water, the volume of frazil formed will be determined. If the reach is ice
covered, the change in thickness will be determined.

15-11. Ice Model Description

Given the hydraulic conditions of stage and velocity (determined by the Hydraulic Model), and the water
temperature and volumes of ice formed or melted (determined by the Thermal Model), the Ice Model will
then determine where the stationary ice covers are initiated, the manner in which they are formed, their
length, their initial thicknesses, and the volume of frazil that is eroded or deposited under them. It is
important to note that while the other submodels (the Hydraulic Model and the Thermal Model) are based
on general physical principles (that is, the conservation of matter, momentum, and energy), the Ice Model
largely reflects principles gleaned through actual observation of the behavior of river ice and the
development of empirical relationships.

a. Ice bridging. It is assumed that the initial ice formed on the river is frazil. The frazil particles will
rise buoyantly and collect at the water surface to form a slush, which will then flocculate to form pans of
ice. It is not possible at this time to calculate what the initial thickness of these pans will be, but a
thickness for the initial pans must be entered as a Physical Parameter into the program. Therefore, the
initial formation of ice will be in the form of pans whose thickness is a preset parameter. These pans will
move with the flow velocity until they reach an obstacle in the flow, or until the concentration of floating
ice increases to the point where the ice bridges naturally across the stream channel and forms a stationary
cover. It is not possible at this time to calculate where these natural bridging points will occur, or under
what conditions of flow and ice concentration they will occur. Therefore, the initial bridging locations must
be determined through judgment and entered into the program as Physical Parameters. For example, it can
be assumed that ice will initially bridge at the locations of locks and dams. Most often, ice bridges at the
same locations each winter season. These locations may be at sharp bends, low velocity reaches, etc.

b. Progression by juxtaposition. The initial formation of a stationary ice cover in a reach where an
obstacle exists at the downstream end will follow the logic shown in Figure 15-6. This obstacle may be

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Figure 15-6. Flowchart of the logic used in the ice model. This flowchart is for
determining whether the upstream ice cover progression is by juxtaposition or by jamming
(with the associated narrow-jam or wide-jam thickness), or whether there is no progression
of the ice cover

an input ice-bridging location, or the edge of the ice cover that has progressed upstream in the previous
time step. The first condition to be addressed is this: Will the ice pans that arrive at the stationary cover
remain floating or underturn? If they remain floating, the cover is said to progress by juxtaposition. It is
assumed that, if the Froude Number of the flow, defined as

V
FD =
gD

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where

V = mean velocity

g = acceleration of gravity

D = channel depth

is less than the Juxtaposition Froude Number, then the pans will not underturn and the cover will progress
upstream by juxtaposition. The Juxtaposition Froude Number must be entered as a Physical Parameter. It
is one of the empirical parameters used in the Ice Model. The rate of ice-cover progression upstream will
be determined by the concentration of arriving ice, the velocity of the arriving ice, the thickness of the
cover, the porosity of the cover, and the fraction of the total ice flow going into the cover formation. (The
porosity of the cover and the fraction of the total ice flow going into the cover are also entered as Physical
Parameters.) If, on the other hand, the Froude Number of the flow is greater than the Juxtaposition Froude
Number, then the pans will underturn, and may or may not progress upstream. If the pans do progress
upstream under this condition, they do so by jamming rather than by juxtaposition.

c. Limit of ice-cover progression. If the Froude Number of the flow exceeds the Juxtaposition
Froude Number, it is necessary to check and see if the Froude Number of the flow is greater than a limiting
value of the Froude Number for progression. If this is true, no ice-cover progression is possible. All the
arriving ice will be swept under the existing ice cover and carried downstream. This means that, until the
hydraulic conditions change, the river will remain as ice-free, open-water upstream of this point. This
limiting value of the Froude Number for progression is also an empirical value, entered as a Physical
Parameter; suggested values are available.

d. Wide and narrow ice jams. If the Froude Number of the flow exceeds the Juxtaposition Froude
Number, but is less than the limiting value of the Froude Number for ice-cover progression, then the ice
cover can progress in one of two modes. These modes are termed the narrow-jam and wide-jam modes.
These modes reflect the balance of forces acting on the ice cover.

(1) In the wide-jam mode, the ice cover must thicken to transfer the forces acting on the cover to the
channel banks. The forces acting on the cover are the bottom friction ascribable to the flow and the
component of the weight of the cover parallel to the water surface caused by the slope of the water surface.
These forces are resisted by the friction of the ice against the channel banks and by any cohesion with the
channel banks. It is assumed that the forces acting on the cover are in equilibrium with the resisting force
of the channel banks at every point along the channel. The thickness of ice required to provide this
equilibrium is termed the equilibrium ice jam thickness, and is calculated assuming that the ice acts as a
passive granular material. The Physical Parameters that are required are the underside roughness of the ice
cover, the coefficient of friction of the ice with the banks, the coefficient of passive stress for granular ice,
the bank cohesion, and the porosity of the ice cover. Once the equilibrium ice jam thickness has been
calculated, the progression rate is determined with the same procedure as before.

(2) In the narrow-jam mode, it is assumed that the thickness of the ice cover is determined by the
hydraulic conditions at the leading edge of the ice cover. Forces acting on the cover are not a

Suggested values of the Juxtaposition Froude Number are available, or estimates can be made using semi-
empirical formulas described by Ashton (1986), where the parameter is termed the block stability criterion for
underturning.

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consideration. Specifically, it is necessary that the ice cover be thick enough so that a no-spill condition
is satisfied. That is, the cover is thick enough to resist the sinkage caused by the acceleration of flow
beneath the leading edge of the cover.

(3) Generally, it is not possible to determine beforehand whether an ice cover will progress in the wide-
jam or narrow-jam modes. The thickness that will result from each mode is calculated and the mode that
results in a greater thickness is used.

e. Conservation of moving ice. The Ice Model balances the concentration of moving ice for each
time step. Ice that reaches a stationary ice cover, and does not go into the formation of the ice cover via one
of the modes described above, is assumed to be transported under the ice cover. This ice can be deposited
under the ice cover, and is considered to be deposited frazil. The deposited ice can then be eroded if the
velocity of the water increases sufficiently. The rate of deposition to the underside of the ice cover is
determined by a mass balance calculation on the transported ice. The Physical Parameters required are the
probability of deposition of an ice particle that reaches the ice/water interface, the buoyant velocity of the
frazil particle, and the critical velocity for deposition. If the flow velocity is above the critical velocity for
deposition, the frazil will not be deposited. Erosion of the deposited frazil takes place when the local flow
velocity under a frazil deposit increases beyond the critical velocity for erosion. The Physical Parameter
that is required here is the critical velocity for erosion.

f. Ice-cover stability. After an ice cover has been formed, it can be lost when the forces acting on the
cover exceed its ability to transfer these forces to the channel bank. This will happen if the hydraulic
conditions change, or if the ice-cover thickness is reduced by melting. Therefore, at each time step, a force
balance must be determined on the ice cover in each reach. The friction on the ice cover from the flow and
the component of the weight of the cover parallel to the water surface caused by the slope of the water
surface are balanced against the ice covers ability to resist the applied forces. The ice-cover strength is
determined by the ice thickness, the coefficient of friction of the ice with the banks, and the bank cohesion.
If the force acting on the ice cover exceeds the ability of the ice cover to resist that force, the ice cover is
then considered to collapse and become floating and mobile ice.

15-12. System Parameters

System Parameters are data that describe the physical river system that is to be modeled and the manner in
which the model is to operate. Generally, these System Parameters do not change their values as the model
is run. The following are required System Parameters:

C Number of tributary branches.

C Number and location of nodes.

C Number and location of locks and dams.

C Number of lateral inflows.

C Time step length.

C Total time of model run.

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15-13. Physical Parameters

Physical Parameters are data that describe the physical processes that are being modeled. Generally, these
are physical constants and do not change their value while the program is being run. These constants are
either measured in the field, determined during model calibration, estimated from observation and
laboratory experiment, or known from physical principles.

a. Hydraulic Model physical parameters.

(1) Measured in the field:

C Channel geometry of each node.

C Floodplain areas.

(2) Determined from model calibration:

C Channel roughness.
C Contraction and expansion coefficients.

(3) Physical principle: Density of water.

b. Thermal Model physical parameters.

(1) Determined from model calibration:

C Airwater heat transfer coefficient.

C Icewater heat transfer coefficient.

(2) Physical principles:

C Density of water.
C Heat capacity of water.
C Thermal conductivity of ice.
C Heat capacity of ice.
C Latent heat of fusion of ice.
C Density of ice.

c. Ice Model physical parameters.

(1) Estimated from observation and laboratory experiment:

C Buoyant velocity of frazil particles.

C Probability of ice particle depositing on cover.
C Critical velocity of frazil deposition.
C Critical velocity of frazil erosion.
C Coefficient of passive stress.
C Ratio of longitudinal stress to bank friction.
C Icebank cohesion.
C Bridging flag at each node.

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C Underside roughness coefficient of ice cover.

C Juxtaposition Froude Number.
C Limiting value of the Froude Number for progression.
C Ice-cover porosity.
C Deposited frazil porosity.
C Initial ice pan thickness.
C Fraction of total ice flow going into the ice-cover formation.

(2) As noted in paragraph 15-11, the Ice Model does not have Physical Parameters based on physical
principles nor determined by means of model calibration.

15-14. Initial Conditions

The Initial Conditions are those that describe the physical conditions of the river system at the time that the
forecast is made. The following Initial Conditions must be known at each node.

a. Hydraulic Model initial conditions.

C Water surface elevation.

C Discharge.

b. Thermal Model initial condition: Water temperature.

c. Ice model initial conditions.

C Floating ice concentration.

C Ice-cover length.
C Ice-cover thickness.
C Deposited frazil thickness.

15-15. Boundary Conditions

The Boundary Conditions cannot be determined by the Mid-Winter Ice Forecast model. They are the
parameters (forecasted by other means) that drive the model. The Boundary Conditions can change with
each time step.

a. Hydraulic Model boundary conditions.

C Tributary discharge.
C Lateral inflows.
C Downstream stage.

b. Thermal Model boundary conditions.

C Tributary water temperature.

C Lateral inflow water temperature.
C Air temperature at every node.

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c. Ice Model boundary conditions. There are currently no Boundary Conditions to be entered in the
Ice Model. However, if known, the ice concentration of the tributaries and lateral inflows could be entered.

15-16. Model Output

The output of the Mid-Winter Ice Forecast model, in general, consists of updated values of the Initial
Conditions based on the input Boundary Conditions. Each of the three submodels produces its own output.
The output can be specified at each node and at each time step.

a. Hydraulic Model output. The output of the Hydraulic Model consists of the stage and discharge at
each node at each time step. The mean velocity can also be calculated since the cross-section geometry is
known.

b. Thermal Model output. The output of the Thermal Model consists of the water temperature at
each node at each time step.

c. Ice Model output. The output of the Ice Model consists of the following for each node at each time
step:

C Concentration of moving ice.

C Presence or absence of an ice cover, and if an ice cover is present, the length and thickness of
that ice cover.
C Thickness of deposited frazil.

15-17. Model Calibration

The initial calibration setup of the Mid-Winter Ice Forecast model is not described in detail. However, in
general, calibration of the model consists of adjusting the values of the Physical Parameters in each of the
submodels so that the Model Output accurately reproduces the observed conditions. This procedure is
necessary because in many cases there is no means of actually measuring the required Physical Parameters.

a. Hydraulic Model calibration. Calibration of the Hydraulic Model consists of adjusting the
roughness coefficients that determine the resistance of the channel to flow. Generally, the roughness
coefficients are adjusted so that, at observed discharges, the corresponding observed water elevations are
matched.

b. Thermal Model calibration. Calibration of the Thermal Model consists of adjusting the heat
transfer coefficients that determine the heat transfer rates from the water to the air, and from the water to
the underside of the ice cover.

c. Ice Model calibration. A telling indication of the uncertain knowledge of river ice is the large
number of parameters that could be adjusted during the calibration of an Ice Model. Generally, every
Physical Parameter listed under the Ice Model (paragraph 15-13c) can be adjusted, as a definite value for
each parameter cannot yet be calculated from our understanding of ice physics. Unfortunately, this is not a
very satisfactory state of affairs. It is recommended that suggested values of the Physical Parameters be
used and not adjusted, unless direct evidence of the need for adjustment is produced.

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15-18. Model Operation

A general overview of the operational setup of the Ice Forecasting System is shown in Figure 15-7. The
system may be divided into four general components: Data Collection and Transmission, Data Reduction
and Data Base Management, Initial Conditions and Boundary Conditions Generators, and the Mid-Winter
Ice Forecast model itself.

a. Field data collection and transmission. Data collected and transmitted for the model at present
are water temperature, air temperature, and water-surface stage. This information is collected by Data
Collection Platforms (DCPs) and transmitted via Geostationary Observational Environmental Satellite
(GOES) to a down-link at a central location. The equipment and setup of a DCP with the appropriate
sensors are addressed in Chapter 16. Thermistors, which change resistance in response to temperature
change, are used to measure temperature. As DCPs can generally only measure voltages, a voltage divider
circuit must be used to convert the thermistor resistance to a voltage that can be measured by the DCP.
Generally, the following data must be transmitted to accurately determine temperaturethe measured
voltage across the voltage divider circuit, the measured voltage across the thermistor, and a measurement of
the voltage across a reference resistor. The last measurement is necessary to correct for any impedance
mismatch.

b. Data reduction and data base management. The transmissions from the DCPs are coded, and
these coded transmissions must be decoded and converted to the proper engineering units. To determine
temperature accurately from thermistor measurements, the actual thermistor resistance must be determined
(based on the transmitted voltages), the resistance must be corrected for any impedance mismatch, and then
the thermistor matched up with the proper calibration constants to convert the thermistor resistance to a
temperature. A program (DCP.FOR) was developed for this purpose. DCP.FOR has a highly flexible
structure for describing a particular DCP site, and this description can easily be modified or updated. This
is particularly important during the setup of large data collection networks, when sensors may often be
moved, recalibrated, or replaced. DCP.FOR can also decode the messages from any other meteorological
sensor that has a linear output. DCP.FOR creates an output file whose format is fixed, but allows any
arrangement of sensors as input to the DCP. A single file is created for each station for each month. The
measured value of each sensor, in engineering units, is stored in a fixed format in the file. This allows a
flexibility in the sensor configuration at the DCP, while maintaining a data base whose format is fixed.
The output file of DCP.FOR has been interfaced with the Corps DSS data base system.

c. Initial Conditions and Boundary Conditions Generators. These are programs that take the actual
field data and the forecasted values of air temperature and tributary discharge to create the proper Initial
Conditions file and Boundary Conditions file for the Mid-Winter Ice Forecast model. These are discussed
in more detail in paragraphs 15-20 and 15-21.

d. Mid-Winter Ice Forecast Model. The Mid-Winter Ice Forecast model was discussed previously.
The model (using the Initial Conditions and the Boundary Conditions created by the Initial Conditions and
Boundary Conditions Generators) prepares the forecast of predicted ice conditions. Two different modes of
operation will be described: the Update Mode and the Forecast Mode (see Paragraph 15-22).

15-19. Location of Field Measurement Sites

Ideally, a field measurement site could be located at each node of the model. The site would provide
information on the water stage, discharge, air temperature, and water temperature. However, this would be
prohibitively expensive, and the amount of data generated would quickly bury any practical data

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Figure 15-7. Overall flowchart of the ice forecasting system. Within the Ice Forecasting System, the Mid-Winter
Ice Forecast model operates under the support of Data Collection and Transmission, Data Reduction and Data Base
Management, and Initial Conditions and Boundary Conditions Generators (DCP.FOR and MASTER.DAT are computer
program names)

management scheme. In fact, field measurement sites should be kept to a minimum and located where they
will provide the optimum information to allow the most accurate creation of the Initial Conditions and
Boundary Conditions as input to the Mid-Winter Ice Forecast model. In general, the following guidelines
apply:

C Field sites to measure water temperature should be located at the upstream end of the main stem
and at the upstream end of each tributary to be modeled.

C Field sites to measure air and water temperature should be located throughout the river system to
be modeled, and in sufficient density to provide a representative picture of the actual conditions.
To determine this, some background study will be required to understand the meteorological and
climatological conditions of the river system to be modeled. For example, on the Ohio River, field

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sites were located at an average spacing of about 130 kilometers (about 80 miles) along the river.
However, in the upstream reaches of the Ohio River, where the winter climate varied over rather
short distances, the stations were much closer. A good indication of climatic variation can be seen
on a map indicating average freezing degree-days for a given winter month; January is the best
month to represent this variation.

C A field site should be located at the downstream end of the river system that is modeled.

15-20. Initial Conditions Generator

The Initial Conditions required in the model are listed in paragraph 15-14.

a. Hydraulic Model. The generation of Initial Conditions for the Hydraulic Model is not discussed in
detail here. It can be assumed that the Initial Conditions of stage and discharge are available from a
previous model run (Update Mode), from a steady-state backwater measurement, or from physical
measurement with interpolation.

b. Thermal Model. The Initial Condition of water temperature for the Thermal Model at each node
can be determined from a previous model run (Update Mode) or from the reported measurements from the
field sites. To determine the water temperature at each node from the field sites, the procedure is to first
determine the average water temperature at each site for the previous 24 hours. Then, for the main stem,
linearly interpolate the water temperature at each node between the field sites. For the tributaries, linearly
interpolate the water temperature between the site at the upstream end of the modeled tributary section and
the temperature calculated in the previous step for the main stem at the confluence of the tributary and the
main stem. If no upstream site is available, a reasonable approximation is to use the temperature of the
main stem at the confluence as the temperature for the entire reach of the modeled tributary.

c. Ice Model. The Initial Conditions for the Ice Model are the floating ice concentration, ice-cover
length and thickness, and thickness of deposited frazil. It is not possible to physically measure the con-
centration of floating ice, although it can be visually estimated by experienced personnel during overflights.
The ice-cover length can also be estimated from visual observation, preferably by aerial videotaping of the
entire reach to be modeled, as described in Chapter 16. Generally, the solid ice cover and frazil thicknesses
are not available, except at a very few locations. With the Ice Model data so scarce and incomplete, the
realistic alternative is to generate the initial ice conditions from previous model runs (Update Mode).

15-21. Boundary Conditions Generator

The Boundary Conditions required are listed in paragraph 15-15. The Boundary Conditions are indepen-
dently forecasted parameters that drive the model. Generally, the Boundary Conditions can change with
every time step. Inaccurate forecasts of future Boundary Conditions will produce inaccurate model results.

a. Hydraulic Model. The generation of Boundary Conditions for the Hydraulic Model is not
discussed in detail here. The forecasts of tributary and lateral discharges and downstream stage can be
determined by a variety of means.

b. Thermal Model. The principal Boundary Condition of the Mid-Winter Ice Forecast model is the
air temperature Boundary Condition of the Thermal Model. Generally, the daily average air temperature is
used as the Boundary Condition. Forecasts of maximum and minimum air temperature are available from

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the NWS. A good estimate of the daily average is the mean of the maximum and minimum. Forecasts of
the air temperature will undoubtedly be available at several locations throughout the river system where the
Mid-Winter Ice Forecast model is to be used. A linear interpolation between the air temperature forecast
locations is used to determine the air temperature Boundary Condition at each node.

