Animation

Andrew Selby

Laurence King Publishing

Published in 2013 by
Laurence King Publishing Ltd
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London EC1V 1LR
Tel: +44 20 7841 6900
Fax: +44 20 7841 6910
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www.laurenceking.com

Design 2013 Laurence King Publishing Limited

Text 2013 Andrew Selby
Andrew Selby has asserted his right under the
Copyright, Designs, and Patent Act 1988, to be
identified as the Author of this Work.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may

be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopy, recording, or any information storage
and retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publisher.

A catalog record for this book is available

from the British Library

ISBN: 978 1 78067 097 3

Design: Unlimited
Series designer: Jon Allan, TwoSheds Design
Picture research: Jemma Robinson

Front cover image: Lost and Found, produced by

Studio aka; based on the book by Oliver Jeffers;
adapted and directed by Philip Hunt
Back cover image: Toon Boom Storyboard Pro
Images, courtesy of Toon Boom Animation Inc.
toonboom.com

Printed in China
 Introduction 5
The signicance of animation 7 / Uses of animation 7 / A model for future
communication 8 / The dening principles of animation 9 / Twelve principles
of animation 11 / The animation pipeline 13 / Preproduction 13 / Production 15 /
Postproduction 17 / About this book 17 / An animation timeline 19 /

1. PreproductionPlanning and Scriptwriting 25

The animation pipeline in preproduction 26 / Scheduling a production 27 / Animation
job roles 29 / Scriptwriting 32 / What is a script? 32 / The vocabulary and language of
animation 35 / Animated language 36 / Approaches to scriptwriting 37 / Premise 39 /
Story ladders and friezes 40 / Plot 41 / Animation plot themes 42 / Genre in animation
42 / Categories of animated genres 43 / Script development 44 / Prose brief 44 / Step
outline 44 / Event analysis 44 / Synopsis 45 / Treatment 45 / Analyzing a script 46 /
Conclusion 46 /

2. PreproductionConcepts, Ideas, and Research 47

Concepts and ideas 48 / The signicance of ideas 49 / Investing in ideas 49 / Starting
points 50 / Developing a conceptual framework 52 / The studio environment 53 /
Capturing ideas 55 / Drawing and visualizing tools 56 / The animators toolkit 57 /
Idea development 58 / Flipbooks to test ideas 61 / Evaluating ideas 62 / Pitching
concepts 64 / Research 66 / What is research? 66 / Collecting accurate reference
material 67 / Identifying and formulating a research methodology 68 /
A sample research methodology 70 / Collecting and appropriating research 71 /
Reviewing the research 71 / Conclusion 72 /

3. PreproductionDevelopment 73
Animation pipeline 74 / Storyboarding 75 / Storyboarding: from single to serial imagery
75 / The art of storyboarding 76 / Masters of their art 77 / The development of visual
narrative in animation 78 / Creating a storyboard with a visual narrative 79 / Style guides
82 / Layouts and scenes 84 / Planning and formulation 85 / Types of camera shots 88
/ Development drawings 89 / Imagination and observation 89 / Fundamental aspects
of composition, placement, and emphasis 90 / Character design 94 / The bones of
character design 94 / The art of character design 96 / The role and function of character
96 / Developing characteristics 101 / Narrative construction 103 / Conclusion 104 /

4. PreproductionSound 105
Animation pipeline 106 / Understanding sound 106 / The anatomy of sound 107 / The
principles of sound 108 / The importance and use of sound 108 / Audience perception
of sound 110 / Sonic interpretations of space and time 110 / The grammar of sound 111 /
Stems of sound 112 / Dialogue and narration 112 / Troubleshooting voice recordings 118 /
Music 119 / Sound effects 121 / The working sound studio 124 / Collecting and processing
data 125 / Mixing desks 125 / Conclusion 125
5. Production 127
The animation pipeline in production 129 / Introduction to basic techniques 130 /
Simple motion devices 131 / Cel animation and traditional 2D processes 132 / Drawn cel
animation 132 / Rotoscoping 133 / 2D computer-generated images 133 / Stop-motion
animation 135 / 2D stop motion 135 / 3D stop motion 137 / Sets and lighting 143 /
Checking the lming of stop-motion animation 147 / 3D computer-generated Images
148 / Designing and modeling 148 / Rigs and texturing 149 / Animating and lighting
151 / Visual special effects, rendering, and compositing 151 / Unorthodox animation 152
/ Pixilation 152 / Brick animation 152 / Auteur or artistic processes 153 / Performance
animation and live-action hybrids 154 / Installations 155 / Machinema 156 / Augmented
reality 156 / Sound in production 157 / Conclusion 158

6. Postproduction 159
The animation pipeline in postproduction 160 / Preparing the production 160 /
Managing postproduction 161 / Visuals 162 / Non-linear editing 163 / Synchronicity 165
/ Color correction 165 / Understanding color 166 / Titling and credits 168 / Sound in
postproduction 169 / Producing a soundtrack 169 / Digital mastering 172 / Formatting
172 / Release and distribution 173 / Video and digital video formats 174 / Marketing and
publicity 174 / Film festivals 176 / Conclusion 178

7. Animated Futures 179

Education, knowledge, and understanding 180 / Skills for future employment 181 / Skills
and attributes 181 / Understanding and evaluating yourself 182 / Answering your critics
183 / What are employers looking for? 184 / Skills 185 / Promotion 186 / The portfolio
187 / The showreel 189 / Print-based promotion 190 / Websites 192 / Website checklist
193 / Social media platforms 194 / Gaining experience 194 / Opportunities, applications,
and interviews 197 / Job advertisements and opportunities 198 / The application form
199 / The cover letter 199 / The rsum 200 / The interview 201 / Representation 202 /
Making it! 204 / Conclusion 204

... Glossary 206 / Further reading 207 / Resources 209 / Index 210 / Picture
credits 215 / Acknowledgments 216

Related study material is available on the Laurence King website at

www.laurenceking.com
Introduction
Animation is a compeling and extraordinarily adaptable form of audio-visual
expression that is highly effective in fusing moving images and sounds
together to tell stories and explain ideas. The medium allows exponents to
explore theories and inform audiences, and its flexibility as an artificially
constructed form means that it is well suited to a vast range of communication
applications. From obvious examples such as movies, television series, and
advertising commercials, through developing uses such as websites, mobile
applications, and gaming, to more diverse applications in the fields of
medicine, engineering, and architecture, animation proves that it is a medium
that has the ability to entertain, inform, educate, and inspire. Animation permits
and encourages the creation of cinematic visual trickery by making unreal
events seem real and transporting an audience to new places of discovery.
Major Hollywood studios are increasingly turning to animation and special
effects (SFX) techniques to realize their creative ideas, and other organizations
and governments are also waking up to the possibility of using animation to
explain, reinforce, or promote their message.
In recent decades, animators have found increasingly inventive ways of
using animation. Today it pervades much of the landscape of popular culture,
being a medium of choice to push boundaries, cross traditional disciplinary
divides, and support and enhance other creative work. While animations
history is relatively short compared to other arts disciplines, this needs to
be juxtaposed against the prolific and accelerated advances in technology,
such as the growth of the Internet, the developing reliance on mobile
technology, and the need for greater visually oriented support for social
media. Such technical leaps have created changes in global social and
economic conditions and have encouraged increased interest in the
subject of animationan interest that is likely to grow and spread over
the coming years.

The spirit of animation as an evolving form of

audio-visual expression is encapsulated by
Oskar Fischingers Kreise, released in 1933.

6
 The signicance of animation
AnimationIntroduction

In his book The Fundamentals of Animation (2006), Paul Wells states that:
Animation is the most dynamic form of expression available to creative
people. When one starts to examine the subject in depth, it becomes
clear that animation has a profound effect on the daily lives of many of us.
Most people experience animation through childrens television programming
and animated feature films. Some of the greatest sequences in world cinema
are animated feature films that are etched into our collective memories. Who
can forget the magical The Sorcerers Apprentice sequence in the 1940 film
Fantasia? Or, in the more recent realms of animation history, the enchanting
story of Carl and Ellies love affair, life, and passing, in the DisneyPixar
animated feature film Up (2009). These collective memories and experiences
are largely attributed to the dominance of the greatest pioneer in animation
history, Walt Disney (190166). The impact that the Walt Disney Studios has
had on cinema audiencesindeed on popular culture generallyis vast and
far-reaching, albeit supported by important outputs from Warner Bros. and
UPA (United Productions of America). However, this American super studio Walter Elias Walt Disney (190166) is indelibly
linked to the growth and development of
dominance has also meant that other versions of animation have sometimes animation. The company he cofounded with his
been overlooked or not given the credit they deserve by mass audiences. brother Roy, the Disney Brothers Cartoon Studio,
has today evolved into The Walt Disney Company
For many, the true significance of animation can be measured by such and is a media and entertainment powerhouse.
elements as its inclusion in the annual Academy Awards, the growth of Disney
international film festivals, the distribution of feature films, documentaries
and short films on cable or satellite channels, and the Internet revolution that
has opened up new audiences for the form globally. Furthermore, the study
of animation as a subject in its own rightincluding its history, technical
advances, and wider cultural contextis recognized through a multitude of
internationally published specialist magazines, academic journals, seminars,
and conferences, trade magazines, online forums, blogs, and microblogs.

Uses of animation
Animation has the potential to reach developed, fledgling, or emerging
audiences in a way that live-action film is unable to because of subjective,
cultural, or technical shortcomings. The form can seemingly make the
impossible possible and has the potential to communicate with young
and old alike, regardless of ethnicity, gender, religion, or nationality. If used
intelligently, animation can draw viewers together, crossing boundaries
and uniting audiences under thematic ideas and concerns, making it a
very attractive medium for artists, designers, producers, directors, musicians,
and actors to use to recount stories, ideas, and opinions to a diverse range
of cultures.
In many walks of everyday life animation is used to explain concepts,
deliver important information, promote goods and services, and keep us on
the move. Over the last few decades, animation has played its part by both
driving and supporting the technical and conceptual demands of a wider

7
world. We now see the medium used to track satellites orbiting the Earth,
explain the power of the planets weather systems on oceans, mountains,
and deserts, predict the force of earthquakes, or suggest possible worlds
beyond our solar system. Animation is employed to deliver specific
engineering data, integrate complex pharmaceutical and clinical procedures,
and develop research models to enable a broad range of activities to occur in
many different and varied fields. From being the central core of an animated
feature film or supplying particular special effects in a live-action feature, right
the way through to animated applications on a cell phone or animated
navigational buttons on a website, animation has a role to play in imparting
content to the audience.
Animated physics-based simulations are used to
spectacular effect at the American Museum of
A model for future communication Natural History, where the film Journey to the
The success of animation as a communication form in the future may lie Stars explores the life cycle of stars through
an immersive audience experience.
in its residual power to be designed and read in myriad screen formats.
The advent and growth of digital technology has revolutionized the way
that audiences access and watch animation. Digitization has streamlined
the production and delivery of animation and has broadened the scope for
audiences to become familiar with the subject. Cinema and broadcast media
have evolved with three-dimensional (3D) projection, specialist surround-
sound features, and satellite and cable content, but with the development of
mobile technology delivery is no longer confined to a fixed place, meaning
that animated functionality and content features widely on games consoles,
smartphones, and MP3 players. Furthermore, animation is also screened
in increasingly unconventional yet interesting ways as part of live-action
performances, art installations, and exhibitions, and in virtual- or augmented- French pioneer of early cinema, Georges
Mlis, experimented with techniques such as
reality worlds where it can either lead or support other material. double exposures and dissolves in his magical
Animation is also able to contribute toward our understanding of the fantasy, Le Voyage dans la Lune (Voyage to the
Moon, 1902).
shape of our future. Unlike live action, animation can be used to creatively
predict scenes through imaginary visualization, rather than simply record
events or situations from life. Additionally, certain animated sequences have
the advantage of being significantly cheaper to produce than live-action
equivalents, and can provide greater information for the audience in a fraction
of the time it would take to explain these occurrences in the real time of live
action, as information can be overlaid or run concurrently, enriching the
viewing experience.
Animation can also borrow, appropriate, and assimilate other research
material from compliant resources. A good example is beamed satellite
information in the articulation of animated maps on satellite navigation
systems in vehicles. The animated graphical user interface (GUI) is designed
to present this instant information to the driver of the vehicle clearly and
coherently, not only finding the way to a destination, but also updating data
to warn of hazards that lie ahead and communicating alternative actions.
The world of augmented reality through mobile devices opens up huge
possibilities for animation to play a vital role in imparting and explaining

8
 The special effects created by Spinifex for the
opening ceremony of the 2010 Winter Olympics
in Vancouver, Canada, merged 3D animated
whales projected onto a virtual Pacific Ocean
AnimationIntroduction

inside the stadium, with each breach triggering

a physical waterspout.

information from a remote source in a real-world, real-time setting.

Various organizations, institutions, and groups are focused on exploring
the possibilities of this emerging technology for industrial, economic,
and personal use, whether through illustrating animated walk-through
visualizations of property for sale, providing interactive museum
or gallery guides, or making hiking more exciting by providing an
interactive commentary and alternative view of the outdoor landscape.

The dening principles of animation

The word animation derives from the Latin verb animare, meaning
to give life to, suggesting that the illusion of movement has been given
to inanimate forms. Animation essentially involves the artificial creation
of images in a sequence that appears to move through the persistence of
vision: our eye reads the images in quick succession and our brain tricks us
into believing that the images are moving. In reality, the movement is created
by the spaces in between the frames. The Scottish-born animation pioneer
Norman McLaren famously said: Animation is not the art of drawings that
move, but rather the art of movements that are drawn.
In technical terms, the basic principle of creating animation is that
images are captured singly through a photographic lens or a scanner in
a predetermined order. These shots become records of the single images
and are known as frames. When the recorded frames are played back in
chronological order, they create a collection known as a sequence that
appears to make the images move on screen. Different frame rates are
required for different viewing experiences. For example, a common frame
rate is 24 frames per second (fps) for television and film production (although
some countries broadcast formats differ, and 25 fps is a recognized format),

9
but where animation is created for online output, slower data-processing
speeds caused by reduced or fluctuating bandwidth mean that a reduced
number of frames is preferable, despite altering the fluency of movement.
Capturing individual frames on flat surfaces (paper, cels, or digital files)
relies on registering or keying in individual frames into an exact position
so that the shooting of each frame is consistent and controlled. Through
the digital advances that have been made from the traditional approach to
animation, pioneered throughout the first half of the last century, much of
traditional cel drawing and painting is now done digitally. The process of These background cel paintings from the
animated feature film Akira (1988) demonstrate
stop-motion animation involves the gradual movement of an object or artifact the layering technique employed to create
under or in front of a fixed or incrementally moving camera, capturing each complex scenes using registration marks to
ensure continuity.
slight movement as a single frame, and then playing this back to see a
progression of recorded moving imagery.
While good animation requires technical knowledge and understanding to
produce smooth, logical, and coherent movement, great animation assumes
this knowledge as a given and provokes and entices the creator to produce
work that synthesizes technical prowess with more substantial emotive and
conceptual ideas, celebrating and enriching the central idea, theme, or
narrative of the production.

10
 Twelve principles of animation
AnimationIntroduction

In 1981, legendary Walt Disney Studios animators Frank Thomas and Ollie
Johnston (two of Disneys Nine Old Men) set out some defining principles
of the form in their book The Illusion of Life: Disney Animation (1981). The title
alludes to a central theme in animation educationthat if creators using
animation desire the ability to reimagine life, they must first understand
the nuances of life itself. The book describes twelve central principles to
link animation to the natural laws of physics while embodying the idea
that the process of animating could contravene and contradict these laws
within reason. This logic would be an unwritten trust between the Two of Walt Disney Studios Nine Old Men,
Frank Thomas and Ollie Johnston, believed that
animator and his or her audience. creating lifelike animation could only be achieved
by understanding the nuances and complexities
of the natural laws of physics applied to the
Squash and stretchthis principle acknowledges that objects have human body. Disney
an implied weight and flexibility, and recognizes that when an object
moves, its weight shifts through the flexing of its form. The bouncing
ball is often used to illustrate the principle, where the form at its lowest
point (impact) is illustrated as a squashed ball, while its accelerated rise
to its highest point is illustrated as a stretched ball, recognizing that
the gravitational forces inside the ball are moving.
Anticipationin reality, any movement is prefigured by the desire,
intention, or need to move, and the body prepares itself for the
predicted action. In animation, creating the illusion that the body
is mindful of this anticipation gives life and credibility to the object.
An example might be a baseball pitcher drawing back his arm before
throwing the ball to the striker.
Stagingthis involves composing elements of the frame to control
the viewers experience. So placing characters in particular positions,
lighting them in certain ways, and positioning the camera to record
these deliberate intentions all accentuate the appearance of the subject
in its surrounding environment, contributing to the audiences
understanding and enjoyment of the piece.
Straight-ahead action and pose-to-pose drawingstraight-ahead
action concerns the movements of individual figures in staged scenes,
and is best demonstrated by first imaging a simple action and then
drawing each frame of that action from the start to the finishing point.
This creates movements that are highly detailed and fluent and are
described as full animation. Pose-to-pose drawing is a more
economical approach, using fewer frames and resulting in a more
dramatic and immediate effect. Animators often use both straight-
ahead action and pose-to-pose drawing, mixing the two subtly to
reflect the focus, pace, and concentration of the story being animated.
Follow-through and overlapping actionsthe laws of physics dictate
that after a body (human or object) has stopped moving, the

11
 momentum created by its movement is continued, or followed
through, before coming to rest within the body. Acknowledging this
principle and building it into the depiction of the figure or object
results in a more believable movement. Similarly, observation of a body
acknowledges that elements of the human form move at different
speeds from each other and create overlapping actions. A good
example might be the contrast between fleshier and bonier parts of
the body. Building in these differences in movement gives believability
and sensitivity to the form, allowing the viewer to suspend disbelief.
Slow in and slow outnot all actions happen at a uniform speed,
but there are instead periods of acceleration and deceleration that
appear to reflect the subjects natural reactions to a movement. To
achieve this, a greater number of frames is created at the beginning
and the end of a moving sequence, resulting in more naturalized and
believable movement.
Arcsanimators use implied arcs to emulate natural movements The defining principles of animation are neatly
embodied in the work of the British Aardman
to aid believability. Reflecting the speed of an action, arcs emulating Animations studio, ably demonstrated by the
faster movements are stretched over longer distances with low peaks, enduring pairing of Wallace and Gromit.
while in slower movements the arc is shorter with a higher peak to
reflect a shorter distance. For example, a baseball pitcher throwing
a fast ball will be illustrated by the ball following an invisible
stretched arc.
Secondary actionthis principle recognizes that movements seldom
happen in isolation. The simple act of walking (primary action) might
be complemented by the ability of the figure to chew gum, talk to his
girlfriend, and wave his hand.
Timingthe importance of timing is translated through the number of
frames designated for an action to occur, controlling not only the speed
of the action but crucially also introducing, establishing, and
reaffirming wider conditions, such as the characters emotional state
and their connection to the plot or other characters.
Exaggerationthe principle of exaggeration, whether applied to the
physical design and actions of characters, or to the wider narrative
function of the animation itself, presents opportunities to stretch
and distort reality, achieving seemingly impossible feats by amplifying
conditions and breaking rules and conventions.
Solid drawingthis involves the confident handling of drawing as
a three-dimensional discipline articulated through understanding
anatomy and form. Solid drawing helps to maintain believability.
Appealunderstanding the intricacies of drawing gives appeal to
characters and makes them interesting focal points for the audience
to make necessary plot, design, or associated connections with. In this
sense, appeal is not necessarily attractive, but rather an embodiment
of character traits that touches an emotional inner core in the audience.

12
 The animation pipeline
AnimationIntroduction

Taking time to understand the principles of animation is important, as they

form a critical and universally recognized framework. It is equally important
to understand how an animated production is created. All animation projects
have a workflow, known as a pipeline, that recognizes three distinct phases:
preproduction, production, and postproduction. To understand this pipeline it
is useful to outline a simplified animated workflow that clearly identifies the
logical steps needed to construct an animated film (see below). However,
when considering this outline it is important to keep in mind that some
creators do not come from traditionally recognized backgrounds of art and
design, but from diverse though associated areas of interest such as music,
film, photography, engineering, and architecture. These creators may deviate
from this traditional workflow depending on where the inspiration for the
production comes from, the resulting constituent parts that it uses, the
production processes employed, and the method of screening the final film,
episode, ad, or application. It is even possible that some aspects may be
omitted altogether for a variety of perfectly sound and justifiable reasons.

Preproduction
In the preproduction phase, scripts, visual and sound concepts, and ideas
are explored and tested through research in order to prepare material before
filming and recording.

Brieng: A project is originated personally, commercially, or for non-profit

organizations, including details of client requirements, budget, timescale,
and technical constraints. Depending on the nature of the project, production
companies may be asked to pitch for jobs, or an agency might approach
a particular director having seen examples of previous work that the client
has indicated they like. In independent animation, the animator often writes
a synopsis to try to attract funds from funding bodies, organizations, or
external sponsors. The director is tasked with envisioning the project
through to completion.

Script: The script is written in response to the brief given, and may be based
on an observation, an interpretation of an event, or an adaptation of a story.
The script is completed, analyzed, and edited, until the contents are agreed.

Concepts and ideas: The script is given to a director, who directs the crew
to interpret the material visually and aurally. Concepts are explored and
developed, and the resulting ideas are given rough visual and aural forms
so that first impressions of the production can be formed and considered.

Research: Ideas are explored through more focused and sustained research,
collecting information through observations and recordings and assembling

13
 These previsualized images give an indication
of the overall feel of the intended output.

this material into a methodical order that can be used in the studio
environment to add more detail and expression to the initial ideas.

Treatment: The project is pitched to the client or funding body through

a written synopsis known as a treatment, where the story or idea will
be summarized through a presentation comprising one or more of the
following elements: a written statement, visualized images (or a storyboard),
a temporary soundtrack, sample voice-overs, and atmospheric special-effect
ideas. The production method of creating the work is established and agreed
according to the budget set or established for the production, and the
release format is agreed.

Storyboard: A storyboard is developed to illustrate the emerging narrative,

setting the scene, introducing characters, establishing where dialogue fits with
action, suggesting camera shots and angles and determining sound effects.
This is tested as an animatic, merging vision and sound to start to make
sense of pacing and timing of the material for the audience. As the production
develops, so does the quality of information held on the storyboard.

Development: Sets, scenes, and characters are visually developed in

tandem with the collected research material as the crew work out how to
animate the information contained in the storyboard. This involves detailed
analysis of how the production is constructed (how to move items on set,
how characters walk, talk, and interact, how lighting will be set and cameras
will capture each frame) so that any production issues are resolved prior to
filming. The production schedule is established and published for the crew.

Sound: The choice of sound stems, dialogue, narration, music, and

special effects is finalized and designed in close conjunction with the visual
development taking place. Music is commissioned if a score is required,
voice talent is auditioned for narrative and dialogue roles if needed, and the
crew working on special effects are tasked with originating or collecting

14
AnimationIntroduction

relevant material that can be first recorded on location or in the studio, Animation can be used to enhance an audiences
understanding of a story or set of ideas, allowing
before being edited in the studio and mixed together to form a soundtrack. the possibility of an interactive experience.

Production
The production phase sees the project take shape, with artwork being
created, film shot, and sound recorded.

Production for 2D animation

Creating key frames: The major frames of action are drawn as key poses
for the central characters.

Motion tests: Character movement is tested through pencil tests to make

sure movements are fluid, coherent, and in keeping with the characters
personality and appeal.

Backgrounds: Scenes are illustrated to provide a backdrop against which

character action takes place and to contribute to the overall mood and
atmosphere of the production.

In-between frames: Cels are drawn in between the key frames to render the
whole action of the character. The cels are shot or scanned and cleaned up
and saved as individual frames in the software program.

15
Inking, painting, and compositing: The frames are artworked to render
them in a final state, building up details on individual layers if necessary to
achieve an overall look through compositing.

Picture editing: The frames are played back to check for accuracy, speed,
and coherence within the story.

Rendering: The layers in the frame are flattened through a process known
as rendering to create final frames.

Workprint: Whether working in two or three dimensions, special effects

are considered along with music, narration, and dialogue to create an
intermediate version of the production, known as a workprint. This helpfully
establishes the shape of the production, illustrating its appeal and values,
as well as highlighting the inconsistencies, mistakes, and faults.

Production for 3D animation

Modeling: A character or object is sculpted and formed through
development drawings and research to remain faithful to the creators
vision of it.

Rigging and animating: This process establishes how the modeled form
will move, either manually through the animator flexing the form, or digitally
through permissions granted in the software application to handle the form
on a predetermined axis, through walk cycles, lip-synching, and so on.

Effects and lighting: Visual effects in support of the main movements of the
form are executed and recorded, often worked in tandem with lighting design
to evoke atmosphere and create highlights on aspects of the form for
dramatic purpose.

Compositing: Recorded three-dimensional elements are brought together,

manipulated, and outputted, often changing the feel and impetus of the
recorded footage to maximize dramatic impact and accentuate the story
or idea in an interesting way for the viewer.

Rendering: As with 2D animation, the layers in the frame are flattened

through the rendering process to create final frames.

Workprint: And like in 2D animation, a workprint is created by looking at the

special effects, music, narration, and dialogue all together.
Sensitive lighting design can radically alter the
mood of a production.

16
 Postproduction
The postproduction phase takes all the collected filmed and recorded
AnimationIntroduction

material and synthesizes it into a product, adding special effects and titles,
so that it is ready for release and distribution.

Special effects: The concluding stage of the project allows special effects to be
placed, accentuated, and mixed to enhance the viewing and audio experience.

Panning: The sound can be further designed into a supportive landscape for Academy Award-winning British animator Suzie
Templeton is renowned for the high-quality
the visuals, placing sounds in different parts of the auditorium by controlling construction of her animation sets.
how the speakers will output the recorded sound stems.

Color correction and mastering: The working print is fine-tuned, removing

any minor inconsistencies and creating a seamless and pure visual and
audio experience.

Titles and credits: The work is prefixed and suffixed by the titles and credits
respectively, acknowledging the role played in creating the animation for
screening by the crew, the funders, the producers, and the broadcasters
supporters. A release print is made through the studio or a specialist
photographic lab, depending on the agreed release format.

Release and distribution: The completed work is distributed through

distribution agents who liaise with broadcast networks, organizations, or
festivals to screen the work for consumption.

About this book

This book aims to explore animation in an easily digestible, inspiring, and
exciting way. The subject is introduced from the perspective of following a
traditional workflow, or pipeline, as outlined above. The chapters that follow
reflect these stages of preproduction, production, and postproduction and are
intrinsically linked to originating, developing, and creating an animated film.

Chapter One: PreproductionPlanning and Scriptwriting explores

the scheduling of an animated production and gives an overview of the roles
and responsibilities of crew members working on the project. The chapter
investigates practical approaches to writing for animation as a form different
from cinema. It introduces key concepts of animation vocabulary and
language, and emphasizes the interpretive possibilities of the form, both
linguistically and stylistically, for the creator.

Chapter Two: PreproductionConcepts, Ideas, and Research examines

where ideas originate and how they are developed using a framework to test,

17
evaluate, and strengthen them for the creator and audience alike.
The importance of relevant research and associated research processes
is explained, including the importance of accuracy in collation and archiving
of materials, and how these can be utilized in the development of ideas.

Chapter Three: PreproductionDevelopment looks at the art of

storyboarding, layout, and drawing as essential tools and processes to
enable the animator to develop his or her project.
The Ottawa International Animation Festival held
every year in Canada celebrates the best new
Chapter Four: PreproductionSound looks at the definition and use of
releases from Canada and the rest of the world,
sound stems as an important part of the preproduction process in defining with its Meet the Filmmakers slot being
especially popular.
and shaping the animation. Narration, dialogue, music, and special effects
are considered, allowing the reader to understand how sounds are recorded,
edited together, and processed ready for production.

Chapter Five: Production examines the variety of production methods

used to create visual and aural animated content using common techniques,
such as cel animation, stop motion, computer-generated imagery (CGI), and
more unorthodox and unusual methods.

Chapter Six: Postproduction explores the integration of the visual,

aural, and special-effects aspects of the animation process into a cohesive
package ready for distribution and viewing. The chapter explains the
analyzing, editing, rendering, and packaging process as the animated
production is prepared for release and distribution.

Chapter Seven: Animated Futures looks at careers in animation and

contains useful reference information about how to prepare for and find
employment through education and training, and by gaining experience
through placements and internships.

