7-4-2008

Rational Approximation by Continued Fractions

The convergents of a continued fraction expansion of x give the best rational approximations to x.
Specifically, the only way a fraction can approximate x better than a convergent is if the fraction has a
bigger denominator than the convergent.

The first lemma says that the denominators of convergents of continued fractions increase.
Lemma. Let a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . be a sequence of integers, where ak > 0 for k 1. Define

p 0 = a0 , q0 = 1

p1 = a1 a0 + 1, q1 = a1
pk = ak pk1 + pk2 , qk = ak qk1 + qk2 , k 2.
Then qk+1 > qk for k > 0.
Proof. Let k > 0. Note that qk1 is a positive integer. So

qk+1 = ak+1 qk + qk1 > ak+1 qk 1 qk = qk ,

where ak+1 1 because the as are positive integers from a1 on.

The convergents of a continued fraction oscillate around the limiting value, and the convergents are
always fractions in lowest terms. In fact, the convergents are the best rational approximations to the value
of the continued fraction. Ill state the precise result without proof.
pk
Theorem. Let x be irrational, and let ck = be the k-th convergent in the continued fraction expansion
qk
of x. Suppose p, q Z, q > 0, and
|qx p| < |qk x pk |.
Then q qk+1 .
Heres what the result means. Draw the line through the origin in the t-y plane with slope x. Plot the
points (p, q) and (pk , qk ).
The hypothesis |qx p| < |qk x pk | says that the vertical distance from (q, p) to y = xt is less than the
vertical distance from (qk , pk ) to y = xt.
y

y = xt
(qk,pk )

|qk x - pk |
|qx - p|

(q,p)

t
q q
k

1
 p
The conclusion says that q qk+1 . In fact, since qk+1 > qk , q > qk : The denominator of is bigger
q
pk
than that of .
qk
In other words, the only way the point (p, q) can be closer to the line is if its y-coordinate is bigger.
I can restate the theorem in the form of a corollary in which you can see the fractions in question
approximating x.
pk
Corollary. Let x be irrational, and let ck = be the k-th convergent in the continued fraction expansion
qk
of x. Suppose p, q Z, q > 0, and    
x p  < x pk  .
   
 q  qk 
Then q > qk .
Proof. Given the hypotheses of the corollary, suppose on the contrary that q qk . Since
   
x p  < x pk  ,
   
 q   qk 
I can multiply the two inequalities to get

|qx p| < |qk x pk | .

Apply the theorem to obtain q qk+1 . But then qk q qk+1 , which contradicts the fact that the qs
increase.
Therefore, q > qk .

p
This result says that the only way a rational number can approximate a continued fraction better
q
pk
than a convergent is if the fraction has a bigger denominator than the convergent.
qk

Example. Here are the convergents for the continued fraction expansion for :

ak pk qk ck
3 3 1 3
22
7 22 7
7
333
15 333 106
106
355
1 355 113
113
103993
292 103993 33102
33102
355 p
3.141592920, which is in error in the seventh place. The theorem says that a fraction can be
113 q
355
closer to than only if q > 113.
113

The next result is sort of a converse to the previous two results. It says that if a rational number
approximates an irrational number x sufficiently well, then the rational number must be a convergent in
the continued fraction expansion for x.

2
 p
Theorem. Let x be irrational, and let be a rational number in lowest terms with q > 0. Suppose that
q
 

x p  1
< .
 q  2q 2

p
Then is a convergent in the continued fraction expansion for x.
q
Proof. Since qk k for k 0, the qs form a strictly increasing sequence of positive integers. Therefore, for
some k,
qk q < qk+1 .
Since q < qk+1 , the contrapositive of the preceding theorem gives
 
 p  1 1
|qk x pk | |qx p| = q x <q 2 = .
q 2q 2q

Hence,  
x pk  < 1 .
 
 qk  2qqk
p
Now assume toward a contradiction that is not a convergent in the continued fraction expansion for
q
p pk
x. In particular, 6= , so qpk 6= pqk , and hence |qpk pqk | is a positive integer.
q qk
Since |qpk pqk | 1,
       
1 |qpk pqk |  pk p   pk p   pk   p  1 1
= = x+x  x + x < + 2.
qqk qqk qk q qk q  qk q  2qqk 2q

(The second inequality comes from the Triangle Inequality: |a + b| |a| + |b|.)
1
Subtracting from both sides, I get
2qqk

1 1
< 2, so q < qk .
2qqk 2q

But I assumed qk q, so this is a contradiction.

p
Therefore, is a convergent in the continued fraction expansion for x.
q

355
Example. Show that is the best rational approximation to by a fraction having a denominator less
113
than 1000.
p
Suppose that is a fraction in lowest terms with q < 1000. Suppose further that
q
   

 p   355 
.
 q  113 

p 355
In other words, suppose that is at least as good an approximation as .
q 113
Since q < 1000,
1 1
2q 2 < 2000000, so > = 5 107 .
2q 2 2000000

3
 But  
 355  2.7 107 .
 
 113 
Thus,    
1  355  >  p  .
   
2
> 5 107
>
2q  113   q
p
The hypotheses of the theorem are satisfied, so must be a convergent in the continued fraction
q
355 22
expansion of . By assumption, it approximates at least as well as . But the other convergents 3, ,
113 7
333 355
with denominators less than 1000 are poorer approximations to than . The only possibility is that
106 113
p 355
= .
q 113

c 2008 by Bruce Ikenaga 4