CHAPTER - 2

BRIEF REVIEW OF LITERATURE

""^uipiM/-2 '^liep'^l'lsmeupal/'^it&iaUMe'

According to Sharma et al. (2000) the concept of geological and

geotechnical investigation is a recent one, this article provides an overview of the

main geological formation in Singapore including the igneous rocks of granite and

norite. The various sedimentary rocks, the quaternary deposits and recent marine

clay deposits. The geological and geotechnical properties of each geological

material are described and discussed. The conclusion of the essential geological

and geotechnical information for the design and construction of underground

structures in Shingapore.

International

Orland et al. (1998) have presented useful information on geotechnical

properties of seven sludge from different paper mills. The data raise several

questions related to these materials in landfill covers, the result, fibers and tissues

in the sludge caused problems when cutting the grove for the liquid limit tests.

Moo-Young et al. (1996) in this study many conclusions can be drawn

about the geotechnical properties of paper sludge.

Paper mill sludges are characterized by a high water content, high

compressibility, high Atterberg limits and large amount of organic fibers in the

matrix.

17
 The permeability of paper sludge increase as the modeling water content,

decreases. The effective angle of internal friction varied from 25 to 40 while the

cohesion ranged from 2.8 to 9.0 KPa.

Groppo Sambenelli et al. (1999) from the design construction, dewatering

and successful operation of the Erfan Coffer dam and their deep jet grouted out-

offs, built through some AOM of layered and widely differentiated riverine

deposits. Although, temporary in nature, coffer dams may be challenging

structures, represented by a short construction time, a limited choice of materials

and by the impossibility of second thoughts require a sound understanding of local

conditions and knowledgeable and experienced design, accurate and efficient

construction is equally important.

Victor Rinaldi et al. (2006) from the results an electrical resistivity survey

was performed at the estuary of the Rio de la Plata as part of more comprehensive

geotechnical investigations of the subsurface conditions.

The resistivity method implemented here performed satisfactorily, the

resistivity contrasts among the different soil layers allowed the Pulchense

formation to be located beneath a wide area of the river. The survey provided a

much greater sample density than could be accomplished by bore wells alone. The

area of interest was fully covered by electrical sounding separated on an average

of 100m.

Gui et al. (2002) a series of instrumented borehole drilling has been

conducted beneath Kennington park in London. The mstrumented drilling system

18
was investigated to determine its power to discriminate between ground strata. A

new method of data interpretation is proposed for identifying soil formation

changes. The degree of match varied among six borehole data and the observed

poor correlation may be related to the local soil heterogeneity effect against the

sampling interval of different site investigation methods.

David C. Noe (2005) in this case study was conducted to investigate the

geologic control on damaging ground deformations in a residential subdivision

near Denver Colo moderate to severe damage was occurred in certain areas, where

linear parallel have features with upto 0.3 m of differential displacement have

formed across roads and under houses.

The bed rock beneath the subdivision consists of a steeply dipping

cretaceous strata of the Benton shale Nicobrara formation and Pierre shale using

results from a data based of laboratory test resuhs for plasticity, normal moisture

content and swell consolidation. In contrast most of the areas having localized

surface depressions are underlain by thin to thick (l-12m or 3-39fl).

Pant et al. (2001) to study the electrical resistivity anisopy of aquifers. The

paper uses a novel method of borehole to surface radial profiling with four

electrodes configuration (ABMN) by attaching three electrode (A and N inside

the bore hole and N on the earth's surface) near the bore hole. The fourth electrode

(M) s moved azimuthally along the earth's surface. Data acquisition is made with

the fourth surface mobile electrode located along concentric circles wit variation

of radius from the bore hole.

19
 Siddiqui et al. (2000) this study extends the use of time domain

reflectometry (TDR) in geotechnical engineering, a technique originally developed

to locate faults in transmission lines. A coaxial probe is developed that is used for

measuring the dielectric constant of soil prepared in a cylindrical cell.

Insertion of probe rods in soil may introduce significant error in

measurements by changing density of soil and introducing air gaps around the

rods. The change of soil density due to rod insertion may cause significant under

estimation or over estimation of the actual dielectric constant of soil.

Watts et al. (2001) as results from site investigation and laboratory testing

are presented and the vibro design principles in particular use of a modification of

soil around the stone column are outlined. The treated foundation performance is

compared behaviour, calculated settlements are irm reasonable agreement with

measured values. The radial effect of column installation was related to the nature

of material to the level of compaction and to the technique employed.

Phienwej (2000) according to photographic feature, the project is initiated

by H.M. the king of Thailand for flood protection and agricultural purposes. The

geotechnical works which are well underway include excavation and grout

treatment of the foundation rocks which are composed of jointed volcanic rocks.

Serrano C. Olalla (1999) has a procedure developed for assessing the

ultimate puUout strength of anchored structures. The anchor failure shape can take

the form of two different surface types one for long anchors and the other for short

anchors.

20
 In case of long anchors, nearly all the failure surface coincides with a

cylindrical surface. In the case of short anchors convex surfaces are obtained.