Through the use of specifically researched illustrations and captions this

book enhances the readers understanding and knowledge of the medium
and provides a rich and enjoyable overview of the animation process.
Information in the text and boxed features gives valuable guidance and
support to student animators creating animation and wanting to expand
their education into a career in the field. Key words and technical terms
are defined in more detail in the glossary section at the end of the book
and a comprehensive bibliography highlights further reading opportunities.

18
 An animation timeline
AnimationIntroduction

This timeline documents the history of animation through developments in

technique and technology over the last two centuries.

1779 1901 1911

Paul Philidor creates the first Walter Elias (Walt) Disney is born in International Business Machines
acknowledged phantasmagoria show Chicago, Illinois (IBM) is founded. Winsor McCay,
1798 1902 the prolific newspaper cartoonist,
Stage magician tienne Gaspard The first transatlantic radio message animates figures in his film Little
Robert pioneers the idea of the is received in Britain, originating in the Nemo in Slumberland from his
phantasmagoria production United States comic strip of the same name
1832 1906
Joseph Plateau invents the J. Stuart Blackton creates the
phenakistoscope first cartoon, Humorous Phases of
1834 Funny Faces, using animated chalk
The Daedalum (later known as the drawings that are double-exposed on
zoetrope) is designed and negative film
produced by British mathematician 1907
William G. Horner The Teddy Bears is created by
1854 American Edwin Stanton Porter,
Austrian Franz von Uchatius invents using stop-motion figures Gertie the Dinosaur (1914)
the kinetoscope, which is then further 1908 1914
developed by Thomas Edison mile Cohl, the Parisian caricaturist, Winsor McCay creates Gertie the
releases Fantasmagorie, widely Dinosaur, the first animated film
considered to be the worlds first to feature a character with a
fully animated film recognizable personality and
to be made using the key-frame
technique. Raoul Barr and Bill
Nolan set up the Barr-Nolan Studio,
the first commercial cartoon studio
in New York
1916
Praxinoscope (1877) Pioneering animator Max Fleischer is
1877 granted the patent for the rotoscope
In France, Charles-mile Reynaud and uses the process to trace live-
patents the praxinoscope, which Fantasmagorie (1908) action film of his brother to create
introduces mirrors to the principle 1910 Out of the Inkwell
of the original zoetrope Russian animator Vladislav Starevich 1917
1896 creates Piekna Lukanida (The The worlds first animated feature,
Frame-to-frame trick effects are Beautiful Lukanida), the first puppet El Apstol, is released in Argentina
pioneered by French filmmaker animation to use stop motion
Georges Mlis

19
 Le Roman de Renard (The Tale of the
Fox) becomes the first feature-length
puppet animation

The Sinking of the Lusitania (1918) Die Abenteuer des Prinzen Achmed
(The Adventures of Prince Achmed) (1926)
1918
Winsor McCay creates The Sinking of 1927
the Lusitania, an important milestone The British Broadcasting Corporation
in the use of animation to create (BBC) is founded Betty Boop (1930)
propagandist film 1932
1919 Disney releases Flowers and Trees,
Paramount Pictures release the the first known Technicolor cartoon
animated short Feline Follies (in three colors)
1920 1933
The Debut of Thomas Cat becomes Willis OBrien produces his stop-
the first recognized color cartoon motion gorilla for King Kong. The
1921 Three Little Pigs premieres, the first
Walt Disney begins to create popular Disney film to suggest animated
animated films for the Newman Steamboat Willie, 1928. Disney personality and to be originated on
theater chain in Kansas City 1928 storyboards
1923 Steamboat Willie, starring Mickey 1934
Disney merges live action with a Mouse, becomes the first Disney Donald Duck is introduced to
cartoon in Alices Wonderland cartoon to feature synchronized cinema audiences in the film The
1925 sound Wise Little Hen
Scottish inventor John Logie Baird 1929
transmits moving silhouette images, The first of 75 animated shorts
the forerunner to modern television known as the Silly Symphonies,
broadcast The Skeleton Dance, is animated by
1926 Ub Iwerks, Disneys partner at Walt
Using cut-out silhouettes, German- Disney Studios
born animator Lotte Reiniger 1930
completes the feature-length Betty Boop makes her first
Die Abenteuer des Prinzen Achmed appearance in Fleischers Dizzy
(The Adventures of Prince Achmed) Dishes. In France, Starevichs Komposition in Blau (Composition in Blue) (1935)

20
AnimationIntroduction

1935 1941 1952

German Oskar Fischinger makes the The Walt Disney Studios strike is a The technique of pixilation is
abstract animation Komposition in painful episode in the companys introduced by Norman McLarens
Blau (Composition in Blue) history. In China, Wan Laiming and film Neighbours
1936 Wan Guchan produce the animated
The BBC broadcasts the first high- feature film Princess Iron Fan
definition television service from its 1942
transmitter at Alexandra Palace, The epic feature film Bambi is
London released by Disney
1944
The birth of the United Productions
of America (UPA) studio. The
Gaumont British animation studio
is originated in Britain Neighbours (1952)
1946 1953
The controversial Song of the South, In America, Warner Bros. animator
a version of the Uncle Remus stories, Chuck Jones creates the influential
is completed using a mixture of Duck Amuck
animation and live action, but 1954
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937). never released George Orwells novel Animal Farm
Disney
1947 is animated by John Halas and
1937 Tintin makes his animated debut in a Joy Batchelor and will become
Disney releases the epic Snow White puppet version of The Crab with the hugely influential
and the Seven Dwarfs, the worlds Golden Claws
first full-length, sound-synchronized 1948
Technicolor animated film The feature-length puppet animation
1939 The Emperors Nightingale is created
Gullivers Travels, created by the by Czech filmmaker Jir Trnka
Fleischer studio, becomes the first 1949
film to challenge Disneys monopoly Fast and Furry-ous sees the first
on cartoons appearance of Chuck Joness
1940 creations Road Runner and Wile E.
Disney releases Pinocchio and Coyote Animal Farm (1954)
Fantasia but both are surprisingly 1950 1957
poorly received by audiences. The In movie theaters, Disney releases Bugs Bunny makes his most famous
first Tom and Jerry cartoon is created Cinderella, while Crusader Rabbit is appearance in Joness cartoon
and released by William Hanna and the first cartoon created for television Whats Opera, Doc?
Joseph Barbera in the United States

21
1958 the planned Disneyworld adventure 1972
The much-awaited Sleeping Beauty is park in Florida. British childrens The video games company Atari
a commercial disaster for Disney and television sees the arrival of the is founded
painfully disrupts plans to produce stop-motion Camberwick Green
animated features in this genre for 1968
more than thirty years. The first The Beatles provide the soundtrack
color animated feature in Japan, The to director George Dunnings
Legend of the White Serpent (known animated film Yellow Submarine
in America as Panda and the White 1969
Serpent), is released First showing of Sazae-San in
1960 Japan, still running today and
Hanna and Barbera introduce credited as being the worlds
Fred Flintstone and Barney Rubble oldest continuously running animated The Wombles (1973)
in the animated television series series for television. In Britain, 1973
The Flintstones The Clangers land on television, The Pannnia Filmstdi, based in
1961 courtesy of Oliver Postgate and Hungary, creates Hugo the Hippo,
Havoc in Heaven heralds the Peter Firmin using some voice-overs provided by
beginning of audiences becoming singing sensations of the day, The
familiar with Chinese animation Osmonds. In Britain, The Wombles
1963 is created by Ivor Wood at Filmfair,
Japanese television cartoon Mighty who later creates Postman Pat. The
Atom spawns many other Japanese first cellular phone communication
productions. The popular television is made in New York City
series La Mange Enchant 1974
(The Magic Roundabout) is Bob Godfreys Roobarb hits British
created by Serge Danot in France television screens. Hayao Miyazaki
1964 and Isao Takahata work together
John Stehura creates the to create the Japanese television
experimental film Cibernetik 5.3 series Heidi
using punch cards and tape 1975
1965 George Lucas founds Industrial Light
The Czech adult puppet film The The Clangers (1969) and Magic (ILM) and pioneers the
Hand is created by Jir Trnka, and 1971 use of motion control cameras in
becomes a rallying cry against the Sony launches the U-matic system, Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope.
repression of the totalitarian state the worlds first commercial video Bill Gates and Paul Allen found
1966 cassette format in Tokyo, Japan. Microsoft in Albuquerque
Walt Disney dies at the age of 65 The first IMAX cinema opens in 1976
and never sees the completion of Montreal, Canada Apple is founded by Steve Jobs,

22
AnimationIntroduction

Steve Wozniak, and Ronald Wayne

in California
1977
Caroline Leaf comes to world
attention with her vivid portrayal of
family bereavement as seen from
the eyes of a child in The Street.
Ed Emshwiller creates Sunstone,
a short computer-graphic film in 3D Akira (1988)
1989
The character of the Pseudopod
in The Abyss is the first computer-
generated 3D character. On television
Matt Groenings The Simpsons
Tron (1982). Disney becomes a series in its own right.
1984 Meanwhile at CERN, the European
Disney attempts to revive its fortunes particle physics laboratory, Tim
and prepare for the inevitable Berners-Lee invents the World
Sunstone (1977). Courtesy Electronic Arts Intermix demands of the CGI animation Wide Web
(EAI), New York.
onslaught by hiring Michael Eisner 1990
1980 and Jeffrey Katzenberg. Apple ILM develops computer-generated
Chinese animation re-emerges as launches the first Macintosh personal textured human skin for the movie
an important force with the creation computer with a mouse and Death Becomes Her
of the film Nezha Conquers the graphical user interface (GUI) 1991
Dragon King 1985 The Ren and Stimpy Show provides
1981 Will Vintons important feature film some edgy animation for television,
IBMs personal computer is launched Mark Twain is completed using the created by John Kricfalusi
using Microsoft DOS (Disk Operating technique of claymation 1992
System) 1986 Welsh television channel S4C
1982 Luxo Jr. becomes an important commissions the series Shakespeare:
At Disney, Tim Burton uses stop marker for CGI animation. Its director, the Animated Tales using a mixture of
motion to create Vincent, and Tron John Lasseter, later goes on to direct animation processes
heralds the arrival of CGI in major for Pixar 1993
studio productions. Star Trek II: The 1988 Steven Spielberg uses animation
Wrath of Khan becomes the first Hybrid animation and live-action in Jurassic Park. The stop-motion
movie ever to have a completely feature Who Framed Roger Rabbit feature The Nightmare Before
computer-generated sequence, is released. Akira debuts in Japan, Christmas is deftly produced by Tim
created by ILM. directed by Katsuhiro Otomo Burton and directed by Henry Selick

23
 1999 2007
Aleksandr Petrovs The Old Man DisneyPixars Ratatouille, directed
and the Sea is the first animated by Brad Bird, is released. CEO
film released in IMAX format and of Apple, Steve Jobs, unveils the
wins an Academy Award for iPhone, a multi-touch smartphone
Animated Short Film that will spawn a generation of
2000 applications (apps) that use
Aardman Animations begins an animated content as a central
The Nightmare Before Christmas (1993). uneasy partnership with DreamWorks operational feature
Touchstone Pictures
with the animated Chicken Run 2008
1994 2001 British director Suzie Templeton wins
Michael Eisner and Jeffrey Hayao Miyazakis Oscar-winning an Oscar for the acclaimed stop-
Katzenbergs bitter dispute at Spirited Away is launched to motion animation Peter and the Wolf
Disney impels the latter to co-found critical acclaim 2009
the DreamWorks studio with Steven 2002 Up, directed by Peter Docter, became
Spielberg and David Geffen Motion capture is successfully used to the first DisneyPixar feature film to
1995 create Gollum in The Two Towers. Ice use Disney Digital 3D. Henry Selicks
Launch of Toy Story, directed by Age is released by Blue Sky Studios darkly atmospheric 3D CGI stop-
John Lasseter, the worlds first 2004 motion feature Coraline is a hit at
feature-length CGI cartoon. The Brad Bird directs DisneyPixars CGI the box office
Wrong Trousers wins an Oscar for superhero feature film The Incredibles
Nick Park. DVD optical disc storage
technology is developed by Sony,
Philips, Toshiba, and Panasonic

The Incredibles (2004). Disney/Pixar

2005
Tim Burtons eagerly awaited Corpse Up (2009). Disney/Pixar
Bride and Nick Park and Steve Boxs 2010
The Curse of the Were-Rabbit are Shaun Tans picture book The Lost
Toy Story (1995). 1995 Disney/Pixar. Mr. Potato released, heralding a new interest Thing is adapted into an animated
Head is a registered trademark of Hasbro, Inc.
Used with permission. Hasbro, Inc. All rights
in stop-motion animation short by Tan in collaboration with
reserved. 2006 Andrew Ruhemann and wins the
1998 Disney completes its acquisition Academy Award for Animated
Pixars A Bugs Life enters into an of Pixar. HD DVD and Blu-ray are Short Film
insect war with DreamWorks CGI launched globally, promising
feature Antz unmatched visual output quality

24
 1.

PreproductionPlanning and Scriptwriting

Animation is an entertainment medium like no other. It offers extraordinary
flexibility, as each part of its process can be handled and controlled by the
creator. It operates using a different (but recognizable) vocabulary from that
of live-action film, enabling different forms of expression to exist in a space
for an audience to engage with. As such, it permits new versions of worlds
or environments for films, giving tremendous creative freedom for writers,
artists, animators, directors, and producers to transport audiences to different
dimensions of reality, which seem real but are in fact imagined.
This chapter examines the contribution that early planning and scriptwriting
play in this creative freedom. It establishes how the preproduction phase Planning a script involves writing and rewriting as
the outline plot begins to evolve.
of an animated project is planned, managed, and delivered by people
with differing job roles in the productions life cycle. It also explores
the importance of scriptwritingincluding different approaches and
developmentas one of the first possible starting points in preproduction.

The animation pipeline

in preproduction

As outlined in the Introduction, the preproduction phase of the animation

pipeline involves the exploration of scripts, visual and sound concepts, and
ideas, and their testing through research in order to prepare material before
filming and recording.
Preparing a tangible framework for this phase is essential, as this
governs the budget, the scheduling of the technical pipeline arrangements,
and the managing of the workflow arrangements of the crew in the studio.
The hard work done at this early stage permits greater creative risks to be
taken in preproduction. Careful planning allows animators, storyboarders,
scriptwriters, composers, musicians, special-effects creators, and designers
to fully explore the subject.
This creative freedom for concept selection and idea origination,
development, and execution is crucial to the whole project, and a thorough
grasp of the subject will positively affect the quality of the final output.
Creating the right conditions for ideas to flourish is essential, especially
those centered on the core animation properties of performance, movement,
and narrative. Establishing a clear set of parameters is a key exercise in
helping to plan, structure, and manage the project (see box opposite), and
this good preparation and planning will almost certainly deliver the project on
time and on budgettwo essential considerations in the world of animation.

26
1. Scheduling a production
AnimationPreproductionPlanning and Scriptwriting

It is essential to ask the following questions, or variations thereof:

Has the project been approved?
Who is the project for and what is its intended outcome?
Who is the target audience?
Who is funding and/or supporting the work?
Is there a budget and if so, what is it?
Who controls the budget?
What is the time frame in which the project needs to be conducted?
How much time is allowed for research for the project?
How is the time frame split between phases of preproduction,
production, and postproduction?
Who has responsibility for making final decisions?
Is there sufficient scope in resources or budget for a crew?
What should the crew be made up of?
Who owns the project once the production is completed?
Who is responsible for designing the content and style of titles?
Are there any cultural, social, or philosophical issues with the proposed
content that require legal clearance?
Are there any special considerations that need to be given for audiences
with particular needs and requirements?
Who owns the rights for any associated materials that could be
developed in the future?
What happens if the project is canceled?
How will the project be delivered?
What is the broadcast format for the project?
How will the finished animation be distributed?
What technical and physical resources are available and are there extra
funds available for this?
Are there associated production values (material to be gained for
documentary or promotional purposes) that need consideration?

Implicit in the planning process is the need to understand the variety of jobs
involved in creating an animated project, what each job entails, and at what
stage these roles operate, either independently, jointly, or collectively across
the whole production. Members of the crew need to know and understand
their roles from the outset. In a feature film or television series, roles are
clearly defined and animators may often be hired by a studio to establish
or supplement teams. In independent productions, an individual may
undertake a number of roles simultaneously, depending on the size of the
crew and the size of the budget, in order to see the production through from
concept to completion.

27
 The director is in charge of the production,
including overseeing storyboarding,
development, and production of the
animated work.

An organized studio environment creates

a productive and efficient workplace, even
if the building was formerly a local bank,
illustrated by Nexus Productions in London.

28
1. Animation job roles checking for accuracy with any Sculptoran artist who translates
factual events. two-dimensional drawings into
AnimationPreproductionPlanning and Scriptwriting

Preproduction: Story coordinatorprovides the usable and sometimes functioning

Directorperson in charge of the link between the storyboard artists three-dimensional forms, from
production, including overseeing and the supervisor. maquettes to fully formed
storyboarding, development, and Storyboard artistresponsible sculptural models.
production of the animated work. for problem solving, planning, and Character designerresearches,
Producerworks closely with visualizing how early script ideas originates, develops, and executes
the director, supervising, and and concepts might be realized. the design for characters in both
controlling the teams at various human and object form.
stages of production and Animation: Props designerresponsible for
postproduction to bring the project Directing animatorsometimes the creation of props that
in on time and on budget. known as lead animator, this is characters will use on set.
Art directorresponsible for the generally a senior animator who Set designerresponsible for the
intrinsic look of the project and for has experience of previous environment of the project; works
communicating this vision to the productions and is able to manage carefully with the lighting designer
production teams. the collaborative team of animators. and camera team to ensure sets are
Film editorworks closely with Animatoran artist who convincing but also accessible and
other members of the core team understands the principles of functional in the production phases.
to review and edit passages and imagined movement and creates
combinations of prepared animated multiple frames of images using Layout:
sequences so as to tell the story various techniques. Layout managerreceives approved
most convincingly. storyboards, and is responsible for
Production supervisorliaises Art: briefing and managing the layout
with the director and producer Art managerresponsible for artists so that they remain faithful
to manage the project and ensure coordinating the smooth running to the spirit of the storyboards and
teams are prepared to pass and of the animation art department. the directors vision.
receive work through phases Picture researchercollects Supervising layout artist/
of production. important contextual visual material designerlike the supervising
Supervising animatorworks to aid the art department in its animator, this is a role reserved for
closely with the director and creation of sets, props, and characters. a senior member of the layout team
producer of the project and is a Conceptual artworkerbrings who has experience of bringing
vitally important link between initial ideas to life, working quickly conceptual artwork as stills and
their vision and the animation to visualize concepts often while sequences to fruition in the layout
teams ability to create it. ideas are being verbally discussed. phase of production.
Researchercan work individually Designer and illustratorwork Layout artistresponsible for
or as part of an organized team, closely with the animators to design developing the storyboard images
unearthing contacts, investigating and create backgrounds, sets, and into highly finished visuals and/or
story leads, and collecting reference props to support the production. full camera-ready artwork,
material for the preproduction and CG painter and designer depending on the animation
production teams. a technical artist who works treatment chosen for the feature.
digitally to originate, develop, and Set dresserworks closely with the
Story: enhance artwork for production, set designer, ensuring that his or
Story supervisormakes sure that often using drawing tablets and her vision is expressed through the
the script or story is being followed, working on screen. variety and attention to detail of

29
the chosen material properties of ensure a fully functioning set. Sound-effects editorcoordinates
the set. Calibratormakes sure that the gathering, appropriation, and
digital monitors are calibrated implementation of sound effects
Editorial: at regular intervals to ensure used in the production.
Editorial managertakes control of consistency and parity in Sound designerincludes all
the story, ensuring that there sequential work. aspects of sound in an animated
is continuity between script production not composed by
and artwork, pointing out Production: musicians.
inaccuracies, and bringing teams Production controller Sound editordecides what sounds
together to find solutions in the responsible for ensuring that should be incorporated to support
preproduction phase. preproduction material is processed musical scores or interludes.
Assistant editorsupports the on time and on budget through the
editorial manager in his or her role production process. Computer Systems:
by acting on decisions taken and Accountantensures that the Computer system manager
making sure the production teams project is kept on budget by oversees the digital technical
communicate well with each other. managing salaries, expenses, and production facility.
Editorial production assistant remuneration for costs incurred Hardware/Software engineer
provides administrative support for in production. operates and maintains computer
the editorial and postproduction Purchasing/Facilities manager hardware and software being used
departments of a studio. person charged with making in the features production.
Storyreel music editorhas the necessary decisions and purchases Logisticsresponsible for moving
responsibility of ensuring that to allow the project to come to sets, props, and project materials in
the initial sequential material is fruition. or between studios if filming is
accompanied by a basic soundscape, Production coordinator happening at another location.
which might be actors reading supports the production controller Technicianprovides technical
from scripts or a rough cut of by acting on decisions made and support to the engineers by testing
a proposed soundtrack. communicating these with the and repairing equipment and
appropriate teams. making sure all aspects of the
Camera Team: Production schedule coordinator technical production process
Camera managertakes charge of holds regular meetings with work effectively.
how scenes can be filmed by liaising the production teams to review Media systems engineer
with the director and the producer progress and coordinates changes responsible for the design,
and communicating these decisions to keep the schedule on track. installation, and maintenance of
back to the camera team. Marketing/Promotion the digital infrastructure
Supervisorensures that the coordinatorworks with the underpinning computer-generated
camera managers instructions production schedule coordinator to imagery (CGI) studio productions.
are followed in the studio. collect, review, and select Modeling and animation system
Engineeroperates the cameras supporting material from the developmentusually work
and ensures parity between the project that can be used to market as a team to develop software
intended shots and what might and promote the project ahead and hardware systems, either
be physically possible in the of its intended release. pre-empting or responding to
studio environment. Supervising sound editor technical issues that might
Technicianprepares, maintains, coordinates the various aspects arise or have arisen during
and services the cameras before, of sound production. the production process.
during, and after production to

30
1. Postproduction: Music: Negative cutterworks closely with
Postproduction supervisor Music editorhas the the editor to cut film negative
AnimationPreproductionPlanning and Scriptwriting

sometimes known as a technical responsibility for compiling, precisely to be identical to the final
director, this role ensures that the editing, and synchronizing the edit. Traditionally, the film is cut
completed animation is produced musical score in production and using scissors and repaired using
and packaged for distribution. ensuring that the musical sound a film splicer and film cement. In
Re-recording mixerchecks and landscape is correctly processed recent years, the arrival of digital
mixes recordings of dialogue, sound in postproduction. intermediates means that the skills
effects, and scores to ensure parity Production sound mixer of the negative cutter have been
between sound and vision. member of the crew responsible used to lift selected takes from
Foley editornamed after the for collecting all sound recordings, rushes and composited to reduce
famous Hollywood practitioner including deliberate and accidental the amount of digital scanning
Jack Foley, who was an early sounds captured both in the studio required.
exponent of the art, the foley and even on location that could Title designeris responsible for
editors job is to decide what later be utilized by the foley artists. designing the opening and closing
sound effects need adding in Music production supervisor titles and credits for the production.
postproduction to artificially fosters the relationship between
enhance an action, and to work musical and visual parts of the Distribution:
with foley artists to achieve production by selecting and Distribution managerworks
these effects. licensing music used. with other distribution networks,
Foley artista skillful job that Orchestra contractorworks in providers, and agents to negotiate
requires a good ear for sounds a communication and enactment international distribution rights to
and the ability to imitate them capacity in selecting orchestras that the production.
imaginatively through sometimes are able to perform musical scores, Distribution agentworks on
unconventional and unexpected interludes, and anecdotes as behalf of distribution networks
devices. directed by the composer or music and media broadcast organizations
Foley recordistworks with production supervisor. to win contracts to show
the foley artist to capture sounds Recording assistantscreate productions globally.
that can be used to enhance effects high-quality studio recordings of
not possible using conventional the orchestral and other musical
recordings. works that will become part of the
Casting consultantplays a pivotal productions score.
role in understanding the directors Dialogue recorderscapture sound
vision of what encapsulates the core recordings of actors reading parts
credentials of each character that for different animated characters.
will require a voice to be cast,
and acts as an important liaison Title Design:
between the studio and casting Color timer/grader
agents and actors. responsible for re-grading film
Voice casting agentrepresents stock by altering, enhancing, or
actors whose voices are sought to subduing its appearance using
read scripts and record dialogue photochemical, electronic, or,
for created characters. more commonly, digital processes.

31
 The simple but imaginative script for Skype
enabled director Grant Orchard to play with visual
and aural elements to illustrate the immediate and
user-friendly nature of the product for consumers.

Scriptwriting
Animation as a form enables a multitude of ways of thinking about and
describing narratives. It can bring historical and contemporary stories to
life, embellishing and heightening our appreciation and enjoyment. In order
to use animation as a storytelling vehicle, creators must decide where the
root of content is to be found. A script is one starting point, but it is equally
possible for some animated productions to exist without a script, the director
instead preferring to use the storyboard as a visual scripting device,
especially where there is no fixed dialogue or narration attached to a
particular shot.
Although animation shares some of the narrative conventions of live-
action film, such as the composition of scenes or the structuring of shots
to tell stories or explain ideas, writing for animation requires some particular
considerations that emerge out of the distinctive nature of the form itself.
First, unlike live action, animation is not bound by the constraints of physical
forces and limitations, such as gravity or conventional human movement.
Second, the process of making an animated production is elemental.
Sections are effectively pieced together and reviewed as a production grows,
thereby granting flexibility to change the script to enable scenes or sections
to be filmed, or edited, which can better explain a plot or idea. Understanding
and appreciating that there are different approaches to writing for animated
productions is important and the rest of this chapter examines what a script
is, why it is written, and how it informs the production.

What is a script?
A script is a document that details the plot of an animated production in
written form allowing a story to be told. Structurally, a script is broken down
into smaller consecutive sections called scenes. Each scene outlines the
main action chronologically, including fundamental details such as who is
speaking and what figurative actions or gestures are accompanying their

32
 Belly
03:36 Whale:
Dialogue
Listen, if you want him back he has about... (belch)
J. Pott an hour to go. (long breath in) I hope you find what
youre looking for...
2010
04:16 Dolphin:
00:50 ALEX:
Oh thank god youre here, help me. Please help me!
Im going swimming I havent got much time.
00:52 OSCAR: 04:26 Alex:

1. Ill come with you

00:53 ALEX:
No Oscar, youre too little
Mm, I had this under control. I dont need your
boyfriends help.
04:42 Oscar:
Hes not my boyfriend.
01:03 Oscar:
04:44 Alex:
Wait, Alex!
AnimationPreproductionPlanning and Scriptwriting

Oh yeah, then how come you love each other?