(1) The forecasts of the tributary water temperature are made using the total watershed approach that
is employed in making the Long-Term Water Temperature Forecasts, described in Section I. Information
that is required includes the response coefficient and the equivalent water temperature, the actual water
temperature on the day the forecast is made, and the forecasted air temperatures. With this information,
based on the total watershed approach, a forecast of the tributary water temperature Boundary Condition
can be made.

(2) The forecasts of the lateral inflow water temperature can be used to include the influence of
artificially heated discharge from power plants, etc. Generally, the lateral inflow water temperatures will
not be a factor, as these will be very near or at the main stem water temperature. For locations where
heated discharges may be important, the lateral inflow water temperature can be put at a set value above
the nearest forecasted tributary water temperature, representing the heat added by a power plant or
industrial facility.

c. Ice Model. There are generally no forecasts of ice conditions suitable for use as forecasted
Boundary Conditions of the Ice Model. If an ice run is expected on a tributary, this could be used as a
Boundary Condition as long as the ice concentration can be estimated.

15-22. Modes of Operation

The Mid-Winter Ice Forecast model can be operated in two modes, a Forecast Mode and an Update Mode.
The Forecast Mode starts with the existing Initial Conditions and uses forecasted values of the Boundary
Conditions to produce the Model Output. The Update Mode starts with the Initial Conditions that existed
the last time the model was run. If the model is operated daily, for example, the Initial Conditions are those
existing on the previous day. The actual values of the Boundary Conditions, measured at the field sites, are
then used to produce the Model Output. In this way the previous existing conditions are updated to reflect
the present existing conditions. Generally, the model is run twice on any day a forecast is made, once to
update the Initial Conditions and once to forecast the future ice conditions.

15-23. Model Results

A sample of the Model Output over an entire winter season is shown graphically in Figure 15-8. In this
simulation, actual recorded air temperatures and tributary discharges were used. The ice bridging locations
were chosen to be at each lock and dam, consistent with observation. The simulation is for the Upper Ohio
River, and the location of each lock and dam is indicated. The period covered by the simulation in Figure
15-8 is from 22 December 1985 through 12 February 1986, and the presence of ice is shown as determined
by the model. In Figure 15-9, a sample 5-day forecast is shown, also for the Upper Ohio River. This
forecast was prepared based on forecasted air temperatures and the actual Initial Conditions on the day that
the forecast was made.

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Figure 15-8. Portrayal of the output of the Ice Forecasting System for the Upper Ohio River during the 1985-86 winter. The shaded areas indicate
forecasted ice cover on the river; elsewhere the river was forecasted to be open. Choosing a river location on the diagram and moving across the diagram

30 Apr 99
horizontally gives a time-based summary of the sequence of forecasted ice cover throughout the winter for that location. Similarly, choosing a date during the
winter and moving vertically up or down the diagram gives a location-based summary of forecasted ice cover for the Upper Ohio on that particular date. Shown
15-23

for comparison is ice coverage information based on daily navigation reports issued by the Pittsburgh and Huntington Districts, and an ice atlas (Gatto et al.
1987) based on aerial videotapes
EM 1110-2-1612
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Figure 15-9. Typical output information from the Mid-Winter Ice Forecast model. This output covers a 5-day
period on the Upper Ohio River

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Figure 15-9. (Concluded)

15-24. References

a. Required publications.
None.

b. Related publications.

Ashton 1986
Ashton, G.D., ed. 1986. River and Lake Ice Engineering, Water Resources Publications, Littleton,
Colorado.

Gatto et al. 1987

Gatto, L.W., S.F. Daly, and K.L. Carey 1987. Ice Atlas, 1985-1986: Monongahela River, Allegheny
River, Ohio River, Illinois River, Kankakee River, Special Report 87-20, U.S. Army Cold Regions
Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

Shen et al. 1991

Shen, H.T., G. Bjedov, S.F. Daly, and A.M. Wasantha Lal. 1991. Numerical Model for Forecasting Ice
Conditions on the Ohio River, CRREL Report 91-16, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering
Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

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Chapter 16
Ice-Related Hydrometeorological Data Collection and Monitoring

16-1. Introduction

Effective regulation of Corps water control and navigation projects requires the collection of a wide variety
of real-time hydrometeorological data from field sites. There are reporting stations at each lock and dam.
The data can be manually obtained by the lock and dam staff, or can be obtained using Data Collection
Platforms (DCPs) via the GOES (Geostationary Observational Environmental Satellite) near real-time data
collection system. (GOES is operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration [NOAA].)
Downlinks are in operation throughout the northern latitudes at the New England District, the Ohio River
Regional Headquarters of the Great Lakes and Ohio River Division, the Rock Island District, and the
Missouri River Regional Headquarters and North Pacific Regional Headquarters of the Northwestern
Division. These downlinks enable each Division and District to collect data from field sites at intervals of
4 to 24 hours. The data are checked for completeness before they are stored in dedicated water control
computers and are available for analysis by all Corps personnel. ER 1110-2-248 provides for Corps policy
when using the GOES data collection system. Ice conditions can also be monitored using aircraft and
satellites; video and still photographs are often used to track ice conditions along navigable waterways. A
schematic of a systems approach to data collection and distribution is shown in Figure 16-1.

Section I
Numerical Data

16-2. Near Real-Time Data Collection

Ice information can be obtained in near real-time using the GOES data collection system. Each Corps
office, per ER 1110-2-249, has a Water Control Data System (WCDS) that meets the requirements of
automated near real-time data collection, processing, and dissemination for making near real-time water
control decisions. A GOES data collection system is made up of four parts: the DCP with related sensors,
the GOES satellite, the direct ground readout station, and the WCDS. Authorization to use the GOES
system is required, and software for processing and dissemination of ice information is necessary for the
use of this system in a river ice management scheme.

16-3. DCP System

The instrumentation requirements for ice monitoring, as in any engineering study, are defined by the kind
and accuracy of measurements required and the frequency of data collection necessary. Existing ice
forecasting models use the temperature-index approach to predict the onset and breakup of river ice.

a. Temperature-index approach. The temperature-index approach requires water temperature and

air temperature data. These are the minimum requirements for an ice monitoring station. This information,
in the absence of a forecast model, could be used by the lockmaster to determine operating criteria. The
other extreme would be using an energy-balance model to forecast ice conditions. The energy-balance
approach would require other hydrometeorological data in addition to water and air temperatures, such as
wind speed and direction, solar radiation, and river stage. Table 16-1 shows the parameters to be measured
at both the temperature-index and energy-balance types of stations, as well as their resolution and accuracy
requirements. The DCP and sensors selected should have the capability to

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Figure 16-1. Schematic of data collection system for ice information

Table 16-1
Parameters for Ice-monitoring DCP Sites

Parameter Resolution Accuracy

Water temperature 0.1 C (0.2 F) 0.1 C (0.2 F)

Air temperature 0.5 C (1 F) 0.5 C (1 F)

Wind speed 0.3 m/s (1 ft/s) 5%

Wind direction 10 5
2 2
Solar radiation 10 W/m (1 W/ft ) 10 W/m2 (1 W/ft2)

Barometric pressure 3 mb (0.1 in. Hg) 3 mb (0.1 in. Hg)

Relative humidity 5% 5%

Precipitation 0.2 mm (0.01 in.) 0.2 mm (0.01 in.)

River stage 0.003 m (0.01 ft) 0.003 m (0.01 ft)

Dam gate setting 0.15 m (0.5 ft) 0.15 m (0.5 ft)

Ice thickness 0.03 m (0.1 ft) 0.03 m (0.1 ft)

supply the given resolution and accuracy. The need for high resolution and accuracy in water temperature
measurement cannot be overemphasized, particularly when such data are inputs to an Ice Forecasting
System.

b. Average daily temperature. Normally, for the temperature-index approach to ice forecasting, a
daily average air temperature and a daily average water temperature are used. To best calculate a daily
average of these values, data should be collected every hour. This also holds for the energy-balance
approach. Based on the amount of data to be transmitted, a 4-hour transmission interval is best.

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16-4. Water Temperature Measurements

A system developed for remote, accurate river water temperature measurements can be installed at any
facility where a water-temperature probe can be properly mounted in contact with the flowing river water.
The data can be recorded on a data logger or transmitted by a DCP through the GOES system. Described
below are the water temperature measurement system itself and the method of installing it, interfacing the
system with a DCP or data logger for recording the water temperature measurements, and reducing the
information to engineering units.

a. Description. This water temperature measurement system consists of a water-temperature probe,

a probe support pipe with probe adaptor, connecting cable, and a data logger or DCP (Figure 16-2). If a
DCP is used, a special interface is needed for the probe.

b. Water-temperature probe. The water-temperature probe is a 0.9-meter (3-foot) length of stainless

steel tube with an 2.5-centimeter (1-inch) outside diameter (Figure 16-3). The lower tip of the probe is
nylon and contains three thermistors. A cable grip attaches the water-temperature probe to the cable at its
upper end. The water-temperature probe is deployed by dropping it down the probe support pipe and
seating it in the probe adaptor. The probe is designed both to protect the thermistors from being hit by
debris while allowing them to directly contact the water and to be conveniently removable for repair or
replacement. The cable connected to the water-temperature probe does two jobs: it provides electrical
connection to the thermistor, and it is used to place or remove the probe by hand.

c. Thermistors. The thermistors in the probe are typically of the bead-in-glass type and are suitable
for immersion in water. The thermistors are individually spliced into the cable. Each splice must be
individually tested for electrical and mechanical integrity and to make sure that it is waterproof. A strain
relief device attached to the nylon tip prevents any strain from being applied directly to the thermistors.
Depending on the application, the thermistors can be calibrated individually or as a group.

d. Probe support pipe and probe adaptor. The probe support pipe protects the probe from debris or
ice, holds the probe, and provides an easy way for the probe to be installed and removed. At the lower end
of the probe support pipe is the probe adaptor (Figure 16-2). The adaptor has one Teflon or nylon ring that
cradles the probe and holds it in position (Figure 16-3). The probe support pipe is 3.2-centimeter (1-1/4-
inch) schedule 80 galvanized steel pipe with couplings. Installation of the probe support pipe and adaptor is
discussed in subparagraph 16-4i(1) below.

e. Connector box. At the upper end of the probe support pipe is a connector box (Figure 16-4) that
provides easy access for placing or removing the water-temperature probe. A water-resistant electrical
connector attaches the cable to the water-temperature probe and the cable to the data logger or DCP. The
connector box is typically a 3.2-centimeter (1-1/4-inch) Line Back (LB) conduit box (zinc electroplate with
aluminum lacquer), with a water-resistant neoprene-gasketted cover, and bushings to connect with the
probe support pipe and conduit.

f. Conduit. A 1.9-centimeter (3/4-inch) conduit protects the cable running from the connector box to
the location of the DCP or data logger. In many instances existing cableways can be used. If new conduit
is installed, provision for pull boxes at appropriate intervals must be made.

g. Cable. The cable used to connect the temperature probe and the electrical connector in the
connector box must be rugged. A petrolatum-polyethylene gel-filled cable with a polyethylene jacket is
recommended. The cable should have a solid copper tape shield with three-pair 19-AWG conductors.

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Figure 16-2. Water-temperature measurement system

This type of cable is relatively inexpensive and will provide long life. The cable is stiff and can be used
only for straight runs or wide sweeps. A wire cable support grip may be attached to the upper end of the
cable to assist in placing or removing the water-temperature probe. To hook up the electrical connectors in
the connector box and the interface box, a cable with three 18-AWG, twisted, shielded pairs with drain
wire is recommended. The cable should have a polyvinyl chloride (PVC) outer jacket. This type of cable
is more flexible than the gel-filled cable and can easily be pulled through the recommended conduit. This
cable has also been used to connect the temperature probe and the electrical connector in the connector box
with success.

h. DCP Interface. Generally, a DCP can measure only voltages. Thermistors, however, change
resistance in response to changing temperature. The DCP interface, therefore, is a simple voltage divider
circuit that converts the thermistor resistance to a voltage. The interface is a rectangular box, 5.7 5.7
12.7 centimeters (2-1/4 2-1/4 5 inches), that is typically installed immediately adjacent to the DCP.

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Figure 16-3. Water-temperature probe within the probe adaptor

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Figure 16-4. Connector box

Figure 16-5 shows a schematic diagram of the wiring of the interface box and the connections to the
temperature probe and the DCP. The resistance of a thermistor Ri can be determined by the relation

Vi
Ri = (10,000)
Vo & Vi

where Vi is the measured voltage across the thermistor, and Vo is the excitation voltage applied to the
divider circuit. The applied voltage across the thermistor is kept low by the use of a diode. This is done to
keep the electrical current in the thermistor to a minimum to prevent self-heating. The relatively large
offset currents that may be introduced into the voltage divider circuits by the circuitry of the DCP itself
result in an inaccurate voltage measurement across the thermistor. To correct for this, the voltage across a
reference resistor, with a known stable resistance, is measured along with the voltage across the thermistor.
The measured voltage across the reference resistor Vf can then be used to calculate each thermistors
resistance by

(10,000) Vi
Ri =
2Vf & Vi

As an example, for Vi = 0.219 volts and Vf = 0.294 volts, the resistance of the thermistor of the water-
temperature probe Ri is calculated by the above equation to be 5935 ohms. Suppose the calibration table
for this particular thermistor is in degrees Celsius and gives 5951.3 ohms for 0.1EC and 5919.1 ohms for
0.2EC. Then, by interpolation the water temperature would be determined to be 0.15EC or 32.27EF. The
foregoing discussion addresses some of the potential problems in interfacing input parameter signals to a
DCP. In all cases the DCP manufacturers input and output impedance specifications must be known and
considered by competent electronics personnel for the proper design of the DCP interface box, thus
ensuring a trouble-free overall installation.

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Figure 16-5. Schematic wiring diagram of DCP interface box

i. Installation. There are five steps in the installation of this water-temperature measurement system:
selection of location, determination of minimum water surface elevation, installation of probe support pipe
and adaptor, installation of the connector box and conduit, and installation of the data logger or DCP.

(1) Selection of location. The probe support pipe is typically installed on a wall or pier. The probe
support pipe must be installed so that it is in contact with the moving river water. It should not be placed
in gage wells, locks, or other areas where the water may stand for long periods. It should be placed in a
protected location, if possible, so that it is safe from drift and ice floes. The downstream side of piers,
cells, piles, pile dolphins, ladder accessways, and recesses in walls parallel to the river are acceptable.

(2) Determination of minimum water level elevation. River water level elevations or stages can change
rapidly and can vary considerably. The difference between low flow levels and flood levels may be 12 to
24 meters (40 to 60 feet) in some locations. The minimum and maximum stage possible at a given site
must be taken into account before installation. An estimate of the minimum must be made to ensure that
the stage does not fall below the elevation of the water-temperature probe. If this happens, water
temperature measurement will obviously not be possible. The bottom of the adaptor must be a minimum of
0.9 meters (3 feet) below the lowest stage expected. If very thick ice is expected, the adaptor should be
placed even lower to keep the water-temperature probe in flowing water. The connector box should be
above the normal seasonal high water levels.

(3) Installation of probe support pipe and adaptor. The probe support pipe must be installed vertically
to allow the water-temperature probe to be lowered and removed easily. The length of pipe should be
determined as follows: Measure the distance from the top of the wall to a point 0.9 meters (3 feet) below

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the low water level elevation at the site. Subtract 0.15 meters (6 inches) from this distance. This will be
the total length of schedule 80 pipe plus couplings that will be required. This will bring the top of the
schedule 80 pipe 7.6 centimeters (3 inches) above the top of the wall, which is the correct height for the
connector box. The required number of sections of the galvanized steel pipe are fastened together with
couplings to form the probe support pipe. The adaptor is fastened on the lower end of the probe support
pipe with a coupling. All couplings are tightened using a 0.6-meter (24-inch) pipe wrench to ensure that
the entire probe support pipe and adaptor are securely fastened. The probe support pipe with the adaptor is
raised into position by a crane or other means. Heavy-duty stainless steel straps are fastened at regular
intervals with 1.3-centimeter (-inch) Hilti quick studs or equivalent along the probe support pipe to hold it
in position, again, with the bottom of the adaptor 0.9 meters (3 feet) below the lowest water level expected.
The straps should be spaced using a maximum 1.5-meter (5-foot) interval up to the maximum water level
elevation. Above the maximum water level elevation, a maximum spacing of 3 meters (10 feet) is
allowable. The plumb of the probe support pipe should be checked continuously to make sure that the pipe
remains completely vertical during installation. Otherwise, problems could occur with future probe
removal or reinstallation.

(4) Installation of connector box and conduit. The connector box is threaded onto the probe support
pipe. The connector box should be mounted such that the water-temperature probe can be placed in the
probe support pipe through the top of the connector box with the cover plate removed. The connector box
should be 7.6 centimeters (3 inches) above the wall so that it can be seen during snow removal. A reducing
bushing is installed in the end of the connector box to adapt it to 1.9-centimeter (3/4-inch) conduit.
Conduit is installed from the connector box to the point of data collection, with provisions for pull boxes
where required.

(5) Installation of the data logger or DCP. The data logger or DCP is connected (Figure 16-5) to the
interface box. Analog inputs to DCPs with scaling resistors should be avoided or the scaling resistors
should be removed. If a data logger is used, a 12-volt-dc power supply must be provided. For consistency,
the connections with the interface box should be in the order indicated.

16-5. GOES SatelliteWRSC Authorization

The Water Resources Support Center, Data Collection and Management Division (WRSC-C), has the
responsibility and is the focal point for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Civil Works for call sign and
radio frequency management.

16-6. Direct Ground Readout Station

The GOES system can only be used to relay environmental data. In situ data from any sensor that can be
interfaced to the data collection platform can be telemetered to District offices. All the data transmitters
that use the GOES/DCS must be certified by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration,
National Environmental Satellite Service. See ER 1110-2-248 for further instructions.

16-7. Water Control Data System (WCDS)

The receiving sites at the Corps offices are usually a part of the WCDS. Guidance for the management of
dedicated water control data systems (including equipment and software used for the acquisition,
transmission, and processing of real-time data for the purpose of regulating water projects that are the
Corps responsibility) can be found in ER 1110-2-249.