National

Farah Deeba et al. (2006) the Beani Bazar structure is located among the

eastern margins of the Surma basin. The results of interpretation of seismic and

well data from this structure. Based on the analysis of seismic data and their

correlation with well.

Electrical resistivity is the main tool for subsurface and groundwater

investigations. Using the inferences drawn from the resistivity measurements and

their good correlation with the existing 15 bore well lithologs in different parts of

the Adila basin. The potential zones for groundwater accumulation in different

horizons were identified by preparing the structure contour maps for the fires

second and third interfaces and correlating them with geology and water table

contour maps.

Rajesh Kumar Naik et al. (2006) the meta sedimentary assemblage of

Sargipalli area in western parts of Sundarghar. The detailed mapping reveals the

assemblage to the composed of a variety of rocks like conglomerate, quartz,

banded biotite schist, quartz biotite schist, cale-gneiss, lime stone etc. folded in the

form of a large syncline.

The position of the newly established formations can be appended to the

established stratigraphic succession of Gangpur belt after links are established

between rock units of eastern and western blocks through structural petrological

and geo-chronological methods.

21
 Bezbaruah et al. (2003) hydrologic regime of Brahmaputra river, Assam

has made a significant contribution in the extensive development of low lying

areas on the flood plains.

Morphological adjustment of the stream channels over a short period of

time and location of the basin in a tectonically active region have played dominant

role in changing the nature of swampy lands within the basin.

Significant changes on the low lying areas have been observed during the

period 1914-1975 in the studied stretch of the Brahmaputra river.

Sreedhar Murthy (2002) a large number of earthquakes of the different

magnitudes are recorded over the years in the Indian sub continent including

southern peninsular shield. Geophysical images enable one to understand the

tectonic and structural fabric of the region. The spatial distribution of earthquakes

and their correlation with geophysical mega lineaments are demonstrated.

Pradeep Kumar Pal (2000) the maximum annual average discharge has

been observed in moderately forested and cultivated catchment. The highest

monthly suspended load amounting to 49.28 per cent of the total annual load and a

denudation rate 8.51T/km^ / month being observed in September whereas

47.64 per cent of the total sediment and 4.06T/Km^/month being observed in

August. The highest monthly concentration and suspended load being (63.98%) of

the total annual load and denudation rate 2.75 T/Km^/month being observed in tlie

month of June.

22
"^z/iapte/u- 2 *% xiep ''K&vieup of '^U&uUu/ie'

Srinivas et al. (2006) on the basis of conceptual discussions and

demonstrative applications using published field data. He can conclude that, all the

aquifers ca be electrically represented as 3-layer general aquifer model (GAM)

with top aquifer and basement layers. These exist a direct relation between

hydraulic conductance and electrical conductance when the basement is highly

resistive than the aquifer layer. The electrical resistance and electrical conductance

can be uniquely determined from VES data directly. The hydraulic conductance

can be easily estimated from VES data using equation developed as the

case may be.

Pathak et al. (2001) from the analysis of electrical resistivity surveys. The

VES results enable to estimate / calculate the depth of the bedrock and thickness

of various layers within the overburden. Basement contour map prepared from

resistivity data shows undulation with the bedrock and large depressions and

subsurface ridges at places. In view of the high micro seismic activity in the area,

the zones of the deep depressions in the basement may be avoided for construction

of heavy structures and large industrial units.

Aklesh Kumar Jain (1999) from lineament studies, the area in and around

Godavari Graben seems to have witnessed neo-tectonism responsible for the

geomorphic rejuvenation. Lineaments studies indicate two dominant trends of

lineaments in NE-SW and NW-SE directions. Lineament analysis based on their

possible sfress-strain relationship reveals that the area witnessed two types of

stresses. Tensile in the direction of 35-215 and compressing with maximum

23
Stress direction of 10-190 and minimum stress direction of 100-280. The

statistical approach has helped extend the basement configuration below the

sedimentary fill. .

Akram Javed (2000) Tata Energy Reseach Institute (TERI) analyses the

geomorphological study of Bulandhahr district (U.P.) using Remotely Sensed Data

pertaining to LANDSAT TMFCC of bands 2, 3 and 4 of 9* May 1991 and IRS-

lALISSII digital data of S*^"* May 1991. Visual interpretation technique has been

followed for geomorphological mapping, the Alighar older alluvial plain

represents a palaeo flood plain of a north flowing palaeo drainage in area.

In India by using remote sensing techniques, in formation on spatial

distribution of soils, vegetation, landofmrs, drainages and erodibility status has

been studied by regional remote sensing services centers (RRSSCs) of Indian

space research organization (ISRO) located at Bangalore, Dehradun Jodhpur,

Karagpur and Nagpur on different aspects of geological and geotechnical

developments.

Kamataka

Ramesh et al. (1998) prioritization the west flowing rivers in Dakshina

Kannada district using SOI top maps IRS, LISSIII data, soil, geology, land use and

land cover etc., considering the present land use and land cover, soils and erosion

status, hydrogeomorphology by adopting elimination techniques has been carried

out for prioritization of west flowing rivers.