01:05 Alex:
04:46 Oscar:
Urrrrghhhhhhhh!
We dont!
01:16 Monster:
04:51 Monster:
Shh. Dont worry, Im here.
What, what is it?.
02:03 Monster:
05:07 Alex:
We should go rescue him
Oscar, we have to get out of here.
02:05 Oscar:
05:09 Oscar:
I dont want to
No, Ill stay here with him.
02:18 Monster:
05:16 Monster:
Urgh, Oscar, youre getting heavy
I think you should go...I dont want you here.
02:40 Monster:
05:42 Monster:
I love that youre here with me
Hey buddy, I miss you.
02:49 Oscar:
05:48 Oscar:
Excuse me...excuse me! Have you seen my brother?
His name is Alex. Yeah.
02:56 Whale: 05:50 Monster:
Alex, alex, alexalexalexalexalex... (deep breath) What I said in there...you know I didnt mean it, right?
03:05 Whale: 05:56 Oscar:
Yes, I have seen him. I feel him in my belly. Yeah, yeah, right. I know.
(howling belly growl)
05:59 Alex:
03:26 Whale:
Come on Oscar, our rides here.
Mmm, pardon me. Something I ate.
06:52 Monster:
03:29 Oscar:
Long howling moan
My brother?
03:31 Whale:
Not your brother. I have a backlog of digestion
03:35 Oscar:
Blegh

speech. It might also include details such as forthcoming actions, musical British animator and illustrator Julia Pott created a
simple script that permitted her to use animation
interludes, narration, or sound effects to support the storytelling. The script to externalize bubbling internal emotional
allows the director the opportunity to interpret the story by utilizing distinctive reactions in her animated film Belly (2011).

visual and aural processes and gives the producer a clear rationale about
how the production will be finally pieced together for release and distribution.
More broadly, the script enables an animator to plan how to dramatize
actions detailed in each scene in preproduction, and to create these dramatic
movements when the project goes into production.
The script helps establish a rhythm and pace in telling a story or can
explain an idea through particular events or beats. Creating a written
rhythmic feel to the script is a highly individual process, and writers develop
their own writing traits that allow them to specialize in different spheres of
animated productions. Scriptwriters also originate and develop stories in
certain styles, just in the same way that animators can utilize different visual
production techniques and processes to elicit different responses from the
target audience. Some scriptwriters prefer to write alone, while others like
to bounce off story ideas and developments as part of a writing team.
In his book Scriptwriting (2007), Paul Wells proposes four different models
of writing that are useful when thinking about the origins and development of
an animated script: traditional scriptwriting for animation, studio-process
script development, series-originator writing, and creator-driven writing and/
or devising. Each approach is valid, but will depend on the composition and
working arrangements of the team involved with a project. Traditionally,
scriptwriting for animation has involved the scriptwriter (or scriptwriting
team working with a script editor) devising a textual script, using processes
common to live-action scriptwriting for use in animated feature films or
television series. More recently, a studio-process script development model
has become more popular, where an in-house studio visual creative team

33
develops a script in response to a brief or an idea, using supporting
developmental tools and processes such as a storyboard, sketches,
character designs, and animatics.
Other approaches include the series-originator writing method, where a
bible is created by the production team for an animated series, containing
central information regarding characters, storylines, and plots that can act as
a core compendium for writers hired to work on the series but who perhaps
will contribute ideas from a distance. Finally, the method of delivering a script
using creator-driven writing and/or devising exists where an individual or a
creative team develops material for independent productions using
unorthodox methods, including bullet-pointed plot ideas.
As a general rule, a script is originated and developed by the scriptwriter
(or writing team), together with a script editor, director, and producer, to
explore ideas for the animated production. Developing a script involves
constantly writing and revising the written approach. The finished script is
known as a treatment and represents the culmination of a writing journey Working from George Orwells 1945 novel Animal
Farm, the production team at Halas & Batchelor
that continually originates, develops, executes, tests, and rewrites material make decisions on how the text should be
until a satisfactory conclusion is reached, and which allows the production adapted for screen.
to take account of different directional, artistic, and technical points of view.
Scripts can be developed for months or even years before being given the
green light to go into production. They are increasingly used in animated
feature films to help secure finance from outside investors in conjunction
with a pitch (see pages 6466) and are a vital bridge in attracting and
securing the services of actors for voice-over recordings as the
production progresses.

The script from director Chris Curtiss A Day in the

Life of an Audi Driver includes specific details
regarding the commissioning client, running
time of the advertisement, and format, as well
as rhythmically breaking up sections of the script
to provide a pace to the narrative.

34
1. The vocabulary and language
of animation
AnimationPreproductionPlanning and Scriptwriting

The range of possibilities afforded by the medium of animation becomes

particularly apparent when thinking about the vocabulary and language of
the form. Animation can establish, utilize, and promote a particular
vocabulary in addition to that found in live-action film, helping to better
describe, and inform the audience of, ideas and plot lines. This vocabulary
includes the use of exaggeration and transformation, symbolism, penetration,
controlling the elements of speed and time, depicting histories and predicting
futures, and portraying the invisible or unexplained.
Having the scope to exaggerate or transform narrative storytelling ideas
through a process of highlighting and promoting them, allows the writer to
control their impact. In animation this is a very useful tool as there is greater
opportunity to accentuate or diminish actions, movements, and sequences.
Similarly, the ability to use symbolism both permits the description of
invisible forces, such as satellite tracking or waves of sound or heat, and
focuses an idea for an audiencefor example, a rising bump on the head
of a character who has just been hit by an object, expressing obvious and
tangible pain.

Chris Shepherds film, Dads Dead (2002),

inventively uses a mixture of animation and live
action, allowing the viewer to veer between reality
and imagination by posing dark and subversive
questions in an otherwise familiar environment.

35
The term penetration acknowledges the capacity of animated material
to effectively delve into and hunt around particular objectsfor example,
a human eyetaking the viewer on an unexpected journey around and
through the inner workings of the object to explain its structure and purpose.
Of arguably greater magnitude still, the facility to control the speed and time
of actions opens up huge possibilities for the scriptwriter, enabling centuries
to be collapsed into a few seconds of footage, or split-second reactions to be
drawn out, investigated, and explained. Depictions of unseen events, whether
they are historical or have not yet happened, or are perhaps invisible or
unexplained, are suddenly possible.
Animation also privileges a number of distinct linguistic conventions that
can help writers create interesting concepts and explore different directions as
the content unfolds. These conventions include the important and subject-
specific elements of metamorphosis, condensation, anthropomorphism,
fabrication, penetration, symbolism, and the illusion of sound (see box below).
Each can be used individually or in combination, as a single occurrence or
as a repeating cycle, the variance depending on the project being considered.

Animated language

Metamorphosisthe ability to enact some type of change from one

property to another. The versatility of such changes can positively affect
scenes, transitions, characters, and stories. For example, changes may be
sudden or prolonged. It is entirely possible for one property to become
multiple properties, or for one or more aspects of the original form to
morph into new aspects but using the original form as a base, or to
illustrate particular attributes in morphed form that were somehow
hidden in the previous form.

Condensationinvolves the economical use of narrative material to

suggest or imply information, creating symbolic or metaphorical icons to
trigger ideas or possible directions for the audience. Used in conjunction
with visual material, this is an effective linguistic tool for exploring
characters, scenes, and storylines.

Anthropomorphismimbues inanimate objects, animals, and settings

with human characteristics, giving them the ability to inhabit stories,
display their personalities, and, crucially, to interact with each other using
human communication attributes. For example, an old chair takes on the
characteristics of an old man, his back bent, his joints creaking, and his
voice breaking from years of wear.

Fabricationalternative environments and figures can be constructed to

facilitate the idea that a story or event is happening in a believable world.

36
1. Penetrationthe ability to investigate subjects that are in some way
prevented or excluded from being seen. This approach is often used in
AnimationPreproductionPlanning and Scriptwriting

animated projects of a scientific or industrial nature as a way of explaining

a particular medical procedure or the way something functions, as it is
able to employ stylistic or symbolic interpretations and replicate or change
elements to help the viewer understand the principles being explained.

Symbolismwriting for animation demands that creators think about

the visuality of the form and how narrative motifs can have leading
symbolic associations. Use of such visual motifs is important as they help
an audience identify with, glean knowledge from, and understand the
wider context of characters and situations, thus helping them to
comprehend a storyline.

Illusion created by soundused to support an action or as interludes

to accompany more abstract narrative ideas as the production develops,
sound acts as a vital ingredient in bringing a complete picture to the
audience. Both diegetic sounds (dialogue or natural noise created by
an action) and non-diegetic sounds (soundtrack, effects, and narration)
heavily influence an audiences appreciation of the production.

Approaches to scriptwriting
Unless a specific brief has been set requiring an answer, such as an
advertising campaign promoting a particular product or service, the job of
the scriptwriter is first to seek inspiration for the story. This can come from
a rich variety of sources, including a writers own experience, observations,
and ideologies, or from responding to facets of the experiences of others.
These could include recollections, interpretations, dreams, or fantasies.
Such starting points are known as the premise or inciting incident for
a story, acting as a driving motivation for the production as a whole to
be made.
In attempting to establish a narrative structure for the story, the scriptwriter
must identify important contextual aspects, such as the history, geography,
sociology, and duration of the piece. It is vital to introduce immediately a
sense of when the story is occurring, where it is set, who is involved, and how
long the story lasts, as all these factors directly affect both the following
structure of the narrative and the wider context for the audience. Importantly,
they also provide an early overview for the writer of the possibilities and
limitations of the structure, establish story laws, and help define logic for
the production more broadly. These laws are especially significant in an
imagined world that does not conform to realistic conditions since given
factors, such as jeopardy, need permission from the scriptwriter to exist.
Allowing certain situations to occur, while refusing others, helps embed a

37
38
1. conditionally defined logic that the audience can understand and relate to. Opposite Animation is often used in television
advertising as a way of seeing how something
These conditions serve to signal occasions where, for example, danger might works inside, penetrating the surface to reveal
AnimationPreproductionPlanning and Scriptwriting

lurk or fortunes could be sought, and have a pivotal role in developing a deep the inner life of the subject.
structural narrative because they permit the connected ideas of anticipation,
suspense, and release that are crucial to storytelling and which ensure the
audience is emotionally invested in the story.

Premise
A premise manifests itself as a simple description of an outline for a story in
literal form. Through a combination of the scriptwriters research, deliberation,
and play around the broad subject or focused inciting incident, a collection
of words and phrases becomes a more refined description, simply structured
into the beginning, middle, and end of a story, which allows the formation of
an animated narrative structure to emerge.
In his book Story: Substance, Structure, Style, and the Principles of
Screenwriting (1999), Robert McKee suggests that narrative can be identified
by some key structural components. For example, a story that explores
a coming of age or a rite of passage can be identified as maturation,
while one that follows the journey of how a central character or characters
go from bad to good is classified as redemption. A story depicting how a
central character, or characters, go from good to bad may be described as
punitive, while a work that examines the struggle between knowing right
from wrong and acting on those impulses can be regarded as testing.
Education describes those stories that explore how characters learn to
see a new direction, while disillusionment represents stories that explore
how a character might be turned to having a very negative worldview. These early drawings for Animal Farm (1954) not
only help visualize scenes, but also allow a sense
of mood and atmosphere to be evoked that
underlines the sentiment of the story.

39
Story ladders and friezes Grant Orchard employs a story frieze to lay out
his animated exhibition design for the Live
There are simple visual and textual mechanisms, such as storyboards Science exhibit in Londons Science Museum.
(see pages 7581), to help writers quickly review and test the premise of a
story. As animation is a highly visual medium, it makes sense for the writer to
get used to seeing his or her ideas in rough visualized preproduction format.
For example, a story ladder can be employed to review the main aspects of
the plot before subplots or additional storytelling information is considered.
Here, single panels are roughly drawn and contain brief written descriptions
of plot developments. A story frieze performs much the same purpose, but is
often displayed in a horizontal line or grid format.

40
1. Plot
Once a story has been decided, it then needs to be carefully constructed
AnimationPreproductionPlanning and Scriptwriting

and tested so that all of the informative events link structurally toward a
conclusion. This is known as a plot. In animation, the plot is often designed
in tandem with the narrative structure, which is known as a storyline or
story arc. Storylines allow the textual depiction of several characters involved
in the story to be accommodated in parallel with plot events, while story arcs
usually describe extended or ongoing storytelling in animated television series
that may run over several episodes. Both storylines and story arcs offer a
framework that supports the continuity and accuracy of the story, the latter
helping the audience understand where the story was left and where it picks up
in a subsequent episode as part of a bigger series of programs.
A plot is generally made up of a simple structure involving some or
all aspects of exposition, rising action, conflict, climax, falling action, and
resolution. The beginning of a plot opens with an exposition that introduces
the key characters and settings necessary to tell the story for an audience.
The plot develops through a rising action in which events occur that help
the audience understand both the passing of time and the way in which
the events are interlinked together. These events inevitably precede some
kind of conflict, where problems between a character and other characters,
environments, society at large, or even with themselves, are illustrated and
amplified for the audience. This leads to a climax where these agitating
factors combine to peak, perhaps exposing secrets or signaling struggles
and conflicts, before receding through the falling action where the impact of
the climax is reflected through characters or situations. A resolution can be
achieved when a conclusion to the plot is attained, although some plots British animator Joanna Quinn begins to outline a
deliberately prevent this in order to keep a story open or alive. Resolutions plot, using quick sketches to capture her ideas for
framing scenes and also thinking about how to
allow an audience to release their tension or anxiety, whereas a animate the unfolding story through transitions
non-resolution deliberately keeps an audience in a state of suspense. and camera moves.

41
Animation plot themes

Writers might consider using the following plot themes as useful starting
points for creating their own animated material, or categorizing the work
of others. Here are some examples of animated productions, or productions
that use animated special effects, that illustrate the themes described:

AdventureAlice in Wonderland
AscensionMulan
DescensionAvatar
DiscoveryMagnetic Movie
EscapeChicken Run
Excess101 Dalmatians
Forbidden loveThe Hunchback of Notre Dame
LoveBeauty and the Beast
MaturationThe Jungle Book
MetamorphosisWhile Darwin Sleeps
PursuitBeep, Beep (Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner)
QuestJason and the Argonauts
RescueBelleville Rendez-Vous
RevengeCoraline
RivalryPrince of Egypt
Riddle2001: A Space Odyssey
SacrificeThe Lion King
TransformationToy Story
TemptationSnow White and the Seven Dwarfs
UnderdogCinderella

Genre in animation
We are used to going to see action, horror, or romantic comedy movies
at the theater. These are examples of genres, which embody typical codes
and conditions of a particular narrative structure that allow such a story to
be told. For example, a film classed as belonging to a science fiction genre
has visually coded objects, environments, and plots that help an audience
identify key components and make vital associations. In this example, coded Adapted from Lewis Carrolls book of the same
name, Alice in Wonderland (2010), directed by
clues such as hostile aliens, weapons, and spacecraft, or environmental Tim Burton, is a lavish adaptation of this
or motivational conditions such as travelers venturing into space or saving childhood adventure, complete with resplendent
sets, unworldly characters, and a magical score
our world from calamity, are all established markers of the genre. composed by Burtons long-time collaborator,
Scriptwriters often make use of an audiences pre-existing knowledge of Danny Elfman. Disney
genres, and many animated feature films pay homage to film history through
certain scene enactments, or by parodying visual gags and jokes. Many of
the films from Aardman Animations rely heavily on such structural traits from
well-known live-action films. An example is Chicken Run (2000), which heavily

42
1. borrows scenes, situations, and even visual escape devices from The Great
Escape (1963).
AnimationPreproductionPlanning and Scriptwriting

On a wider level it should be noted that some film critics have mistakenly
categorized animation simply as a genre of film because of its strong
association with childrens cartoons. Animation is a form in its own right
that supports its own framework of genres that are being developed and
redefined continually. They fall into seven distinct categories, known as
deep structures, including Abstract, Deconstructive, Formal, Political,
Paradigmatic, Primal, and Re-narration.

Categories of animated genres

Abstractincludes animated productions where a non-linear or non-

objective approach is adopted for subjects or themes, often connected
with expressionistic attempts by the creator to explore outside traditional
storytelling conventions. Works are often biased toward investigating the
form of animation rather than using text as a foundation. The work of
Norman McLaren neatly fits the abstract genre of animation.
Deconstructiveproductions fitting this description involve displaying the
reasons and methods of their construction for comic or critical effect.
Animated cartoon works often fit this category as they openly portray
narrative and visual methods derived from cartoon conventions of
interpreting representational drawing.
Formalworks included in this category display a linear set of conditions
and values that are consistent, enabling representative interpretations of a
particular world to be imagined.
Politicalthese animated productions have the facility to incite
and empower through the communication of a moral or ideological
political agenda, expressed through a core or combined narrative and/or
aesthetic direction.
Paradigmaticanimated productions that use pre-existing visual or
literary sources as a foundation, such as adaptations of literary classics,
childrens stories, or graphic novels. Such productions are often governed
by rules that remain consistent throughout episodes and series.
Primalincludes animated features that explore such states as
consciousness, dreams, and the unknown.
Re-narrationworks that in some way reinterpret an established story
or chapter of events from a different perspective, giving them a different
viewpoint and possibly altering the emphasis placed on key moments.

43
Script development
Scriptwriters must balance the educational, informative, or entertainment
demands of the premise of a story against the need to strike the right tone
with the target audience. Using key principles and characteristics of the
animated form is crucial to delivering this through the lifetime of the story,
ensuring that the writing allows for the mixing of visuals, sounds, and motion
to create the necessary desired dramatic, stylistic, and structural effects that
convince the viewer. To do this effectively, a series of steps is taken by the
scriptwriter as he or she attempts to build the framework for a story from the Guilherme Marcondess stop-motion film Tyger
(2006) actively involves puppeteers in the frame
original inciting incident. These steps include a prose brief, a step outline, as a way of emphasizing the construction of
event analysis, and synopsis of the story. the film.

Prose brief
With the beginning, the middle, and the end of the story agreed and written
in note form, a prose brief can be established. This develops ideas for
thematic topics to be covered in particular scenes and suggests where
these ideas might occur in the overall telling of the story. A prose brief
textually outlines key components of the story and provides a foundation
for the writing team to build other related layers of narrative, decide where
and how they want characters to be introduced, establish the viewpoint the
story is written from, and so on.

Step outline
This is a useful device that breaks down a story factually into detailed
chronologically numbered scenes. Each scene has a descriptive
commentary that explains the main action that will occur and provides clear
instruction about what effect this action has both on subsequent scenes and
on the story at large. The outline is created by the scriptwriter or writing team
and acts as an important guide for the preproduction team to signal and
understand key actions in the story.

Event analysis
Using the step outline as an overall guide, the production of an event analysis
provides a comprehensive checklist for the script supervisor or editor to spot
gaps or inaccuracies in the script. The event analysis matches essential
movements of action against specific plot developments and characters.
This analysis in turn highlights pivotal movements of individual characters
through the development of the narrative, signifying the desired outcomes
and emotional responses required or expected from the audience.
The script supervisor or editor first checks the event analysis to ensure
that a scenes detailsincluding locations, characters, and actionare
adequately described and, if necessary, that they are consistent with other
episodes in the series. Consideration is then given to how the scene helps
develop the plot as part of the overall story. The script supervisor or editor

44
 Grant Orchards animated shorts for LoveSport
1. premise actions around simple story events that
trigger resulting actions, using simple visual and
aural motifs with carefully chosen and custom-
AnimationPreproductionPlanning and Scriptwriting

recorded sound effects.

looks for evidence that demonstrates how the central characters develop
their involvement with the plot, creating the desired emotional feeling, and
providing sufficient information for the audience to understand how the
events contribute to their comprehension of the main storyline. At this point,
the script supervisor should signal any inaccuracies, including stylistic
deviations or descriptive omissions. He or she should also be mindful
of suggesting ways to simplify the story if ideas are too complicated,
or if they do not utilize the animation production possibilities open to the
writer. For example, rather than writing overly descriptive dialogue, it is
often easier for an audience to understand symbolic or metaphorical visual
devices coupled with shorter narratives, as these resonate more immediately
with a viewer.

Synopsis
Written as an overview of the story, a synopsis aims to establish all of the
necessary information about the intended production from a more distanced
and objective perspective. In essence, it is written to provide clarity for the
preproduction team, but is also useful in either attracting or reassuring
creative partners or investors. The synopsis usually introduces the location
or environment for the story, summarizes the plot, includes information
concerning the central characters and their connection to each other,
and illustrates the key events that help develop the story toward a
conclusion for the audience. A typical synopsis is normally between
six and eight paragraphs long.

Treatment
With the premise of the story set, the prose brief, story outline, event analysis,
and synopsis completed and agreed, a treatment can be finally
constructed. This will detail the storys theme, plot, structure, and characters
in a complete textual and possibly visual form. By this stage, the story will
have been scrutinized several times by the script development team, editor,

45
and writer(s) and will have undergone structural, thematic, and stylistic changes
that better support the telling of the narrative. The treatment will explain the
reasons behind the story and how it will unfold dramatically for an audience,
and it will also incorporate elements such as key moments of action where the
plot changes direction and pace. It is likely that the treatment will also have
elements of sample dialogue to provide a feel for how the story will be told.

Analyzing a script
The finished script now holds core information about the project and needs to
be checked and cross-referenced. It contains details of the storyline or story
arc, settings and environments, scenes, characters, dialogue, sound effects,
and points of action that will be visually rich, as descriptions will be written in
such a way as to provide instructions for key details of the production to be
interpreted by the preproduction team. This core information directly affects
the next stage of the preproduction process for designers, animators, and
voice-over artists. It is the directors responsibility to ensure that meetings are
conducted to read through the script, highlighting key areas that different crew
members in the preproduction and production process need to take account
of and prepare for. These might include specific technical requirements for the
set to be able to adapt to scenic changes, or where emphasis will need to be
placed when recording dialogue.
An important aspect that requires checking, regardless of the type of
animated production, is running time. If a script has been written for a
commercial, it must be aligned with the air time the commercial is to occupy.
Similarly, an episode of a television documentary will have stipulations from
the commissioners of the project regarding the running time of the piece.
Inevitably, this means that the script must allow suitable lead-in time to the
content and sufficient space to reflect on the material at the conclusion of
the production.

Conclusion
With a script complete, the process can begin of originating visual
material around the story and collecting the necessary research material
(see pages 5571) to support the delivery of the story or idea to an audience.
The director also begins to look for voice-over actors who can convincingly
carry off their interpretations of the dialogue required to help bring the
animated production to life. In addition, the director must consider who
to approach and brief to provide a musical score, act on discussions with
members of the crew relating to sound and lighting effects, and approach
special-effects studios as necessary (see pages 10625).

46
 2.

PreproductionConcepts, Ideas, and Research

Animation can be used as a vehicle for telling stories, expressing ideas,
explaining principles, and selling products and services. With commissioners,
creators, and audiences alike becoming aware of its possibilities to reach out
and engage with different demographics, so the popularity of animation in
different forms has grown. Whatever purpose the medium is being used for,
its content is significant. Not all content, however, is drawn from a script.
Other visual, aural, or literary starting points may be equally valid, depending
on the type of animated production being considered. In other instances,
starting points are briefed rather than originated by the creators themselves,
again from numerous possible starting points.
This chapter looks at the ways in which animators originate and develop
their concepts and ideas and communicate them to the crew, how these are
developed and prepared for a pitch, and how the corresponding research is
undertaken and used in the creation of the animation.

Elizabeth Hobbss touching film, The Old, Old,

Very Old Man (2007), tells the story of Thomas
Parr, who reached the age of 152.

Concepts and ideas

The content of an animated film, regardless of its end use, has not been
simply conjured out of thin air. Content may have been introduced through
a script, a brief, an adaptation of a previous work of literature, or from an
individuals imagination, so the origination and development of concepts
and ideas may vary.
Concepts have often been thought about, mulled over, and debated
long before an idea for an animated project goes into production, or before
a series or an ad has been commissioned. Concepts are abstract ideas that
need time, research, and structural development to become concrete ideas
having form and foundation. In preproduction, the animation team experiment
and test countless initial concepts, discarding them or redeveloping them
from their original inception to working ideas. However these ideas are
ultimately arrived at, they are absolutely vital. They ensure that stories have

48
2. solid foundations that can be communicated in telling
ways or that enable an audience to identify a product or service ahead of
AnimationPreproductionConcepts, Ideas, and Research

its nearest rivals. Perhaps most pivotal of all, these ideas can make the final
animated outcome original, distinctive, and memorable. Ideas are the very
lifeblood of animation, on which every other ingredient depends, validating
and authenticating content for the audience.

The signicance of ideas

As human beings, we are extraordinarily complex and sophisticated receivers
of information. Our bodys sensory stimuli are charged from earliest infancy
through a mixture of intuition and learned and acquired experiences. We are
informed by our ability to observe the world around us. This information is
processed, synthesized, and recorded by our brains every second of our
waking day and can be recalled later through other experiences that act as
triggers to engage our memory. An important part of our collective makeup is
our ability to interact and communicate by sharing these stimuli with each
other. Human social abilities are very advanced and are perhaps something
we often take for granted in our everyday lives, but they are fundamentally Studio AKA has enjoyed commercial and critical
acclaim for their output of highly engaging and
important to the way in which humans co-exist in a fully functioning, memorable productions, from independent short
inquisitive, and progressive society. films to commercials.
Animation uses two critical sensory functionssight and sound
as primary drivers to communicate what the creator wants us, as an
audience, to perceive, fusing them together to create an emotional
experience. In simple terms, this might be best illustrated by imagining
a script as a series of words on paper voiced by an actor and a sequence
and series of lines on paper drawn by an animator. The important connection
is made by a director, who encourages these forms in parallel with each other
and blends them together as one, giving the production its shape, life, and
function. The audience sees a synchronized and coherent form that is
imbued with emotions directly connected to their own experience as
individuals and which encourages parts of their brains to validate,
authenticate, and believe the content.

Investing in ideas
Core narrative or conceptual animated ideas can have a sensory effect
on other parts of our human psyche. They allow us to become emotionally
attached to characters, stories, and events, sharing in celebrations and
achievements as well as commiserating with failures or recognizing
weaknesses. The very nature of the dynamism, vibrancy, and clarity of ideas
demonstrates that they can make us feel something for the subject being
portrayed. In turn, this ability for animators to touch our lives through their
work makes an audience feel intrinsically connected, helping them feel
valued as participators in the animation process, rather than merely acting
as recipients. It is this reciprocal arrangement that has endeared animation to
many fans from childhood, and which creates the opportunity for the medium

49
to be used outside of traditional cartoon territories by expanding
into more adventurous realms, such as the animated documentary
or information graphics.
Indeed, animation relies heavily on the power of individual and collective
memory. On the one hand, an animators ability to call on the power of
recall means that connections can be established, frameworks built, and
foundations set for the introduction and development of ideas. On the
other, an audiences ability to recall some memories and not others, or to
remember sequences or orders differently, enables animators to play with
our recollection. Such reconstitutions and reconstructions of events scramble Nick Parks The Wrong Trousers (1993) sees
the villain, Feathers McGraw, captured and
our memory, allowing a suspension of disbelief to become possible and imprisoned in a zoo as his punishment for
trick our minds into seeing something that seems plausible. It is possible attempting to commit a diamond robbery.
for these shared memories and events to have the same basis in reality for
everyone, but for individuals the experiences, knowledge, and expectation
that contextualize how they recall such occurrences can mean that memories
differ considerably. This permits the creator a license to play, be liberal or
economical with the truth, and blur the boundaries between fact and fiction.
Examples in animation history are numerous but are well illustrated by many
of the visual gags that appear in the Tom and Jerry shorts, where visual
metaphors illustrate punch lines that happen to one or other of the characters
at the end of each visual joke. For example, Jerry placing an iron into the
chasing Toms path inevitably means Tom collides with that object and is
portrayed with a face shaped like the footplate of the steaming iron.

Starting points
Animation does not exist in a vacuum, but borrows inspiration from real world
events, contemporary culture, and different aspects of our lives, much as
other art forms do. Successful animation acknowledges that it co-exists
with and contributes to a world of visual culture and popular entertainment,
and that these are vitally important and culturally rich parts of our human
existence. It also adds to, as well as learns from, parallel art forms and often
uses influences as important core strands of new projects and initiatives.
Good ideas stem from keen observation coupled with a need to communicate
these observations to others. The ideas need to be exhibited in ways that can
be understood by both the production team who will create them, and by the
audience who will receive them. The animators job at this point in the project
is to make these ideas a visual reality.
The starting point for an animated project can grow from a variety of
interestsincluding commercial, industrial, educational, informational, or
personalinformed by both creators and commissioners. As it is a form that
draws interest from such a broad spectrum of participants, the decision to
use animation as a form of expression originates from one or more of these
points. Consequently, there is no one single way in which an animated
project is born but, broadly speaking, some of the more traditional starting

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2.
AnimationPreproductionConcepts, Ideas, and Research

points include scripts, pilot episodes, or commissioned briefs that require Swedish director Jonas Odells striking video for
the band Franz Ferdinand actively acknowledges
specific animation treatments. It is equally possible, however, to create a cultural references from historical Constructivist
production based on artistic responses to observations and found visual posters and propaganda.
and sonic material. Any of these starting points triggers conceptual thoughts
of how to address subjective, structural, and technical concerns and requires
some thought at first about how to approach the project.
Early conceptual interests can be supported and enhanced by scouring
newspapers, magazines, reference books, and online blogs, forums, and
podcasts, at home, in the studio, at the library, or out on location. Collected
material needs careful reviewing, editing, and storing to make sure that
historical and contemporary information has a currency that is both valuable
and accurate. This supporting evidence helps to firm up concepts and
rationalize them into more formed ideas that can be visually explained
to others in the crew who will be working on the project during the
preproduction phase.
At the same time, conceptual material must be checked to ensure it
is sufficiently accessible for further study and not bound by legal or moral
restrictions. For example, it may well be possible to use actual existing factual
or fictional tales as a starting point, but then to alter certain events to change
the story according to the creators wishes. Animation as a form is historically
able to weave a rich and varied tapestry in regard to adapted stories,

51
for example the Walt Disney Studios 1937 adaptation of the classic fairytale
Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Halas & Batchelors 1954 adaptation of
George Orwells novel Animal Farm, and Jimmy Murakamis 1986 adaptation
of the Raymond Briggs graphic novel When the Wind Blows. All three
examples are written in a way that exudes a visual richness, and the
animators task in each was to preserve the spirit of the original text
while adapting the story to an animated context that articulates the plot
(and associated subplots) through artificial sequential vision and sound.
Ultimately, successful starting points should strike a chord with the creator,
depending on the project in hand, and allow the audience to sense it quickly.
For example, nostalgia and familiarity are signals to which audiences naturally
respond favorably, regardless of their racial, cultural, linguistic, or religious
differences. Given the global nature of animation as a form, it is sometimes
necessary for creators to strike a balance in creating work that acknowledges
differences and at the same time makes audiences feel included and valued.
This requires that ideas are tested and adapted to counter criticism that they John Halas and Joy Batchelor review early Animal
Farm layouts.
favor one section of an audience by marginalizing another.
Nonetheless, it may not always be possible to satisfy all audiences all
of the time, and many critics and fans of animation argue that there are good
reasons not to homogenize animation content, but rather to celebrate our
individuality and differences. Indeed, region-specific work such as Ari
Folmans universally acclaimed Waltz with Bashir (2008) can help us better
understand the culture and customs of different parts of the world that may
be unfamiliar, even though we might not agree with some of the actions
being shown.