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Section II
Imagery

16-8. Introduction

A necessary part of an ice management program is having adequate information on ice conditions. Corps
Districts generally have one or both of the following objectives when documenting ice conditions as part of
their river ice management activities: to analyze past ice conditions as an aid in forecasting future
conditions during a given winter, and to monitor current conditions during a winter in sufficient detail so as
to plan waterway operations and anticipate navigation problems.

a. Ice conditions information sources. The first objective can be accomplished using historical
ground observations, aerial photographs, and satellite images. However, the most common District need is
for monitoring current ice conditions along all their navigable waterways. At most navigation projects,
Corps personnel already make ice observations and report them to District offices nearly every day during
the winter season. The data are then available to users via computer modem. However, these ground
observations are pertinent only for that portion of a waterway within sight of the observers. Ice conditions
beyond that are uncertain, and yet such data for the entire waterway are required. Satellite images from
current civilian satellites, which do show entire waterways, have neither the spatial resolution nor can they
routinely be in the hands of District personnel quickly enough to enable decision-making regarding
waterway operations or ice emergencies (Gatto et al. 1987a; Gatto 1988a, 1988b). As satellite sensors and
image processing systems improve, future images may be provided rapidly enough and may be of sufficient
resolution to be useful.

b. Current ice conditions. Aerial photographs and videotapes can currently provide timely ice
information to meet the second objective above, i.e., monitoring current conditions (Gatto et al. 1986,
1987b). The acquisition of ice data from these two sources is the subject of the remainder of this chapter.
Taking photographs is the best approach when it is only ice conditions at selected locations that must be
documented. When continuous bank-to-bank coverage of ice conditions over large reaches of a waterway
is required, vertical (downward-looking) aerial videotapes are most useful. Oblique videotaping can be
done through an aircraft window, but this is awkward and uncomfortable for the videographer for extended
periods, and complete bank-to-bank coverage is often difficult to obtain over large river reaches. Table 16-
2 provides information comparing hand-held aerial photography and aerial videotaping.

16-9. Aerial Photography by Hand-Held Camera

Many photographic formats, film types, and cameras are available for taking aerial photographs.
However, one of the least expensive and most useful formats is hand-held 35-mm oblique photography,
producing slides or prints taken during low-altitude aircraft flights. The use of 35-mm photos for docu-
menting general ice conditions and evaluating potential problem areas, e.g., ice jam sites, heavy ice, etc., is
very appropriate when cartographic precision and photogrammetric quality are not required (Gatto and
Daly 1986). Such photographs are simple and inexpensive to acquire and most people are familiar with
them, as compared to other more elaborate aerial photographs.

a. Crew. The number of people required to get the photographs will vary depending on the com-
plexity of the mission. When a few photographs of a small area are needed, one person can take them, even
if that person is the pilot. A more complex mission would require three people including the pilot.

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Table 16-2
Two Methods for Monitoring Ice Conditions on Navigable Waterways

Method Equipment Costs* Advantages Disadvantages

Hand-held aerial 35 mm camera $300 Good resolution Cant take photos during
photographs Color film for slides $3$8/roll for Different films can be inclement weather
or prints slides, $7 for prints used Takes a few hours to get
Low costs, once initial slides or prints
Maps for locating $1.50 each purchases are made Ice thickness not obtain-
photos in flight Supplies and equipment able; best guess only
Fixed-wing aircraft** $60$80/hr readily available Snow-cover obscures ice
(e.g., Cessna 172) Camera systems are Quality of photos unknown
portable and flexible until they are developed
No extensive training
required; most every-
one is familiar with
cameras
Photographer can select
targets

Aerial videotapes Camera for in. $1200$5000 Continuous view of river Lower resolution than
VHS or Beta, Immediate availability photographs but suf-
3/4 in. U-matic of tapes ficient to differentiate
On-board monitor $ 600 Operator sees image ice types
Video recorders $2500 ( in.), during acquisition; Cant take tapes during
$5000 (3/4 in.) could correct problems inclement weather
Camcorder (VHS) $1600$2200 in flight Ice thickness not obtain-
High grade color $7/tape Low cost able; best guess only
videotapes (T-120) No extensive training Snow-cover obscures ice
Maps for locating tapes $1.50 each required; familiar to
in flight many people
Fixed-wing aircraft** Playback technology
(e.g., Cessna 172) $60$80/hr widely available
Can get slides and prints
from tapes
Supplies and equipment
readily available
Tapes can be reused
Videographer can select
targets, if taking obliquely

* Costs will vary; these are simply estimates (1988 dollars).

** Helicopters can be used but cost more per hour.

One person would act as navigator to check items on the mission plan, direct the pilot to sites, take notes of
sites photographed, change film, etc. The photographer would devote full time to taking pictures.

b. Mission plan.

(1) The photographer and navigator should prepare a general mission plan and discuss the plan and
flight objectives with the pilot before a flight (Shafer and Degler 1986). They should discuss the features
to be photographed and devise a way to communicate to let the pilot know when pictures are being taken.
The pilot can then make a special effort to minimize motion and provide a good view of the area to be
photographed. A professional pilot, with or without remote sensing experience, can contribute significantly
by understanding what the flight objectives are.

(2) Mission planning will also permit more accurate estimates of materials needed, flight time, and
overall costs for the mission. A mission plan should include a list of prospective targets and film
requirements, maps marked with the most economical flight path, and a checklist of equipment, including
extra batteries, lens caps, battery chargers, extra film, filters, etc. The maps help to avoid unnecessary

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circling and the resulting questions regarding whether a particular site has been photographed or not.
When maps are used in flight, a lapboard serves as a convenient writing surface.

c. Equipment (Shafer and Degler 1986). A 35-mm camera with a built-in automatic light meter and
a standard (50-mm) lens is the minimum equipment needed. Optional but useful equipment includes a
zoom lens, motor drive, data and magazine backs, and filters. The configuration of a camera system
depends upon budget and photographic requirements.

(1) Either a single lens reflex (SLR) or rangefinder camera can be used effectively. With a rangefinder
camera, the photographer must be aware that a clear shot through the rangefinder does not assure that the
cameras field of view will not be partially blocked by part of the aircraft. With an SLR, what is seen is
literally what is photographed. In difficult lighting situations where there is glare from aircraft windows,
the SLR makes the photographer aware of potential problems so a correction for glare can be made during
the flight.

(2) Regardless of what length of lens is used, it should be a relatively fast one (i.e, capable of
admitting adequate light at higher shutter speeds) to avoid any loss of definition resulting from aircraft
vibration. A zoom lens is useful because it allows the photographer to rapidly change for wide-angle and
narrow-angle (more detailed) pictures.

(3) A motor drive permits obtaining several good exposures of a site during one pass. By simplifying
the operation of the equipment, it also encourages the photographer to focus attention on the sites being
evaluated, rather than concentrating on camera operation.

(4) Because of the high cost of aircraft rentals and the relatively low costs of film and processing, it
makes sense to take a large number of pictures. However, labeling and sorting them is a chore at best.
Data backs are particularly useful in recording the time and date, saving considerable time and effort later.
Magazine backs (for up to 250 pictures) eliminate the need to change film frequently. They provide
continuity during a flight and reduce the chance of error in numbering sequential rolls of film. They also
permit the photographer to take many pictures with a minimum of costly time spent changing film.
However, processing of long rolls (in excess of 36 exposures) must be done by a specialty lab. If a
magazine back is not used, a second camera is a good investment. The navigator can reload one camera
while the photographer is using the other.

(5) Regular true color film for slides (e.g., Ektachrome) and prints (e.g., Kodacolor) works fine for
most conditions. A relatively fast film (ASA 100 or higher) with a fine grain is best.

(6) As a matter of course, clear filters should be on all lenses to protect them from dirt and damage. A
polarizing filter may be used successfully with most films; however, the combination of a polarizing filter
and the aircraft window may produce a wavy pattern on a picture. Usually, a polarizing filter improves the
quality of photographs taken where reflections from water produce glare.

d. Taking photographs (Evans and Mata 1984). Aerial 35-mm pictures may be taken nearly
vertically or obliquely out the window of a small, fixed-wing aircraft or helicopter. Shutter speeds should
be 1/500th of a second or faster. An altitude of 450 meters (1500 feet) above the ground is recommended,
but any altitude must be consistent with local Federal Aviation Administration regulations. If possible,
shoot with the window open. This eliminates glare and reflection caused by the glass. If you have to shoot
through the window, use an 81A filter, or an equivalent haze filter, to compensate for the slight blue-green

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tint inherent in the acrylic glass used in most light airplane windows. Also, wear a long-sleeved dark shirt
or jacket to reduce the chance of creating unwanted window reflections. Always use a lens shade. Window
glare can often be eliminated by moving the lens slightly closer to the window or by draping the
photographer and camera with a jacket or blanket to stop light passing over the photographers shoulder.
With a high-wing aircraft, the best shooting angles are in front of and behind the wing-struts. The front
angle is best for tracking a subject, if care is taken to avoid getting the propeller in the frame. With a mid-
or low-wing plane, pictures may have to be taken in a steep turn to avoid photographing the wing.

(1) A hand-held camera can take stereo pairs by photographing two successive images framed to get
the same location. The movement of the aircraft between exposures will produce the parallax necessary for
stereo viewing. The stereo effect will show the surface roughness of the ice, and this three-dimensional
view is more realistic and easier to relate to actual visual observation. Panoramic mosaics of reaches of a
river can also be made by taking as many successive photographs as required to cover the area of interest.
Be sure to overlap successive photos enough to get complete coverage of the area. Note that the overlap
areas will be in stereo.

(2) If repetitive photographs are going to be taken during different flights over periods of days, weeks,
or months, the comparison of photos from the several flights will be easier if the same camera, focal length
lens, filters, etc., are used each time. Taking photos from the same general position, and showing the same
ground area, will also expedite comparisons of repetitive photos. Such repetitive photos give a visual time
series of ice conditions, and are useful for determining how conditions are changing.

e. Photointerpretation. An advantage of using hand-held aerial photographs is that almost everyone

has taken them and looked at, i.e., interpreted, them. No special equipment is required to study the
photos. The most important element for interpreting photos of ice conditions is to have a person familiar
with river ice involved in the interpretation.

16-10. Aerial Videotapes

Aerial videotapes are more convenient to take than overlapping hand-held photographs if continuous
coverage of a waterway is required and are less expensive than vertical 23 23-centimeter (9 9-inch)
aerial photographs. Such continuous coverage can be acquired with a video camera mounted to look
through the nose or out the side door of a helicopter, or through a belly port of a fixed-wing aircraft.

a. Crew. Since videotaping will generally be used to get continuous coverage, a pilot and
videographer are all that is required. A navigator is not required because all of a waterway is going to be
covered and site selection and spotting are not done. The pilot should be familiar with techniques for
maintaining a flight course so as to get complete coverage while keeping the video camera in a vertical or
near-vertical position. The videographer will have to use a zoom lens and tell the pilot when altitude
adjustments are required to maintain bank-to-bank coverage.

b. Mission plan (Maggio and Baker 1988). Just as when acquiring hand-held aerial photographs,
careful mission planning must be done to get useful videotapes. It is important to keep in mind that bank-
to-bank coverage should be maintained while videotapes are being taken. This will allow easy locating
later by comparing features on the tapes with those on maps. Widths of the waterway to be taped should
be used to determine the flying heights and focal lengths required to provide bank-to-bank coverage and to
determine the maximum aircraft speed to avoid image blur caused by forward image motion and aircraft
vibration (see Table 16-3).

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Table 16-3
Aerial Video Coverage Versus Pixel (Picture Element) Size, Altitude, and Aircraft Speed (Based on 2/3-inch Video Format)

SI Units

Altitude (Feet Above Ground)

Effective Required for Various Maxmum
Coverage (m) Pixel Lens Focal Lengths Aircraft
Size* Speed**
Width Length (m) 6.0 mm 8.5 mm 12.5 mm 16.0 mm 25.0 mm (km/h)

152 114 0.6 104 147 216 277 433 101

305 229 1.2 208 294 433 554 866 203
457 343 1.8 312 442 650 831 1,299 304
610 457 2.4 416 589 866 1,108 1,732 406
762 572 3.0 520 736 1,082 1,385 2,165 507
914 686 3.7 623 883 1,299 1,663 2,598 610
1,067 800 4.3 727 1,031 1,515 1,940 3,031 711
1,219 914 4.9 831 1,178 1,732 2,217 3,464 813
1,524 1,143 6.1 1,039 1,472 2,165 2,771 4,330 1,015
1,829 1,372 7.0 1,247 1,766 2,598 3,325 5,195 1,218
2,134 1,600 8.2 1,455 2,061 3,031 3,879 6,061 1,421
2,438 1,829 9.4 1,663 2,355 3,464 4,433 6,927 1,624
3,048 2,286 12 2,078 2,944 4,330 5,542 8,659 2,031
3,658 2,743 14 2,494 3,533 5,195 6,650 10,391 2,437

English Units

Altitude (Feet Above Ground)

Effective Required for Various Maxmum
Coverage (ft) Pixel Lens Focal Lengths Aircraft
Size* Speed**
Width Length (ft) 6.0 mm 8.5 mm 12.5 mm 16.0 mm 25.0 mm (knots)

500 375 2 341 483 710 909 1,420 55

1,000 750 4 682 966 1,420 1,818 2,841 109
1,500 1,125 6 1,023 1,449 2,131 2,727 4,261 164
2,000 1,500 8 1,364 1,932 2,841 3,636 5,682 219
2,500 1,875 10 1,705 2,415 3,551 4,545 7,102 274
3,000 2,250 12 2,045 2,898 4,261 5,455 8,523 329
3,500 2,625 14 2,386 3,381 4,972 6,364 9,943 384
4,000 3,000 16 2,727 3,864 5,682 7,273 11,364 439
5,000 3,700 20 3,409 4,830 7,102 9,091 14,205 548
6,000 4,500 23 4,091 5,795 8,523 10,909 17,045 658
7,000 5,250 27 4,773 6,761 9,943 12,727 19,886 767
8,000 6,000 31 5,455 7,727 11,364 14,545 22,727 877
10,000 7,500 39 6,818 9,659 14,205 18,182 28,409 1,097
12,000 9,000 47 8,182 11,591 17,045 21,818 34,091 1,316

* Effective pixel size based on 258 pixels per format width.

** To avoid forward image motion blur if not using shuttered camera or forward image compensation.

c. Equipment (Meisner and Lindstrom 1985, Meisner 1986). The type and setup of videotaping
equipment (Figure 16-6) used to get vertical videotapes from an aircraft will depend on cost and
requirements. Numerous cameras and recorders exist, and technology is improving constantly, but
whatever kind of system is used, it should be professional-grade, compact, and built to take abuse, and
should provide high quality video. Camcorders combine video cameras and recorders in one unit and also
provide high quality tapes.

(1) The audio track of the airborne Video Cassette Recorder (VCR) may be connected to a press to
talk microphone, allowing oral comments to augment written notes during flight. In particular, landmarks
and locations should be called out. A soundproof headphone intercom system used in the aircraft can be
directly connected to the VCR audio input.

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Figure 16-6. Generalized video equipment setup in an aircraft for vertical aerial videotaping (after Meisner
1986)

(2) Video monitors display the video image. Portable monitors generally have a 12.7-centimeter
(5-inch) diagonal screen, providing a 7.6 10.2-centimeter (3 4-inch) image, although color monitors as
small as 6.6 centimeters (2.6 inches )(screen size of 4.1 5.3 centimeters [1.6 2.1 inches]) are available
and may be useful for airplane cockpit mounting. The video monitor must be located within the pilots
view to provide feedback for positioning and control of the aircraft. A sun shield on the monitor screen is
essential for in-aircraft use. Interpretation in the office can be done with the portable monitor, but a larger
screen is preferable.

(3) Power supply should be taken from the aircraft if possible. Airplanes operating on 12 volts should
be able to power the system directly through the cigarette lighter outlet. Larger planes operate on 24-volt
systems, requiring a dc adaptor to directly power the video system. Alternatively, power can be obtained
from built-in, rechargeable battery packs or a rechargeable, sealed, leadacid battery (gel cell).

(4) The playback video system used for interpretation in the office following the flight should have
fast-motion, slow-motion, and still-frame capabilities. Of these, the still-frame (or freeze-frame) is the
most important, since a single frame must be displayed if actual mapping is done during interpretation.
The still-frame must be free from noise bars and hold steady on the screen. A playback VCR with stereo
audio tracks is useful. This allows one track to be used for in-flight annotation, the other track for later
interpretation comments.

d. Taking videotapes (Maggio and Baker 1988, Meisner 1986). The blur problem caused by aircraft
vibration can be solved by properly mounting a video camera on the floor of an aircraft for taping through
a port (Figure 16-7). Districts should be sure that contractors taking vertical videotapes have a mount that
has been tested and proven to work. Forward-looking mounts would be useful for providing improved
navigational assistance to the pilot. Forward-looking video also improves the ability to locate the imagery
during interpretation. The background of each frame will show a wide area, giving more landmarks, while
the foreground will provide larger scale for interpretation. Since whatever appears at one time in the
background will later appear in the foreground, the continuous coverage nature of video imagery helps in
this case. Even in applications requiring vertical coverage, a selectable forward

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a. Camera mount and viewing port b. Camera in place for vertical videotaping

Figure 16-7. Simple video camera mount in the floor of an aircraft for through-a-port videotaping

inclination would be very useful for navigating up to the start of a flight line. The camera could be tilted
forward on the approach to the line, and returned to the vertical position at the start of the line.

e. Tape interpretation. In addition to the portable equipment used during tape acquisition in an
aircraft, and a monitor for office use, some additional hardware can be useful when viewing the tapes in the
office. The importance of a high quality still-frame capability has already been mentioned. High quality,
four-head VCRs can provide a more steady image than compact portable units and may be worth
obtaining for interpretation use. The best still-frame images are provided by a digital freeze-frame unit, also
called a frame-grabber. Such a device converts a frame of imagery to digital data, stores it in computer
memory, and regenerates a video image from the stored data. Unfortunately, these devices are quite
expensive. Good quality prints, slides, and film negatives can be made directly from videotapes with a
Polaroid Frame Grabber. As with 35-mm photographs, almost everyone has looked at videotapes, and the
most important element in interpretation is to have a person who knows river ice, and has observed and
studied it, be involved in the video image interpretation.

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16-11. Ground-Based Video

a. Normal speed. Video systems consisting of battery-operated portable cameras and recorders, or
combined camcorders, can be used to document ice conditions and other problems along a river. Rock
Island District has supplied the lockmasters with these devices and is using them to document both
wintertime and summertime problems. Such problems may be ones calling for special maintenance
attention, ones suggesting operational or structural modifications, or ones that can potentially lead to
litigation. These video systems are attractive because of the instant documentation that is available and the
low cost of operation. When using a video camera for documentation, it is helpful to remember the
following points. Known problem areas should be regularly documented, preferably from the same vantage
point. A tripod should be used whenever possible to minimize motion in the picture. And finally,
deliberate movement of the camera or lens (panning and zooming) should be minimized, and if done, done
slowly.

b. Time-lapse. When a River Ice Management Plan is being developed and a problem area has been
identified, it is desirable to obtain a complete record of observations of ice problems at that problem
location throughout the winter. These problems are often concentrated at the upstream approaches of the
locks, where broken ice becomes lodged, adversely affecting the operation of lock gates and the movement
of tow traffic. Time-lapse videography permits the collection of an extensive record of these conditions
without having personnel occupying the site continuously for the entire ice season. Time-lapse videography
can be used to determine the causes of specific ice problems at a location or to monitor the effectiveness of
ice control solutions. Time-lapse videography has been used successfully on the Ohio and Illinois rivers
both to determine the causes of ice problems and to monitor the effectiveness of ice control measures at
locks, such as high-flow air systems. At Emsworth Lock and Dam on the Ohio River near Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, time-lapse videography has been used to observe the effects of winds, currents, and large tow
traffic on ice movement into the upper lock approach since the winter of 198485. At Peoria Lock and
Dam on the Illinois River near Peoria, Illinois, and at Starved Rock Lock and Dam on the Illinois River
near Ottawa, Illinois, data have been recorded on the effects of winds, river currents, and large tow traffic
on the movement of ice in the upper lock approaches. In addition, the effectiveness of high-flow air screens
was monitored at the latter two sites. The time-lapse videographic records at Peoria have been taken
annually since the winter of 198485, while records from Starved Rock are available since 198586. In
addition to wintertime uses, various Corps facilitiese.g., Starved Rock Lock and Dam in Illinois and
Lower Granite Lock and Dam on the Snake River in Washingtonare using video cameras to monitor
recreational boating, commercial navigation, debris control, and general facility security.