24
 Manavalan et al. (1993) analyzed the response of Doddahalla watershed of

Tungabhadra -Krishna basin by integrating satellite derived information with

slope length through watershed response analysis (WARA) model. The model if

used to obtain the first information on soil erosion susceptibility and overland

flows.

Balasubramanian et al. (2002) the Cauvery river in parts of Mysore,

Mandya and Chamaraja Nagar districts consists of Palaeo channels which have

promise for groundwater development. The result have show that remote sensing

technique can successfiiUy be utilized the delineating the old course of the river.

The spatial variations of resistivity contour of different layers are found to

show gradational change in the depth-wise characteristics of the palaeo channels.

The delineation of the palaeo channels in parts of Cauvery basin under this study.

Open the possibilities of encountering many unexplored groundwater potential

sites.

Krishnaiah et al. (2002) a case studies of reservoir competency assessment

by integrated geophysical investigations. The low gravity anomaly (negative) zone

identified in the gravity survey between Ch: 390 and Ch: 550 ia NW-SE direction

might be due t the presence of numerous small connected voids in the limestone

that may be viewed as a weak bedrock. This also has been verified and confirmed

with the electrical sounding results.

Subrahmanya (2002) the Indian plate is being subjected to compression in

a N-S direction, which would result in E-W trending undulation. The terrain close

25
to 13 N is one such region where the deformation manifests as innumerable

microseismic events. In order to identify the surface expression of deformation,

satellite images (NOAA and IRS-IC) and topographical maps were used. This

study brought out the presence of short discontinuous near E-W trending

lineaments most of which could be identified on the basis of presence of stream

channels.

Research Methodology

Lineaments and geomorphologic features will be adopted by using satellite

imageries (LISS, IRS P3). Lineaments rose diagram method will be adopted by

Oriana-2 Software.

Vertical electrical sounding have been conducted at fifty five locations

along the foundation profile. The layers, thickness of bed rocks, resistivity, depth

of basement have been found out by adopting methodology by Display Resistivity

Meter 'Model Direct Dighital Reading (DDR2), NRDC process developed at

National Geophysics Research Institute (Integrated Geoinstruments and Services

Pvt Ltd., Taranaka, Hyderabad, India),

Compressive strength of rock sampling analysis methodology is adopted by

unconfined compressive strength (UCS).

Core loss and core recovery can be calculated by using the formula

Core recovery
Percentage of core loss recovery = x 100
Total depth of core

26
Order of Presentation

This topic consist Eight Chapters. The Chapter ' 1 ' involves the
introduction, mythology, history of Tunga river basin, history of dam construction,
physiography and land use, vegetation and forests. Accessibility, surface water
facility, climate, aims, objectives, uses of dams and salient features of the Upper
Tunga Project.

Chapter '2' involves the literature review of the considering topic as well as
adapting the research methodology and order of presentation.

Chapter ' 3 ' is involving the stratigraphical succession of Kamataka.

Detailed geology of the dam site, structures of the upper Tunga projects,
subsurface exploration of Upper Tunga Project left side and right side flanks.

Chapter '4' in this chapter involving the River and river resources of
Kamataka as well as length in Kamataka and its neighbour states. Percentage area
of district lying in different river basins, list of rivers and streams in Tungabhadra
sub basin in Kamataka, Tunga river, significances of lineaments in Dams and
Reservoirs, classification of lineaments, mapping and analysis of lineaments,
major lineaments of Kamataka and their significance.

Lineaments studies at dam site, interpretation of land sat imagery,

lineament rose diagram, ground water potential zones, relation to abutment
reservoirs and effects of geology of regional flow system.

Chapter ' 5 ' involves the introduction, geotechnical investigation methods.

Discussion of engineering geology, stages of geotechnical explorations,
geophysical observations, geophysical investigation, geophysical prospecting.

27
''^uipie'i'- 2 " ^ lief Iflevleui' op '^iUtatuM/

seismity of India, methods of geotechnical exploration, electrical resistivity

measurements, resistivity measurement verification, resistivity survey, basic
principles of electrode configuration by Schlumberzer and Wenner methods of
interpretation and resistivity survey data and results with geological L-section
profile and depth of the bedrocks.

Chapter '6' Core logging and core logging methods, core logging at Upper

Tunga Project and trial core logging recovery analysis of Upper Tunga Project

(Five samples) with photos of the core log samples and geological cross section of

Upper Tunga Project, general classification of foundations, general procedures for

designing of foundations. Detailed particulars of foundation blockwise of Upper

Tunga Project with block sketch map and analysis of project structural conditions

of Upper Tunga Project.

Chapter '7' involves considering, introduction of stability and rock

mechanics, tables of dam failures of world with causes of dam failure and

remedial measures. Earthquake effects on dam and reservoir, factors of safety,

envirormiental issues related to river valley project, envirormiental impact

assessment, geological geomorphological and geohydrological aspects. Desirable

engineering properties of rocks aggregates. Laboratory analysis of the project data

and results of the rock sample of Upper Tunga Project and rock mechanics studies

in Upper Tunga Project (Block No. 14, 18, 20).

Chapter ' 8 ' deals with the summary and conclusion with results and

recommendation of foundation construction of Upper Tunga Project.

28