Ari Folmans absorbing feature film, Waltz with

Bashir (2008), serves as a timely reminder of the
power of animation to traverse boundaries of
race, religion, culture, and language, presenting
a difficult subject matter through a deceptively
simple technique.

Developing a conceptual framework

Animators use conceptual frameworks to contextualize the script, brief, or
imagined starting point of the project. A conceptual framework encourages,
informs, and permits the shape, definition, and progression of each phase of
the production. It allows the crew involved to measure their progress and

52
2. evaluate their individual and collective achievements, and also enables
them to bring ideas to the table and to test, evaluate, and revise the
AnimationPreproductionConcepts, Ideas, and Research

project effectively.
The conceptual framework should establish a series of parameters that
are understood as being guiding principles by which the project is defined
and then conducted through the preproduction and production phases.
It should include answers to the following ideological and practical
considerations:
Pixars purpose-built studio in Emeryville,
California, offers a dynamic and stable
What is the starting point for the project? environment to create animated feature films,
What media format is the work likely to take? with creative studio environments housed under
the same roof as huge render farms processing
What style or animated treatment is required for the project? the computer-generated imagery. Pixar
What is the role of the audience in the production?
What is possible or impossible in the story?
What restrictions are there in terms of subject matter, handling,
association, and/or implication?
Are there any moral, ethical, or ideological restrictions to the subject
or the intended depiction of the subject?

This is not meant as an exhaustive list, but instead an illustration of

contextual guidance that might permit the subject to be considered
objectively and freely.

The studio environment

A good studio environment is important in supporting the schedule, workflow,
and conceptual framework of an animated project. Any studio must have
consistent and reliable conditions that will support the changing needs
of the project. It must be able to be secured, but equally should be easily
accessible to those who need continual access. Ideally, the studio will
provide a solid base for extended working practices, as the process of
animation is time-consuming and meticulous.
A flexible studio space should be conveniently located for both the
animator and visitors to the studio. It needs to be well-resourced, spacious,
temperature controlled, and capable of being adapted to provide different
lighting conditions. The studio must be insured and should also conform to
health, safety, and fire requirements, especially where it is part of a bigger
building, and occupants are responsible for ensuring that published local
guidelines are followed. Working conditions are checked regularly, and it is
helpful to have an inventory of equipment and materials that can easily be
checked by inspectors looking for assurance of compliance. Many studios
also have a register to prove who is working at particular times and visitors
are also closely monitored.
A welcoming and inviting environment, encouraging playful thought
and the exchange of ideas around the animated project, is the ultimate goal.
It should be remembered that the space is considered a home from home by

53
many of the crew. An inviting studio is a place where animators will be happy Toronto-based animation production company
Head Gear have created welcoming, conducive
to spend long passages of time producing quality work; the layout should working environments to allow their animators to
enable the team to work closely as a group in a shared space, but have work in comfort.
enough flexibility for partitioning off the space when members of the crew
need to work independently.
The success of the layout, the maintenance of the studio, and the lively
atmosphere of the space can also actively encourage other supporting
activities. For example, the ability to identify, develop, and enable acting
to occur to inform animation is a fundamental expression. This can be
achieved through a variety of non-verbal activities, including the depiction
of exaggerated or understated movement, body language, and figurative
gesture. Many animators come from a background that is steeped in the
understanding of the art, science, and even politics of movement, through
drama, music, and dance, and use this knowledge and experience widely
and frequently in their work. The studio environment needs to have sufficient
space and resources to allow such actions to occur.
The ability to act is often employed by animators to explain their concepts
and principles to other members of the crew in the studio environment.
These structured or impromptu sessions are useful in helping the team
to identify common ideas, explain concepts where other forms of
communication are not appropriate, and share a vision of how problems
concerning the depiction of characters, environments, and situations might
be solved. Very often they also save time and give a clearer picture of the
overall essence of a visual idea.

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2. Capturing ideas
It is important to turn abstract concepts into visible ideas. Animators keep a
AnimationPreproductionConcepts, Ideas, and Research

mixture of journals, sketchbooks, and notebooks to record their observations

and thoughts, processing this information through drawn or noted ideas.
This documenting process is highly personalized and individual, helping
to articulate and place events into understandable visual interpretations.

The value of drawing

The immediacy and interpretive nature of drawing allows the playful
exploration of ideas and can lead to some surprising discoveries. In turn,
these events can formulate new directions for subject matter to take that
audiences might not expect. Visual documenting is often highly engaging,
and can range from expressive depictions of scenes or situations, right
through to detailed working out of figurative poses or explanations of
mechanical devices. It can be representational, exaggerated, or abstracted.
It can also be conscious or subconsciousdepending on the creators need
or desire. Animators such as Joanna Quinn, Caroline Leaf, and Elizabeth
Hobbs all prolifically document discoveries through drawing and this ability to The fluidity of Elizabeth Hobbss drawing aids
figurative and gestural interpretation with an
explain and define movement through drawn statements extends as a central economy of visual marks, encouraging the
identifying theme in their work. audience to see the story unfold.
A bewildering array of mark-making materials, processes, and
techniques, at different scales and on numerous surfaces, can be employed
to capture thoughts and observations, depending on the type of activity the
animator wishes to record. For example, the fine point of a pencil might be
better to explain details in a sketchbook, while the broad sweep of a chalk
pastel perhaps better enables the animator to capture a sense of movement
on loose sheets of paper. Whatever is being recorded, bringing tools that are
fit for purpose is essential and prior preparation is key.

Animators tools are highly specialized,

depending on the task in hand.

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Drawing and visualizing tools

A typical treasure trove of drawing materials for animation preproduction

might include:

various grades of graphite pencil

sharpeners and files (nail files are good for getting very fine points)
selection of erasers (including putty, which can be shaped)
graphite sticks
charcoal (various grades, including compressed)
fi xative
compass
scissors and cutting blades/handles
colored pencils
felt-tip pens and markers
watercolor and/or gouache paints
colored waterproof inks
pastels (oil, wax, and/or chalk)
brushes (a broad selection might include flat and round heads, hog- and
sable-haired, long- and short-handled, and possibly specialist variants,
including Japanese calligraphic brushes, to suit specialist work as
required)
dip pen with selection of different nibs
selection of fine liners
ruling pens
measuring aids (set squares, rulers, protractors, French curves, and so on)

With the increased use of digital technology, it has become commonplace

to mix recording tools to capture specific observations. For example,
a sketchbook can be used to note specific details as drawn information
perhaps to understand how something workswhile supplementary digital
photographs can provide a consistent contextual overview of the subject in
question. Sometimes digital photographs allow an instantaneous moment
to be captured that would be difficult to report through a detailed drawing.
This versatility simply gives the animator greater tools on location to be able
to consider observations and capture the necessary recordings. This enables
informed judgments to be made in a detached environment, where it is
possible to be objective about the quality of collected information.

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2. The animators toolkit
AnimationPreproductionConcepts, Ideas, and Research

The following suggested toolkit can be supplemented by your own

particular requirements, depending on the specific area of animation
you are working in:

sketchbooks (various sizes, types of paper, and bindings to enable

the animator to record observations)
notebooks (again, of various sizes, as preferred)
elastic bands or clipsuseful for securing pages against prevailing
weather conditions
large sheets of paperto draw expressive movements or to expand ideas
where a sketchbook is inappropriate
digital camera(s)a compact camera is essential, but an SLR camera
with manual focus is probably more desirable as it can be customized
with different lenses and filters; choose the best picture resolution
capability you can afford; the option of shooting movie frames is also
extremely useful; a memory card with good storage capacity is a must
removable hard drive (again, buy the most storage space you can afford) Influential Japanese animator Koji Yamamura at
work in his studio uses a mixture of analog and
tripod digital processes to make his independent films.
drawing stool
sturdy bag
travel umbrella
waterproofs (can save time and allow you to work uninterrupted)
freezer bagsuseful for keeping collected material or equipment dry
and with a zip seal that can be reused
a digital sound recorder
external microphone
headphones
watch or stopwatch
duct tapewaterproof and reliable
repositioning tape

The central issue is to be methodical and to have a structure and order to

the information being collected first-hand. For example, some animators
use a personalized wall planner to record events and store associated
material. Others prefer to collate material digitally, using tools such as
digital data-tagging technology to pinpoint related observations and group
them together. For example, Apples iOS software uses face recognition
technology to group photos of people together, borrowing the digital profile
of where the photo was taken to create a visual footprint of this information as
a pin in a map. This allows a hierarchy of information to be developed, at the
same time ensuring that all the information is kept in a versatile format that
can be viewed according to the creators preferences.

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The value of the doodle
Doodling in particular, while seen as trivial and banal by some professions,
is highly prized by animators as a way of potentially unlocking closed mindsets
and encouraging playful intercourse between images and sounds. The word
doodle is thought to originate from the verb to dawdle, implying a lazy,
haphazard approach. Doodles in this context can be read as unfocused
drawings, often made while doing other tasks. Various scientific investigations
indicate that while the brain is concentrating on one function, it also has the
capacity to allow additional motor skills to occur, such as drawing or scribbling, In the very early stages, doodling ideas is a
very productive way of allowing the flow of ideas
without the creator being fully aware of his or her actions. to develop.
Doodles can be representational, abstract, or symbolic and can be
created anywhere, at any time, and with limited materials. Their universality
is part of their appeal and disarming nature, turning some who express
reservations about creativity into creators. The ability to express oneself
without the fear of failure makes the doodle a priceless commodity, instantly
able to illustrate random thoughts that might lead to a string of sequential
images that ultimately could form the basis for a plot. Doodling marginalizes
risk, throws out conventional representational rules, and encourages the
impossible to become realizedechoing the ability of animation itself.

Idea development
As a form that privileges motion, animation is able to explain, articulate,
and celebrate artificial passages of time. Some ideas can use time to alter
appearances, suggest events, or change meanings, and this quality is used
by animators to progress the development of plots, characters, and scenes.
The working up of initial thoughts through a sequence of associated or
related images allows scope for expansion or condensation, introducing
possibilities and raising issues that need to be addressed for the project to
continue to flourish. Several leads can be pursued at the same time to find
the best solutions. Connected sequential visuals also start to suggest main
points of actions for ideas that could later become key frames in the project.
Some animators work quite loosely in this regard, while others, typified by
Johnny Hardstaff, work intensively, meticulously working through the best
ways to squeeze meaning out of every element of the project.

Ideas in motion through the gure

One of the most important aspects uncovered in ideas development is that of
depicting the movement of the figure, where certain poses can communicate
powerful symbolic statements and act as signals that the plot is developing in
a particular direction. In order to fully understand, appreciate, and articulate
motion, a thorough understanding of the construction of the human figure is
important. This is fundamentally achieved through observing and recording
figures from life, through drawing, exploring the anatomy of the human form
Opposite Johnny Hardstaffs obsessive
in both static and moving poses, whether nude or clothed, male or female, sketchbooks show a microscopic attention
young or old. Animators place great store in their ability to understand how to detail as he works through ideas.

58
 AnimationPreproductionConcepts, Ideas, and Research
2.

59
the human body moves, balances, and rests. This ability to comprehend the
bodys capabilities and restrictions has a direct impact on characters they
go on to create. Physically imitating motion through acting or miming is also
often employed to help understand the complexities of movement.
Characters need to move in ways that audiences will believe and
accept. For example, the main character in Peter Docter and Bob Petersons
Up (2009), Carl Fredricksen, is an unlikely seventy-eight-year-old lead.
His restricted movement is painstakingly captured by the team of animators
from the DisneyPixar studiowho drew countless elderly men in an attempt
to understand how the ageing process affects the general properties of
movement and posture of the human formright the way through to how the
character wears his clothes, how his skin ages, and generally how his body
language differs from that of a growing boy or young man.

Aids to developing ideas

Animators need to test and evaluate ideas in motion to gauge how successful
they are. Several devices are available to showcase convincingly idea
development through movement. On a basic level, flipbooks, character study
sheets, simple armatures, and line tests can be employed to depict and test
basic movement. As ideas for characters or sets get more involved, working
on a bigger scale, with the option of being able to trace or overlay drawn
image elements, is useful. This bigger scale promotes the choice of scale
and gesture and also allows work to be pinned to boards, creating an
opportunity for ideas to be shared. Building quick models, often very roughly,
allows ideas to be realized and developed and has the added advantage of
allowing the animator to start thinking three-dimensionally, especially if the
production method is going to follow this process. Sequential images can
also be scanned or photographed in order, and played back at different
speeds to give an indication of the start and end of an idea.
British independent animator Joanna Quinn is
known for her sensitive and acute portrayal of the
human form, demonstrated here through drawn
studies for Elles (1992), which pays homage to
Toulouse-Lautrec.

60
2. Flipbooks to test ideas
AnimationPreproductionConcepts, Ideas, and Research

The flipbook was invented by John Barnes Linnett in 1868, and has
become a relatively quick and simple sequential device for transferring
two-dimensional static images into short moving sequences at relatively
little cost. Like the zoetrope and the praxinoscope, they are very useful to
test out ideas on others but, unlike those cylindrical devices for viewing
images in motion, flipbooks have the advantage of being linear in format.
This allows animators the opportunity to take doodles and sketches of
ideas and develop them as a linear narrative. The movement is created by
flipping the pages quickly so that the single images appear to move as they
are pieced together by the brain to make a sequence.
Flipbooks should be no bigger than 4 x 6 in. (10 x 15 cm) and no
smaller than 2 x 3 in. (5 x 7.5 cm) and should contain at least fifty
pages, allowing the page to be seen as one whole entity, but also offering
sufficient workspace for the drawings. Each page becomes a blank canvas
and, using the previous drawing as reference, the animator has the
freedom to explore the properties of the page by making subjects morph
from one scene to another, playing with spatial and composition elements
to speed up and slow down the story.
The size restrictions mean the pages of the book can be flipped
quickly but consistently and this is key to smooth transitional movement.
The outer two-thirds of each page are visible (the inner third is consumed
by the binding and the operators thumb securing the book in place).
The separate sheets of paper are bound together tightly, allowing the
pages to be flipped. The story can run in either direction, but pages have
a tendency to arch running front to back and make the story harder for
the viewer to follow.

These gestural studies reveal both Joanna

Quinns knowledge of the human form, and the
possibilities for using the character as a vehicle
for introducing ideas and establishing mood.

61
The arrival and abundance of digital technology has revolutionized idea
development and testing. Digital cameras, camcorders, cell phones, motion-
capture technology, and even some PDA devices all have the facility to
record movement and to allow instantaneous playback. They have the benefit
of allowing animators to examine footage repeatedly at different speeds and
resolutions to understand how motion occurs. This knowledge can then be
applied to thinking about how the production could use specialist animation
processes and techniques to communicate these
ideas to the audience.
These visual ideas can take on an extra dimension with the introduction
of sound. If ideas are being produced in response to a script or brief,
it is possible to read and record passages of spoken word to provide
a framework or backdrop to test ideas against. Even odd sound effects
recorded on location, or found from other sources, can be helpful in bringing
visual ideas to life. Marrying sound to image is important and many animators
argue that the sooner this occurs the more seamless and natural the final
result appears (see page 124).
The ability to express initial ideas clearly is very important. As
animation is artificial, it is entirely possible to create imagined worlds that are
unfettered by the limitations of our own physical one. Provided that such
imaginary conditions are credible to the audience, animators aim to achieve
a harmonious and balanced overall feel, even if certain components are
fantastically imagined or seemingly unbelievable. This requires that the
animator has a full knowledge and grasp of the synchronicity between
the structural elements of color, composition, design lighting, and
movement that make up the single frame, in order to communicate a
consistent and collected statement of intent. At this phase of preproduction,
the most important requirement is to ensure that ideas are strong and flexible
enough to act as a foundation to build these other elements from. The
essence and flavor of the overall body of work is critically important, allowing
characters, scenes, and events to work in harmony, aiding believability for
the audience. Time spent working ideas through is important and should not
be overlooked.

Evaluating ideas
Good ideas are not set in stone, but instead need challenges to test their
authenticity, believability, and currency. Sadly, there is no magic formula
for a good idea. One might argue that good ideas stand more chance of
materializing from a process that encourages thorough research, excellent
preparation, and an ability to construct interesting, dynamic, and thought-
provoking content. Ultimately, however, there is a strong element of chance
involved in animation, which reveals its experimental properties and perhaps
is part of its charm for creators and audiences alike.
While the element of chance equals risk in some quarters, the animation
process at least enables some degree of certainty and reassurance by its

62
2. nature of being an artificially constructed medium. In the preproduction
stages, where changes can be more significantly made and cause least
AnimationPreproductionConcepts, Ideas, and Research

disruption, ideas are tested and developed. They can also be shelved or
rekindled. Changes made outside of the preproduction or production phases
are inevitably more time-consuming and expensive and may
prevent the work being completed.
An honest and open review of ideas is essential to iron out weaknesses
in preproduction. It is important to seek balanced but insightful reviews at
opportune moments. These vary, depending on the nature of the project, Learning to pitch ideas is a necessity and is
regularly practiced through college critiques
but might include: as a way of building confidence and sharpening
students presentation skills.
initial ideas generation process
a rough storyboard introducing the core key frames of the production
an overview of the central characters
ideas about locations and sets
the visual breakdown of scenes
completion of the rough animatic where the project is seen sequentially
for the first time

Many larger studios have the luxury of screening developing ideas to

selected audiences (often their own staff), who have often had to sign
agreements preventing them from talking about work being undertaken.
Ideas can be explained and measured and comments noted, digested, and
acted on. If the work is commissioned, there will be an agreed process of
review that has already been built into a schedule, so that key individuals,
such as marketing and account handlers, can satisfy themselves that the
company is being profiled in the correct way and the budget is being run
efficiently. For more personal projects, an ideal review team might consist of
individuals who have an interest in the projectperhaps as other animators
or as keen watchers of animated productionswhose opinions are valued,
based on previous knowledge, experience, and expertise. Receiving friendly
criticism is not helpful when trying to produce the best possible work and
should be avoided.
Honest criticism can sometimes be painful, especially where a project
has been nurtured over a long period of time or if the subject matter is highly
personal. It is important to remember that the evaluation process is there
precisely to allow ideas to be tested. If a reviewer does not understand
something, it is likely that a movie theater full of people will not either, so it is
better to deal with any issues at the beginning. The important point to take
from the review is what does not work and why, and then to ascertain whether
issues are conceptual, structural, or to do with poor explanation.
Understanding the faults allows the animator to take stock of ideas or
sections of the project and reconfigure them.

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Below are some likely issues that animators may have to face when
developing ideas:

Problem Issues Potential solution

Consider changing angle

Poor choice of idea.
or viewpoint of subject,
I dont get the idea. No contextual clues to help.
or incorporating supporting
Confusing angles.
pictorial elements.

Economize on the number, variety,

I cant see what is going on. Indecipherable visual elements.
or intensity of drawn marks.

Try changing the start and end

Too much information being
points of an action. Emphasize the
It happened too quickly! shown in too short a space
most important movements and
of time.
sacrifice filler information.

Consider the context of the change.

Subject changes through
In the greater story, can this change
How did it do that? metamorphosis from one
exist? Does it need contextualizing
thing to another.
sound, narration, or description?

Unbelievable changes occur

The idea may be too far-fetched to
It couldnt do that! that have no apparent
be credible. Time to revise the idea.
justification or reason.

Pitching concepts
Unless the animated project is self-funded or is an independent production,
ideas will usually need to be communicated to an outside agency through a
pitch. A pitch is an overview of the planned production and will clearly vary
depending on the scope, format, and outcome of the work. A feature film will
require a series of pitches, as will an advertising campaign, while a short
feature will normally be pitched only once. Traditionally, pitching has involved
the meeting of constituent stakeholders of the production in the same place
to hear about potential ideas and directions for the project. In recent years,

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 These images show the background research
2. required to adapt a childrens book to screen,
including ideas for possible environments,
creating scenes for action to occur, and planning
AnimationPreproductionConcepts, Ideas, and Research

compositions to heighten a sense of drama.

such meetings have also been conducted virtually if required, with the
improved reliability of online and mobile technology better able to connect
parties in different venues and countries.
As a summary of the project, the pitch should easily and quickly identify
the core idea of the production and indicate the target audience. The pitch
should clearly mark the beginning, middle, and conclusion of a story and
might seek to do this through a written treatment, a series of visuals, a short
sequential piece, or a mixture of these formats. Whatever the format the
animator decides to employ, the critical point is to establish the idea clearly,
concisely, and memorably, taking into account that individuals who make
up the group might not be fully visually literate or may not have direct

65
understanding of the possibilities of the animated form, but they may
have full control over future funding of projects.
The individual or team involved in introducing the idea should plan the
pitch in advance, consolidating the body of material into digestible and
memorable pockets of information that directly address what they have
been briefed to do. If necessary, such material as supporting folios of
visuals, examples of treatments, and display maquettes can be expanded
upon through further questioning, where answers might employ these
examples to persuade or validate previous information given in the original
pitch. A practice pitch establishes what combination of materials the pitch
is using and the length of time the presentation will take, and allows the team
to prepare for likely questions by working out potential answers in advance.

Research
If ideas are the lifeblood of animation, then research is the crucial oxygen
by which those ideas have the chance to come to life. The importance Good character design is cemented through
rigorous and painstaking attention to detail, as
of research in preproduction cannot be stressed enough, though it is demonstrated by Clyde Henrys extraordinary
occasionally overlooked as its outcomes cannot be immediately tangibly stop-motion film, Madame Tutli-Putli (2007).
identified when an animated project is released. However, if we begin
to unravel the gloss of the final product, it soon becomes apparent that
research is wholly evident in every work and exhibited in the quality of
content in a film or series. To examine animation further, we must begin by
asking what exactly constitutes research, how it is collected, recorded, and
measured, and how it can be employed to create content that is believable
and compelling and that provides a solid foundation on which to build other
convincing aspects of the production.

What is research?
For animation purposes, research embodies the process that identifies,
collects, sorts, and processes reference material that has been gathered
by direct and indirect sources so as to fully understand the concepts behind
a story or factual event. In the field of animation, this span can range
enormously: from the enthusiastic individual animator who often goes to
extraordinary lengths to collect material to convince a commissioning body,
the rest of a production team, and the audience about the merits of a
particular idea, through to the teams of researchers working on particular
aspects of a studio feature film.
Inevitably, there is a particular set of skills associated with this kind of
activity. Some people entering the field find themselves drawn to researching
projects as they naturally have these specialist skills. Such skills include:
a love of finding out about subjects that you may not have a direct
interest in
a tenacity and rigor of approach

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2. an ability to frame questions likely to get informative answers
an orderly and methodical procedure for deciphering findings
AnimationPreproductionConcepts, Ideas, and Research

an ability to catalog outcomes in ways that enable others to access

material from different points and for a range of uses

Clearly, an individual researcher needs to have or develop these skills

in abundance, together with an ability to manage these activities to a
set timescale.
Research is used at different stages of the animation process,
and can be returned to at any time for greater clarity, reassurance, or
accuracy. This is especially important when dealing with factual subjects,
or adaptations of other peoples work. It may also encompass more
widespread factors, including researching potential film locations, specialist
animators who may be required to perform specialist tasks, or potential
distribution regions. Specifically though, research in preproduction is
centered around the following areas:

the preproduction cycle of story research

historical and factual accuracy
costume details
location details
accents
mannerisms and colloquialisms
character interaction
environments
audience
how material is likely to play to different geographical, racial, cultural, or
religious audiences

In order to make this process meaningful and relevant, it is vital that the
research team share the plan of how best to acquire this information and
how the findings of the research process can aid the production overall.

Collecting accurate reference material

Quality reference material is crucial to the origination, development, portrayal,
and acceptance of an animated production. Many animators cite the
importance of content and will go to extraordinary lengths to satisfy their
own curiosity, knowing that well-researched material is the cornerstone of
their production and that it might be relied upon by others in the creative
process. For example, for their Clyde Henry Productions short film Madame
Tutli-Putli (2007), creators Chris Lavis and Maciek Szczerbowski spent
months investigating how to simulate the ageing process of clothing by first
researching the costumes required for their villainous characters, constructing
the clothes accurately to scale, and then burying them in mud for several
months so that they would take on the patina of aged distressed material.

67
Accuracy is paramount to the success of any piece of animated work. Opposite Jonathan Hodgsons drawn
sequences for the BBC documentary,
Researchers and animators diligently trawl for large amounts of information The Trouble with Love and Sex (2011), produced
and sift this down gradually into identifiable and usable material that has and directed by Zac Beattie, uses a mixture of
video recordings, interviews, and video diaries
relevance and practical benefit for others accessing it. Clearly, the need for that had been specifically researched to collect
different levels of accuracy fluctuates with the kind of animated project being audio clips capable of being interpreted into an
animated documentary.
undertaken. Material that has been poorly referenced often manifests itself in
unconvincing and badly conceived ideas that reveal a lack of fundamental
preliminary detail when the work is screened.
A lack of preparation can have the potential to mar good scripts,
characters, plot lines, and other constituent parts of a project by
suggesting a lack of accuracy, rigor, and even belief in the project.
To prevent these unfortunate occurrences, a team needs to ensure that
the research process involves checking that material has been cross-
referenced against other reliable sources to verify key facts, dates, and
other immovable information. This can often best be achieved by presenting
the collected research in an understandable format to trusted external
experts, such as educators, psychologists, and health workers, who can
offer helpful and knowledgeable advice.

Identifying and formulating a research methodology

Before embarking on a research agenda for the project, it is important to
ask some meaningful questions in order to identify and plan an appropriate
method to collect useful material. Each project may require different research
methods to explore, unearth, and discover vital information, but it may be
helpful to ask the following general questions:

What findings are likely to be required and what is the best possible way
to achieve them?
How much time is available in the proposed project schedule?
How physically close and accessible is the research field that has been
identified as needing investigation?
What monetary and/or physical resources are available to the project to
collect and compile material into a recognizable format that will positively
benefit the team?
What proportion of available time will need to be designated to collating,
sifting, documenting, and archiving the information?

Answering these questions enables researchers to formulate an outline

research methodology and plan how the collected material will be
assembled as a tangible and usable body of evidence for the creative
team to utilize efficiently.