(1) Equipment. There are two general types of time-lapse setups that are available today, time-lapse
photographic film cameras and time-lapse VCRs. Of the two, the VCR system is preferable (it is easier to
work). While the initial cost of both systems is comparable, the VCR system is substantially cheaper to
operate. The minimum equipment required for an ice monitoring time-lapse videographic system consists
of the following:

Time-lapse recorder with recording time ranges of 2 to 240 hours and monitor.

C Solid state imaging video-camera and zoom lens with a focal length range of 10100 mm.

Environmental camera housing capable of maintaining an interior temperature of 4.4EC (40EF)

while the ambient air temperature can be as low as 51EC (60EF). The camera housing should be
mounted on a remotely controlled pan and tilt mount.

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C Remote controllers for the pantilt mount and the zoom lens.

Miscellaneous equipment such as mounting brackets, cables, relay boxes, etc., that may be
required for a specific site.

(2) Installation. The camera is best installed in a high location, such as an antenna mast or the
craneway over the dam gates. The VCR and various controllers should be located in a protected shelter
where it is convenient to monitor the video and to change tapes. At a lock facility, this can be the
lockmasters office or one of the machinery buildings. The main requirements here are that the humidity be
low enough that condensation does not form and the temperature be kept between 4.4 and 38EC (40 and
100EF). Figure 16-8 is a schematic of a typical installation. The problems encountered in placing cables
for the controllers and the video signal may influence the choices for placing the equipment.

Figure 16-8. Schematic diagram of a ground-based time-lapse video system

16-12. References

a. Required publications.
None.

b. Related publications.

ER 1110-2-248
Requirements for Water Data Transmission Using GOES/DCS.

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ER 1110-2-249
Management of Water Control Data Systems.

Evans and Mata 1984

Evans, B.M., and L. Mata. 1984. Acquisition of 35-mm Oblique Photographs for Stereoscopic Analysis
and Measurement, Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, Vol. 50, No. 11, p. 15811590.

Gatto 1988a
Gatto, L.W. 1988a. Ice Conditions Along the Ohio River As Observed on Landsat Images, 1972-85,
Special Report 88-1, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover,
New Hampshire.

Gatto 1988b
Gatto, L.W. 1988b. Ice Conditions Along the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers As Observed on
Landsat Images, 1972-85, Special Report 88-6, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering
Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

Gatto and Daly 1986

Gatto, L.W., and S.F. Daly. 1986. Ice Conditions Along the Allegheny, Monongahela, and Ohio Rivers,
1983-84, Internal Report 930, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover,
New Hampshire (unpublished).

Gatto et al. 1986

Gatto, L.W., S.F. Daly, and K.L. Carey. 1986. Ice Atlas, 1984-1985: Ohio River, Allegheny River,
Monongahela River, Special Report 86-23, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering
Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

Gatto et al. 1987a

Gatto, L.W., S.F. Daly, and K.L. Carey. 1987a. River Ice Mapping with Landsat and Video Imagery,
Proceedings, Pecora XI Symposium, Sioux Falls, SD (May 57, 1987); American Society for
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Falls Church, Virginia.

Gatto et al. 1987b

Gatto, L.W., S.F. Daly, and K.L. Carey. 1987b. Ice Atlas, 1985-1986: Monongahela River, Allegheny
River, Ohio River, Illinois River, Kankakee River, Special Report 87-20, U.S. Army Cold Regions
Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

Maggio and Baker 1988

Maggio, R.C., and R.D. Baker. 1988. Techniques for Acquisition of Aerial Video Imagery,
Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, Vol. 54, No. 2, p. 229231.

Meisner 1986
Meisner, D.E. 1986. Fundamentals of Airborne Video Remote Sensing, Remote Sensing of Environ-
ment, Vol. 19, p. 6379.

Meisner and Lindstrom 1985

Meisner, D.E., and O.M. Lindstrom. 1985. Design and Operation of a Color Infrared Aerial Video
System, Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, Vol. 51, No. 5, p. 555560.

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Shafer and Degler 1986

Shafer, R.V., and S.A. Degler. 1986. 35-mm Photography: An Inexpensive Remote Sensing Tool,
Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, Vol. 52, No. 6, p. 833837.

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Chapter 17
Navigation in Ice

17-1. Introduction

A vessel navigating in ice must tolerate stresses imposed by an environment that is not encountered by
regular shipping. The vessels form, power, structure, and propulsion system must be designed to
withstand these stresses. In addition, the effect of the vessel on the environment must be considered, as
well as the effect of the environment on the vessel.

17-2. Environment

In winter a vessel may encounter sheet ice, brash ice, frazil ice, pressurized ice, a pressure ridge, ice with
snow cover, or a combination of all these forms. The easiest of these to deal with is sheet ice
homogeneous ice with fairly uniform thickness. A properly designed vessel can travel through sheet ice, up
to some limiting thickness that is a function of installed power.

a. Brash ice. The second type of ice, brash, is broken ice that fills a shipping channel with pieces up
to 1.8 meters (6 feet) in diameter (Figure 17-1). Brash ice may fill the channel completely or partially and
it can be unconsolidated or consolidated and refrozen. This type of ice, because of its lack of homogeneity,
restricts vessel movement differently than does sheet ice.

Figure 17-1. Channel filled with brash ice

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b. Frazil ice. The third type of ice is frazil ice. Frazil is highly cohesive in its active state. If the
water velocity slows beyond a certain point, the frazil crystals can agglomerate and form a mush that can
eventually block the channel to a large extent as well as solidify partially.

c. Pressure in the ice. All of these forms of ice can restrict traffic further if the ice sheet is under
lateral pressure. Lateral pressure can be caused by wind or water currents. Ice sheets can also push over
each other and form a pressure ridge. Such a ridge can grow to extreme depths and virtually block a
channel.

d. Snow on the ice cover. The various types of ice described above can also be found with a snow
cover. A snow cover does not affect the mechanical properties of the ice to any great extent; however, a
snow layer increases the friction between the ice and the ships hull.

17-3. Vessel Shape

Most vessels are designed to maximize the volume of cargo that they can carry; they tend to be rectangular
with minimum curvature of the hull, the extreme example being the rectangular barge. Icebreakers are
specifically designed for breaking and clearing ice, and have angled bows, special shapes, and are usually
highly powered. Between these extremes are the blunt-bowed ore carriers, the raked-bowed barges, and
passenger vessels.

a. Hull resistance factors. The resistance a vessel encounters in ice depends on its hull shape. The
efficiency of a particular hull depends on the forces involved in breaking and clearing ice. Basically, a
vessel breaks the ice by riding on top of it, causing the ice sheet to fail from tension in the lower and upper
layers. After the ship breaks the ice sheet, it must clear the ice fragments from the channel. This is done
by pushing the fragments down or to the side. The resistance of the ice to breaking and clearing is a
function of the friction between the vessel and the ice and of the lateral pressure in the ice.

b. Variation in hull resistance. The resistance encountered by the vessel increases as the width and
length of the vessel increase, as the thickness and strength of the ice increase, as the velocity of the vessel
increases, as the friction between the ship and the ice increases, and as the lateral pressure in the ice
increases.

c. Barge-hull resistance. In the case of a tug and towed or tug-pushed barges, the shape of the
forward part of the hull has the largest effect on the resistance. A wide vessel with a plumb, blunt bow that
has a very rough surface will encounter extreme resistance. If the bow is so blunt that the ice cannot pass
to the side or below the vessel, the ice will pile up in front of the vessel, forming its own bow shape, and
will eventually cause such high resistance that the vessel will be unable to move.

17-4. Auxiliary Icebreaking Devices

Several different methods have been developed to facilitate icebreaking and ice navigation. The most
promising methods are:

C Low-friction hull coating

Hull bubbler systems

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C Air-cushion vehicles
Auxiliary icebreaking devices.

These systems have been developed and refined by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, U.S. Coast Guard,
Canadian Coast Guard, and ice researchers, as well as in Finland and Russia.

a. Surface friction. Figure 17-2 shows the coefficient of friction of various coatings, as well as that
of steel on ice. The polyurethane and epoxy (nonsolvented coatings) proved to be the most effective in
friction reduction and coating endurance.

b. Hull bubbler systems. Hull bubbler systems have been installed on several European icebreakers
and on the latest USCG small lake icebreakers. Bubbler systems work by interposing air and water
between the ice and the hull of the vessel. Figure 17-3a is a schematic of the bubbler system. Figure 17-3b
depicts its deployment on a USCG icebreaker. Figure 17-4 shows the results of full-scale tests of the
bubbler system on a European icebreaking ferry.

c. Air-cushion vehicles. The air-cushion vehicle (ACV) is the most dramatic contribution of modern
technology to icebreaking. The vehicles can skim over the ice and break it at speeds of 5 to 32 km/hr (3 to
20 mph). The icebreaking occurs both at low speeds of advance as shown in Figure 17-5 (top) and at
higher speeds of advance (bottom). At high speeds, the critical speed of the craft deflects the ice sheet to
the icebreaking point. At low speeds, the air cushion extends under the ice, displacing the supporting
water. Deprived of its support, the ice sheet fails under the pressure of the air cushion. Tables 17-1 and
17-2 show the results of tests conducted by the Canadian Coast Guard on ACVs. These tests indicate that
an ACV can break ice whose thickness is 90 percent of the cushion pressure expressed in inches of water.
The ACV has significant potential for aiding ice-jam flood control in shallow rivers and estuaries where
vessel draft is limited. An ACV placed in front of a conventional icebreaker will increase its effectiveness.

d. Auxiliary icebreaking devices. A device that has been used in Russia and has been evaluated in
the U.S. is the ice cutting vehicle. Such a vehicle cuts the ice with some apparatus such as a circular saw
or a high-pressure water jet. The weakened ice is then either conveyed up onto the vehicle and thrown over
the side, or deflected beneath and to the side of the vehicle by underwater ice guides. Figure 17-6 depicts
conceptual sketches of two possible ice cutting and clearing devices. These devices could be used to keep
channels in narrow rivers between locks and dams clear of ice. Another device is the icebreaking prow,
which is attached to a conventional towboat in the same manner as a barge (Tatinclaux and Martinson
1988). Vanes fastened to the front and bottom of the prow break the ice and guide the ice pieces
underneath and to the sides of the prow, where the ice accumulates under the adjacent ice cover. The
opened channel behind the vessel/prow combination is left largely ice-free.

17-5. Summary

Vessels operating in ice must be given special consideration if they are to operate safely and efficiently.
The vessel must have the power and structure to overcome the resistance and loads imposed by the ice
environment.

a. Unassisted icebreaking. Properly shaped vessels with adequate power can break the sheet ice that
is encountered on lakes and rivers. The primary problem is not so much sheet ice but brash and frazil ice
that can fill the channel and cause unusually high resistance because of the friction between the ice and hull
surface. This problem can be mitigated somewhat by a low-friction, high-wear coating.

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Figure 17-2. Coefficient of friction for steel and various hull surfaces on ice

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a. Schematic

b. Bubbler installed on icebreaker

Figure 17-3. Hull air-bubbler system

Table 17-1
Air-cushion Vehicles Used in Trials and Operations

Gross Vehicle Cushion

Length Beam Weight Pressure
Vehicle m (ft) m (ft) kg (lb) kPa (in.) of H2O

ACT-100 22.5 (73.8) 17.1 (56.1) 260,800 (575,000) 6.90 (27.7)

H-119 13.2 (43.3) 6.0 (19.7) 24,000 (53,000) 4.86 (19.5)

HJ-15 12.1 (39.8) 5.4 (17.7) 19,400 (42,700) 3.74 (15.0)

Voyageur 19.8 (65.0) 10.4 (34.0) 40,500 (89,300) 2.62 (10.5)

AC-80 6.0 (19.7) 3.5 (11.5) 1,300 (2,900) 1.0 (4.0)

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Figure 17-4. Air bubbler tests on a European

icebreaking ferry

Figure 17-5. Air-cushion vehicle. Top: Low speed

icebreaking. Bottom: High speed icebreaking

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Table 17-2
Air-Cushion Vehicle Icebreaking Data

Cushion Pessure
Vehicle Date and Location Ice Thickness, cm (in.) kPa (in.) of H2O Speed km/h (mph)

ACT-100 1971 - YK 69 (27) 6.92 (27.8) 6-8 (4-5)

ACT-100 1972 - Tuk 51-56 (20-22) 6.23 (25.0) 6-11 (4-7)

H-119 1973 - Montreal 23 (9) 4.01 (16.1) 2-6 (1-4)

H-119 1974 - Toronto 23-25 (9-10) 2.64 (10.6) 6-10 (4-6)

HJ-15 1974 - Toronto 23-25 (9-10) 2.91 (11.7) 6-10 (4-6)

Voyageur 1974 - Parry Sound 23-25 (9-10) 2.49 (10.0) 8-11 (5-7)

Voyageur 1974 - Parry Sound 46-51 (18-20) 2.49 (10.0) 19-29 (12-18)

Voyageur 1975 - Montreal up to 76 (up to 30) 2.0-2.5 (8-10) 19-50 (12-31)

Voyageur 1976 - Montreal up to 102 (up to 40) 2.0-2.5 (8-10) 19-50 (12-31)

ACT-100 1976 - Thunder Bay 38-41 (15-16) 5.0 (20) 16 (10)

AC-80 1976 - Ottawa 20 (8) 1 (4) 8-10 (5-6)

b. Cooperative programs. To enhance winter navigation on lakes and rivers, additional assistance is
often required in the form of icebreaking, ice clearing, ice control, and towing or kedging. This assistance
usually is provided by self-help programs of private industry. In certain limited cases, assistance is also
provided by government agencies (principally the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and U.S. Coast Guard).

17-6. References

a. Required publications.
None.

b. Related publications.

Tatinclaux and Martinson 1988

Tatinclaux, J.-C., and C. Martinson. 1988. Development of a River Ice Prow, CRREL Report 88-9,
U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New Hampshire.

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a. Type 1

b. Type 2

Figure 17-6. Ice cutter

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Chapter 18
Structural Solutions for Navigation Projects

18-1. General

Ice problems at navigation locks and dams have been identified and grouped into ten categories. These are
discussed in Chapter 14. Floating brash ice hinders normal lock operations and can delay barge
movements for hours. Floating ice accumulations are often difficult to pass through dams to downstream
reaches where the ice may pose fewer operational problems. Ice adhering to various lock surfaces
interferes with the operation of lock machinery and can restrict the usable width of lock chambers. All of
these problems can be addressed by various structural solutions which are discussed in this chapter.

Section I
Floating Ice Dispersion

18-2. Introduction

The most notable problems with brash ice are its entry into lock chambers, sometimes in heavy enough
quantities to require separate ice lockages to pass the ice downstream, and its accumulation in miter gate
recess areas, preventing the full opening of the gates. The most successful way to disperse ice is by means
of high-flow air systems (Rand 1988). These systems may have up to three separate components, each
with a specific function that increases the ease of lockage operations. (High-flow air systems are
outgrowths of air bubbler systems intended to promote thermal thinning and weakening, i.e., melting, of
ice; the latter are discussed in Part I, Chapter 3.)

18-3. High-Flow Air Systems

a. Distributed systems. Air manifolds should be placed in three specific locations around a lock to
completely mitigate the problems of brash ice (Figure 18-1). First, a recess flusher should be placed in
each gate recess; this will clear the recess area. The second manifold, called the screen, should be located
just upstream of each set of miter gates. At the upstream edge of the gate forebays, there is typically a sill
that runs across the lock chamber; place the screen on the downstream side of that sill. This screen keeps
brash ice from entering the lock or, in the case of the downstream screen, clears ice from an area across the
width of the chamber before the gate recess flushers are used. The third component is an optional one,
depending on the physical layout of the lock and dam project. When there is some means for passing ice
through or over a nearby spillway, the addition of a diagonal deflector in the upper lock approach can be an
effective way to direct the floating ice toward the spillway. This manifold is typically installed using divers
and weights because the area cannot normally be dewatered.

b. Single-point systems. Single orifices can be placed on the back wall of a floating mooring bitt
recess. A single air line discharging at the bottom of the recess provides sufficient water turbulence to
prevent floating ice from being pushed and packed between the float and the recess walls.

18-4. Air System Components

Each of the major components of high-flow air systems are discussed to clarify what is required and to
provide information on physical size and placement of the components.

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Figure 18-1. Schematic diagram of a complete high-flow air system, showing the
three locations for air manifolds at a typical lock. Two compressors are shown, but one
large compressor with long supply lines could also be employed, assuming the supply lines
are adequately sized

a. Compressor. The air compressor of the size required is generally either diesel-powered or
electrically operated. It can be either a permanent fixture or rented for the winter months. In a complete
high-flow air system, the component requiring the most amount of air is the diagonal deflector. For a
33.5-meter-wide (110-foot-wide) chamber, a diagonal deflector manifold length of at least 61 meters
(200 feet) is required. Design calculations (paragraph 18-6) will indicate that a compressor of at least
21.2-m3/min (750-ft3/min) capacity must be available. No more than one manifold should be used at any
one time.

b. Supply lines.

(1) Pipes that run from a single, centrally located compressor to each end of the lock chamber must be
large enough to handle the necessary air flow. One of the most common mistakes in designing an air
system is undersizing the supply lines. Typically, at least a 7.6-centimeter-diameter (3-inch-diameter)
schedule 40 pipe should be considered. If a supply length of over 152 meters (500 feet) is required, then a
10.2-centimeter (4-inch) pipe should be used for at least part of the total distance. Air control valves
should be located at each end of the lock. Ideally, they should be remotely operated for easy use by the lock
operator. The control valves allow the operator to selectively choose which air manifold to operate at any
given time. An indicator should be provided to assure the operator that the valves are operating correctly.