68
 AnimationPreproductionConcepts, Ideas, and Research
2.

69
A sample research
methodology

Primary research trawl Secondary research trawl Tertiary research trawl

visit locations revisit locations if appropriate check local contacts for final
establish contact with local check local contacts for updates updates on information
experts in the subject on information check clarity of factual
advertise your presence and meet contacts and record their information with contacts and
explain to people why you are observations or recollections record their revised observations
researching the subject and borrow, read, and record specific or recollections
what you are hoping to find information from established revisit diary notes and check
(if allowed) sources that meetings with interested
visit libraries, museums, revisit diary notes and and informative parties have
archives, and collections to look to organize second been completed
check reliability of and access meetings with interested check permissions status of
to source material and informative parties research material
make connections with people check on developments in thank those who have helped
able to offer personal insights, the subject the process and remain in touch
experiences, or recollections revisit collections of materials with key providers
that constitute first-hand and apply questions formulated
research from the primary research
keep a diary of meetings, evaluation meeting
events, and locations visited check that permissions
ask to be kept informed of have been granted for material
developments in the subject you wish to use, including any
being researched via email rights releases, and ask
or telephone contributors to sign to confirm
collect, tag, and record where they understand the full
research material was collected implications of this material
establish any factors that would being used in the project
prevent the use of certain keep connected with the
materials in the project research team and ensure
inform the research team of that news is communicated
your findings and prepare them in good time
for the amount and location(s)
of material to be inspected

70
2. Collecting and appropriating research
Wherever possible, it is highly desirable to collect first-hand research material
AnimationPreproductionConcepts, Ideas, and Research

as this greatly improves both the accuracy and the legitimacy of the research.
First-hand research might include such activities as site visits, trips to visit local
or foreign locations and places of note, interviews with knowledgeable parties,
and the canvassing of opinions from individuals or groups who have had
immediate dealings with the subject. Time spent preparing for research visits
should be built into the project. Researching, locating, and communicating with
foreign contacts who know the local conditions inevitably saves valuable time
and money on the ground. For international visits, translators are well worth
investing in as they will save a good deal of time and effort, and may be able to
ask questions of subjects that can turn up further important discoveries.
Of course, it is not always possible to get detailed factual accounts,
either because they do not exist in a format that can be relied upon, or
because they have been affected by forces such as time, loss of memory,
and other developments. In this instance, the collection of relevant second-
hand material becomes important and will include archived static media,
such as newspapers, magazines, journals, periodicals, and transcripts,
as well as broadcast media including old television and radio programs,
plays, documentaries, and so on. Successful research involves getting a
sense of the context of a story or event, as well as the correct facts about the
story itself. This context will add to the atmosphere in which the assembled
collection of material will be viewed back in the studio and will also imbue the
subject with a sense of authenticity.
Since animators use a great number of starting points in their work
ranging from working from a script or storyboard through to responding to a
piece of music or a chance observationthe breadth and depth of research
material is essential. To get such scope requires several phases to identify
which pockets of material are valuable and which should be discarded.
This process is, of course, affected by the time permitted. It may also be
appropriate to return to a research field to collect other kinds of material to
further consolidate and support material collected on a previous expedition,
in line with the research plan set out in the projects conceptual framework.

Reviewing the research

Research should be collected and collated principally for the rest of the team
to understand and use in their work. In preproduction, it is quite common for
idea development to overlap with the collection of research material. It is,
therefore, crucial that shared information is presented clearly and concisely.
This will differ depending on the format of research material collected, but
can include pinning drawings, photographs, and collected samples to studio
walls, creating a specially designated space within the studio for materials Julia Pott uses drawing as a way of recording the
research around her subject matter for the film
and artifacts to be seen and shared, and using appropriate sound or Belly (2011), working her findings into the
projection equipment to share recordings or footage with the rest of the development of characters and situations
to create depth and complexity.
team in a screening room.

71
Key information is considered at different stages of the preproduction and
production phases, but it is important that research reviews are regularly
conducted to ensure that collected material is historically, factually, or
fictionally accurate. This should be built into the conceptual framework for
the project so that everyone is aware of how the material has been collected,
sifted, and made available for use. Additionally, studios may employ focus
groups consisting of people chosen deliberately to reflect the target market
of the intended audience for the project. These groups sit and watch
production test shots, giving feedback to questions set by the crew. It is Animation students in a critique explaining their
formative ideas at the Royal College of Art,
also possible to ask specific questions relating to the presentation of factual London.
information, should the project demand that level of scrutiny. Animated
campaigns for advertising will also have to go through consecutive stages
of approval, including target audience tests, detailed client scrutiny, and,
in some cases, statutory regulatory bodies to ensure compliance with
certain industry standards.

Conclusion
With a script written and the central ideas developed, considered, and tested,
and any resulting problems corrected, the project is ready to move from
the preproduction into the production phase, subject to developments
concerning visuals and sound being agreed by the director. The project takes
a step closer to becoming a reality, with final structural decisions made by
managing members of the crewusually the director and producer on larger
productionsthat will impact on the project work schedule. Revisions are
made where necessary to help support the project, often in consultation
with its commissioners.
In the next part of this book we will see how the project is developed
by breaking down the specific elements of the production of an animated
project, including creating artwork through different animation processes
and techniques, and capturing these expressions through set design,
camera moves, and lighting techniques. We will also introduce and establish
ideas for applying and integrating sound design into the project. These
specialist tasks require skill, knowledge, and awareness of other members of
the crew, and the next chapters outline the often absorbing and intricate work
that turns a project into a production.

72
 3.

PreproductionDevelopment
This chapter explores the development of an animation project in the transition
through the preproduction phase into production. As we have seen, the project
concept has been introduced and scripted and a series of resulting ideas
explored, researched, and developed. The material has been consolidated
through discussion and visually presented by the preproduction team as an
agreed rough draft of the final project. It has then been delivered through a
pitch to the client. Now the project needs to take on a more detailed physical
shape, putting those initial ideas into practice, finding out where there are likely
to be production problems and attempting to resolve them. This development
stage will take a good proportion of the overall project timeline
to complete, since decisions made in this process are integral to its success.
In the development stage, the material collected during preproduction
needs to be explained in a visually succinct way to the production team.
For example, the overall scripted and previsualized story should suggest how
the plot or idea unfolds for an audience, including how directed camera
angles and movements will add increased drama, altering the narrative or
conceptual pace of the content. With animation being employed widely in
projects, the order of tasks in the production process may vary. As a general Thoughtfully planning a storyboard can help
formulate a framework for a production by laying
rule, a storyboard needs to be originated and developed first to help inform out the key action points of the story, providing
layout designs. Considered layouts need producing, testing, and developing a coherent structure to commission voice talent,
composing the score, and collecting sound
to communicate the content with cinematic impact, acknowledging the effects.
ability of an animated product to squash or stretch the passage of time
convincingly. Characters then need to be originated, developed, and tested
to check they are credible for an audience to identify with and understand.
These characters will be required to possess and exhibit characteristics
capable of delivering the actions outlined in the script and storyboard
through an appropriate production process, or combination of processes
if multiple animation techniques are being employed.

Animation pipeline

Storyboard: A storyboard is developed to illustrate the Development: Sets, scenes, and characters are visually
emerging narrative, setting the scene, introducing developed in tandem with the collected research
characters, establishing where dialogue fits with action, material as the crew work out how to animate the
suggesting camera shots and angles, and determining information contained in the storyboard. This involves
sound effects. This is tested as an animatic, merging detailed analysis of how the production is constructed
vision and sound to start to make sense of pacing and (how to move items on set, how characters walk, talk,
timing of the material for the audience. As the and interact, how lighting will be set and cameras will
production develops, so does the quality of information capture each frame) so that any production issues are
held on the storyboard. resolved prior to filming. The production schedule is
established and published for the crew.

74
3. Storyboarding
AnimationPreproductionDevelopment

A storyboard comprises a collection of numbered static visualized images

that represent pivotal film frames. They illustrate the important points, known
as key stages, of an animated script or story in chronological running order.
These key stages are largely determined by the type of animated project
being undertaken and the availability of such components as the script,
the soundtrack, and any necessary dialogue. Some independent animators
and studios create storyboards as a way of originating or informing a Storyboarding became prominent as part of
animation production as animated feature films
provisional script, while in other instances the storyboard is created in became more popular, as studio animators
response to a written treatment. Regardless of how they are conceived, needed to communicate their ideas efficiently
through quick visual storytelling. Disney
storyboards are an important shorthand visual aid in helping the crew
understand the basic production information involved in animating the story.
Storyboarding was first employed on a major industrial scale by the Walt
Disney Studios in the early 1930s, although there is evidence that the practice
of drawing and posting images was pioneered at the studio some years
before. Animator and historian John Canemaker suggests that story
sketches were employed in the planning of Disneys Steamboat Willie (1928)
and Plane Crazy (1928), films that introduced the cartoon phenomenon of
Mickey Mouse to the world. These sketches were pinned to the walls of the
studio to help communicate story ideas to the team of animators, and were
certainly in place in the production of the 1933 short The Three Little Pigs.
Storyboarding has successfully continued to traverse moving-image
production in subsequent decades, being an important process in the
development of big-budget live-action features, in documentary filmmaking
and, most recently, in designing the order and navigation of animated
websites and applications for personal mobile devices.

Storyboarding: from single to serial imagery

Typically a storyboard comprises visualized and noted information in
individual boxed panels known as frames. These correspond to the
proportions of the final production format, which depends on the selected
broadcast format. Broadcast formats differ depending on the source of
output, geographical region, and recognized broadcast standards of different
countries or regions.
Storyboard frames are usually grouped in collections of 12, 24, or 36
boxes and may run over multiple boards to show the key frames from the
beginning to the end of the production. Each panel is supported by some,
or all, of the following information:

a chronological scene and corresponding shot number

a brief narrative description, or a collection of symbols such as arrows
to illustrate how the camera will move in the scene
a description of whether the shot will be created using long, medium,
close-up, extreme close-up, or wide-angle camera positions

75
 additional information such as script inserts, directors notes, and
narrative ideas
provisional passages of narration or dialogue to supplement the
visual information

The process of constructing a storyboard has three basic phases. First,

a rough thumbnail storyboard, produced in either black and white or limited
color, is created by one or more animators to rapidly establish the important
core actions that visually suggest how the events work as key frames of
the story. Second, the agreed rough thumbnails are worked up into larger
drawings that include more applied visual reference material and give more
detailed information about possible camera moves. Third, a final version
or presentation board is created with additional frames to fill in the gaps
between key frames. This acts as a strong referential visual framework for the
animatic or story reel and allows for temporary dialogue and a rough version
of the soundtrack to be seen alongside, creating a rough draft of the project.

Presentation boards for Chris Curtiss A Day in

the Life of an Audi Driver advertisement provide
essential information about synchronizing the
timing of the visual story development, narration,
and action occurring in frames.

The art of storyboarding

On a basic level, storyboarding is a technically cost-effective and readily
available process employed to solve visual and aural problems ahead
of starting to animate a project. More fundamentally, in inspired hands,
storyboarding has also proved to be an arena where animators can visually
express themselves through the act of interpretationmoving away from
routine treatments to present something compelling, original, and inventive.
Such artistic expression often gives animated work an immediate visual

76
3.
AnimationPreproductionDevelopment

impact, although it will have taken the creator a significant period of time to
develop his or her skill.
Some studios actively look for this personal style when hiring directors.
Studio AKAs Marc Craste is a good example of an in-demand director with
an immediately recognizable visual style. Through short films such as
Varmints (2008) and clever commercial work created for the British bank
Lloyds TSBdesigned to portray personal banking and finance in a more
user-friendly lighthis stylized characterization of figures and environments
retain a whimsical, nave quality and evoke emotional responses from the
audience. However, individual flair is not a recent quality but something rather
more symbolic of how animation has pervaded mass popular culture by
giving us instantly recognizable icons.

Masters of their art

The visual characteristics of an animated production are rooted in a
personal but collective aesthetic vision at the storyboard stage, where a
script or series of visual ideas is brought to life. There are good historical The surreal and poetic animated short, Varmints
(2008), demonstrates director Marc Crastes
examples that support this idea. The Walt Disney Studios development of ability to develop character-driven narratives that
storyboarding techniques in the early 1930s was, in some part, a response are engaging, thought-provoking, and
memorable.
to the industrial type of delivery expected from Walt Disney. His vision for
creating entertainment through storytelling extended to creating theme
parks to embody his ideas about entertainment and mass popular culture
more widely. In this era, storyboards not only were employed as a vital
communication tool to inform animation teams working in the studio
or to plan schedules for productions, but increasingly were used to test
out Disneys adventurous ideas for stories that potentially could go into
production, without fear of committing large amounts of money for little return.

77
Consequently, it would be easy to marginalize Disneys storyboards as a
largely soulless technical device without any artistic or design merits. But
these animators were artists in their own right and inevitably were responsible
for forging the studios signature style. This is especially recognized in films
such as Pinocchio and Fantasia (1940). Similarities started to emerge in the
visual signifying of characters in particular, with oversized facial features that
could more immediately and expressively display gestures and poses.
Through the storyboards, animators could communicate how the
character felt about a certain situation directly to the audience, using the
graphically interpretive language of the cartoon. This form of telling a story While conforming to a recognizable aesthetic,
animators working on Fantasia (1940) were artists
sequentially enabled the artists to become acutely aware of the simplification in their own right, including Oskar Fischinger, who
possibilities of the medium of animation. They believed it was able to focus expressed themselves by marrying the animated
sequences to the music, helping to create the
the audience on a particular message in a more succinct way than live-action Disney aesthetic of that time. Disney
film. This view was shared by public bodies, governments, and private
companies, which commissioned studios to make everything from animated
commercials for household goods through to war propaganda films, typified
in the United Kingdom by the renowned work of the Halas & Batchelor studio.

The development of visual narrative in animation

The simplified visual language of the cartoon through sequential panels and
strips is heavily connected to the art of framed storyboarding. Other cartoon
conventions, including exaggerated figurative features and the placement
of iconographic symbols, were increasingly used to illustrate actions and
anticipate approaching movements. The Walt Disney Studios strike in 1941
came at a time when animated films had captured the American public
imagination. The loss of production allowed other studios such as Fleischer
and Warner Bros. to gain a priceless toehold through important figurehead The Halas & Batchelor studio was responsible
for a significant number of propaganda films
cartoon characters such as the racy Betty Boop and the irrepressible Bugs produced for the Second World War effort,
Bunny respectively. These characters brought more sophisticated content to including Dustbin Parade (1941).
the animated feature, and with it demanded a visual styling that was more
immediate and less artistically homogenized than the Disney offering.
The way was open for such animators as Chuck Jones and Tex Avery to
take the cartoon art form to dizzy new heights, experimenting with movement
and exploring the pace of narrative through the storyboards by varying the
composition and placement of characters and scenes. They imbued their
designs with deeper ideological references drawn from everyday life,
including status in society, tolerance, and sexuality. They recognized that
the storyboard was the place to test how characters could engage with the
audience by drawing extreme close-up key frames and allowing the character
to know that the audience was watching by depicting narrative asides to the
camera. As a result, such films as Duck Amuck (1953) and Whats Opera,
Doc? (1957) have rightly become regarded as masterpieces of their genre.
In subsequent decades, major art and cultural movements inevitably
pervaded the art of storyboarding, an example being Disneys Tron (1982),
which pays visual homage to the American home video games revolution of

78
 Steven Lisbergers Tron (1982) heralded the
3. arrival of computer-generated imagery (CGI)
in major studio productions, complete with the
dynamic spatial qualities and aesthetic
AnimationPreproductionDevelopment

appreciation of the video game. Disney

the late 1970s. The present day sees many books published that specifically
examine the art of a particular film through storyboards, early visualizations,
and development toward finished imagery seen in the final release. Pertinent
examples of these include Brad Birds The Incredibles (2004) and Henry
Selicks Coraline (2009).

Creating a storyboard with a visual narrative

A coherent visual narrative style is necessary to bind ideas together into
meaningful animated statements. This is also sometimes described as
a treatment. The visual narrative or treatment will usually be informed by
the director, who may have been selected because he or she has a deep
conviction of how the project will look and feel stylistically to the audience.
An example of this is Peter Docters treatment of Pixars Monsters, Inc. (2001).
On other occasions, the visual narrative is governed by taking the stylistic
lead from particular adapted works or from a treatment as directed by the
brief. Good examples exist in the realm of childrens feature animation,
including Dianne Jacksons interpretation of the Raymond Briggs classic
The Snowman (1982), Philip Hunts adaptation of the Oliver Jeffers story
Lost and Found (2008), and Jakob Schuh and Max Langs rendition of Julia
Donaldson and Axel Schefflers The Gruffalo (2009). The visual narrative can
be immediately identified in every frame, resulting from a storyboard that has
a consistent and informed filmic language for the crew to constantly refer to
throughout the life of the production.
Each storyboard frame represents a picture field, that is, a depiction in
two dimensions of a three-dimensional space. It is worth investing time in
organizing the picture field to create an environment where the illusion of
space and the considerations of reality can be juxtaposed into a believable
visual narrative. Individual frames have the ability to communicate different
emotions depending on the placement of characters and props in the picture
field. Such placements create spatial relationships that can be harmonious,
cohesive, reflective, or dramatic. These spatial relationships effectively act as
controls for the level of drama that can be contained in the story, giving

79
80
3.
AnimationPreproductionDevelopment

the director a greater choice of tools to determine the function and flow This storyboard, from Joanna Quinns film Family
Ties (2006), depicts the key frame of action taking
of the content. place in the scene, together with annotations
The effectiveness of compositions can be controlled through the concerning forthcoming actions, camera moves,
and sound direction.
exploration of viewing and interpreting the visual material in the picture field.
For example, lowering the horizon line creates a sense of impending drama,
further intensified by a characters being placed in the foreground above the
natural eyeline of the viewer. Conversely, seeing shots from a raised position
reduces this impact and makes the viewer seem more in control of a
situation. These adjustments not only change the position of the camera,
thereby giving the story different levels of impact at necessary points, but
also have the added effect of making an audience concentrate on the story
and become engrossed in the action taking place. This visual engagement
is crucial in selling the idea to the audience, allowing them to feel empathy
for the characters and providing them with a sense of purpose to see how
the production will develop and ultimately conclude.

Opposite Studio AKA director Philip Hunt

skillfully retains Oliver Jefferss wistful lyricism
in his adaptation of Lost and Found (2008),
incorporating beautiful narration by Jim
Broadbent and a memorable score by
composer Max Richter.

81
Style guides
A style guide acts as a collective production bible for the animated project.
Style guides are created to inform a coherent overall design strategy, to
provide art-directed reference points for the crew, and also to include key
information on the visual styling of characters, props, and environments.
Practical design concerns, including scale, patterns, and color palettes
of these key components, can be resolved by checking creative decisions
against the style guide. Information contained in the guide has been informed
by the research process, but manifests itself collectively through the
storyboard, where creative decisions are taken about camera positions,
settings, and necessary moves. Style guides are usually created by different
members of the production crew and finalized by the director.
Much of the specific information gives crucial visual information that
constantly needs to be referenced. For example, characters might be profiled
in a series of drawn elevations from different sides to provide consistent and
reliable reference points. Additionally, there may be model characters,
perhaps sculpted as maquetteseffectively try-outs or practice models built
to explore three-dimensional constructions. These can be created in various
scales to provide three-dimensional reference for stop-motion characters.
Style guides will also include information about the way in which jointed
or articulated versions of characters, known as armatures, are constructed.
An armature is a framework that effectively provides the skeleton of the three-
dimensional character with working engineered joints that can be posed to
create different dramatic gestures. In this context, the possibilities and
limitations of the armature must be demonstrated in the style guide to ensure

Style guides serve as a central collection and

reference point, informing the art direction for
a production.

82
3.
AnimationPreproductionDevelopment

Working on an exhibit for Londons Science

Museum, Grant Orchard used molecular
structures to inform his character development
as part of an overall design strategy with Casson
Manns exhibition design.

83
consistency and clarity with the directors vision for the production, but also
to consider the limitations of the armature itself.

Layouts and scenes

The job of the layout artist is to design and construct environments for
animated sequences to occur in, with each layout technically creating a
scene. The layout artist translates information from the storyboard and
works out the field space necessary to allow content to flow. This can A fully jointed armature is a miniature engineering
feat in its own right, often needing to be precision
include enabling characters to interact with other characters and props, machined to withstand the rigors of continual
and capturing any exaggerated movements the shot requires. Within the manipulation on set, aptly demonstrated here by
Barry Purvess central character in Plume (2011).
frame, the layout artist is responsible for technically enabling actions
illustrated in the storyboard to happen, by creating a sense of time and place.
He or she is also able to suggest a sense of atmosphere through the layout
design in the use of negative space and spatial relationships between
different visual elements. Significantly, the layout artist needs to have the
ability to control the dynamics of the frame itself, but also to possess
sufficient awareness for the imagined world of the production beyond the
visualized frame. This allows sequential layouts to run seamlessly, creating a
sense of natural cohesion and synergy between the scenes for the audience.
In traditional two-dimensional (2D) cel animation, layouts provided a
backdrop for action to happen against. Animators would position individual
animation cels over painted layout designs. These animation cels were made
of clear cellulose or acetate that had been drawn, inked, and cel-painted with
a design. Photographing each cel independently would then create a frame.
The illusion of movement occurred when the sequence of individually
photographed frames was played back, typically at a rate of twenty-four
frames per second, and the images appeared to move before the viewers
eye. In traditional three-dimensional (3D) stop-motion animation, members
of the production crew involved with layout face the additional hurdle of
working in a modeled three-dimensional space. They need to design with
consideration for both spatial awareness and the requirements of animators,
who must be able to access the set easily without disturbing props or This behind-the-scenes image from director Suzie
Templeton shows the level of detail required to
characters. They also need to consider carefully the use of materials in construct sets with correctly scaled props that
an environment prone to dust, heat, and changes in humidity. can stand up to the rigors of being continually
manipulated by animators on set.
Layout artists clearly need to have a sound knowledge of fundamental
drawing skills, including an understanding of the principles of perspective.
They need to understand how these principles marry with the cinematic
concerns of staging, lighting, framing, and achieving suitably dramatic
camera angles. This enables the dramatization of the narrative to be explored
in action and allows the capabilities of the layout design in relation to the
planned storyboard to be tested out.

84
3. Planning and formulation
The translation of the storyboard into practical layouts means that both visual
AnimationPreproductionDevelopment

and narrative problems can be identified and resolved before progress can
be made. Some technical problems can be foreseen in 3D stop-motion
animation, for example, where certain shots are impossible to capture
because the camera cannot physically be fixed into a particular position,
or where the scale of certain props prevents desired movements from being
engineered. In other instances, the layout artists quick-wittedness combined
with an ability to change or consolidate a scene with minimum distraction is
required, occasionally leading to some happy accidents that could not have
been predicted by the storyboard. Wherever possible, planning technical
resolutions to problems highlighted by visualizing the story helps to keep the
project on track and on budget by predicting problems early, and there are
some specific tools and techniques that can aid production.

Field guides
A field guide is used widely in two-dimensional animation to help layout
artists imagine and construct the picture field while working on the layout.
It has the immediate effect of visualizing what the camera will crop. For
example, if the director wants to move from an establishing shot to a close-up, The design and layout of any set must necessarily
include technical considerations, including the
holding the field guide between the eye and the layout enables the layout placement of lights and cameras to permit the
artist to see instantly what that camera shot will look like for the audience. shot selection deemed necessary by the director.

85
 1:33:1
The field guide typically consists of a clear sheet in a lightweight frame, Academy
marked with a faint static grid of rectangles. These act as an immovable
framework. Bigger rectangular windows are placed or marked on the grid
corresponding to the aspect ratio the production is going to be shot at.
Field guides conform to common production aspect ratios used by
different broadcasting platforms:
1:85:1
Widescreen
Academy ratio is 1:33:1
Widescreen ratio is 1:85:1
CinemaScope ratio is 2:35:1
Letterboxing involves placing a black slip above and below the frame
2:35:1
CinemaScope
Layers
Creating artwork in layers allows layout artists flexibility with their designs.
In traditional cel animation, clear acetate sheets are applied over each other
to ensure movement flexibility of key components, while other elements of the
design can remain static, saving production time and unnecessary expense.
The advent and application of digital media accelerates these principles, Letterboxing
and has the added benefit that layers are virtual rather than physical.
This is a distinct advantage for the layout artist, where the problem of layering
traditional physical cels would eventually lead to parts of the overall artwork
appearing to fade or lose focus. Every layer can be controlled individually so
that it is seen at the same intensity if necessary. Technical flexibility aside, the Different aspect ratios are required for formatting
to different viewing platforms.
layout artist still needs to factor in how many layers are required for the scene
to be conclusive and readable, rather than overly complex and confusing.

Cinematic thinking
The ability to think cinematically is a principal requirement for anyone
interested in making an animated project. It is a key skill that studios
and partners look for when seeking potential support for a production.
Cinematic thinking encompasses the conceptual and physical process of
determining and visualizing camera angles and choosing shot selections.
These decisions to represent the content of the project can shape the
production dramatically. They allow rhythmic changes of narrative pace to
reflect action in the plot, or to create visual pauses while the audience absorb
and understand information being imparted. The ability to think cinematically
gives productions a unique identity of interpretation, and also ensures that
particular elements can be framed so that they remain as memorable
markers in the audiences mind.
Essentially, the camera acts as the eye on the production and the
captured information is described as a shot. This imparts ordered
information on a basic level, but can also stir emotional responses from
the audience if used imaginatively. The camera can be employed in fixed or
variable positions and further cameras can be added to create different shot
optionsof the same frame if requiredthat will allow directorial choices in

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3.
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the editing phase. There are several possible types of basic camera Barry Purvess Tchaikovsky (2011) is a poignant
and touching account of the composer,
move that give creative freedom for the director to mix moves to achieve meticulously captured using a variety of
a desired shot: shots by Justin Noe and Joe Clarke.

panningthe camera creates level horizontal movement from side to side

tiltingthe camera achieves level vertical movement up and down
dollyingallows the camera to move into or out of a scene
trackingallows the camera to run with the action by the aid of a moving
position as it travels through a scene
craningenables the camera to be attached to a device that can swing,
dip, and travel through three-dimensional space, effectively anticipating,
following, or reacting to action in a scene

Variable positions can be achieved by removing the camera from its fixed
position and hand-holding it, or by attaching it to a device where it can
capture information from unexpected sources, such as a balloon. Such
camera techniques are often employed in documentary and independent
animation, where they are often used to convey the effect that the camera
was hidden in a location that was not visible to the subject being filmed.

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Types of camera shots subjects in a scene by placing them
together but, for example,
Establishing shotused to exaggerating or minimalizing
introduce a scene and explain scale to give them unusual values
the context to the audience by and properties.
acknowledging external factors. Freeze-framethe camera captures
For example, we might see the scene a precise moment in time.
of a street, but recognize from other High-angle shotthe camera is
information in the shot that the fi xed above the eyeline of the
street is in a seaside town. character, allowing the audience
Medium shotenables a character to look down and suggesting a
or object to be seen against the superiority to or power over
context of his/her/its immediate the subject.
location, for instance a security Low-angle shotthe camera is fi xed
guard standing outside a below the eyeline of the character,
neighborhood bank. allowing the audience
Close-up shotdirects the viewers to look up and suggesting an Using a variety of cameras in different positions
allows variable shots and options for a director
gaze to a particular aspect of the inferiority to or fear of the subject. that are crucial when scrutinizing a scene for
shot, for example, a soldier Point-of-view shotthe camera maximum impact, as demonstrated here in
Madame Tutli-Putli (2007).
squinting down the barrel of a rifle. intimately sees what the audience
Extreme close-up shotexamines perceive the character or subject
in detail a focal point, for example, sees directly, although this may
using the illustration above, the also include the character or subject
soldiers eye taking up the whole in the frame if the camera is
frame. looking over the characters
Birds eyefocuses on the subject shoulder, for example.
from an overhead position and gives Reaction shotthe camera records
a sense of place and purpose to a the reaction to a scene or event
scene from an unexpected position, being showcased. For example,
which the subject may not be aware if a soldier is wounded, the reaction
of, for example, the enemy moving shot reflects the immediate reaction
into position on a battlefield. of his fellow soldiers.
Dutch anglean unusual but Sequence shotalso known by the
dramatic shot, where the camera is French term plan-squence, this shot
placed at an oblique angle, making allows events happening in the
the horizon line dip or lift from one mid-ground and background to
corner of the frame to the other, take precedence over what might be
conveying tension. happening in the focal point of the
Follow shotas the description scene among the main characters.
suggests, this shot pursues a Zooman extremely versatile and
character or subject through popular action: keeping the camera
a scene. still but adjusting the lens takes the
Forced perspectivethe camera is subject closer to or farther away
used to capture optical illusions of from the audience.

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3. With careful direction and selection of shots, and the support of equally
considered and applied sound design, the audience should not notice key
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technical production processes, concentrating instead on being transported

into a make-believe world through the development of the content. A variety
of carefully considered shots is essential to ensure that content transfers
smoothly from camera to screen, aiding audience appreciation and
understanding of the production.

Development drawings
The importance of drawing to animation development has been highlighted
previously as a skill that requires aptitude, practice, and time to master. As
the project develops, drawing takes on a more considered and detailed role.
Historically, the drawn animated image was central to determining
and defining animations legitimacy as a recognizable art form. In the
contemporary era, some of the immediate resonance of drawing may
have been partially hidden by advancing technical production processes.
However, much of the underlying success of productions is still owed
to an invested sense of drawn activity and language. Drawing both
encourages and rewards observation and imaginationtwo of the basic
ingredients defined and celebrated by animation. It is a vastly adaptable
and expressive skill, easily able to encapsulate and merge exaggerated
movement and description.

Imagination and observation

A basic element that animators need to have in abundance, and expect to Joanna Quinns human studies reveal an
animator who places great emphasis on her
develop, is imagination. The creative flair, passion, and drive of a given ability to observe, but also to interpret those
project are drawn from an individuals capacity to bring vision, excitement, recordings systematically to explore the
developing characters nuances more accurately.
and appetite for the project to the wider team and to encourage that vision
and belief among others. Whether we look to innovative pioneers such as
Peter Lord, visionary directors like Tim Burton, or the wit and charm of
animators such as Joanna Quinn, imagination fueled by the desire to observe
and record the wider world is a skill that is greatly applauded by fellow
creators and audiences alike.
In practical terms, observation is something often marginalized and
overlooked by students. Looking is something we are routinely accustomed
to doing, our brains continually taking on board information and processing
responses to stimuli set out before us. Seeing, in the context of the arts
more broadly and animation in particular, involves far more focused and
concentrated study. Here, seeing is akin to decoding and understanding
subjects, compartmentalizing captured information to make sense of the Students undertaking a life-drawing class at
the Royal College of Art, London, learn to
bigger picture being presented. In animation, such activity can be taken see through the figure to the transformative
to extreme measures through the artificially constructed nature of the form. possibilities of the human form as a storytelling
device.
Creators experiment liberally with visual, aural, and structural components

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of a production to illustrate observations in varying degrees of detail and
complexity. More specifically, the structural elements of drawing, such as
composition, placement, and emphasis, can have a profound effect on the
delivery of content if imaginatively employed.

Fundamental aspects of composition, placement, and emphasis

While the storyboard provides an overview of the production, it is widely
understood that development inevitably leads to changes in how particular
aspects of the project are interpreted. The ability to alter the composition of
frames is necessary to ensure that the information and the central theme of
the content are organized and edited, ensuring clear explanation. Within the
frame itself, the placement of visual elements, and the resulting relationship
they have with one another, allows the audience to understand and interpret
information based on the emphasis given compositionally to those subjects.
Animators use design elements such as line, shape, color, texture, form,
tone, and space to explore composition. Each of these elements can be Understanding the visual dynamics of the frame
allows the animator to control the order that
employed singly or collectively to act as visual signposts that will attract the specific pictorial elements are seen by the
viewers eye and direct it toward vital information. In determining composition, audience, creating opportunities to emphasize
or hide clues through careful placement.
it is important to understand who or what the focus, or center of interest,
of the frame will be. Having established this, other clues are provided in the
composition to establish a unity of information and a harmonious, balanced
frame. Organizing the composition effectively involves making critical
decisions about the shape and proportion of key elements and how they
balance themselves against each other. This might involve using geometric
or natural forms to explore such aspects as perspective, negative space,
color contrasts, and lighting. Controlling these aspects alters the visual
rhythm or beat of a sequence of frames making up a scene, effectively
controlling the pace of how visual clues are illustrated for the viewer.
Dividing up the frame compositionally can have a profound effect on how
images are understood. For example, the rule of thirds uses the idea that
the frame is divided by three vertical and horizontal lines, and that elements
are placed on or close to where these imaginary lines intersect to create a
harmonious and balanced composition. A similarly pleasing compositional
aesthetic device is the triangle, its implied shape within an image acting as
the foundation for a face, for example, where the corners of the mouth line up
with the corners of the triangle, while the point lies between the eyes. Frames
that have an odd number of elements appear more informal owing to their
lack of symmetry than those made of an even number of components.
To create emphasis in a frame, the animator must position elements
in a visual order that will be read correctly by the audience. For example,
the introduction of a character usually involves using a close-up composition
or shot in the first few frames to allow the audience a chance to identify
certain characteristics or personality traits. Emphasizing key elements
involves editing. To be a good editor, an animator must be able to identify
which are the key components of a frame and to see these in the context of

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3. supporting narration, dialogue, or soundtrack. It is important to consider all
aspects of the production, as having multiple visual and aural effects can
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clash, confusing the audience. At all times, it is important to use a certain

economy of scale when considering visual elements, or vital aspects of a
scene may be lost under superfluous detail. This requires careful planning and
animators use a number of tools, processes, and techniquesdope sheets,
key movements, key frames, line tests, the story reelto help in this regard.

Dope sheets
A dope sheet, or exposure sheet, is effectively a blueprint plan of the
production. It shows the production crew at a glance how elements of visual
and aural material are to be pieced together in the production with correct
timings. The dope sheet is used to break down individual technical elements
into units of information, such as annotating which layers of artwork are being
used in a particular shot, the camera moves required, the part of the script
being animated, a guide to the supporting soundtrack, and any additional
sound effects needed. This information is held on the spreadsheet, clearly
indicating how many frames each of the components explained above will
last, and projecting what is about to follow in the production.

An exposure or dope sheet allows visual and

aural components of the production to be broken
down in timed segments to maintain consistency
of flow.

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Key movements
Animation occurs through the movement of objects between frames.
The frequency with which objects move can alter, but the consistency of
movement of the object itself varies depending on its function or purpose.
In a movement, there are points that explain the magnitude and frequency of
the action and these are known as key movements. For example, imagine
that a ball bounces in front of you. The two key movements of that particular
bouncing action are the impact as the ball hits the ground and the highest
point of the arc of the bounce, signifying that the ball is bouncing from one
point to another. One of Koji Yamamuras key frames for the
animated short, Muybridges Strings (2011),
produced for the National Film Board of Canada
Key frames (NFB), is ready for scanning.
In traditional animation, key frames are identified as being the start and end
points of a sequence of smooth transitional animated movement. These key
frames represent pivotal points where the greatest degree of the move
occurs, with the remaining frames in the sequence known as in-betweens.
Animators establish and create key frames, and while traditionally animators
known as in-betweeners would develop, clean up, and execute the
adjoining frames, today this process is for the most part digitally constructed
using software such as ActionScript.
With other digital platforms, such as Adobe Flash, the animator creates
key frames but relies on the process of software to fill in the spaces smoothly
through a technique known as tweening, whereby images are seamlessly
interpolated into the sequence. The versatility of tweening software enables
changes to a movement to be easily accommodated. The predictability of
such a mechanical technique can be overcome by essentially keyframing
each and every frame, enabling the creator to digitally manipulate and have Using a registration or peg-bar, frames are drawn
consecutively here on a light box before being
complete control over the whole creative process. scanned and played back in the corresponding
order to create a line test to check animated
movement through the frames.
Line tests
In traditional cel animation, a line test (or pencil test as it is sometimes
known) can quickly and efficiently enable an animator to flip consecutive
drawings by hand to see incremental movements created by a sequence
of drawings. Drawings are created on separate sheets with a fixed point
of registration illustrating a piece of action from a start to an end point.
The drawings are then held tightly and flipped in the chronological order
they have been created in, producing a linear sequence that moves between
a beginning and ending frame of action. It is also possible to scan or
photograph these individual drawings and play them back on screen
if necessary. The process allows animators to ascertain if some drawn
movements between one frame and the next are too pronounced and
movement appears to jar or jolt as a result. Many programs now offer
this facility for animators working in a digital environment.

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3.
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The animatic or story reel An excellent example of an early animatic, with

elements of live-action footage and illustrated
An animatic or story reel is created when individual frames from the stills bound together by a recorded script read
storyboard are recorded and played back sequentially with sound. It is through by racing driver Allan McNish.
created to show the production crew what the finished project could look like.
Sound can be a rough recorded voice-over taken from a first reading by an
actor, clips of recorded dialogue or suggestions of how an instrumental or
vocal soundtrack might contextualize the imagery. Projects can have any
number of animatic sequences and it is quite common for animated content
to be routinely tested in this way as it allows changes to be implemented
without major cost revisions.

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Character design
Characters play a crucial role in animated productions. They must be
designed for various uses, from acting as key defining tools for explaining the
developing plot, through to establishing a recognizable presence audiences
can identify with and attach an emotional response to. Characters have even
adopted the role of brand ambassador for the movie, television series, or
product being advertised, an example being Homer Simpson. A characters
versatility of function is a core requirement of his or her design and needs
important consideration when the character is being created. Time invested
in this stage of the process often reaps rewards later in production. It is a
common occurrence to check early development of character development
using a simple line test (see page 92) or a walk cycle (see page 99) to better
understand the form, function, and versatility of the character.
The legendary Walt Disney Studios animator,
Frank Thomas, was one of Walt Disneys early
The bones of character design recruits. One of the affectionately nicknamed
Character design goes beyond the simple outward visual appearance of Nine Old Men, Thomas inspired generations to
work as animators. Disney
a character and instead considers the potential overall embodiment and
flexibility of the form. This includes rudimentary inner facets such as stature,
posture and gesture, movement, and expression. Historically, a technique
known as rubber hose movement was used to animate characters, so
called because it tended to elasticize a characters movement and was
considered more efficient. The approach was developed by the Walt Disney
Studios in the 1930s as preparations for industrialized animation production
on a far greater scale gathered momentum.
Walt Disneys decision to hire artists had a massive influence on the
form, and their influence served to bring artistic principles of anatomy and
movement to mass industrial practice. These artists looked adventurously
at the way animation techniques could potentially illustrate the diversity
and complexity of articulation of the human form. Such approaches led
to examples of full animation in feature films. Here, every frame was hand-
drawn, ensuring the characters movement could be completely manipulated,
resulting in visual fluidity and greater options to explore a character in motion,
classically illustrated by The Three Little Pigs (1933).
By contrast, other studios such as UPA used a technique known as
limited animation. This relied on sequences of drawn animated material
being used in cycles or holds as a way of economizing, and depended
instead on supporting techniques, such as voice-over or a greater variety of
camera shots, to complete the production. The technique has the advantage
of being quicker, more efficient, and cheaper than full animation, and is used
today in many animated television series, Japanese anime such as Pokmon,
and animation for the Internet. Far from being limited, the true test for limited
animation is that it forces the animator to be inventive about where and how
to show movement.

94
 Experimental animator Max Hattlers film Collision
3. (2005) is a good example of limited animation,
using repetitious, geometric, symbol-laden
shapes in quick succession to play on deeper
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political and ideological differences between

contrasting nationalities and states.

95
The art of character design
In recent years, historians of animation have made connections between
the art of animation and the major art movements, serving to highlight
parallel concerns and centralizing the view that animation was very much
contextualized by developments in the wider world. More recently, animation
has begun to have a profound impact on the definition of the arts more
generally as it pervades feature films such as James Camerons Avatar
(2009), video games such as Gran Turismo and Call of Duty (both 2010),
and even the opening ceremony performance at the 2010 Winter Olympics Keen to evoke a sense of national pride and
passion, the Canadian organizers of the 2010
in Vancouver, where animated diving whales were projected on the center Winter Olympics in Vancouver chose to
field of the stadium. If Chuck Jones and Tex Avery championed art through commission special animated effects to illustrate
the cultural and spiritual identity of the host nation
their now infamous characters, such as Bugs Bunny and Daffy Duck, the to the watching world.
mantle has certainly been picked up and carried in the contemporary era
by the likes of Nick Park, Philip Hunt, and Matt Groening.
Characters need to be easily recognizable, able to be identified through
their appearance, voice, abilities, and actions, and also capable of carrying
and enacting the story to the viewer clearly and functionally. Their increasing
visual prominence and recognition as forms that exist beyond the world of an
animated production has inspired leading Hollywood actors, including Tom
Hanks, Tim Allen, and Dakota Fanning, to voice household namesin these
examples, Woody, Buzz Lightyear, and Coraline respectively.

The role and function of character

A character is not a solitary object that exists in isolation, but rather a vital
component that works in tandem with other aspects to bring life, action, and
explanation to a production. In this context, his or her role is to provide the
audience with a sense of anticipation. The directors inclusion of a character
signals that he or she is in some way important to the development of the plot
and has the ability to deliver information, whether this is factual, entertaining,
or informative.
The animators ability to understand movement, and its visual depiction,
is key when considering the design of any character. The audience need
to believe the capability of a character to move, communicate, act, and
respond to the world around him. Animators often look to the performing
artstypified by dance, mime, theater, and street artswhere movement is
often exaggerated and staged. In this way an action can be amplified and
overstated, emphasizing a particular movement more efficiently and directly
than if it was naturally conducted.
This is an important facet of animation, because these heightened actions
enable conceptual and physical conventions to be removed from presented
characters. This allows the audience to begin to invest in and understand
the characters for what they are being presented as, rather than what they
might be thought to be. An example is a character such as Astro Boy who,
as his name suggests, is in some way linked to outer space but whose
characteristics need to be understood and approved by the audience in

96
3. order to validate his supernatural ability. Permitting these actions to occur
requires an understanding of key technical skillstiming, lip-synching,
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and movementcombined with a confidence in making the unbelievable

seemingly come alive through the suspension of disbelief. These skills
are largely invisible as the character is not seen in isolation, but without
a mastery of such techniques characters can appear unconvincing.

Timing
In all forms of animation production, the ability to understand and control time The Brothers Quay film, Street of Crocodiles
(1986), is an excellent example of the suspension
is a central issue. In character design, an understanding of time allows the of disbelief principle in animation, where the
audience to engage with and have empathy for the character, mapping their tension between stasis and flux is palpable.
movement as it is synchronized against the other production elements of
voice-over, dialogue, and supporting sound effects. Mastering the techniques
of timing allows the sense of time to be constructed, manipulated, and
exaggerated through controlled movement.
In principle, a character functions on an invisible axis or line of movement.
Horizontal movements are conducted along a simple x axis, while vertical
movements take place on the y axis. In three-dimensional animation,
where the properties of the character in space can be explored, depth is
represented by the z axis and can often produce some startling and
unexpected results. Similar possibilities occur in two-dimensional animation,
where an understanding of the rules and applications of perspective can
produce scenes exploiting optical illusions with characters, especially where
exaggerated scale is used between the depiction of character traits and
environments, as illustrated by Gerald Scarfes drawings for the Pink Floyd
film The Wall (1982).
Once a character is given license to move, it needs to display these
motion qualities openly to the viewer, mimicking and exaggerating our own
understanding of the timing of movements. For example, characters can be

These illustrations ably demonstrate the challenge

of visually interpreting the complexities of human
movement, including anticipation, follow-through,
and holds.

97
imbued with the sense of anticipation that a movement is going to occur.
Anticipation signals that a movement is going to happen and is directly linked
to previous and future movements. At the end of the movement, an action
known as follow-through occurs, where the body is allowed to come to a
natural rest rather than freezing still. Anticipation and follow-through can
be considered forms of animated punctuation and their use can make
movement seem more natural and less artificial.
Equally, absorbing and promoting this understanding of timing allows
instances such as pauses, which help the audience to identify characters
and signify moments where action can take a different course, or plot
direction can change. Such pauses may not be immediately noticeable
directly to an audience, because they are masked by other production
effects, but they serve to create visually grammatical holds where the
audience can focus on an upcoming event or regroup after an intense period
of action. It may require many years of practice to understand and develop
this skill, but its application can undoubtedly make a substantial difference
to a production.
Other effects such as gravity and physical possibilities and limitations
also present timing possibilities and obstacles. Even if characters are not
firmly rooted stylistically in a realistic approach, the audience is conditioned
to expect that certain events will naturally occur. Changing such elements
often leads to synthetic-looking results. Examples include when an object
appears to float because it lacks an expected mass signified by its scale and
depiction; or when the impact of a collision fails to refer to the traveling mass
of a colliding object, such as a train hitting a station platform and the resulting
devastation being proportionally smaller than anticipated. Adopting a slow
in and slow out approach demonstrates that the animator understands that
movements are not continuous, but have natural rhythmical interludes that
accelerate and decelerate to reflect the nature of a complete action.

Lip-synching
A way of convincing the audience that a character has come to life,
expressing the ability to breathe and talk, is through the technique of
lip-synching. This is a complex and tricky technique, conducted on an almost
frame-by-frame basis, and requires continual intervention by the animator
not only to render the mouth in the right position for every frame, but also to
anticipate end movements as naturally as possible. For English-speaking
characters, there are nine basic types of mouth shape (see drawing opposite)
to signify and imply recognizable speech and suggestion. For example,
many people do not close their mouth immediately after speaking a word.
It is this sense of naturalistic behavior that the animator is looking to impose
on his or her character. Equally, the sense of responding to a question
through the anticipation of sound, movement, and concurrent breathing is
hard to reproduce faithfully. Slight movements to the mouth shape signify a
change between vowel and consonant sounds within a word, and it is

98
3. The nine basic mouth shapes employed by
animators to imply speech. Groups of letters
create specific sounds that must be linked
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together frame-by-frame to achieve consistency

and aid believability.

AI O E

U CGJKRSXYZ D L N T TH

W Q OO BMP FV

important to see these as linked shaped sounds, rather than concentrating

on the noise of the individual letter itself.
Clearly, any form of lip-synching is closely linked to secondary actions
such as facial expressions. Economizing on lip-synching to allow other
features, such as eyebrows and eyes, to convincingly amplify emotions should
be considered. A good example is Nick Parks animal creations from the
animated short series Creature Comforts produced by Aardman Animations.
These films source voice recordings of the general public talking about a given
topic, and are interpreted as different animals, who mimic human gestures Originally commissioned by British Gas as
commercials, these short films by British studio
and behavior. Created in stop motion, the models are made of Plasticine Aardman Animations became so popular that the
modeling clay, which can be manipulated and sculpted to form different Creature Comforts series was created. Their acute
observation of mundane everyday happenings,
expressions to support economical mouth movements. While lip-synching adapted into extraordinary situations through
in production means that the animator concentrates on a particular aspect stop-motion animation, is their key to success.
of the face, it is worth remembering that the audience will be able to see the
character as a whole and that other facial features, limb movements, and the
overall posture of the character can also support the story.

The walk cycle

Producing a walk cycle allows the animator to better understand the
possibilities and limitations of a characters movement. Still linear drawings
of a figure in isolated walking movements are sequentially created, scanned,

99
 Eadweard Muybridges revolutionary photographs
of animal locomotion revealed to a disbelieving
public that all four horses hooves leave the
ground when galloping.

and played back, indicating how potential movements might occur. While it
is predominantly centered on the articulation of movements of crossing and
stretching in the lower body and legs, a walk cycle fundamentally introduces
the principles of related movement to the body as a whole, as it is connected
and therefore creates secondary movements.
Since the work of early motion-capture pioneers such as Eadweard
Muybridge (18301904), whose The Horse in Motion successfully proved
to doubters through the use of stop-frame photography that a horse lifts all
four feet in the air when it gallops, animators have continually strived to prove
that characters they have designed have the ability to freely anticipate and
respond to movement. In short, they respond to the laws of physics that
govern them, whether real or imagined.
The walk cycle confirms vital and necessary connections that can inform
aspects of the characters physical appearance, having a profound effect
on an audiences understanding of the character. For example, producing
a walk cycle allows exploration of different facets of movement, from shuffling
and ambling through to leaping and bounding. This will include the rise and
fall of the body as it naturally and rhythmically contends with deliberate
directional movements.

Suspension of disbelief
The suspension of disbelief is achieved when an animated sequence
succeeds in appearing to make an impossible act happen, like a character
lifting up a car over his head. This is achieved using a balance of accepted
and reassuring elements on screen and allowing the impossible character
or act to operate within the confines of the scene. Animators need to balance
the audiences established views and beliefs, but introduce and embed
objects or situations in a position where the impossible can, seemingly,
become not only possible but also believable.

100
3. Given that animation is a form based on artifice and illusion, it offers
extraordinarily broad and free license to indulge in creating characters that
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challenge assumptions and suggest new and exciting directions. It is nearly

impossible to create something entirely original since animation, like all
disciplines, borrows ideas, practices, and purposes from a multitude of
quarters. It is, however, right to suggest that some approaches, whether
conceptual, practical, or technical, will be new to animation.
Jack Skellington from Tim Burtons The Nightmare
Before Christmas (1993) displays many of the
Character as protagonist
hallmarks of Tim Burtons richly imaginative view
Animation has been likened to the art of metaphor, reflecting perceptions of the world. Touchstone Pictures
of the culture surrounding us and projecting them into imaginary captured
worlds. Central to this idea is that the character becomes symbolic as a
figurehead or protagonist, helping to carry the plot, expressing the directors
ideas, and authenticating the content of the production at large. This might
include the moral, ethical, or political standpoints the director wishes to
portray and with which he or she wants the audience to empathize.
Protagonists can be heroic or villainous, and there may be more than
one protagonist, especially if the story contains subplots.
Many examples exist in animation, from feature films to animated
commercials, where the character often becomes the hook that the viewer
responds to. A good example is Jack Skellington from The Nightmare Before
Christmas (1993).

Developing characteristics

Your character is a shell until defined by its characteristics. These

properties give your character its identity, personality, and purpose.
Characteristics establish a set of beliefs, justifications, and contradictions.
Working through these questions as you think about your character will
help shape your design process, allowing you to test your ideas before
developing the character so far that changes become difficult to
accommodate later.

What is the target market for the production?

Who does your character need to appeal to and why?
What do they need to achieve?
What is their history?
Where have they come from and what have they previously experienced?
What is their perception of themselves?
What are other characters perceptions of them?
What are their capabilities in relation to communication
and movement?

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In order to believe in a character, the audience must be drawn into believing
the overall look and feel of the wider production. It is absolutely vital not to
look at the idea of developing characteristics in isolation. Animation is the
sum of all of its parts and any element that jars will make the audience
suspicious of the production overall. It is important that the context of the
assumed environment beyond the screen is considered in order to ground
the character. For example, when we see a character in a production,
we naturally assume that he or she (or it) will have come from somewhere,
will have had a previous life or experience, and will effectively be bringing
these experiences to the screen. He or she will belong to a direct (seen) or While countless examples of heroes and villains
exist in animation, the Warner Bros. characters
indirect (implied) family tree and a wider world context and will have been have a enduring appeal, typified here by Wile E.
shaped by conditions that may still be prevalent in the scenes and locations Coyote.
of the production as it unfolds.

Heroes and villains

Successful characteristics can instill a belief system in the audience that
can identify characters as being good or bad. In animation, such feelings
toward a character can be enabled through single or combined visual, aural,
narrative, and ideological constructions of the form, capable of taking
extreme directions and giving rise to the idea of the creation and expression
of the hero and villain. In animation, as in comic books, the functions of
heroes and villains vary according to the project being produced, but need to
be considered in relation to one anotherthe one often requires the other
to illustrate just how super or devious they really are. Animation history is
littered with famous heroes and villains, especially in cartoonsfor example,
Tom and Jerry, and Wile E. Coyote and Road Runnertheir extreme
characteristics both embodied and projected by the nature of animation
as a form.
The introduction of heroes and villains gives an audience a chance to
intensively question, understand, and potentially align themselves individually
with characters, giving rise to the idea that heroes and villains are actually
animated projections of self. They embody our wants and desires, our fears,
hopes, and aspirations. Like cinema, animation has the ability to propel
heroes to the status of superhero by giving them extraordinary and
unexpected powers beyond the standard comprehension of their supporting
cast, location, or apparent ability. In an animated context, these additional
virtues can be heavily exaggerated to suggest power and prominence,
but they should also be treated carefully to ensure that characters retain
some degree of vulnerability.
A point of view about the character might be introduced by the characters
appearance, personality, actions, or reactions to other characters or plot
events. Development of characteristics might mean that the audience see
these traits from the outset, as a result of action as the plot unfolds, or even
at the conclusion of the production when they reflect back on what has
been witnessed.

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3. Metamorphosis
Movement is central to animation, but is not confined to shifting objects
AnimationPreproductionDevelopment

or characters from one point to another. More fundamentally, objects or

characters can change through a process called metamorphosis into
something completely different. This idea is crucial to animation as a form
and represents myriad possibilities for the animator. It manifests itself
regardless of the kind of process of animation employed and offers a wealth
of options for the animator looking to move from one scene to another, or to Objects or characters can change through
metamorphosis into something completely
shift the audiences perceptions of a character. A good example occurs in different. In Tim Burtons Alice in Wonderland
Disneys Alice in Wonderland (2010), directed by Tim Burton, where the (2010), the mysterious character of the Cheshire
Cat freely morphs from a cat into a swirl of
character of the Cheshire Cat morphs from a cat into a swirl of smoke. smoke, playing with the senses of illusion and
Anthropomorphism is used widely in character design and is the imposition reality. Disney
of human traits on animals, objects, and environments.

Narrative construction

All animated projects that encompass characters, regardless of their genre,

need a structure to operate effectively. Here are some examples:

Compilationvarious creators produce animated responses to a set theme

or topic.
Cyclicala story runs full circle back to its original starting point.
Effectanimation is used to provide extra dynamism to a situation,
such as a rollover or a special effect.
Episodicmost commonly seen in television series where a wider story
is told in separate components.
Gagmany jokes are visually told in quick succession that would be
impossible to achieve in the same timescale through live action.
Linearmight typically consist of an introduction, a situation or drama,
and a resolution.
Multi-linearseveral stories are told simultaneously using a mixture of
techniques, including edits or splitting the screen into different sections.
Non-lineara story has inbuilt permissions to change each time it is seen,
and is commonly used in games design where gamers can decide to go
different ways.
Thematica story that does not move round or along, but instead invites
viewers to investigate what is there in front of them.

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Conclusion
Visual preproduction is complete only when the storyboards are signed off by
the director, the layouts created, and the characters designed. The project
now awaits approval from the commissioners and clients to move into full
production. At this point, all aspects of the production should have been
checked against the schedule and the budget. It is imperative that any
issues concerning the projected schedule are brought to the attention of the
director so that decisions can be made to help maintain workflow continuity,
as many more crew members are now going to become involved in the
animation pipeline.
In the next chapter, we will examine the importance of sound, and
look at the role it plays in animation and how it is constructed and used
to emphasize actions and movement in a production. We will investigate
what considerations need to be given in the preproduction phase to ensure
the form can be planned, recorded, and utilized to the full.

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 4.

PreproductionSound
Sound is a vital component in an animated production, all too often
overlooked by students approaching animation from a purely visual
perspective. Like other aspects of the animation project workflow, sound
features in all the phases of production: from the collection of research
materials and the generation of early concepts and ideas, through the
production of the animated project, to producing the animation in
postproduction.
As we have already seen, the visual elements of animation are
constructed artificially, and sound is built in this way too. To work effectively,
sound needs to be designed so that it can fully integrate with the script and
the animated visual elements. Sound can spark, and certainly accompanies,
the development of the narrative and helps to form and shape the production
through the inclusion of dialogue and music, culminating in the addition of
special effects in the production phase. The inclusion of sound gives the
director a further vast array of tools to delineate and describe a production,
using the design of sound to emphasize and explain the animation to
the audience.
This chapter considers the inclusion of sound in animation and its many
benefits. It introduces a broad overview of the physical properties of sound,
and explains how it is appreciated and understood by the audience at large.
Important components of sound design are established and applied to
the principles of dialogue, music, and special effects, through a studio
environment. The chapter concludes with an illustration of the way in
which sound is handled through the animated production phases.

Animation pipeline

Sound: The choice of sound stems, dialogue, narration, music, and

special effects is finalized and designed in close conjunction with the
visual development taking place. Music is commissioned if a score is
required, voice talent is auditioned for narrative and dialogue roles if
needed, and the crew working on special effects are tasked with
originating or collecting relevant material that can be first recorded on
location or in the studio, before being edited back in the studio and mixed
together to form a soundtrack.

Understanding sound
To understand sound, we must consider its construction. The property of
sound consists of three phases: a source, a medium, and a receiver. For
example, the source might be the distant rumble of an avalanche that creates
acoustic energy; the medium is signified by the air over which the acoustic
energy travels; and the skiers ears in the valley act as the receivers, picking
up the sound. Like the visual examples we have seen previously, the aural

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4. animation production process also relies on artificially constructed forms
that are envisaged and established by a sound editor and sound designer.
AnimationPreproductionSound

To build up a picture of the sounds required for each element of the

production, the sound designer imagines through mental pictures which
sounds might be required, using an existing knowledge of sounds stored in
the brain. This process is called audiation. It is extremely helpful in mapping
how sound might be applied to the production as the workflow develops and
is used continually to help inform the director as he or she manages the
production process.