(2) Supply lines from the control valves to the air manifolds submerged in the lock chamber vary in
size, depending on the location of each manifold. The gate-recess flusher manifolds on the land wall
require only a 5.1-centimeter (2-inch) pipe as a supply line (Figure 18-2). The gate-recess flusher manifold
on the river wall, because of the added distance across the lock chamber to the manifold, needs to have at
least a 7.6-centimeter-diameter (3-inch-diameter) supply line until the supply line reaches the far side of the
lock chamber. The air screen going across the forebay sill requires at least a 7.6-centimeter (3-inch) supply
line because of the volume of air being delivered (Figure 18-3). The location and placement of the supply
lines may vary from lock to lock. It is best if the pipes can be located within the concrete walls,

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Figure 18-2. A flusher on the land wall of the upper gate recess composed of a
supply line and the manifold with orifices at Peoria Lock on the Illinois Waterway.
Note the vertical supply lines for the recess flusher of the river wall gate and for the cross-
chamber air screen installed on the downstream-facing surface at the left (upper) end of the
gate recess

but if this is not possible, they should be located along the upstream edge of the gate-recess wall, protected
from floating ice by steel plating.

c. Check valves. At the bottom of the vertical leg of each supply line entering the lock chamber, an
in-line, spring-loaded check valve should be installed to prevent water from passing into the manifold
through the orifices, entering the supply pipe, and freezing near the water surface when the air lines are
shut off. This check valve must be removable by divers for replacement or repair if required.

d. Manifolds. The manifolds for each of the systems vary with the number of orifices and the size of
the pipe. The design of an air manifold should provide for an even and uniform air flow through its entire
length. To achieve this goal, the total area of the orifices must be less than 25 percent of the cross-
sectional area of the manifold.

e. Recess flushers. The gate-recess flusher manifold differs from the other air manifolds because of
the orifice spacing and pipe size. Laboratory and prototype analyses have shown that the spacing of the
orifices should vary to provide more air near the quoin or pivot of the gate. The nominal spacings between
orifices starting at the quoin end of the gate should be 1.2, 1.2, 1.2, 1.8, 2.4, 3, 3, and 3 meters (4, 4, 4, 6,
8, 10, 10, and 10 feet). The actual length of the manifold may vary because of lock constraints. Typically,
in the locks on the Illinois Waterway, nine orifices are used.

f. Screens. The manifolds for the sill screens are designed with a 2.4-meter (8-foot) orifice spacing.
For locks with a width of 33.5 meters (110 feet), a 29.3-meter-long (96-foot-long) manifold is used; 13
orifices are placed along that manifold.

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Figure 18-3. Downstream side of forebay sill, Peoria Lock. Air-screen manifold (top pipe) and supply line for river
wall gate-recess flusher (bottom pipe) are attached to the sill face with U-straps. There is an orifice at each pipe tee
location in the manifold

g. Deflector. For a diagonal deflector in the upper lock approach area, a 61-meter (200-foot)
manifold is recommended, with 26 orifices.

h. Orifices. Each orifice is a drilled hole in a hex-head stainless steel pipe plug, which is installed in
a pipe tee in the manifold line. The inside of the plug is slightly chamfered, and there is a sharp edge at the
outside surface. The orifices are aligned so that the air discharges vertically. Occasionally, the orifices
might become plugged with silt, so the manifold should be regularly operated throughout the year to help
the orifices remain free of dirt. The orifice diameter ultimately controls the amount of air discharged.
From laboratory analysis, it is recommended that a design flow of 0.85 m3/min (30 ft3/min) be provided for
each orifice. This will provide sufficient air to create the desired effect at the water surface. For all the
systems installed on the Illinois Waterway, 0.95-centimeter-diameter (3/8-inch-diameter) holes were drilled
in the pipe plugs to serve as the orifices.

18-5. Effectiveness of the Air Systems

Experience gained from the use of complete high-flow air systems, as described above, has shown that the
systems reduce winter lockage times, make for a safer operation, and keep the morale of lock personnel
high. An average of 1 hour of compressor time is required to lock through an average tow. Some variation
is experienced between individual operators, but all agree that a high-flow air system is an effective way to
control floating ice problems at a lock (Figures 18-4 and 18-5).

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Figure 18-4. Upper screen in operation at Starved Rock Lock, Illinois Waterway.
Most brash ice is prevented from entering lock chamber, even with the entry of downbound
tows

18-6. Design of a High-Flow Air System

The parameters affecting the design of a high flow air system include: air volume and pressure available;
effective length and size of the supply line; length and size of manifold line; depth of submergence; and
orifice size and spacing. The air system analysis determines air discharge rates from an orifice by an
iterative scheme that starts with a trial dead-end pressure. The analysis calculates the orifice discharge and
pressure, starting from the end and working toward the supply point. After all the orifices are analyzed, the
supply line pressure and air flow are calculated. The compressor pressure and flow rate necessary to
sustain the supply line pressure and air flow are then calculated. The calculated compressor output is
compared to the actual compressor output. The trial dead-end pressure is then adjusted and the analysis
scheme repeated until the calculated and specified compressor outputs differ by no more than 1 percent.
Changes in system parameters are made until the optimum design is obtained.

a. The calculations for optimizing the air system parameters are provided below. The initial trial
dead-end pressure (Pd) is taken as

Pc & Pw
Pd = Pw % (18-1)
4
where

Pc = true compressor pressure

Pw = Dw g H = hydrostatic pressure

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Figure 18-5. Gate-recess flusher in operation at Starved Rock Lock. The ice is flushed
away from the recess area, allowing the miter gate to be fully opened

Dw = mass density of water

g = gravitational constant

H = submergence depth.

The subsequent trial dead-end pressure (Pd) is determined by

Pc & Pw
Pd(new) = Pw % Pd(old) & Pw (18-2)
P & Pw

where

P = calculated compressor pressure

Pd(old) = old trial dead-end pressure

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Pd(new) = new trial dead-end pressure.

The air discharge rate (Qo) from the orifices is calculated by the discharge equation

Bd 2
Qo = C d 2 ) P/ Da (18-3)
4

where

Cd = discharge coefficient, sharp-edged circular orifice

d = orifice diameter

)P = pressure difference between inside and outside of diffuser line

Da = mass density of air.

Finally, the pressure drop attributable to friction between orifices and in the supply line ()Pf) is calculated
using the friction loss equation for turbulent flow conditions

fDa R<2
) Pf = (18-4)
D2g

where

f = friction factor

R = equivalent length of pipe

v = air velocity

D = pipe diameter.

b. A computer program analyzing diffuser lines and nozzles gives a numerical simulation of air
bubbler systems and is used for the air screen analysis. The input data include: diffuser line length and
diameter, supply line length and diameter, orifice diameter and spacing, nominal compressor pressure, and
submergence depth. The output from the program lists the following parameters: hydrostatic pressure,
calculated output pressure, calculated compressor discharge, friction drop in diffuser line, friction drop in
supply line, and excess dead-end pressure. To illustrate how changes in the system parameters affect the
operating characteristics, Figures 18-6 and 18-7 show the effect on changes in the flow through an orifice
with respect to changes in orifice diameters.

18-7. Example

A compressor with an output of 0.543 m3/s (1150 ft3/min) at 759 kPa (110 lb/in2) was available for the
high-flow air screen trials at the Soo Locks. Optimum air flow conditions could be obtained from a
5.1-centmeter-diameter (2-inch-diameter) manifold and supply line system with nozzles of 10-millimeter

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Figure 18-6. Performance curves for gate-recess flushers, showing the average air
discharge from each orifice plotted with respect to orifice diameter, for combinations
of three supply-line lengths and two manifold lengths. The 5.1-centimeter (2-inch)
diameter manifolds are either 9.1-meters (30-feet) nominal length for 17.1-meter (56-foot)
wide locks, or 16.5-meters (54-feet) nominal length for 33.5-meter (110-foot) wide locks,
submerged 6.1 meters (20 feet) below the water surface. Six orifices at nominal spacings
of 1.2, 1.2, 1.2, 1.8, and 2.4 meters (4, 4, 4, 6, and 8 feet) are present in the 9.1-meter (30-
foot) manifolds, and three additional orifices at nominal 3.0-meter (10-foot) spacings are
present in the 16.4-meter (54-foot) manifolds

(0.40-inch diameter), spaced 3 meters (10 feet) apart. The manifold line was 5.1-centimeter (2-inch)
galvanized pipe with 5.1- 5.1- 2.5-centimeter (2- 2- 1-inch) tee joints each 3 meters (10 feet) of
pipe. A 2.5-centimeter (1-inch) stainless steel plug was mounted at each tee and each plug had a
10.3-millimeter (0.406-inch) hole drilled in it that acted as the nozzle or orifice. The supply line riser,
which ran up the side of the lock, was also of 5.1-centimeter (2-inch) galvanized pipe. A flexible, quick-
disconnect hose joined the bottom of the riser to the horizontal manifold line. Flexible hose was also used
from the top of the riser to the compressor.

a. The high-flow air screen was installed at the upper approach to the Poe Lock on the downstream,
vertical face of an emergency stop-log gate sill. The sill is located about 61 meters (200 feet) above the
lock gates. The riser line was installed in the stop-log recess in the wall. The width of the lock at this point
is 33.5 meters (110 feet) and the height from the top of the sill to the top of the lock wall is 11.9 meters
(39.2 feet).

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Figure 18-7. Performance curves for an air screen, showing the average air
discharge from each orifice plotted with respect to orifice diameter, for three supply-
line lengths. The 6.4-centimeter (2.5-inch) diameter, 29.3-meter (96-foot) long manifold
is typical for a 33.5-meter (110-foot) wide lock, and has 13 orifices at 2.4-meter (8-foot)
spacings, 6.1 meters (20 feet) below the water surface

b. The manifold line was installed at a depth of 10.5 meters (34.5 feet) in December 1977 and was
assembled into four sections: two sections 8.46 meters (27.75 feet) long and two sections 7.47 meters
(24.5 feet) long. Union connections joined the sections. The riser was assembled in one 11.7-meter (38.5-
foot) section. The sections were light in weight; two to three people were able to move them by hand. All
equipment for a hard-hat diver and the assembled pipes were placed on a 30.5-meter (100-foot) barge that
acted as the working platform. The barge was positioned above the sill, and sections were lowered on
ropes to the diver below who made the union connections and strapped the line to the concrete sill (Figures
18-8 and 18-9). One flexible hose coupling, from the diffuser to the riser, was also made underwater. The
above-water installation process consisted of simply connecting a 15.2-meter (50-foot) flexible hose from
the top of the riser line to the compressor. A 37,900-liter (10,000-gallon) fuel tank was placed beside the
compressor to supply fuel (Figure 18-8) throughout the winter when delivery would be difficult.

c. The high-flow air screen was put into operation on 12 January 1978 when ice started to cause
problems with lock operations. It was continuously available for service until 30 April 1978, except for a
5-day repair period in late March. By 1 May, ice no longer caused problems requiring the air screen, and
the rented compressor was returned. During the 104 days of operation, the total running time on the
compressor was 754 hours. Total consumption of No. 1 fuel oil was about 29,300 liters (7750 gallons).

d. The high-flow air screen demonstrated that it could hold back ice pushed ahead of downbound
traffic. With ships in the 21.3-meter (70-foot) beam class, the ice was held back until the bow entered the
air stream. The screen was not as effective with the wider 32-meter (105-foot) beam ships. Once the

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Figure 18-8. Diver working to install air screen system

bow of a wider vessel passed the nose pier (about 40 meters [130 feet] upstream of the screen), the
approach was just a little over 33.5 meters (110 feet) wide, so most of the ice remaining in the track was
pushed into the lock by these larger ships. This problem possibly could have been solved by relocating the
air screen upstream of the nose pier area and by providing some area for the ice to be pushed outside the
vessel track.

e. The merits of the air screen cited by lock operating personnel, besides the reduction in vessel
lockage time, were savings in wear and tear on the lock gate and operating mechanisms, and savings in the
time and effort required to remove ice collars from the lock walls. (The ice collars at the Soo result in part
from the vessels packing brash ice against the lock walls.)

18-8. Flow Inducers

A common technique to move ice in and around the lock is the use of a towboats propeller wash to induce
a flow that moves the brash ice. The towing industry assists itself and the Corps lock personnel on
occasion; towboats break away from their tows and flush sections of a navigation project. Another type of
flow inducer used in the past, a submergible mixer, develops a flow in the top layer of the water to aid in
moving debris or floating ice. An example of this operation formerly existed at the Chicago Harbor Lock,
where submergible mixers were attached near the sector gates. However, they have been removed. To
prevent ice from accumulating in front of lock miter gates that are not functioning during the winter
months, several Districts have made use of commercially available flow inducers designed for the marina
industry for protecting docks.

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Figure 18-9. Schematic of an air screen

Section II
Ice Passage Through Dams

18-9. Introduction

The question of holding ice or passing ice from one navigation project to the next is a subject of great
concern on all river systems. A definitive position on this problem cannot be taken. It is clearly understood
that growing a stable ice cover will reduce the overall quantity of ice grown because of the reduction in
frazil generation. However, the broken ice within the frozen ship track has to be dealt with every time a
vessel passes through. Just upstream of the locks is a particularly unfavorable spot to allow ice to
accumulate. Almost every lockmaster will state that he wants to keep that zone above his lock clear. The
specific policy, however, will have to be addressed in each of the river systems.

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18-10. Submergible Tainter Gates

A case study of use of submergible gates at Corps projects was prepared by the Louisville District
(U.S. Army 1985). Each of the project sites discussed in the study has a variety of dam gates. In the past,
the use of submergible gates to pass ice in the former North Central Division was encouraged, whereas the
former Ohio River Division did not allow the existing submergible gates to be operated. (These former
separate divisions are now represented by the Great Lakes and Ohio River Division and by a portion of the
Mississippi Valley Division.) The specific problems and comments regarding the varied use of sub-
mergible gates are well documented in the Louisville report. Figure 18-10 summarizes many of the
submergible gates considered in the study. A recent rehabilitation project on the Illinois Waterway
installed submergible gates at Marseilles Dam specifically for improving ice passage. The major problem
with passing ice is having sufficient water flow in the river system to open the gates, while maintaining
adequate river stage. If broken ice is flowing toward the dam and the gates can be opened, a submergible
gate will pass more ice than a nonsubmergible gate, given the same conditions. But it is more common that
there is insufficient surface velocity to move ice toward the gate area. When this is true, the better ice
passage characteristics of submergible gates provide no benefit. Moreover, ice bridging upstream of the
gate, between the dam piers, is a common problem. However, a benefit of using submergible gates is that,
since the gate is kept under the water, many gate freezeup problems are eliminated.

18-11. Roller Gates

Roller gates are used extensively on the Mississippi River. At some projects they are lowered to a fixed
submerged setting in the late fall and are kept in that position for the duration of the winter. The pools are
then maintained by adjusting tainter gates. At other projects, the tainters are left to freeze in and the roller
gates are adjusted, either submerged or with a bottom opening, to maintain upper pool stages. (At Lock 10
in the St. Paul District, the roller gates are not designed to be submergible, but they are the operative gates
in winter.) In the cases where the roller gates are used in the submerged mode in winter, they may assist in
ice passage, functioning in the same manner as submergible tainter gates, but having the same limitations.
Other problems associated with roller gates are largely related to the lifting mechanisms, in which ice
interferes with lifting chains, guide channels, and gear racks.

18-12. Conventional Tainter Gates

The openings required for ice passage at conventional tainter gates are usually quite large owing to the very
high flow velocities needed to sweep floating ice downward to the bottom openings. As a result, except
during periods of flood flow, these large openings normally cannot be used because of the likelihood of
downstream scour at low tailwater stages. Thus, during the customary low-flow conditions of the winter
season, ice passage at these gates is not feasible.

18-13. Gate Limitations in Winter

As detailed in Chapter 14, paragraphs 14-4g through i, successful operation of dam gates in winter,
regardless of gate types, is impeded by accumulated forebay ice, by ice buildup on gate and pier structures
from spray and splashing, and by the freezing of leakage past gate seals. All of these factors combine to
render ice passage through gate bays very difficult and unreliable, unless remedial measures, as discussed
in the following section, are employed.

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Figure 18-10. Summary of submergible gates and their problems. Many of these were considered in the Louisville
District study of the use of submergible gates for passing ice (U.S. Army 1985)

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18-14. Other Ice Passage Schemes

Ice can be successfully passed at some navigation locks having auxiliary lock chambers and bulkhead lift
systems by skimming the ice over partially raised bulkheads. Figure 18-11 shows such an operation. This
appears to be an effective way to pass ice through the lock system, thus clearing the upper approach area.

Figure 18-11. Ice passage at New Cumberland Lock on the Ohio River. The partially
raised bulkhead of the auxiliary lock chamber allows flow to carry ice out of the lock
approach area

Section III
Anti-Icing and Deicing at Locks and Dams

18-15. Introduction

As described in Chapter 14, the ice-related problems at navigation structures are severe during the winter
months. Exposed mechanically operated systems may be frozen-in and become inoperable. The weight of
ice formed on structures that need to be lifted or moved may become excessive so that the system becomes
overloaded. Ice loads can also cause structural damage. Icing on the recess walls or gates of navigation
locks prevents full opening of the gates. Ice formation on the chamber walls prevents full use of the lock
width. Ice buildups on dam pier walls can obstruct the movement of the components of dam gates. Ice in
any form causes safety hazards for personnel working on or near it. All of these ice problems involve ice
formation on or adhesion to critical surfaces at locks and dams. Solutions to these ice problems at naviga-
tion projects currently are time-consuming and expensive. This section addresses several approaches to
solving the problems of surface ice formation and adhesion.

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18-16. Electrical Heating of Lock and Dam Components

Ice adhesion on walls can be prevented by maintaining wall temperatures above 0EC (32EF), or ice collars
can be shed periodically by raising the wall temperature intermittently. Possible arrangements include
embedded (but removable) electrical heating cables within walls, direct placement of heat mats on walls,
and heating dam gate side J-seals.

a. Embedded electrical heaters. The use of embedded electrical heaters that cannot be removed for
replacement without major rehabilitation is not recommended. Almost every navigation project that has
installed embedded electrical heaters has some heaters that have failed and cannot be replaced. The recom-
mendation for those areas where embedded heaters are needed is a replaceable heat tape as described here.
During a rehabilitation project, where the concrete walls are to be resurfaced, 1.9-centimeter-diameter (3/4-
inch-diameter) stainless steel pipes should be installed, 15 to 20 centimeters (6 to 8 inches) on center, with
the bottom ends sealed. At the top of the pier or along the top of the wall, the top ends of the pipes are
accessible so that electrical leads can be run from one vertical pipe to the next. The tubes are filled with
glycol to act as a heat-transfer fluid, once the self-regulated heat tape is inserted into the pipe. The heat
tape can be cut to specific lengths by project personnel and inserted into the pipe. The heat tape is self-
regulating and has an output of 121 W/m at 0EC (37 W/ft at 32EF). In the control circuit, timers and
thermostats can be added to limit power consumption. If a heat tape fails, then a new length of heat tape
may be cut and installed. The cut end should be sealed using heat-shrink tubing, and a cold electrical lead
is added to the upper end. Alternate techniques of installing the pipes are by drilling vertical holes along
the edge of a pier or wall (however, a major concern is the possibility of the hole breaking out) and by
cutting vertical slots 7.5 to 10 centimeters (3 to 4 inches) deep in the wall.

b. Wall heat mats. Fiberglass-reinforced plastic heat mats have been placed directly on a vertical
concrete wall at a lock to prevent ice from forming a collar in the gate recess area. The commercially
available mats can be provided in any shape or size up to 1.2 2.4 meters (4 8 feet). Variable power
ratings are also available. The mats shown in Figure 18-12 are 1076 W/m2 (100 W/ft2). These panels are
each 1.2 1.2 meters 0.6 centimeters (4 4 feet 1/4 inch) thick. The mats are very effective in
keeping the wall clear of ice. Material costs (1988) for such a mat material were about $753/m2 ($70/ft2).

c. Heated J-seals on dam gates. Heating the side J-seals improves their ability to reduce leakage
past tainter gates, and thus reduce the associated buildup of icing on the walls and the gate structures. This
method is easily adaptable at low cost to existing dam gates (using Huntington J-seal Mold No. 3493 or
equivalent).