The anatomy of sound

Below are some elements of sound crucial to understanding its structure

and framework:

Sine wavesine waves use a horizontal axis as a zero point, with waves
extending above the line signifying compression (higher pressure) and
those below the line signifying rarefaction (lower pressure). High
points are known as peaks, low points as troughs. A cycle is created
when a wave turns through 360 degrees on itself. Waves can move in
tandem, producing more energy, or can oppose each other, causing
phase cancellation.
Amplitudewaves digitally recorded are referred to as a signal and
amplitude is the measurement of the energy emitted in this signal. After
conversion to acoustic energy, amplitude exerts pressure on the listeners
ear, measured in decibels (dB) and in sound pressure level (SPL), known as
the dynamic range.
Frequencymeasured in hertz (Hz), frequency illustrates the number of
occurrences of a repeating event per second, and is understood by humans
in terms of musical pitch. We can hear a range of frequencies from roughly
20 Hz20,000 Hz.
Timbresounds that contain sophisticated personalized qualities or
independent characteristics that mark them out as being unique.
Wavelengththe distance between the successive crests of a sound wave,
measured from one high point of a wave to the next.

Through clever interpretation of the script in tandem with the previously

visualized ideas and development work, it is possible to be highly original
and inventive with sound. Much of the success of sound design in animated
productions is about depicting actions without having a literal depiction on
screen. Clever devices are employed to trick the audience into believing that
they saw an event or an action, when in reality, they have only been given
clues and will have pieced these together conceptually to envisage a
scenario that was not shown. The same principle holds true in sound design,

107
where many sounds replace visuals, but do not exist in the events outlined in
the confines of the frame.

The principles of sound

The principles of sound classification are outlined below:

Diegeticsounds heard by both the characters and the audience.

Non-diegeticsounds heard only by the audience.
On screen and off screenas the term implies, on-screen sound refers to
the source being present on screen whereas off-screen sounds can be
created by an absent source.
Establishing sounda scene change or transition is preceded by creating
an atmosphere or tone.
Causal soundsa literal aural depiction of a cause and an effect, where the
visual object emits the correct sound (picture: dog; sound: barking).
Semantic soundsa sound with some literal association through
translation, for example, native speech.
Reduced acousmaticthe sound generated by an object is dissociated from
its original source and can be applied to another form (picture: dog; sound:
barrel organ).

The importance and use of sound

The construction of sound performs a series of important functions in an
animated production. As an illustration, it is useful to think of a recent movie
theater visit, where the audience has just entered the theater and taken their
seats. It is vital that the animation transports the viewers to a world where
their belief is suspended, and the most immediate way of doing that is
through sound. Audiences commonly and mistakenly refer to sound in
animation as a soundtrack. In fact, animated productions consist of elements
of sound, namely dialogue and narration, music, and special effects, which
are known as stems (see page 112).
Sound creates ambience and sets a level of expectation among the
audience. By establishing a pace and rhythm it can introduce, set up, and
showcase characters and situations, signify rises and falls in the tempo of
the production, and similarly define and support transitions and conclusions,
thereby bringing the audience back to the real world. Put simply, sound is
designed to envelop the production, binding the narrative structure together
into a coherent and believable commodity.

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4.
AnimationPreproductionSound

Used intelligently, sound can create an

unexpected dimension to animated film,
allowing the bizarre to seem unerringly real,
as illustrated by Max Hattlers animated short,
Spin (2010), which pairs 1940s band music with
the escapist vision of Busby Berkeley.

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Audience perception of sound
The audience has become very adept at understanding sound in relation to
animated production. Within a century, we have moved from silent animated
feature films to myriad aural possibilities. Disneys Steamboat Willie (1928)
succeeded in helping the audience feel the emotional content in the film.
Such astonishing developments have been accomplished through a mixture
of directorial ambitions, production developments, technical advances,
and, perhaps most significantly but least appreciated of all, the highly
knowledgeable understanding of the relationship between image and
sound exhibited by the audience. One of the worlds foremost animators, Jan
Svankmajer is famous for his surreal films that
Some of this knowledge is part of our human makeup, as we are able often have propagandist themes, illustrated here
to process, absorb, appreciate, and understand sound more efficiently than by The Death of Stalinism in Bohemia (1990).
we can visuals, thus fast-tracking our understanding of particular scenes.
For example, our field of vision is physically limited to 180 degrees, whereas
our experience of sound is an all-encompassing 360 degrees. Therefore,
utilizing animation to appeal to both sight and hearing in unison allows
potentially very complex ideas to be communicated. In animated propaganda
films, the properties of vision and sound are accentuated to provide a sense
of drama, but also to provoke the audience to remember what they have
seen. Good examples include Jan Svankmajers The Death of Stalinism in
Bohemia (1990) and Piotr Dumalas Franz Kafka (1992).
This balance is worth investigating when watching animation. It is entirely
possible to have a relatively simple visual scene illustrated for the audience,
but then to manufacture a complex sound design to accompany it. The
resulting scene envelops the audience in a rich and varied moving visual and
aural landscape, which creates an assault on the senses, but which is largely
led by the design of the sound. A good example of this occurs in Christopher
Nolans Inception (2010), where the street scene appears to explode,
animated through a stunning mixture of visual effects, but characterized by
the score and complemented by recorded and foley effects (see page 121)
which combine to create an arresting and bewildering sequence for the
audience. Turn the sound down while watching this sequence to understand
how much of the drama comes through the sound design.

Sonic interpretations of space and time

Sound aids the audiences spatial understanding of the production using
depth, height, and width by means of signal processing, mixing, and
panning. For example, manipulating the frequency, volume, or pitch of sound
can achieve sonic depth, while using reverberation has the effect of creating
a scene that is spatially consistent. Panning allows exaggerations of sonic
width by placing sounds compositionally in a space, so they can be heard in
different parts of the auditorium. For example, the rumble of tanks might be
heard toward the rear of an auditorium, while the sounds of light gunfire and a
soldiers breathing might be heard at the front. This will make the viewer more
conscious of the immediate action, but also aware of the context of the

110
4. battlefield. The development of sound design is particularly important in
this regard, as animated productions move away from traditional screens,
AnimationPreproductionSound

to portable transmission devices, enlarged IMAX cinemas capable of

showing animated productions, and holographic projection systems
capable of bringing augmented-reality environments to life.
Sound is also a significant component that directors use to play with the
perception of time in an animated production. For example, while a dramatic
cut to a visual close-up allows the audience to examine a depiction in greater
detail, such edits can sometimes appear static. The corresponding
soundtrack must, therefore, compensate for the seeming loss in movement
taking place outside of the picture frame by providing a continuum and
an enhanced sense of tension or suspense. The use of sound can also
introduce, accompany, and emphasize accelerations and decelerations
in time-based narratives. This principle is creatively applied to all kinds
of animated productions, using the concepts of fast-forwarding, replays,
slow motion, and flashbacks as devices that help the audience comprehend
narrative sequential content. A very good example of the compression of time
happens in the DisneyPixar animated feature Up (2009), where the scenes
detailing the love affair and relationship between Carl and Ellie Fredricksen
are aurally developed entirely through the musical score, without the need for
written dialogue. Michael Giacchinos score skillfully depicts the highs and
lows of the Fredricksens life while packaging the premise of the story
emotively for viewers.
The opening sequence of DisneyPixars Up
(2009), where Carl and Ellies marital relationship
The grammar of sound is introduced and developed, offers a master
Exploiting the opportunities of sound gives further permission to the class in presenting and establishing character
and environment using a condensed time frame.
director to allow reality to exist plausibly through invention and articulation. 2009 Diseny/Pixar
For example, sound themes can be attributed to characters to reinforce a
particular point of view. Such themes are known as motifs. Many examples
exist in animated features, but perhaps the most iconic are the sound
interludes that govern the continual antics of such characters as Tom
and Jerry, where comedic moments are musically interpreted with high-
pitched, playful interventions using wind instruments, while moments of
grave danger or impending doom are illustrated by forceful interjections
of vigorous piano playing.
As animation relies extensively on the artificial creation of forms, so too
must the sound design have the flexibility to enable non-literal sounds to exist
and flourish. For example, a scene that depicts a trapdoor slowly opening
might reasonably be expected to be accompanied by a creaking, groaning
sound, suggesting a nasty surprise. However, if the sound instead is a flock
of birds singing a morning chorus, the sound encourages the audience to
expect a more positive, uplifting discovery. Creating such aural metaphorical
situations is clearly important in fostering a belief system around the
characterization of objects and forms. Removing literal sounds from one
plane of existence and transposing them into another imagined situation

111
with smooth sonic transitions can help exaggerate visual effects in a
believable but uncompromising manner.
Perhaps the most significant requirement of the sound design in the
production is the possible scope for enabling tension and release to mirror
narrative intent. In tonal music, harmonies written with dissonant chords
create tension whereas consonant chords provide a welcome release.
Both instrumentation and dialogue perform these variations, where the
cutting edge of a screeching electric guitar creates greater tension than
the melodic dalliance of a clarinet, or where an actors punchy delivery spikes
at the heart of a subject but a lilting soft accent skims the very edge of the
piece. Further support can be provided by accompanying sound effects,
so the scream of a bullet immediately awakens the audience, while waves
breaking against the shore provide an altogether more refined air.

Stems of sound
Whether specially written or adapted, musical
scores need to be played back in real time
This section highlights the key components of the three characteristic stems to allow the director and music editor the
of sound design: dialogue and narration, music, and special effects. opportunity to time sections that will be
blocked as sequences to animate.

Dialogue and narration

The reliance on the roles of dialogue and narration has evolved continually
since the middle of the last century and can be attributed to the rise in
popularity of television. Televisual modes of storytelling could be readily
applied to animation, allowing the form to evolve away from cartoon
conventions and embrace more impactful fields, such as documentary
and propaganda. Such familiarity now ensures that dialogue and narration
are more immediately recognized than a soundtrack or special effects.
Historically, silent films compensated for the lack of sound by relying
on pantomime-style exaggeration of characters and actions, and were
often accompanied musically in movie theaters by piano or organ. It is hard
to imagine the impact that Steamboat Willie must have had in 1928, given
how familiar with and expectant of sound we are in animation today. It is
equally impossible to consider voice actors in animation without mentioning
Mel Blanc. A gifted artist and performer, Blanc is remembered for delivering
the vocal signature for a variety of characters from the Warner Bros. studio,
including Bugs Bunny, Tweety Bird, Speedy Gonzales, and Porky Pig,
before later moving to the Hanna-Barbera studio to voice Barney Rubble in
The Flintstones.
Dialogue involves the exchange of sonic information and can take various
forms. For example, on-screen dialogue can exist through the process of
lip-synching (see pages 9899), whereas off-screen dialogue contains no
visual point of reference in the frame. The key principle is that both forms Opposite Mel Blanc is arguably the most
famous voice artist in animation, responsible
happen in the sequence being viewed, and can carry the story or describe for the unmistakable tones of Bugs Bunny,
actions or responses to those actions witnessed by other parties. Dialogue Speedy Gonzales, and Porky Pig.

112
 AnimationPreproductionSound
4.

113
clearly has an important defining role to play in the nuanced development of
characters, establishing their age, sex, and ethnicity, together with their
place as part of the production. Casting an actor to deliver dialogue is
crucial to the success of the production, not just for the believability of the
character, but in the requirement to click with the other characters
supporting them.
Meanwhile, narration identifies and supports events happening on screen
from a distance, with the narrator being excluded from interaction with the
characters, and delivering material in either the first or the third person.
Many examples of narration exist in animated film, a good example being Les
Ortons Under Milk Wood (1992), which features narration by the actor Richard
Burton. Narration is also a good vehicle for explaining and informing the
audience about subjects that are fact-laden, an example being the short film
Branching Out for a Green Economy (2011), which is narrated by the naturalist
and broadcaster David Attenborough. His authoritative tone, combined with
the freshness of the visual imagery, works well in dispensing environmental
advice without prejudice or persuasion. Some productions, such as
Above Dialogue and narration are crucial
components of an animated production. Some
actors, such as Tom Hanks and Tim Allen, have
demonstrated that their understanding of comic
timing has informed not only the chemistry
between their characters, but the directors
vision of the feature film itself. Disney

Left Employing narration to add gravitas and

solemnity to a production requires specific
castingsuch as choosing Richard Burton to
narrate Dylan Thomass Under Milk Wood (1992).

Opposite Casting a voice artist who brings

familiarity to a subject is an excellent way of
imbuing the production with integrity, illustrated
by Sir David Attenboroughs contribution to the
animated short, Branching Out for a Green
Economy (2011).

114
 AnimationPreproductionSound
4.

115
DisneyPixars Wall-E (2008), required dialogue in deliberately nonsensical
tongues, known as a synthetic language, to plausibly demonstrate that
creatures or objects are able to communicate with one another.
Casting voice talent for animation is a complex process, as artists will
invariably need to immerse themselves in a character over the timeline of
the production in order to perform with sincerity. Directors hiring voice artists
must look beyond necessary essentials, such as the clarity of the recorded
voice, to acting ability and the ability to interpret from the imagined. The
process of finding voice talent is conducted in larger productions by the
casting consultant, whose job is to interpret the voice talent needs of the
director and act as a negotiator between the studio and casting agents.
The casting agents role is to represent their voice talent artists, promote
and suggest particular artists for special voiced parts, negotiate the terms
and conditions of contracts between the artist and the studio, and to manage
the artist while they are signed to a production.
Voice talent artists come in many guises, including individuals who have
very defined voices and others who revel in mimicking a range of accents
and styles. Agencies represent artists capable of voicing dialogue or
narrative parts in a wide range of genres, from independent documentary
through to science fiction. Regardless of the size of the part, a voice talent
artist is usually presented with the whole animation script in order that he
or she can understand the story and the atmospheric conditions in which
it is set, as well as the physical and emotional connections between the
characters. Read-throughs of the script are conducted between the
director, voice talent artist, and casting consultant, and takes are recorded
many times to achieve exactly the right tone and speed of delivery of lines
corresponding to the actions of the character being portrayed. Of course,
this level of preparation is seldom witnessed by the audience, but will often
guarantee that the believability of character depth and plausibility of emotion
is coherent.

Tools for recording

Recording studios are home to audio engineers, whose principal job is to
ensure that voice recordings are perfectly recorded for production. Major
recording studios offer professional recording facilities, complete with
excellent acoustics, soundproofing, and permanent, tested microphone
positions, while independent creators improvise by converting a laptop into
a digital audio workstation. However vocal elements are recorded, planning
resources and creating a sympathetic environment are key ingredients to
creating good-quality vocal passages.

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4. Microphones
In a similar way to how the human ear processes sound, a microphone
AnimationPreproductionSound

simply converts acoustic energy into an electrical signal. The outer face
of the microphone collects sounds, while the inner diaphragm vibrates to
produce a signal as an acoustic wave. Animation production uses two basic
types of microphone: dynamic and condenser. Dynamic microphones
capture loud sounds in close proximity, while condenser microphones are
popular in vocal settings as they can be more versatile, can be placed farther
away from the source, and are considerably lighter. Each type of microphone
conforms to a particular polar pattern, which picks up certain sounds
dependent on the direction of the source sound. For example, universal
sound is captured through omni-directional microphones, while more
directional microphones are known as cardioids. Microphones capturing
voices are positioned between 8 and 12 in. (20 and 30 cm) from the actor
delivering the lines, and a pop shield is used to prevent unwanted air hitting
the diaphragm inside the microphone and distorting the sound. For this
reason, the script is broken down into segments that can be recorded
incrementally, before being edited and imported into the animation
production program.

This illustration shows how microphones pick up

sound depending on the direction of the sound
source. Setting up microphones to record in
studio settings permits many subtle variations to
be captured, altering the pitch and frequency of
delivered lines for dialogue or narration.

Super cardioid Bi-directional Omni-directional

Direct sound
Full frequency
Full amplitude

0 on axis

90
Reverberant sound
Medium-high frequency

180 off-axis

High reverberant sound

Low-high frequency

POLAR PATTERNS

117
 Students prepare to read from an animation
script, planning where to place emphasis on
particular letter sounds to prevent additional
unwanted or distorted sounds.

Troubleshooting voice recordings

Sibilancesome spoken words have an emphasis on certain letters to

create their sound, which can mask other sounds that make up the
entirety of the word. Actors can be encouraged to change the emphasis on
the letter sounds in words to help balance and better articulate the sound.
For example, the word stop emphasizes the s to sound like ssstop.
Changing the emphasis away from the s makes the word sound like
sTtop, reinforcing the articulation of the word.
Plosivecertain consonants (b, p, k, d, and t) produce a sharp blast of air
that is picked up by the microphone as wind distortion. A pop shield
placed between the actor and the microphone can help, as can re-
recording.
Proximityan actor standing too close to the microphone will often
have the bass tone overemphasized.
Anxietyreading parts can produce feelings of stress, loss of self
confidence, and glottal shocks on the part of the actor, resulting in
unnatural reading and heightened breathing, which can usually be
edited out.
Unwanted soundsmicrophones may inadvertently pick up clothing
rubbing, ticking watches, or headphone waste sounds, which will need
to be edited out.

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4. Music
Designed sympathetically, music acts as an important tool for the animation
AnimationPreproductionSound

director. It opens up decisions about economizing on visual production

methods and techniques in favor of aural ones, thus achieving a better
result while successfully managing budgets and production schedules.
In animated productions, the musical score is deliberately commissioned
and composed to heighten our enjoyment and appreciation of the emotional
content. It also allows us to envisage settings, helps us to appreciate Animated feature films often have specific musical
scores originated for them, with songs written and
scale and complexity, and provides a symbolic motif for the production. performed to help amplify the story and create a
For example, full orchestras are charged with playing epic introductions to distinctive feel, typified here by Sir Tim Rices
lyrics for The Lion King (1994). Disney
feature films that require high drama and a sense of grandeur, as in the case
of Disneys Fantasia (1940) or more recently Lord of the Rings: Fellowship of
the Ring (2001), whereas more private moments are often more successfully
handled by solo or smaller groups of instruments, such as Grant Orchards
A Morning Stroll (2011).

Whats the score?

Scores are defined by musical selections known as cues. It is important to
understand the role of these cues as introductions to underscores or sources.
Cues allow subtle introductions to a characters state of mind without the need
for dialogue or narration. For example, an underscore can be seen as the The character of Jessie is central to Toy Story 2
(1999), and is particularly remembered for the
musical equivalent of narration, whereby ambient music accompanies the captivating flashback sequence of her being
production to enable the audience to appreciate the way the narrative or loved, discarded, and eventually abandoned by
her owner. The sequence featured the song
subtexts develop through the characters innermost thoughts and feelings. When She Loved me, beautifully scored by
By contrast, source music is central to the production, and is experienced by Randy Newman and performed by Sarah
McLachlan. 1999 Disney/Pixar
both characters and audience. In this case, this might involve indirect music
that is being performed on screen, or narrative lyrics of songs that the
characters in the production either perform or respond to directly. Tim Rice
is an obvious example of a lyricist who has written for animated productions,
perhaps most famously for Hans Zimmers score The Lion King (1994).

Musical delivery
Different aspects of music are used in animation to drive and deliver
convincing productions. Melodic sections are devised to explore or
accompany linear developments, while harmony provides intrinsic emotional
support for a narrative. Rhythm allows the pace of a production to be defined
and supported. Music can be positioned to allow sounds to follow visual
movements, much like a writer uses punctuation in language to emphasize
particular events and circumstances. This process is known as dynamic
panning. Music can also be interpreted stylistically by a conductor and
orchestra to highlight particular aspects of a character, including genre and
national identity. Historically, such figures as Scott Bradley and Carl Stalling
played a major part in defining the sonic success of the sight gag cartoons,
typified by Tom and Jerry, where visual jokes were anticipated, played out,
and enjoyed by musical accompaniment. But as television production

119
 Hungarian-born composer, Mtys Seiber,
conducts the orchestral recording of his score
written for Halas & Batchelors Animal Farm
(1954).

methods demanded greater efficiency in the way animation was constructed,

so too came the need to have defined sounds that could create instant
recognition and enhance marketing. The composer Henry Mancini is a useful
example here, with his compositions for the Pink Panther series influencing
later work by Randy Newman for Pixar.

Scoring
To develop a score, the director discusses his or her ideas with the music
production supervisor, together with the music editor and the orchestral
contractor, depending on the scale of the animated project. The music editor
is in charge of compiling, editing, and synchronizing the musical score in
production, and may look to a film composer to create an original score for
the animation. Meanwhile, the music production supervisor develops the
relationship between musical and visual parts of the production by selecting
and licensing any prerecorded music used. The orchestral contractor will
select orchestras that are able to perform musical scores, interludes, and
anecdotes as directed by the composer or music production supervisor.
If a composer is commissioned to create a score, it is essential from the
outset to supply an agreed timing detail. This may be achieved by bringing
in the composer to work alongside preproduction artists as they shape and
define the storyboards, or may be put into action through a developed
animatic that contains sufficient clarity to allow accurate musical
interpretation. The briefing between director, composer, music production
supervisor, and music editor should highlight the importance of music in the
scene(s) discussed, the incremental points where significant action happens,
the use of dialogue or narration, and the moods or atmospheric conditions
prevalent in the visual production of the scene(s). From here, the discussion

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4. might consider where underscore can be used to add continuity, or where
it needs to make dramatic effect or to act as musical paraphrasing for
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the audience.
This discussion forms the basic foundation for a cue sheet to be
completed, enabling the composer to sketch out key themes that can
be played, with the help of instrumentation, to the director in the studio.
This is known as a temporary (temp) track. Once approved, each cue is
orchestrated and recorded in the studio environment. It is worth noting that
where budgets are small, directors often turn to production music libraries
to source rights-free music, which can be a cheaper and labor-saving
alternative. Examples include LicenseMusic, DeWolfe, and KPM.

Sound effects
Sound effects are used to emphasize narrative components of the
production. In animation, the idea that inanimate objects may have their own
sounds is as comprehensible as their having an inner logic controlling their
actions and appearance, and this concept needs to be factored into any
sound design. Sound effects are seldom heard in isolation, but rather as part
of the bigger soundscape, often to highlight elements that can be linked and
to draw meanings for the audience. They can be used in establishing a
character, setting a scene, and framing the wider production. For example,
the roar of a jet engine, or the screech of tires on tarmac, might signify an
airport setting. Equally, sound effects can be used off screen to imply or
subvert meaning, adding a sense of mystery and sophistication.
The sound-effects editor works with sound-effects designers and foley
artists to produce the sound-effect stem. Typically, sound-effects designers
work on designing and building specific recorded effects in a studio setting.

Soft effects add texture to animated film, and are

beautifully underplayed in Robert Seidels film,
Black Mirror (2011), here on display at Young
Projects in Los Angeles.

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These are categorized as hard effects and are linked to directed actions Marc Craste and Jon Klassens dramatic Winter
Olympics 2010 animated sequences draw on the
or objects occurring on the screen. In contrast, foley artists make, find, and Innuit legend of rescuing light and peace from
record sound from often surprising sources, borrowing incongruous sounds a world of impending darkness, aided by an
imposing and climactic musical score.
that can be reapplied to other situations. An example might be a recording of
a water droplet landing in a half-filled bottle, which could be used to make a
sound effect to represent water dripping in a damp cave. These sounds are
known as soft effects and are often blended to provide sounds to
off-screen occurrences. Background sound effects create depth in the overall
ambience of a scene or situation, while foley effects provide a performative
series of sounds that catch and embody the action on screen.

Spotting sound effects

As with music, the process of spotting helps identify the possibilities and
requirements for special-effects production or acquisition. Spotting effectively
involves the director and sound editor sitting together to review visual and
aural recordings played in tandem and agreeing where sound special effects
are required to emphasize certain actions or events. The discussion paves
the way for the effects cue sheet, which synchronizes the placement of
special effects throughout the production. It also signifies where special
effects need to be created or purchased, considers how many of them are
required and how long each sound is, and provides an overview for the
production and collection of material to take place. Some studios build up a
library of their own recorded sounds, but this takes time, effort, and
resources. It is also possible to buy specific effects in varying delivery
formats from commercial libraries, such as Sound Ideas or Sound Dogs.

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4. Thinking about and recording sound effects
Inventively conceptualizing sound effects requires intuition and creativity to
AnimationPreproductionSound

imagine everyday sounds out of their ordinary context. It is also important to

try to harness the imagining of these sounds to the practical act of being able
to record them, since our knowledge of them may not necessarily equate to
being able to acquire them. Many sound effects can be collected in the same
source environments as those being depicted on screen, but the music editor
must be careful to ensure that sound effects are not too literal, as this will
undermine the scene being developed.
It is important to restate that the best sound effects are not heard alone.
Instead, they work within a conducted mix of sounds, with each sound and
image element contributing to the overall experience. That said, recording
special effects is an exacting challenge and one that can be undertaken
both in the studio environment and out on location. Key to the success of the
recording is the clarity and precision of the recording, and although editing
equipment can clean sound, having a reliable original is preferable to having
to clean a recording later in editing.
On location, it is commonplace to use multichannel digital field recorders
to collect sound on disk. They are easily accustomed to supporting high
bit-depths and will support surround-sound recording through a multitude
of placed microphones. A selection of microphones will deliver different
directional effects. For example, a shotgun microphone pushes sound away
from the side and bottom to fully capture everything in front of it, while an
adaptive microphone is used to capture directional sound far away, and
hydrophones are used to catch liquid sounds. All microphones should be
protected with a windsock to prevent buffeting from the wind on location
and may be fitted to a boom to allow directionality.
In a studio setting, patience and testing are the two keys to ensuring
successful recordings. The permanence of the studio environment, and its
ability to be controlled without adverse exterior effects, are helpful when
working under pressure. The biggest issue in this environment is making
sure microphones are not placed too close to the sound-emitting source or
the microphone will pick up the reflected sound bouncing back. Background
sounds are normally recorded using a stereo microphone, which houses two
transducers to balance and distribute the collected sound.

Effect editing
All sound effects captured on location and in the studio require signal
processing to maintain consistency. Sound-effect editing removes unwanted
sounds from a recording, but can also be usefully employed to change the
duration of recordings and the effects by adjusting their frequency. It is
possible to adjust the length of audio files without damaging their pitch,
through a process known as sound shaping. This is achieved either by
using time compression or by looping the sound, and then playing with levels
of volume, pitch-shifting, and compositing to consider variation and

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conditions. It is also possible, and desirable, to remove unwanted sound
using digital noise-reduction software, which cleans the sound without
radically disturbing the original recording. Other options include reversing
and reverb, which reinvent sounds by shifting their pitch, and Doppler
(named after Austrian physicist Christian Doppler), which alters the
audiences perception of sound perspective. This is often used to encourage
the establishment of a point of view in a sequence, and is best illustrated by
the way an emergency vehicle siren sounds higher pitched as it races toward
us and lower pitched as it speeds away.

Synchronizing sound
The layering of sound effects to enhance music, dialogue, and narration
should be carefully handled to provide the correct weight and nuance to
animated content. Synchronizing the sound effects against other aural forms
allows instances of recognition and confirmation of actions or events to be
achieved, as well as creating dramatic points or periods of delay and tension.
The decision about the placement and panning of the sound effects is taken
in the final mix, where the sounds can be considered alongside final cuts of
narrative, dialogue, and music.

The working sound studio

The advent and availability of sound-recording, production, mixing, and
editing technology to create professional-quality soundscapes has
developed significantly in the past two decades. By using a computer with
audio software, supplemented with synchronized hardware such as video

Independent productions often work on small

budgets and so need to creatively improvise
sound design. Madame Tutli-Putlis sound design
is cleverly crafted to complement the art direction
of the animated film.

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4. monitors and mixing desks, it has been possible to achieve high levels of
production at a fraction of the cost charged by professional studios. Through
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a mixture of the sound designers creativity and technological knowledge,

professional recording possibilities are now available for independent
animators and students at a competitive price.

Collecting and processing data

There is now a host of powerful software applications capable of working
across Mac and PC platforms using advanced authoring formats, including
Pro Tools, Logic Audio, Audition, and Nuendo. The ability to store, copy, and
edit files means that far more can be done with them without disturbing or
damaging the original recording, using dual processors for speed of working
and stability of stored data. Working with digital audio systems also has the
advantage of creating detailed visual data in the form of waves that illustrate
the audio files, allowing the sense of sight to help in making accurate edits,
rather than the analog tradition of using hearing alone. These edited audio
files can be checked using QuickTime Player (Mac) or Microsoft Windows
Media Player (PC).
Most audio software also includes MIDI technology, which is able to
recognize data being emitted from electronic sound sources, such as
keyboards and drum machines. This data can be captured, edited, and
recycled by both composers and sound designers building effects.
In other cases, synthesizers and samplers can be synchronized directly to
the computer to provide bespoke sounds and yet more options for sound-
effect generation. Then the files are encoded using systems such as Nuendo
Dolby Digital or SmartCode DTS-DVD. Software and hardware are connected
through an audio interface using FireWire or USB technology, providing both
input and output options.