(1) This in situ heating system has been made up so that it can be inserted into the hollow channel of a
J-seal; it keeps ice from forming on the seal and increases the flexibility of the seal at lower temperatures.
With increased flexibility, the seal better conforms to irregular surfaces, thereby reducing leakage to the
downstream side. With little or no leakage, ice formation on the cold, exposed downstream side is
substantially reduced. Neither steaming nor cindering (i.e., pouring cinders in the water above the
locations of the greatest leakages, so that the cinders flow toward the leaks and plug them) were required
during tests of the in situ heating system at Starved Rock Lock and Dam on the Illinois Waterway, where it
was installed during a recent dam rehabilitation.

(2) The self-regulating heat trace tape, 208 volts ac at 121 W/m at 0EC (37 W/ft at 32EF), was cut
from a spool to a length of 5.5 meters (18 feet). The heat tape was sealed at one end. The other end had a
cold electrical lead attached to connect to the electrical power. The J-seal and the inserted heater are shown
in Figure 18-13. The 1988 cost of Huntington J-seal Mold No. 3493 was $45.57/meter

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a. General view

b. Detail showing plate over vertical groove in wall above heat mats, which contains
electrical leads

Figure 18-12. Fiberglass-reinforced plastic heat mats installed on a miter gate

recess wall at Starved Rock Lock on the Illinois Waterway

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a. Diagram b. Heat tape installed in the hollow channel of a

J-seal

Figure 18-13. J-seal installation on tainter gate

($14.50/foot). The seal was manufactured as of 1988 by Buckhorn Rubber, 55 W. Techne Center Drive,
Milford, Ohio 45150 (800-543-5454). The self-regulating heat trace tape is widely available at an
approximate 1988 cost of $16.40/meter ($5/foot). If both seals of a gate are heated and the heaters are
operating at maximum power, the operating cost per day is $2.24, assuming 1332 watts at $0.07/ kWhr.

(3) Use of heated J-seals would not preclude the inclusion of embedded electrical heaters in gate pier
walls in rehabilitations or new designs, because embedded heaters aid in keeping seal plates ice-free above
or below the immediate seal-contact area, so that gates can easily be placed in any chosen position.

18-17. Providing Electricity for Heating to Locks and Dams

Electricity for the heating and deicing of lock and dam components can be supplied by the local electric
utility. But since such energy is usually expensive, lower-cost sources of electricity are attractive. Two
such alternatives are private hydropower projects installed at Corps navigation projects and, possibly, pre-
packaged portable hydropower plants.

a. Installed private hydropower. It is the policy of the Corps of Engineers to cooperate with the
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission in encouraging private interests to develop hydropower potentials
at Corps navigation or flood-control dams. In these cases, the Corps usually has rights to certain portions
of the power generated at no cost, as long as it is used for the benefit of navigation. In planning for use of
this power, it is recommended that the power needs for ice control be considered and that the total power
requirements for navigation be conveyed to parties exploring the feasibility of such private hydropower
development.

b. Portable prepackaged hydropower. In those cases where private power development is not
present or not likely to be developed, the use of dedicated, portable, packaged hydropower units as

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described below (if they are commercially available) should be investigated and compared to purchased
power for meeting the needs of ice control at navigation locks and dams.

(1) A study conducted by the University of Iowa during the River Ice Management Program (Nakato
et al. 1992) endorsed electrical heating as an attractive method for controlling ice, and suggested
consideration of using a then-unconventional means of generating electricity on-site: prefabricated,
portable, packaged power plants. The study described a concept in the development and demonstration
stage (in 1988) for low-head micro-hydroelectric power plants. These packaged plants were of two sizes:
one producing 500 kilowatts at a net head of 5.5 meters (18 feet) and a discharge of 11.3 m3/s (400 ft3/s),
and the other a 1250-kilowatt unit operating with a 3.7-meter (12-foot) head and 42.5 m3/s (1500 ft3/s).
These plants gain their portability by being barge-mounted. There is an anchored upstream barge pro-
viding the water intake, a siphon penstock, and a downstream barge that carries a submergible horizontal
turbine. Trunnion-type joints accommodate variations in upper and lower pool stages. There is no major
construction involved for these devices to be installed; they can be placed in a variety of dam con-
figurations, for example, in a gate bay of a navigation dam.

(2) Micro-hydroelectric power-plant output potentials, expressed in combinations of discharge, net

head, and resulting power output, are listed in Table 18-1.

Table 18-1
Output Potential of Micro-hydroelectric Power Plants

Power Output (kW) (at 80% efficiency) at Net Heads of:

Discharge
m3/s (ft3/s) 1.5 m (5 ft) 3.0 m (10 ft) 4.6 m (15 ft) 6.1m (20 ft)

7.1 (250) 85 170 255 340

14.2 (500) 170 340 510 680

28.3 (1000) 340 680 1015 1355

42.5 (1500) 510 1015 1525 2035

56.6 (2000) 680 1355 2035 2710

18-18. Mechanical Removal of Ice from Lock Walls

The experimental extension of the navigation season into the winter months on the Great Lakes created ice
problems at the Soo Locks. Even under present operating-season schedules, ice poses many problems at
the Soo Locks, as well as at many of the lock-and-dam projects on the Ohio River and its tributaries, on the
Illinois Waterway, and on the Upper Mississippi River. Ice can adhere to lock walls, building up an ice
collar at and below the high pool level, which can interfere with gate opening and closing and interfere with
ship passage. For example, ice collars form at the 33.5-meter (110-foot) wide Poe Lock at Sault
Ste. Marie, Michigan. Ships of the Presque Isle and Roger Blough class with their 32.0-meter (105-foot)
beams encounter problems when the ice buildup along the walls becomes greater than 0.76 meters (2.5 feet)
on each wall. Prior to the development of the ice cutting saw, discussed below, and the copolymer coating
(discussed later in paragraph 18-19a), a number of methods were used with varying degrees of success to
overcome this problem. Steam hoses work well but are extremely slow and require many man-hours.
Backhoes have been used to scrape off the ice collar. This is faster then using steam, but still slow. Since
the operator cannot see what he is doing he may miss some ice or scrape too deep and damage the lock
wall. A high pressure water jet was able to cut off the ice, but the jet was noisy and somewhat dangerous,
and the pressure pump was both expensive and difficult to maintain. The selected solution used a high-

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flow air screen (discussed in Section I of this chapter), a copolymer coating, and an ice cutting saw. The
ice cutting saw is discussed here.

a. Ice cutting saw. CRREL designed and assembled a mechanical cutting system (see Figure 18-14)
to remove the ice collars. The unit consisted of two parts: the cutting system, and the drive and propulsion
system. The drive and propulsion system was a 48.5-kilowatt (65-horsepower) four-wheel-drive tractor,
originally manufactured as a trencher (the tractor could be purchased without the trencher attachment).
The drive line for the trencher was modified to accommodate the cutting system by extending the drive
shaft and attaching a drive sprocket to its end. While in the cutting mode, the engine powered the shaft and
sprocket directly and the drive wheels indirectly through a separate hydraulic drive system, so cutting
power and propulsion power could be independently controlled.

Figure 18-14. Ice cutting saw at Poe Lock

(1) The cutting system was one used in the coal industrya thin, 8.9-centimeter (3.5-inch) kerf cutter
manufactured at the Bowdil Company of Canton, Ohio. It consisted of a rugged bar and chain with cutting
bits attached. The bar was 24 centimeters (9.5 inches) wide to the chain guide, 3.8 centimeters (1.5 inches)
thick, and 4.85 meters (15.9 feet) long; it was attached to the drive shaft housing. Movement of the bar
was hydraulically controlled. Different kerf and bar thicknesses were used, but earlier tests showed that a
narrow logging saw was too flexible.

(2) The bar was grooved to accommodate the sprocket drive chain and cutting bits and had a roller
nose tip to reduce friction and wear. Chain tension was controlled by a high-pressure hydraulic cylinder
capable of exerting 8 kilonewtons (1,800 pounds) at 68.9 megapascals (10,000 psi). The bar and chain
hang about 0.76 meters (30 inches) past the side of the tractor and the drive wheels (see Figure 18-15).

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Figure 18-15. Schematic of ice cutting saw

b. Operation of the ice cutting saw. When a problem ice collar built up, the esplanade along the lock
wall was cleared of snow. The tractor was then positioned with the right wheels close to the curbing along
the wall so that there was about 3.8 centimeters (1.5 inches) of clearance between the wall and the bar and
chain. A spacer on the wall side of the bar prevented the cutters from damaging the wall. A guide marker
located off the right front wheel was positioned and set so the driver could maintain the proper position by
keeping the marker and the reference point (top of curb) aligned. Looked at from the drivers point of view,
the chain rotated clockwise with the tension cutting side on top of the bar. To start a slot for the bar, the
underside of the saw was used until the tip cut completely through the collar. The slot was cut with the
tractor stationary. Once a slot was cut through, the bar was placed in a forward position about 70 degrees
from the horizontal. Full throttle operation in third gear produced a chain speed of 1.93 meters per second
(380 feet per minute), although chain speeds of up to 2.59 meters per second (510 feet per minute) were
possible in fourth gear. A traverse speed of over 0.051 meters per second (10 feet per minute) could be
maintained while cutting ice collars 1.8 to 2.4 meters (6 to 8 feet) deep by operating the transmission in
third gear at full throttle.

18-19. Surface Treatments to Reduce Ice Adhesion

There is a long history of study in this area for a variety of applications, but surface treatments that shed
ice reliably and repeatedly have not yet emerged. The only chemical treatment that has been used
successfully on a large scale for truly shedding ice is repeated application of chemicals that depress the
freezing point of water. As far as concrete surfaces are concerned, the classic treatment for ice removal is
repetitive application of sodium chloride or calcium chloride. Another ice-control method is a permanent or
semipermanent chemical coating that reduces the adhesive force between the coated surface and the ice that

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forms on it. The ideal material would be one that prevented ice formation entirely. No known coatings do
this, but some make the task of ice removal from coated surfaces easier. As an alternative to coatings to
reduce ice adhesion, cladding surfaces with materials that shed ice more easily than concrete may be
considered.

a. Copolymer coatings. One successful material is a long-chain copolymer compound made up of

polycarbonates and polysiloxanes. The most effective coating of the many that have been tested is a
solution of polycarbonatepolysiloxane compound, silicone oil, and toluene. The mixture is highly volatile
and leaves a thin coat of the copolymer and silicone on the surface to which it is applied.

(1) The copolymer coating was not to be applied to a concrete surface unless it was certain that the
concrete behind the coating could resist frost action in a critically saturated condition. Proper application
guidance for surface coatings to concrete can be found in Maintenance and Repair of Concrete and
Concrete Structures, EM 1110-2-2002. The surface to be coated must be clean and dry. For concrete and
metal surfaces (bare and painted), steam cleaning is sufficient; however, a detergent may be added to the
water of the steam cleaner. This was done, for example, in one case where navigation lock walls were
heavily coated with oil and algae. Once the surface is clean and dry, the solution can be sprayed on using
an airless spray gun system (Figure 18-16). A single pass will deposit a coat 25 to 51 micrometers (1 to
2 mils) thick. Three coats are recommended for a coating thickness of about 127 micrometers
(5 mils). Achieving this final thickness requires about 24.4 liters/100 m2 (6 gallons/1000 ft2).

Figure 18-16. Application of copolymer coating

(2) Care has to be taken when mixing the solution. Toluene is a combustible material, so no electrical
motor-driven mixer should be used. An air-operated drill motor fitted with a rod with mixer blades has
worked satisfactorily. The fumes may also be a health hazard, so that a well-ventilated mixing area should
be used. A 208-liter (55-gallon) drum fitted with a bracket to hold the drill motor is a suitable mixing
container. Batches of up to 151 liters (40 gallons) can easily be handled. The liquid portions, toluene and
silicone oil, are placed in the container first. Then the mixer is started and the copolymer powder is slowly

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added. Mixing continues until all solids are dissolved. Then the solution can be transferred to a storage
container.

(3) Tests to determine the merits of an undercoating for the copolymer (on concrete surfaces that are
worn and rough) show that an epoxy-type coating that acts as a filler over the rough concrete provides a
better surface to which the copolymer adheres. Trials of the undercoating and copolymer were done at the
Poe Lock, at the St. Marys Falls Canal, at Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan, at Lock No. 4 on the Allegheny
River, and at the Starved Rock Lock on the Illinois Waterway. Maintenance and frequency of recoating
requirements were monitored. The coating remained in good condition for at least three years.

b. Epoxy coatings. Commercially available two-part epoxy coatings, which can be applied in wet
environments, have been tested for ice-phobic characteristics. Several of these coatings perform equally as
well as the copolymer coating. They are far more durable since they are an epoxy resin and a polyamine-
based curing agent. The epoxy coating gives concrete ideal protection against the ingress of chloride ions,
carbon monoxide, and other corrosive agents over the design life. The hard, smooth finish provides a very
low friction coefficient, thus reducing the bond strength between ice and substrate.

c. Claddings. Cladding of wall surfaces by materials that shed ice easier than concrete is another
approach to solving the problem of ice adhesion. In a demonstration at Starved Rock Lock in Illinois, a 1.2-
2.4-meter 1.2-centimeter-thick (4 8 foot 1/2-inch-thick) sheet of high-density polyethylene was
fastened to the curved part of the gate recess wall at the quoin end, at the ice-collar level. Hilti studs, 0.5
meters (20 inches) on center, were used for attaching the sheets. Ice formed on the polyethylene surface
and the concrete surface equally, but far less effort was needed by lock personnel to manually remove the
ice from the plastic material, because of the lower adhesion forces between the polyethylene and the ice.
Problems were noted with ice being more difficult to dislodge where the studs protruded, but a redesigned
fastening technique could overcome that problem. The polyethylene is not highly durable when pike poles
or ice chippers have to be used extensively, though. The use of steam to dislodge the ice collars would
eliminate the risk of this damage. The panels are easily and economically replaced, since their 1988 cost
was only about $75/m2 ($7/ft2).

18-20. References

a. Required publications.
None.

b. Related publications.

EM 1110-2-1605
Hydraulic Design of Navigation Dams.

EM 1110-2-2002
Maintenance and Repair of Concrete Structures.

Nakato et al. 1992

Nakato, T., R. Ettema, and K. Toda 1992. Unconventional Energy Sources for Ice Control at Lock and
Dam Installations, Special Report 92-13, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory,
Hanover, New Hampshire.

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Rand 1988
Rand, J.H. 1988. High-Flow Air Screens Reduce or Prevent Ice-Related Problems at Navigation Locks,
Proceedings, The 9th International Symposium on Ice, Sapporo, Japan, 2327 August 1988, Vol. 2,
p. 3443, International Association for Hydraulic Research.

U.S. Army 1985

U.S. Army 1985. Submergible Gate Use Within the Corps: Case Histories, Report to U.S. Army Cold
Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, June 1985; prepared by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
Louisville (Kentucky) District.

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Chapter 19
Operational Solutions

Section I
Vessel Scheduling or Convoying

19-1. Introduction

Frequent vessel passages through ice-covered navigation channels under frigid conditions generate extra
ice. In addition, the passage of vessels causes most of the ice grown along tracks opened by previous
vessels to be broken into brash ice, which may collect as thick accumulations that eventually impede vessel
movements. Field observations, results from ice-tank (laboratory) experiments, and numerical models have
shown that navigation tracks opened by transiting vessels become covered with a rather porous layer of
brash ice that is approximately 1.5 to 3 times the thickness of the surrounding sheet-ice cover. The greater
the number of passages, the thicker the brash-ice layer is likely to become. In addition to hindering vessels,
the accumulations of brash ice may form partial or complete ice jams in the navigation channel itself and
parallel ridges beneath the ice cover adjacent to the navigation channel. Ice-tank experiments indicate that
these ice jams and ice ridges form especially rapidly in shallow river reaches, where they may extend
downward to the bottom of the channel. An additional problem that may affect towboats and barges
transiting through level or broken ice is their propensity for entrapping and transporting brash ice beneath
their flat-bottomed hulls. Ice-tank experiments have shown that the thickness of the ice accumulations on
the flat bottoms of towboats and barges increases with decreasing velocity of the vessels, and also increases
when lateral confinement (such as provided by ice ridges along the track) does not allow ice pieces to slide
off the vessel bottom toward the sides.

19-2. Operational Choices

The problems outlined above suggest two general approaches for their control and mitigation. The first
approach entails the use of mechanical methods for controlling brash-ice accumulations at specific channel
locations, either by removal or breakup. Icebreakers could be used to loosen and break up such ice
accumulations, and to ease transit conditions for commercial vessels, including towboats and barges.
However, no icebreakers currently operate on the Ohio and Upper Mississippi Rivers, or on the Illinois
Waterway. The second approach involves the optimum scheduling of tow transits and, possibly, the
convoying or grouping of tows, which will minimize ice growth in navigation channels.

19-3. Transit Scheduling or Convoying

Results from laboratory experiments and numerical modeling indicate that the basic rule for minimizing the
volume of ice grown in a navigation channel is to minimize the total number of transits or tow passages per
day. However, the demands of navigation do not generally allow this to be done. Under the assumption that
a certain number of transits must take place per day, numerical modeling has shown that varying the time
interval between individual transits has no significant effect on the volume of ice grown. But convoying of
vessels, i.e., having tows grouped together to transit one after the other, is a special case equivalent to a
large, single transit. Under a convoying concept, only one icebreaking event per day would take place.
Correspondingly, the total volume of ice produced in a waterway each winter would be minimized.

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a. Limitations. Ice-prone waterways may have relatively short periods of severe ice conditions. The
river reaches between locks and dams in many locations are relatively short, resulting in frequent lockages
of the tows. The vessels may have numerous and varied origins and destinations along the waterways, some
of which may lack adequate docking and mooring areas where several tows could be assembled for
convoying. Finally, upbound and downbound transits usually have equal frequency. Under these
conditions, elaborate transit scheduling, requiring close coordination among the Corps of Engineers, the
Coast Guard, and the navigation industry, is unlikely to be administratively or economically feasible.

b. Guidelines for scheduling or convoying tow traffic. For certain river reaches where ice
accumulations are particularly severe, or for a given period when cold weather conditions are extreme,
partial scheduling or convoying may be chosen as a temporary, expedient measure to help keep the
waterway open and to expedite traffic. In such a convoy, normally the leading towboat would be the most
powerful one. It is the vessel most likely to be able to do the required icebreaking in the difficult areas. It
may also involve the widest tow configuration, thereby opening the navigation channel for the rest of the
tows in the convoy. Finally, the most powerful boat may be capable of sustaining a speed sufficiently high
to avoid ice accumulations underneath its own barge bottoms, as well as those of the following tows. The
size of a convoy may be limited by the time required to pass it through a lock, rather than by the time
required to move between two successive locks. While transit scheduling or convoying are not common
approaches to alleviating winter transit difficulties in the navigable waterways of the northern United
States, they should be considered when extraordinary local and short-term ice conditions are forecast or are
at hand.

Section II
Operational Techniques at Locks and Dams

19-4. Introduction

Operational techniques to mitigate ice-related problems at locks and dams tend to be site-specific. Factors
influencing the success of any operational technique include the geographical location of the project with
respect to river features, the river system that the project is on, the location of the dam in relation to the
lock, the presence of an auxiliary lock, the kinds of gates at the lock or dam, the presence or absence of an
effective high-flow air system at the lock, the availability of a work boat assigned to the lock, the prevailing
wind direction, the amount of winter navigation, and so on. The general problems caused by ice at locks
and dams are summarized in Chapter 14: ice obstructing the upper lock approach, fragmented ice floes
accumulating in miter gate recesses, ice adhering to lock walls and miter gate recess walls, inoperative
floating mooring bitts, vertical check pin (line hook) icing, ice accumulating in the lower lock approach,
difficult ice passage at dam spillway gates, ice buildup from spray at dam spillway gates, icing from
leakage at gate seals, and ice accumulating on intake screens.

19-5. Physical Ice Removal

Several of the ice problems at locks and dams involve ice adhering to structure surfaces. When methods
for the prevention of these ice buildups are not available, it may become necessary to resort to physical
removal techniques.

a. Mechanical contact tools for ice removal. Two hand tools that can reliably be used to remove ice
from concrete or steel surfaces are the pike pole and the ice chipper. Both of these tools are widely used by
lock personnel at sites that experience winter icing problems. Figure 19-1 is a sketch of an ice

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Figure 19-1. Effective design for a manual ice-chipping tool

chipper that has been refined over many years by its users. Large mechanical equipment used to scrape ice
collars from lock walls is limited. Backhoes scrape the wall vertically by drawing the bucket teeth up the
face of the concrete. With a light machine, this may require more than one pass to scrape through to the
concrete, and frequent repositioning of the machine is necessary. With a heavier track-mounted machine, a
single pass is usually sufficient. It is easy to move the machine along and there are no spuds to be set.
However, with forceful operation, damage to the lock wall is inevitable, and the concrete on grooved or
paneled walls could be seriously spalled.

b. Ice removal with noncontact tools. Two techniques for ice removal using noncontacting tools are
steam and water jets. Steam, when available at the desired locations, has always been used, often via
lances or pipe probes placed and maneuvered by hand. But using steam is slow and time-consuming. The
use of high-pressure water jets is rare because of the high horsepower required and the bulkiness of the
typical systems. Advances in the design of such systems could make them more attractive.

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19-6. Methods Used at Locks

Operational techniques used to mitigate ice problems at locks are briefly listed below. The list of practices
can always be enlarged by discussing any particular problem with the lock or maintenance personnel at
neighboring project sites.

a. Upper approach. Techniques to reduce upper approach ice problems include using an auxiliary
lock with a bulkhead spillway to pass ice, ice lockages in the main chamber or an auxiliary chamber,
diagonal high-flow air-screen deflectors, and towboat wheel wash. Other possibilities are the placement of
barge traffic awaiting downbound lockage in appropriate configurations to deflect ice, using ice spillways
near dams (if present) or using dam gates to pass ice, assuming sufficient flow is available for this purpose.

b. Miter gate recesses. To clear fragmented floes from around miter gates and recesses, towboat
wheel wash, miter gate fanning, pike poles and ice rakes, or recess air flushers are used. If the techniques
used to deflect floating ice away from the upper approach are effective, then the task of dealing with
fragmented ice in the lock chamber and gate recesses will be reduced.

c. Lock walls and recess walls. Ice accumulations or ice collars on lock walls and miter gate recess
walls cause width restrictions, as noted earlier. To remove ice collars, or to prevent or reduce the ice
growth, various techniques can be considered. If the pool elevation in the chamber is kept high except
during lockages, the chamber wall temperature will be near the water temperature. On the other hand, if
the pool is kept at a low level, more of the lock wall is exposed to the subfreezing air, allowing the wall to
reach temperatures below freezing and thus allowing more ice to form. Removal of the ice is critical in the
gate recess area. Common practices at many locks are the labor-intensive ones of using chippers, pike
poles, and steam lances. Other techniques that may be available include low-flow bubblers, surface-
mounted heat mats, embedded circulation loops of warm fluids, and mechanical tools like backhoes.

d. Mooring bitts. Floating mooring bitts typically freeze in place because of floating ice being
pushed into the bitt recess area, as well as because of ice buildup on tracks and related rollers. Currently,
personnel at many locks secure the bitts in the top position, not using them during the winter months. This,
of course, leaves the bitts unavailable while lock traffic may still be in need of them. The techniques of
using a single-point air bubbler or replaceable embedded electric heaters have been developed but are not
yet widely adopted. Additional safety systems should be added so that if a floating bitt becomes frozen in
the submerged position, it will not be launched skyward when the ice melts.

e. Check pins. Vertical check pins are typically iced over and are forgotten until spring. Lock
personnel rely on mooring points on the top of the lock wall to secure the lines during the winter months.
Constant monitoring of the lines by deck hands is required. No operational technique appears feasible,
other than steaming or chipping the ice on the check pins.

f. Lower approach. The final lock ice problem is the accumulation of ice in the lower approach.
Typically, this is not a serious problem for lock personnel. It is possible to stage tows waiting to be locked
up in such a manner as to block the encroachment of ice. Water discharge when lowering the lock chamber
level helps to clear the immediate lower approach area.

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19-7. Methods Used at Dams

Operational techniques used to handle the icing problems associated with dams are much the same as those
used at locks. Comments on specific practices at dams are given here. Many dams have been equipped
with embedded electrical heaters along gate sealing surfaces. Unfortunately, these heaters have a record of
frequent failure, and a new technique has been designed for the installation of a removable heater that is
easily exchanged if it becomes inoperative (see paragraph 18-16a). Steam lances are commonly used in
dam deicing. This is a time-consuming operation but it can be effective. Cindering the dam gate seals (i.e.,
applying coal cinders to the water above the gate, which then flow toward and plug the gaps at the seals to
reduce water leakage) helps to prevent the formation of larger ice deposits on the downstream side of the
gate. A new method that has been proposed is a heater inserted in the hollow channel of a J-seal to keep the
seal material flexible (see paragraph 18-16c). The increased flexibility makes a better seal, eliminating or
reducing leakage and ice formation on the downstream side of the gate. The types of gates and their lifting
devices are largely site-specific, and techniques used to operate them in winter are developed with time and
experience. Typically, submergible gates operated in the submerged position have the fewest operational
problems from ice during the winter months. Problems experienced with submergible dam gates are
identified in Submergible Gate Use Within the Corps: Case Histories (U.S. Army 1985). In many
instances, operational techniques now used by lock and dam operators are also described in that report.

Section III
Operational Use of Thermal Resources at Locks and Dams

19-8. Introduction

There is often interest expressed in making beneficial use of energy or thermal resources that may already
be present in the vicinity of navigation projects. By this is meant either energy introduced into waterways
by man-made sources, or energy that might be extracted from the natural environment (the latter sometimes
being called unconventional energy sources).

19-9. Man-Made Energy Sources

Man-made sources of warm water on rivers are often present that either already suppress some ice
formation or may be used to cause some ice suppression. The most significant source is the release of
cooling water from thermal power plants, which amounts to 150 to 200 percent of the energy produced as
electricity. Another source is the release of water from reservoirs that contain slightly warmer water at
depth, such that downstream flows may be several degrees above freezing. In addition, there are other less
significant sources such as the discharge of treated sewage and warm waste water from industrial
processes. While direct application of these thermal energy resources at navigation projects may be
difficult, their effects may be helpful in diminishing ice problems in the vicinity of locks and dams. For a
complete analysis of the effects on ice covers produced by these thermal energy sources, see Chapter 3, Ice
Control, paragraphs 3-8 and 3-9.

19-10. Unconventional Energy Sources

Conventional energy sources, such as electricity from public utilities, or the burning of hydrocarbon fuels
for heating (either direct heating, or indirect heating such as for generating steam), can be viewed as
comparatively expensive sources of energy for ice control at lock and dam installations. Therefore,
consideration has sometimes been given to unconventional energy sources, such as sensible heat from

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groundwater, heating of a transfer medium by solar energy, or electricity generated from wind energy. A
study was conducted during the River Ice Management Program to evaluate the feasibility of using energy
from either groundwater, sunlight, or wind to achieve typical ice removal or ice prevention tasks at lock and
dam projects (Nakato et al. 1988). In general they found that there is very little promise in pursuing the
development of the unconventional energy sources that were examined (groundwater, solar energy, or wind
energy). The study concluded that none offered great promise over other more conventional means of ice
control at locks and dams.

a. Groundwater heat. Heat energy in groundwater appears to be an attractive energy source.

Groundwater is readily available in the vicinity of most rivers. Its temperature is generally near the
average annual air temperature for any particular site, meaning that it is well above 0EC (32EF) for nearly
all of the inland waterways of the conterminous United States. But the appeal of groundwater is diminished
by practical problems involved in extracting and applying its heat, and by the fact that, in the colder areas
where heat energy is needed most, the groundwater temperatures are lower. Several approaches for
applying the heat contained in groundwater were investigated for preventing or relieving ice buildup on lock
components. Both the method of whole-lock heating and the method of heating the water adjacent to the
lock walls were ruled out almost immediately as requiring unreasonable amounts of energy. Only the
method of circulating warm groundwater through pipes embedded in lock walls to raise the wall
temperature was close to being practical. This approach features heating the mass of the walls first, which
then lose the heat energy to the air. A significant drawback is that the mass of the walls absorbs so much
heat as to make the approach unattractive.

(1) Assume that groundwater at 14EC (57EF) is flowing through an embedded pipe, and the pipe-wall
temperature is constant at 0EC (32EF) throughout its length. This simulates the pipe being embedded in a
lock wall that is massive compared to the pipe, and in the vicinity of 0EC (32EF) throughout its mass. Two
sizes of pipe and two flow amounts for each size were analyzed. Table 19-1 shows how much energy is
transferred from the groundwater to the surroundings of the pipe (i.e., the lock wall mass) in a pipe length
of 61 meters (200 feet). Also shown is the temperature of the groundwater at the end of the 61-meter
(200-foot) run.

Table 19-1
Energy Transferred by Groundwater to Lock Wall

Water Temperature
at end of 61-m
Pipe Size Flow per Pipe Energy Transferred in 61-m (200-ft) Pipe Run
cm (in.) L/s (ft3/s) (200-ft) Pipe Run (kW) C (F)

2.5 (1) 0.63 (0.022) 37 0.1 (32.2)

2.5 (1) 0.95 (0.033) 57 0.2 (32.4)

5.1 (2) 2.52 (0.089) 136 1.2 (34.2)

5.1 (2) 3.79 (0.134) 200 1.4 (34.5)

(2) Note that the values in Table 19-1 are just to keep the pipe-wall temperature at 0EC (32EF). The
real case would be to keep the temperature of the lock wall at or above 0EC (32EF); consequently, even
larger flows and energy transfers would be needed. Depth of pipe embedment and pipe spacing would be
important factors in determining how much larger the flows would have to be. Also, note that if the
groundwater was at a lower temperature or moving at lower flow rates, or both, there could be danger of
freezing near the end of a 61-meter (200-foot) pipe run. This would indicate the need for shorter pipe-run
lengths.

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(3) An operational application of embedded pipes would call for several parallel pipes running
horizontally at the ice-collar location on the wall, each pipe run having a length of, say, 200 feet, and with
the pipes being placed end-to-end with other pipes to cover the entire lock length. The example values
above indicate that unless the groundwater temperature is very high, water temperatures decrease toward
0EC (32EF) too quickly (i.e., in too short a distance in the pipes) for this technique to be practical. It
appears that other heat sources, such as steam or electric heating, may be more attractive for embedded
wall heating systems.

b. Solar energy. In general, the study found that the use of solar energy to assist in keeping lock and
dam installations ice-free in winter was not practical. From assumptions based on using standard types of
liquid-heating solar collectors, and three values of incoming solar radiation typical of clear-sky daily
averages during winter in the Upper Mississippi and Ohio River basins, efficiencies and temperature
increases in the heat-transfer liquid were calculated. Efficiency drops markedly as air temperature
decreases. In addition, cloudy days, the requirements for storage of heat (to make it available when needed,
such as at night), and the capital costs of very large collectors and associated equipment all would combine
to discourage extensive consideration of solar energy for lock ice control, in view of the performance levels
that can be anticipated.

c. Wind energy. For most locations, normal fluctuations in wind make extraction of its energy
unreliable unless some means of energy storage is available. Theoretically, the immediate power output
(without storage) from a wind turbine is proportional to the third power of wind speed. Practically
speaking, wind turbines often are subject to system controls to minimize the difficulties of extreme
variability of power output. In any case, sample calculations illustrated the amounts of power potentially
available from wind. For many locations on the inland waterways, an average winter wind speed may be
represented by 14.5 km/h (9 mph). A wind turbine having 6.1-meter (20-foot) diameter blades and
operating at 50 percent efficiency in this wind condition can generate an average power output of about 0.6
kilowatts, according to commonly used formulas. This means that five or six such wind turbines would be
needed to provide power for continuous operation of the comparatively small (3.0 m2 [32 ft2]) lock-wall
heating panels discussed in paragraph 18-16b and shown in Figure 18-12. As with solar energy, the
variability of the energy source and the capital costs of the installations and equipment combine to make
wind energy use for ice control at locks unattractive.

19-11. References

a. Required publications.
None.

b. Related publications.

Nakato et al. 1992

Nakato, T., R. Ettema, and K. Toda 1992. Unconventional Energy Sources for Ice Control at Lock and
Dam Installations, Special Report 92-13, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory,
Hanover, New Hampshire.

U.S. Army 1985

U.S. Army 1985. Submergible Gate Use Within the Corps: Case Histories, Report to U.S. Army Cold
Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, June 1985; prepared by U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
Louisville (Kentucky) District.

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Appendix A
Glossary

Agglomerate An ice cover floe formed by the freezing together of various forms of ice.

Anchor ice Submerged ice attached or anchored to the bottom, irrespective of the nature of its
formation.

Anchor ice dam An accumulation of anchor ice that acts as a dam and raises the water level.

Beginning of Rivers: Date of definite breaking or movement of ice attributable to melting,

breakup currents, or rise of water level.
Lakes: Date of visual evidence of initial deterioration along shoreline, such as the
appearance of shore leads.

Beginning of Date on which ice forms a stable winter ice cover.

freezeup

Black ice Transparent ice formed in rivers and lakes.

Border ice Ice sheet in the form of a long border attached to the bank or shore; shore ice.

Brackish ice Ice formed from brackish water.

Brash ice Accumulations of floating ice made up of fragments not more than about 2 meters
(6 feet) across; the wreckage of other forms of ice.

Breakup Disintegration of ice cover.

Breakup date Date on which a body of water is first observed to be entirely clear of ice and remains
clear thereafter.

Breakup jam Ice jam that occurs as a result of the accumulation of broken ice pieces.

Breakup period Period of disintegration of an ice cover.

Candle ice Rotten columnar-grained ice.

Channel lead Elongated opening in the ice cover caused by a water current.

Channelization Modification of a natural river channel; may include deepening, widening, or

straightening.

Columnar ice Ice consisting of columnar-shaped grains. The ordinary black ice is usually columnar-
grained.

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Concentration The ratio (in eighths or tenths) of the water surface actually covered by ice to the total
area of surface, both ice-covered and ice-free, at a specific location or over a defined
area.

Conveyance A measure of the carrying capacity of a river channel.

CRREL U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover, New
Hampshire.

Degree-day Also termed freezing degree-day, a measure of the departure of the mean daily
temperature below a given standard, usually 0EC (32EF). For example, a day with an
average temperature of 5EC (23EF) represents 9 freezing degree-days by the
Fahrenheit scale (5 freezing degree-days by the Celsius scale). Accumulated freezing
degree-days (AFDD) are simply the sum of any number of degree-days. For example,
the AFDD of a week with mean daily temperature of 5, 0, +5, 0, 5, 10, and 5EC
are 20 freezing degree-days by the Celsius scale (23, 32, 41, 32, 23, 14, and 23EF)
36 freezing degree-days by the Fahrenheit scale.

Drifting ice Pieces of floating ice moving under the action of wind or currents.

Dry crack Crack visible at the surface but not extending through the ice cover, and therefore dry.

Duration of The time from freezeup to breakup of an ice cover.

ice cover

Dynamic ice Pressure attributable to a moving ice cover or drifting ice. Pressure occurring at
pressure moment of first contact termed ice impact pressure.

Floating ice Any form of ice floating in water.

Floc A cluster of frazil particles.

Floe See Ice floe.

Flooded ice Ice that has been flooded by melt water or river water and is heavily loaded by water
and wet snow.

Floodplain Land area adjoining a water body that is not normally submerged but may be
submerged during flood conditions.

Fracture Any break or rupture formed in an ice cover or floe by deformation.

Fracture zone An area that has a great number of fractures.

Fracturing Deformation process where fracture occurs and the ice is permanently deformed.

Frazil Fine spicules, plates, or discoids of ice suspended in water. In rivers and lakes it is
formed in supercooled, turbulent waters.

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Frazil slush An agglomerate of loosely packed frazil that floats or accumulates under the ice cover.

Freezeup date The date on which the water body is first observed to be completely frozen over.

Freezeup jam Ice jam formed as frazil ice accumulates and thickens.

Freezeup period Period of initial formation of an ice cover.

Frost smoke Fog-like clouds caused by contact of cold air with relatively warm water that can
appear over openings in the ice or leeward of the ice edge and may persist while ice is
forming.

Froude number FR = V gH where V = mean velocity, g = gravitational acceleration, and H = water

depth.

Frozen frazil Accumulation of slush that has completely frozen.

slush

Glare ice Ice cover with a highly reflective surface.

Gorge An archaic or localized term for an ice jam; see ice gorge.

Grounded ice Ice that has run aground or is in contact with ground underneath it.

Hanging dam A mass of ice composed mainly of frazil or broken ice deposited under an ice cover in
a region of low flow velocity.

Hinge crack Crack caused by significant changes in water level.

Hummock A hillock of fractured ice that has been forced upward by pressure.

Hummocked ice Ice piled haphazardly, one piece over another, to form an uneven surface.

Hummocking The pressure process by which ice is forced into hummocks.

Hydraulic radius R = A/p, where A = cross-sectional flow area, p = wetted perimeter.

Ice arch Frazil or fragmented ice that has stopped moving and bridges across a river channel;
also called an ice bridge.

Ice boom Floating structure designed to retain ice.

Ice bridge A continuous ice cover of limited size extending from shore to shore like a bridge.

Ice cover A significant expanse of ice of any form on the surface of a body of water.

Ice crossing Man-made ice bridge.

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Ice floe Free-floating piece of ice greater than about 1 meter (3 feet) in extent.

Ice foot A narrow fringe of thickened ice attached to the shore and unmoved by changes in
water level.

Ice free No floating ice present.

Ice gorge A local term for ice jams, used primarily on the central U.S. rivers. This term is
subject to regional variations in meaning.

Ice jam A stationary accumulation of fragmented ice or frazil, which restricts or blocks a
stream channel. This term is subject to regional variations in meaning.

Ice jamming Process of ice accumulation to form an ice jam.

Ice ledge Narrow fringe of ice that remains along the shores of a river after breakup. Also
termed shear wall.

Ice push Compression of an ice cover, particularly at the front of a moving section of ice cover.

Ice run Flow of ice in a river. An ice run may be light or heavy, and may consist of frazil,
anchor, slush, or sheet ice.

Ice sheet A smooth, continuous ice cover.

Ice shove On-shore ice push caused by wind and currents, changes in temperature, etc.

Ice twitch Downstream movement of a small section of an ice cover. Ice twitches occur suddenly
and often appear successively.

In situ breakup Melting in place.

Lake ice Ice formed on a lake, regardless of observed location.

Lead Long, narrow opening in the ice.

Manning equation V = 1.486 R2/3S1/2/n in English units (V = R2/3S1/2/n in SI units) where V = mean flow
velocity, R = hydraulic radius, and S = hydraulic slope; n is a coefficient of roughness.

Mush ice Floating accumulation of very fine ice fragments (around 0.25 centimeters [0.1 inch]
in size) that is somewhat cohesive.

New ice A general term for recently formed ice, which includes frazil ice, slush, shuga (sludge),
and other types of ice.

Overbank flow Flow that exceeds the level of a rivers banks and extends into the floodplain.

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Pancake ice Circular flat pieces of ice with raised rims; the shape and rim are caused by repeated
collisions.

Polynya Any nonlinear-shaped opening enclosed by ice. Polynyas may contain brash ice or be
covered with new ice.

Pressure ridge Line or wall of broken ice forced up by pressure.

Puddle Accumulation of melt water on ice, mainly from melting snow but in the more
advanced stages also from the melting of ice. Initial stage consists of patches of
melted snow.

Rafted ice Type of deformed ice formed by one piece of ice overriding another.

Rafting Pressure processes whereby one piece of ice overrides another. Most common in new
ice.

Ridge A line or wall of broken ice forced up by pressure. May be fresh or weathered.

Ridged ice Ice piled haphazardly, one piece over another in the form of ridges or walls.

Riprap Rocks strategically placed against riverbanks or beds to prevent erosion of underlying
material.

Rotten ice Ice in an advanced stage of disintegration.

Rough ice General term for ice covers with rough surfaces.

Sea ice Any form of ice originating from the freezing of seawater.

Shear crack Crack formed by movement parallel to the surface of the crack.

Shear wall Ice accumulation having a vertical wall or face and remaining along the shores of a
river after an ice jam has released. The height of the vertical face provides an estimate
of the thickness of the ice jam.

Shearing Motion of an ice cover because of horizontal shear stresses.

Sheet ice A smooth, continuous ice cover formed by in situ freezing (lake ice) or by the arrest
and juxtaposition of ice floes in a single layer.

Shore depression Depression in the ice cover along the shore often caused by a change in water level.

Shore ice See border ice.

Shore lead A water opening along the shore.

Skim ice Initial thin layer of ice on a water surface.

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Sludge An accumulation of spongy ice lumps formed from compressed frazil, slush, snow
slush, or anchor ice.

Slush ball Result of extremely compact accretion of snow, frazil, and ice particles. This is
produced by wind and wave action along the shore of lakes or in long stretches of
turbulent flow in rivers.

Slush-ice run Ice run composed mainly of slush ice.

Snow ice Ice that forms when snow slush freezes on an ice cover. The presence of air bubbles
makes it appear white.

Snow slush Snow that is saturated with water on ice surfaces, or as a viscous mass floating in
water after a heavy snowfall.

Static ice Pressure developed by a static ice cover.

pressure

Stranded ice Ice that has been floating and has been deposited on the shore by a lowering of the
water level.

Supercooled Water whose temperature is slightly below the freezing point (0EC or 32EF).
water

Surface crack Crack visible at the surface.

Thalweg Deepest portion of the river channel; the line of major flow.

Thaw holes Vertical holes in ice formed when surface puddles melt through to the underlying
water.

Thermal crack Crack caused by contraction of ice caused by a change in temperature.

Through crack Crack extending through the ice cover. Sometimes called a wet crack.

Tide crack Crack caused by rise and fall of tides. A special kind of hinge crack.

Unconsolidated Loose mass of floating ice.

ice cover

Water slope Change in water surface elevation per unit distance.

Water stage The water surface elevation above the bottom of the river channel or above some
arbitrary datum.

Weir Barrier placed in a river to raise water elevation.

White ice See snow ice.

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Appendix B
Ice Jam Mitigation Case Studies

B-1. Kankakee River, IllinoisThermal Control

a. The upstream end of the backwater from the Dresden Island Lock and Dam on the Illinois River
extends to about River Mile 3.5 on the Kankakee River near Wilmington, Illinois. Frazil ice floes form a
stable ice cover on the pool, which thickens as frazil ice then deposits beneath the ice cover. The thick
frazil ice deposit requires more force to break up than the thinner upstream ice and provides an obstruction
to the passage of upstream river ice, which breaks up prior to this thick ice deposit. An ice jam often forms
at the upper end of the deposit and progresses upstream, flooding the city of Wilmington and surrounding
areas. The ice jam flood in 1982, which caused more than $8 million in damages, was followed by other
ice jam events in 1984 ($500,000) and 1985 ($1 million). Several alternative ice jam mitigation measures
were considered. Because of the proximity of the cooling pond for the Dresden nuclear power plant,
thermal ice control appeared feasible. The intent of the thermal control was to thin or melt the thick frazil
deposits that resist breakup, thus allowing the fragmented ice from upstream to pass unobstructed.

b. In a demonstration project, 20EC (68EF) water from the cooling ponds adjacent to the Kankakee
River near Wilmington was siphoned in three 0.76-m-diameter (30-inch-diameter) pipes into the river
upstream of the ice cover for 2 weeks prior to the anticipated breakup in 1988 (Figure B-1). The maximum
siphon flow is 4.25 m3/s (150 ft3/s) compared with the expected river flow of approximately 113 m3/s
(4000 ft3/s). The measured rise in water temperature was less than 0.56EC (1EF). The warm water input
melted the existing ice so that ice floes passed unhindered during the natural breakup period and flooding
was averted (Figure B-2).

c. This $450,000 system worked successfully for 2 consecutive years. There were no reported
negative environmental impacts.

B-2. Hardwick, VermontImproved Natural Storage, Ice Retention, Mechanical Removal

a. Relatively frequent breakup ice jams have caused serious damage in this small Vermont town. A
combination of techniques is used to reduce flooding impacts.

b. To slow the movement of broken ice, two booms were constructed (Figure B-3). The vertically
oriented tire booms, which are suspended from shore, collect broken ice during breakup, some of which is
stored on the overbanks. The booms delay the downstream passage of ice while ice removal is performed
in town. Since the winter of 198384, these booms have been placed upstream from town annually.
Although the booms occasionally fail, they do provide ice retention.

c. An ice storage area downstream of the town accommodates some of the ice that jams and thereby
provides added protection. In addition, when local officials first begin to notice serious ice jams
developing, the town road crew mechanically breaks up and removes the ice to keep the river open.

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Figure B-1. Schematic of siphon system, Kankakee River, Illinois
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Figure B-2. Map of meltout, Kankakee River, Illinois

Figure B-3. Tire boom at Hardwick, Vermont

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B-3. Oil City, PennsylvaniaFloating Ice Boom, Revised Operational Procedures, Ice
Control Dam

a. Oil City is located in northwestern Pennsylvania. The city suffered chronic ice jam flooding from
the mid-1880s to the mid-1980s. In February 1982, ice jam flooding caused more than $4 million in
damages in downtown Oil City.

b. Research indicates that the ice jam flooding was caused in part by a massive deposit of frazil ice
naturally occurring in a long, deep pool in the Allegheny River downstream of Oil City and extending
upstream past the confluence with Oil Creek. Large quantities of frazil generated in the creek were also
deposited in the river and backwater at the mouth of the creek. The ice on Oil Creek typically broke up and
moved downstream before the ice cover on the Allegheny River. The tributary ice ran unimpeded to the
river until it met the stable ice at the confluence with the Allegheny River and formed an ice jam.

c. An environmentally and economically beneficial floating structure (Figure B-4) was designed and
installed upstream of the city on the Allegheny River to quickly form a stable ice cover to suppress further
frazil generation and minimize excessive deposition in the trouble area. Discharge at an upstream dam was
decreased during freezeup to allow the rapid formation of a stable ice cover at the boom. The floating
boom was installed during the 198283 winter at a cost of $900,000. Since its installation, the boom has
been fully effective and the river has remained relatively ice-free downstream from the boom in spite of
extremely cold winters (Deck 1984).

Figure B-4. Oil Creek ice-control structure, Oil City, Pennsylvania

d. A permanent ice-control structure was also constructed on Oil Creek by the Pittsburgh District of
the Corps of Engineers in 1989. The structure is 1.5 meters (5 feet high), 107 meters (351 feet) long, and
includes a 13.7-meter-wide (45-foot-wide) leaf gate, which allows for sediment and fish passage, as well as
recreational use by canoeists and fishermen. Two low-flow pipes also provide fish passage. Levees were

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constructed on both upstream banks to contain the Standard Project Flood. The project cost was $2.2
million (Wuebben and Gagnon 1995). No damaging ice jam has occurred in Oil City since the Allegheny
River ice boom and Oil Creek ice control structure were put into use.

B-4. Lancaster, New HampshireWeir, Ice Retention, Storage

a. Lancaster, New Hampshire, experienced ice jams every year because of the breakup of the ice
cover on the Israel River. Broken ice passage is impeded by a natural frazil deposit that forms at the
change in slope, which occurs at the upper end of the backwater formed by the confluence with the
Connecticut River. Few ice jams were reported prior to 1936, probably because four dams then in
existence decreased frazil production, provided frazil ice storage, decreased the downstream transport of
frazil ice, and delayed the downstream passage of broken ice. The dams have been removed since that time.

b. The Corps New England Division (now New England District) and CRREL designed and built an
ice control project to reduce the production and transport of frazil ice and decrease the volume of ice
available to ice jams downstream. Environmental and financial constraints limited the scope of the project,
which ideally would have provided the same protection as the four dams. The project consists of two parts:
1) a submarine net to capture surface ice, and 2) a 36.6-meter-long by 2.7-meter-high (120-foot-long) by 9-
foot-high permanent weir located several miles downstream (Figure B-5). The submarine net is a form of
suspended ice retention structure that allows water to flow through but captures floating ice pieces, which
are then stored in overbank floodplains.

c. The ice control weir includes four 1.2-meter-wide by 2.4-meter-deep (4-foot-wide by 8-foot-deep)
sluiceways for fish passage. During the winter, stop logs or metal bar racks are placed in the sluiceways to
develop an ice retention pool. The pool forms an ice cover, and frazil ice generated upstream deposits
beneath the ice cover. After the ice cover has formed, two of the gates are opened, allowing the pool level to
drop. This creates additional water storage in the pool area, provides additional discharge capacity through
the weir, and slightly delays the breakup and movement of ice through the pool as well. The project, which
cost $300,000 was completed in 1982. Although costs constrained the size of the project to less than ideal,
no major flooding has occurred since this relatively inexpensive, innovative project was constructed
(Axelson 1991).

B-5. Idaho Falls, IdahoLand Acquisition

In 1982, two hydroelectric dams were removed and rebuilt on the Snake River near Idaho Falls, Idaho.
Freezeup ice jam floods on the Snake River affected Bear Island homeowners during the winters of
198283 and 198485. Ice jam floods also threatened two houses on the west bank of the river. The
homeowners associated their flooding problems with the rebuilt dams located 9.7 kilometers (6 miles)
downstream. As a result, they requested help from the city of Idaho Falls, the Federal Energy Regulatory
Commission, and elected officials. Field data collection and hydraulic analyses indicated that ice jams were
caused by frazil produced in turbulent open-water sections of the Snake River. The results showed that the
changes in reservoir levels and the dams had no direct effect on ice jam flood levels in one area, although
two properties were affected by changes in reservoir levels. Based on CRRELs recommendations, the
City of Idaho Falls decided to purchase the two properties affected by the Upper Power Project (Zufelt
et al. 1990).

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a. Installing racks in sluiceways

Figure B-5. Lancaster, New Hampshire, weir

B-6. Platte River, NebraskaDusting

a. In February 1978, disastrous ice jam flooding took place on the Platte River in Nebraska, causing
millions of dollars in damages. Record cold in January 1979 produced both extremely thick ice on the
Platte River and its tributaries and a consequent threat of similar ice jams during spring breakup. Ice
dusting, approximately 3 weeks before breakup, was recommended for alleviating ice jam floods.

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b. Ice accumulated behind structure in early spring

Figure B-5. (Concluded)

b. The Nebraska Civil Defense Agency decided to try dusting selected areas with technical assistance
from the Corps. The Corps assisted with advance preparation for the ice dusting operation, during the
actual dusting procedures to ensure a proper application rate on the test areas, and during subsequent
measurements to evaluate the effectiveness of the program. Dusting was performed using coal ash and slag
from a local power plant.

c. Two periods of breakup occurred in March 1979. Because the dusted ice had already started to
deteriorate, the jams were minor, even following heavy rains. The ice and water flowed smoothly down the
channel with no flood damages (U.S. Army 1979).

d. Similar dusting operations were repeated in March 1994, prompted by severe ice jam flooding in
the spring of 1993 that threatened the water wells supplying the city of Lincoln, Nebraska (U.S. Army
1994).

B-7. Allagash, MaineFloodproofing, Relocation

a. Rainfall and 5 to 6 days of mild weather resulted in breakup ice jams and severe flooding on the St.
John, Little Black, Allagash, and Aroostook rivers of northern Maine in April 1991. In Allagash, two
bridges and 11 homes on the St. John River were destroyed; 22 other homes suffered damages. A 30-meter
(1000-foot) section of a state highway was washed away. Ice jam flooding also caused evacuations and
damage to 16 homes in neighboring towns. Damages totaled more than $14 million, mostly for rebuilding
bridges, roads, and other public works (Federal Emergency Management Agency 1991).

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b. Raising the affected buildings was considered. However, it was determined that elevation of the
ground floor of homes to meet the requirements of the National Flood Insurance Program and local
floodplain regulations might not provide adequate protection from future ice jams. In the town of Dickey,
several residents indicated a willingness to relocate outside the floodplain. The following permanent
settlement changes were made:

Three new homes were built at higher elevations on the original lots, and one home was repaired and
moved to higher ground on the same lot.

Two new homes were constructed on new sites outside the floodplain, three homes were repaired and
were moved to higher ground outside the floodplain, and two destroyed homes were replaced with
mobile homes on higher sites.

Thirteen wells or septic systems were replaced with mitigation measures, meaning they were
floodproofed or moved to higher ground.

B-8. References

a. Required publications.
None.

b. Related publications.

Axelson 1991
Axelson, K. D. 1991. Israel River Ice Control Structure, Proceedings, Inspiration: Come to the
Headwaters, Association of State Floodplain Managers, Denver, Colorado, June 1014, 1991.

Deck 1984
Deck, D. 1984. Controlling River Ice to Alleviate Ice Jam Flooding, Proceedings, Conference on
Water for Resource Development, Hydraulics Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, Coeur
d'Alene, Idaho, August 1417, 1984.

Federal Emergency Management Agency 1991

Federal Emergency Management Agency 1991. Hazard Mitigation Survey Hazard Team Report, Maine,
FEMA-901-DR-ME, Boston, Massachusetts.

U.S. Army 1979

U.S. Army 1979. Ice Dusting of the Platte River, 1979, U.S. Army Engineer District, Omaha, Omaha,
Nebraska.

U.S. Army 1994

U.S. Army 1994. Lower Platte River Ice Flooding Interim Report, Section 22, U.S. Army Engineer
District, Omaha, Omaha, Nebraska.

Wuebben and Gagnon 1995

Wuebben, J.L., and J.J. Gagnon 1995. Ice Jam Flooding on the Missouri River near Williston, North
Dakota, CRREL Report 95-19, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover,
New Hampshire.

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Zufelt et al. 1990

Zufelt, J. E, J. A. Earickson, and L. Cunningham 1990. Ice Jam Analysis at Idaho Falls, Snake River,
Idaho, Special Report 90-43, U.S. Army Cold Regions Research and Engineering Laboratory, Hanover,
New Hampshire.

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Appendix C
Typical River Ice Management Study

C-1. General

A River Ice Management Study is conducted for the purpose of developing a River Ice Management Plan
for a particular river or river basin. Typically, the River Ice Management Study would identify several
options and develop schedules of time and costs for each. Then the chosen option or combination of
options would go into the recommended River Ice Management Plan, which would become an operating
document at the District level. The typical River Ice Management Study would be composed of the
following elements.

C-2. Elements

a. Inventory of river characteristics.

C River reaches delineated and evaluated.

C Major tributaries evaluated.
C Hydraulic and flood control structures identified (including features and operational
characteristics).
C Hydraulic and hydrologic data.

b. Description of ice problems.

C Ice and winter histories.

C Winter navigation and traffic characteristics.
C Project operational techniques in winter (site-specific).
C Ice problem identification and description (site-specific).
C Current ice problem mitigation techniques.

c. Icehydraulicmeteorological data.

C Existing data summarized (including stations, data types, collection, and processing).
C Data gaps identified.
C Recommendations for additional data collection (site-specific).
C Ice forecasting system (including capabilities, function, operation, and integration with existing
hydraulic models).

d. Communications systems.

C Existing ice information reporting systems.

C Recommendations for improvements (including content, frequency, availability, and dissemination
of current ice information).

e. Possible structural solutions.

C Techniques available.
C Application of site-specific structural solutions.

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C Determination if Environmental Impact Statement is needed.

f. Possible operational solutions.

C Techniques available.
C Application of site-specific operational solutions.

g. Recommended Functional River Ice Management Plan for Subject River or Basin.

C Data collection program.

C Development and integration of ice forecasting methodology.
C Recommended structural ice control measures.
C Recommended operational techniques.
C Operational guide.
C Ice emergency options (including decision tree or matrix for determining when to close the
river to navigation because of extreme ice conditions).
C Implementation plan.
C Schedule of structural improvement costs and annual operating costs.
C BenefitCost Analysis for structural measures (done by District even if River Ice Management
Study is conducted by non-District entities).

C-2