Mixing desks
Given the complexity of the sound component of an animated production,
it is desirable to build any soundscape with as much real-time hands-on
control as possible. The modern studio mixing desk allows the sound
engineer to work with source visuals, editing and mixing sound stems in
tandem to create the overall aural feel of the scene in question. These mixing
desks allow for stereo panning of individual sounds by seemingly placing
sounds around the audience, or by surrounding the audience in a cloak of
sound. Additionally, the panel allows sounds to be faded and checked using
parallel audio and video playback monitors.

Conclusion
Sound performs a vital role in animation but, because the visual action on
screen is constantly moving and evolving, it is often marginalized. In many

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respects, successful sound design should accompany the visual action, in
certain circumstances introducing, developing, and signaling aspects of the
plot or characters, while in other parts providing a more emotive or evocative
background, encouraging the audience to ponder and reflect on the story
or anticipate what might follow. By default, audiences will, therefore, be
more aware of a score, musical cues, or special effects at certain points.
The success of the sound design hinges on careful planning and good
execution by the members of the crew responsible for interpreting the script
and story ideas, designing the sound to include music, dialogue, narration,
and special effects where appropriate, and preparing for these recordings to
take place in the production phase. Now the project is gathering pace, with
the consolidation of visual and sound planning material providing momentum
for the crew. The different components of the production are still very much
working in tandem, marshaled by the director, and it will soon be time to
finally review the preproduction material for agreement and sign-off, signaling
that the project can now move into full production.

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5.

Production
The real advantage of animation as an artificially constructed medium is
the variety of ways that projects can be realized. This flexibility ensures that
traditional and digital processes can co-exist, enabling traditionalists and
purists to continue producing work in the field, but opening up the possibility
that new participants can use animation also for communication, information,
education, and entertainment productions. From simple projection devices,
such as the zoetrope and praxinoscope, through traditional hand-drawn
and painted cels, stop motion, and jointed puppets, to advanced computer-
generated virtual animation, the continuing experimental possibilities of
animation are central to its extraordinary success as a pervasive and
progressive art form. A great idea, a burning ambition to tell a particular
story, or a compulsion to deliver a particular set of facts, coupled with a
thorough understanding of previous, current, and potential future techniques
of animation are the raw ingredients needed to produce exciting work.
This chapter examines the variety of production methods used to create
animated contenttraditional cel animation, stop motion, 3D computer-
generated imagery (CGI), and unorthodox processes. Consideration is
given to the history and development of these forms, illustrating successful
exponents of each and providing detail about the benefits and limitations
that students can expect to contend with when producing their own work.
Attention is also given to the development of sound in the production Choosing animation as a preferred
phase and the signing off of the final work by the director. communication vehicle has been commercially
very successful for the British bank Lloyds TSB,
with spin-off merchandising following public
awareness and brand recognition.

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 Barry Purves animating on set.
5.
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The animation pipeline in production

The animation pipeline in the production phase varies slightly according to
the processes and techniques used. As a general rule, two-dimensional work
is key-framed, with drawings or images created identifying the main actions
in the scene in tandem with the pencil tests made for each character to
enable them to move convincingly. Background and scenes are created,
and the in-between frames are generated to link the key frames together,
smoothing the movements of the characters and objects in the scenes.
Frames that have been drawn or scanned are tidied in clean-up ready
for inking and painting. The process of compositing layers can then begin,
developing the level of detail that may be required for each frame before
picture editing and rendering complete the process and create a final
workprint of the animation.
Three-dimensional production differs inasmuch as the image-making
process is largely achieved through modeling the form, either as a whole
or as a physical or virtual skeletal framework. The model will usually need to
have its articulation engineered; in a virtual production process the technique
of rigging creates data-mapped points that the crew can use to
manipulate the model by dragging a cursor to a desired position on screen.
The model is then animated by enacting movement with the body, limbs, and
lips to make the character walk, gesticulate, and talk. Once the basic moves
have been established, the model is lit to heighten its sense of presence,
drama, and intensity. The captured film or data is composited together to
bring all the animated shots together as one combined frame and rendered
or blended together to achieve a final workprint.

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 Dads Dead (2002) is noteworthy for Chris
Shepherds decision to use a variety of animation
production processes to challenge the viewers
perception of mediated images.

Introduction to basic techniques

In essence, all animation is made using the principle of creating a still frame,
recording it, and playing it back with corresponding frames to give the illusion
of movement. The variation comes through the creators choice of materials,
dimensions, and method of capture and is not simply confined necessarily to
one form or technique. Indeed, the dynamism and versatility of animation are
repeatedly expressed through productions that use multiple techniques and
processes to convey meaning. A good example is the award-winning short
film Dads Dead (2002) directed by Chris Shepherd, which cleverly uses
multiple animated techniques mixed with live action to engagingly tell the
story of childhood experiences through a boy who has lost his father. The
innocence of the animated techniques is juxtaposed against the often dark
and subversive content, providing an uneasy viewing experience.
For those new to animation, it is helpful to have some understanding
of the history and significance of the moving image. This not only requires
a theoretical and critical knowledge and comprehension of the history of
the subject but also an appreciation of how different practical devices such
as zoetropes and praxinoscopes were invented, enabling the illusion of
movement to be illustrated. These simple motion devices played an important
historical part in creating the illusion of movement on which many of todays
production processes are based. They all play on the idea of the illusion of
movement by using moving parts themselves.

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5. Simple motion devices
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Magic lanternrecords detailing the existence of magic lanterns date back

to 1660, but it was really in mid-eighteenth-century France that the device
became well known to the public, being used as a popular form of
entertainment. Early versions back-projected an image onto a screen and
operators created intriguing shapes with their hands. As lighting
developed, shows became more sophisticated and slides were introduced
depicting black-painted silhouettes.
Slidesearly slides were made of glass surrounded by a wooden frame,
which was drawn or painted on and slotted into a magic lantern. The
introduction of accompanying smoke created by lighting small fires and
sounds made by musicians playing live at the venue gave further life to A phenakistoscope disk.
these projected still images. Limited color could also be applied using the
process of decalcomania, which transferred pictures as decals (a low-tack
transparent adhesive sheet printed with the image) onto the glass surface.
Slides developed greatly with the arrival of photographic processes in the
mid-1850s, allowing a background slide to have a foreground slide placed
over it which could be moved by hand, thus animating the scene.
Thaumatropean example of a two-state animation device where two
images are alternated in quick succession, tricking the eye into believing
that both are appearing together. The two images are displayed on
opposite sides of a circular or rectangular surface suspended by strings.
The surface is then spun and the two images alternate rapidly, merging
into one. If a goldfish is drawn on one side, and a bowl on the other,
spinning the surface seems to show the goldfish inside its bowl.
Kaleidoscopea tubular container, the inside of which has been inlaid
with mirrors and an object, or picture, placed at the far end. By looking
through the spy hole at the near end of the tube and rotating it, myriad
patterns, colors, and shapes are created for the viewer.
Phenakistoscopeinvented by Joseph Plateau in 1832, this device creates
an animated loop for the viewer. A series of images is drawn on a disk,
interspersed by a series of slits. The disk is attached to a vertical handle,
and is held facing a mirror. The viewer spins the disk and looks through
the slits to view the animated loop.
Zoetropesimilar to the phenakistoscope in principle, the zoetrope is a
drum with a series of equidistant slits cut into its side. A long strip covered
in incremental drawings is placed on the inside wall of the drum and,
when rotated, the viewer sees the drawings appear to move.
Praxinoscopeinstead of using slits like the zoetrope, a series of mirrors
positioned centrally inside the drum reflects the drawings resting on the
drums inner wall.

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Cel animation and traditional
2D processes

A common way to understand the basic principles of animation is through the

process of simple cel animation. The technique has been used extensively,
from full-length animated feature films right through to animated television
commercials. Cel animation represents the majority of peoples understanding
about what constitutes the form, as it is often encountered for the first time as
a child through animated cartoons. A glimpse into Japanese animator Koji
Yamamuras studio reveals shelves of individually
hand-drawn images that have been scanned to
Drawn cel animation create sequences.
The process of drawn cel animation gives an animator great artistic freedom
and an intimate sense of engagement with the creation of animated work.
Two-dimensional drawings are created on separate surfaces that are
calibrated by fixing them to the same registered position, photographed, and
then played back in order, so as to create a simple linear animated sequence.
Patented by Earl Hurd in 1915, cel animation traditionally consisted of
rough drawings created in light-blue pencil (invisible to photographic
processes), which were then drawn over in pencil or ink to finalize the design.
The individually inked line drawings were crafted onto single prepunched
acetate cels (or animation paper) by the animator at the animation table.
The table was tilted at an angle toward the animator, lit from underneath, with
the cel fixed on a peg-bar (a piece of wood or plastic fixed to the desk, with
notches to register the punched holes) directly over the light source, which
illuminated a movable frosted glass or plastic disk in the center of the table. A student reviews his scanned drawn cel on
screen.
The illuminated disk allowed the animator to draw the new image onto a cel
using the previous cel as a guide underneath, ensuring that moves previously
drawn were incremental and consistently in keeping with the intended action.
The inked cels were turned over and painted on the back using acrylic
paint on a factory line and, once dry, were turned right side up for filming.
In the heyday of this kind of production during the 1930s and 1940s, many
women were employed by the animation-producing Hollywood studios to ink
and paint the cels. The results of this process are known by millions around
the world through the seminal works of the Walt Disney Studios. It remains
the method of choice for many animators today, including Koji Yamamura,
Joanna Quinn, Bill Plympton, Igor Kovalyov, and Frdric Back, who have
each explored the medium with different expressive dry and wet media to
exciting effect.
Two-dimensional drawn animation has expanded beyond these early
industrial methods and can imaginatively encompass drawing on paper
using a variety of wet and dry media and textural and tonal surfaces. The
further possibilities of using creative digital media, such as Adobe Photoshop
and Illustrator, allow artists to create digital frames as separate files or to layer
frames over one another to control more effects.

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5. Rotoscoping
The rotoscope was invented and championed by the Fleischer brothers
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in 1915. The writer Mark Langer describes the rotoscope as a device that
allowed the rear projection of a live-action film frame-by-frame on to a
translucent surface set into a drawing board. An animator could simply trace
each live-action image on to a piece of paper, advance the film by another
frame and repeat the process. By these means, the live-action images
became a guide to detailed and lifelike animation. Rotoscoping was used
specifically to great effect in the Cab Calloway dance-walks in a number Rotoscoping was used as reference to great
effect in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937),
of Betty Boop cartoons, and as reference to help animate the sequences where Snow Whites character came alive through
where Snow White appeared in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937). pioneering use of the technique, combined with
the skillful art direction of Webb Smith. Disney
While the instrument has been superseded by more efficient digital
technology, the term rotoscoping is still in evidence today. It is arguably
the closest form of technique linking live-action film to a two-dimensionally
animated process. Rotoscoping has the potential to give the animator
freedom to make content and stylistic editing decisions, making it useful
for showing technically accurate, but non-specific information. For example,
it could be used to show particular figurative actions or situations without
revealing the individual, by masking his or her identity.
However, as a technique that enables a form of translation to occur,
it is worth noting that visual differences between reality in cinema and in
animation mean that investing solely in such techniques can produce visual
results that can appear wooden. Avoiding such unnatural depictions of form
and movement requires careful checking and tweaking by the animator. Thanks to digital animation pioneer John
Stehuras film, Cibernetik 5.3 (1964), the
possibilities of merging art and science through
2D computer-generated images animation became a possibility for exploration
and output.
Two-dimensional computer-generated animation is created, produced, and
edited exclusively using digital technology. The animator commands the
computer to store and act on creative instructions, processing them into a
form of mathematical data that translates how each frame of animation is
constructed, rendered, and pieced together in a corresponding sequence.
While some may consider digital technology a relatively young phenomenon,
in animation it has existed for a significant period. Highlighted by independent
pioneers such as Larry Cuba, Ed Emshwiller, and John Stehura, who
embraced, experimented, and shaped digital production possibilities during
the early 1960s, computer-generated imagery has informed and developed
an important strand of animation production through larger studios and
smaller production companies. Much of that early experimentation and
research with primitive digital technology has informed software production.
Today, there is a significant variety of production, editing, and compositing
software available for a fraction of the cost once associated with this kind of
production. Such availability and affordability opens new doors of possibility
for animators, and has also encouraged other creatives to explore computer-
generated animation.

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 Toon Boom Animate Pro allows animators the
opportunity to create content, animate, and
composite all in one program.

CGI platforms
While acknowledging that computer-generated imagery has revolutionized
the production of animated projects, especially for independent producers
and small studios, it is worth remembering that this revolution has also
affected the editing, compositing, and distribution of digitally made work.
A platform for creating work is generally dependent on the software used.
For simple core designing, processing, and editing of images, the Adobe
programs Photoshop and Illustrator, together with Corel Painter, are good
examples of versatile and user-friendly off-the-shelf packages available to
buy at competitive prices.
Animators wanting to scan, line test, ink, and paint cels and animate
movements use programs such as Cambridge Systems Animo, Toon Boom,
and Bauhaus Mirage, with Cel Action and After Effects popular among
independent producers. On larger-scale productions, several studios have
in-house developers responsible for creating specific software programs.

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5. Often these developers are highly qualified computer scientists who work
closely with their creative counterparts to seek solutions to difficult production
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problems and these products are then offered to the wider market to fund
future projects. A good example of such a program is Pixars Renderman.

Adobe Flash
A program primarily directed at helping animators create work for the Web,
Flash is cheap and easy to learn and has proved to be an extremely versatile
product. It is a good example of a transitional program: written originally
to work as a drawing tool, it was reincarnated as an animation package to
respond to the rapid growth of new technology. Flash has gone on to be the
tool of choice to create simple, effective pieces of animation online where
bandwidth is limited and large and complex image files would clog a users
system unnecessarily. Increasingly, it is also used for creating limited
animation, with several studios, including Studio AKA and Robbers Dog,
creating successful productions using Flash that showcase a creators
economical conceptual, development, and articulation prowess.

Stop-motion animation
As the term implies, a simple motion can be created between stops by
manipulating elements incrementally in front of, or under, the camera and
then shooting the result as an individual frame. The finer the move in each
frame, the smoother the transition when played back in sequence. This is
what makes stop motion so time-consuming, but equally so rewarding.
For a seconds worth of animation, twenty-four frames will need to be
manipulated, anchored, lit, and shot. Stop motion can be two-dimensional
or three-dimensional in format, and includes techniques such as oil- or
sand-on-glass animation, two-dimensional cut-out animation, puppetry
using stringed or silhouette forms, and clay animation.

2D stop motion
There are several ways of working two-dimensionally in stop motion,
each essentially applying the principle of incremental movement effected
and recorded by the animator, creating a frame of film. Animators have
experimented widely with simple malleable media to striking effect.

Sand and oil-paint animation

Applying oil paint or sand onto a glass surface allows the animator to draw
with, inscribe into, or in some way manipulate the materials on a surface
that is non-absorbent. Both materials are useful to animate with: dry sand
can be worked endlessly and oil paint remains wet under lights that become
increasingly hot, allowing the animator time to draw or paint. Shooting each
movement from above using a suspended camera attached to a secured

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metal frameworkknown as a rigmakes for a rewarding working method. Working with transitory materials such as paint
or sand on a non-porous surface creates
It allows important acts such as metamorphosis to occur. It is also possible interesting opportunities, illustrated here by
to film more than one layer at once in a single frame by adding other layers Ferenc Caks film, rints [Touch] (2009).
above or below the original. In this instance, the animator needs to determine
which parts of the lower layers are going to be obscured. This process
effectively enables limited animation to happen without the need to redraw a
whole new frame. An example might be where a characters face appears in
shot, but the only movement is the eyes looking left and right, so only the
eyes need to be animated through the next few frames.

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5. Simple paper cut-outs
Allied to the idea of working with layers, the process of paper cut-out animation
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can be used to striking effect for relatively little effort. A technique best
employed where only simple or limited incremental movements are required, it
is both a cost- and time-effective method of creating a credible and believable
animated result. Famously employed by Terry Gilliam in the animated
sequences of Monty Pythons Flying Circus, the technique uses pieces of
paper, card, or cloth that have been cut, torn, or folded and placed on a
surface where they can be manipulated and recorded frame-by-frame. To
create a character using such a technique the animator must create a series of
heads, torsos, and limbs that can be placed, removed, and replaced by others The late Oliver Postgate with fellow creator Peter
Firmin was responsible for creating some of the
incrementally to create a desired move. The greater the number of most endearing childrens animated television
interchangeable parts, the more sophisticated the movements can become. series, including Ivor the Engine (above), Noggin
the Nog, and The Clangers.
However, the process does require great craftsmanship and a mastery of
technique to manipulate the limited elements convincingly so that they can
be read correctly in motion. Those willing to attempt the technique must
be organized in the way that scenes are constructed and recorded and
need to pay particular attention to the way movements are planned, timed,
and documented, as mistakes are difficult to correct in postproduction.
The rewards of using the technique are revealed in the works of many
wonderful artists who have imaginatively and enthusiastically embraced the
process. Examples include the veteran Russian Yuri Norsteins masterpiece
Hedgehog in the Fog (1975) and British animator Oliver Postgates collection
of childrens television series such as Ivor the Engine and Noggin the Nog.

3D stop motion
This technique simply enables three-dimensional forms to be created,
manipulated, and captured. The process is complex but is rewarded by
the potential to achieve magical results, since every element within the
frame will have been crafted to match the creators expectation. Sets, props,
and characters are imaginatively constructed from a variety of materials to
make full use of the spatial possibilities of this kind of format. Meticulous
preparation is required to dress the set for shooting, successfully manipulate
the elements within the frame to indicate movement, and also control
conditions around the set itself to ensure stability and continuity. Stop
motion as a technique encompasses areas such as puppet animation,
clay animation (also known as claymation), model or object animation,
and go motion.

Armatures
Where figures require manipulation to suggest movement, an armature is
needed to act as a strong skeletal framework. The armature can be made
from any material that is sturdy enough to support the weight of its body
material. Armatures can be bought or individually crafted, but much will
depend on the kind of movement the figure is anticipated to make. Small

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movements may only require certain parts of the figure to move, but full-scale This sequence of images from Madame Tutli-Putli
shows the creation of the armatures and puppets
movement will ultimately mean the armature will need to be finely engineered. used in the film, working from a twisted wire
Simple armatures can be fashioned from wood, which has the advantage construction and using custom-molded parts
to authentically create original characters.
of being easily shaped and joined but has limited durability. A more robust
choice is an armature made from metal such as aluminum, which is light,
strong, and reliablean important consideration given how many thousands
of potential movements will need to be created to animate a production.
These armatures are normally movable using ball-and-socket joints that
allow for a variety of poses and holds to be staged.

Puppets
A puppet is a representation of a human or animal form, or an inanimate
object, that is manipulated by a puppeteer to animate movement. Animation
has had a long and successful association with the puppet form, particularly
in the Eastern European tradition of toy-making and puppetry through the
talents of Jir Trnka and George Pal. Trnka lived in his native Czechoslovakia
all his life and created the masterpiece Ruka (The Hand) (1965) where
a puppet interacts with a live hand as a tale is told of oppression and
censorship using deft but hugely loaded figurative movements. Pal escaped
Nazi Germany for Hollywood, where he invented the Puppetoon for
Paramount through a series of stop-motion short films and also created
special effects for films such as War of the Worlds (1953).
Historically, puppets have been used as props to tell stories or explain
myths and legends in many forms throughout the world. From the carved
wooden Bunraku puppets developed in Japan in the seventeenth century,
through to simple cut-out shadow puppets that form silhouettes against lit
backgrounds, to hand puppets such as Punch and Judy where the character

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5. is worn like a glove by the puppeteer and fingers inside are used to indicate
movements, puppets and marionettes have been central to an audiences
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understanding a creators intentions. Animators Vladislav Starevich,

Willis OBrien, and Ray Harryhausen are pertinent examples of creators
who have achieved global critical acclaim for their productions featuring
puppet animation, the latter two combining their artistic and technical
prowess to create Mighty Joe Young (1949). The tradition continues today
with such animators as Britains Barry Purves, whose film characters display
a remarkably complex but educated affinity with figurative movement. The Brothers Quay film, Street of Crocodiles
(1986), pays homage to Eastern European
As previously noted, puppets can also be object-based, enabling creators animation traditions.
to explore surreal worlds beyond the seemingly feasible and to deal with
deeper and more complex spiritual or psychic behavior. For example,
the Czech animator Jan Svankmajer has centered much of his work around
interpreting the meaning of dreams and memories, often using objects as
motifs to embody and crystallize wider philosophical ideas. Street of

Eastern Europe has a rich and varied tradition

of puppet animation, influencing many
contemporary animators in other parts of the
world, such as Liz Walkers Invisible Thread
company in the UK.

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 Master stop-motion animator Barry Purves with
his Tchaikovsky puppet, created by Mackinnon
and Saunders, for the film of the same name
released in 2011.

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5. Crocodiles (1986) by the Brothers Quay (comprising Americans Stephen
and Timothy Quay), adapted from the Bruno Schulz short story, is a good
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example of an object-based surreal world, where a figure is trapped inside

an old machine that is shared by other objects that alarmingly come to life.
Unlike conventional actors performing on a stage set, puppets are able
to walk a proverbial tightrope of possibilities, projecting an air of believability
while performing movements that in human form are restricted or impossible
to achieve. They can be moved simply by one person who uses their skill
to portray the movements of the character, or by a team of puppeteers
working together to express more complicated acts. Usually, the puppeteer
will remain out of shot and direct the puppet using a system of strings, rods,
or even remote control. However, in some cases, the puppeteer(s) can
become integral to the scene, as illustrated by Guilherme Marcondess Tyger
(2006), which uses a mixture of live-action film of the puppet tiger being Guilherme Marcondes took the unusual step of
manipulated superimposed over computer-generated animated sequences employing puppeteers as actors in his film, Tyger
(2006), who are intrinsically connected to the very
and original photographs. fabric of the film by amplifying the movements of
the puppet tiger.

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Beyond the facility to articulate movement, puppets also have the great
advantage of being able to be constructed to different scales depending
on the stage on which they will perform. Their features can be scaled up
and engineered to provide movements, while other parts of the body of the
puppet remain dormant. This allows key movements to be articulated that
can give the greatest resonance to a character, while still maintaining a sense
of believability and harmony in the overall design.
One of the most famous historical examples of innovative puppetry
in animation exists in Gerry and Sylvia Andersons original Thunderbirds Having a series of presculpted heads that are
interchangeable saves valuable production time
television series, where the process of Supermarionation is employed to and offers extensive creative possibilities while
animate characters. The term is derived from the words super, marionette, on set.
and animation, and the process involved an ingenious mixture of traditional
marionette wired movements combined with synchronized mouth movements
driven by tiny solenoid motors inside the puppets heads. These motors were
triggered from an electronic signal on the prerecorded tape of the actors
voice. However, while the heads and arms may have articulated relatively
complex movementsbeing the most expressive parts of a puppet
characterthe legs and main torso appeared static and were often disguised
using poses that would not showcase their deficiencies. Puppets requiring
several puppeteers to manipulate them clearly require great technique and
communication skills and an exemplary understanding of exaggerated
continual movement.

Clay animation (claymation)

Pioneered by the work of animator Helena Smith Dayton, who was working
with clay in 1917, and illustrated to dramatic effect by the work of Bob
Gardiner and Will Vinton in their Academy Award-winning film Closed
Mondays (1974), and more recently by Aardman Animations in the United
Kingdom, clay animation, or claymation, has been used widely from feature
films to commercials. The use of modeling clay (Plasticine) provides a
pertinent example of a hands-on approach to animation, allowing figures,
props, and sets to be sculpted and manipulated to create movement at low
cost and with maximum flexibility. Sculpting and modeling by hand ensures
that the final production is imbued with a degree of authenticity and craft.
Simple clay animation can be created instantaneously, as the properties
of the medium allow the weight of the clay to support surprising movement
possibilities. For more complex productions, using an armature as a base
is a necessity. Characters can be built up, modeled, and remodeled in
clay endlessly until the desired effects are achieved. During the process
of animating itself, variations to body poses and facial gestures can be
easily sculpted thanks to the pliable and forgiving nature of the medium.
Animators often have a series of heads, limbs, and torsos that can replace
the current one, both to speed up the process and to avoid unnecessary
drastic remodeling.

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5. Model and object animation
These processes are commonly used in conjunction with live-action film-
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making, where aspects of the scene that cannot be filmed in real time are
artificially constructed, manipulated, and edited into the live-action footage.
A good historical example is Ray Harryhausens Jason and the Argonauts
(1963), where armed stop-motion animated model skeletons seemingly grow
out of the ground and attack the live-action Jason, played by actor Todd
Armstrong. The battle scene, which lasts four minutes, took Harryhausen
nearly five months to produce.
Perhaps one of the most complex stop-motion
sequences ever shot, Nick Parks The Wrong
Go motion
Trousers (1993), sees Wallace and Gromit
Go motion was invented by Phil Tippett at ILM (George Lucass Industrial engaged in an epic pursuit of Feathers McGraw.
Light and Magic) originally for The Empire Strikes Back (1980) and was
used extensively in the film Dragonslayer (1981). Connected to stop-motion
principles, this method relies on the process of motion blur created using
techniques between frames of film that nullify the stops between frames.
Animators move a model incrementally during the exposure of each film
frame, producing a motion blur. The crucial difference between the
processes is that while stop-motion frames are made up of stills taken
between the small movements of the model, frames in go motion represent
images of the object taken while it is moving. This approach is usually
created with the help of a computer, often using rods connected to the model
that the computer can manipulate to reproduce movements programmed in
by the animators. It has now largely been superseded by CGI technology.

Sets and lighting

Even the most simple stop-motion sets are often elaborately designed, and
their creators pay painstaking attention to detail to ensure that every aspect
of the design works efficiently, showcasing scenes in ways that are
convincing and often imaginatively remarkable. In a production, members
Stop-motion animation relies on teamwork and
of the crew will be specially chosen for their design and construction ability, communication, with lots of animators working in
both in relation to the physical materiality of the set itself and for the crucial tight, confined spaces at any one time.
lighting design that works hand-in-hand to achieve the desired unity of finish.

Set design
In practical terms, the set has to be stable and solid, but must also have
scope for expansion and be able to be manipulated from different positions
as required by the director. Understanding the scene outlined in the
storyboard and masterminding a design that can incorporate all of the action
that will take place within that scene are paramount. Thought needs to be
given to the size, scale, and proximity of the camera, or series of cameras if a
more complex scene is required. Other considerations involve the placement
of internal walls and dividers so that camera moves and shots are not
impeded, the provision for lighting, and the placement of key props that will
be used or referred to in a scene. Above all, planning needs to ensure that

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 Above Stop-motion sets need to satisfy aesthetic
and practical requirements, so designing entry
points is important to aid accessibility, while
ensuring continuity in the shooting sequences.

Left This image demonstrates the complexity

and scale of a stop-motion set, requiring its own
studio and extensive lighting rigs that can be
easily manipulated and changed by the crew.

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5. the animator is able to reach into the set and manipulate the characters
without accidentally moving other aspects of the filmed frame, and that
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the camera can move back sufficiently to allow an establishing shot without
capturing superfluous material beyond the limit of the set.
Sets can be built at a variety of heights depending on needs and
conditions. Generally, it is favorable to have the set built at a height
that allows maximum flexibility but that promotes comfortable working
conditions for the crew, given the number of hours they are likely to be
filming. This set-up also allows trap doors to be built in larger sets, giving Maciek Szczerbowski adjusts a custom-created
lighting rig on the set of Madame Tutli-Putli.
animators more accessibility to move props. The set must be as temperature-
and atmosphere-resistant as possible, usually best achieved using an indoor
environment. This also allows lighting to be carefully orchestrated on set to
remain consistent and reliable, and to avoid casting unnecessary shadows
that could detract from the overall feature.

Lighting
Lighting design is frequently undervalued by the audience, but is a highly
prized skill among the production crew. It requires technical prowess to think
ahead and plan how lighting will best optimize a scene, but may also involve
some immediate creativity to overcome structural problems. Different lights
and positions create variety for the director in a single scene.
On a basic level, stop-motion sets operate using three-point lighting:
A key light illuminates the core focus in the scene, usually from slightly to one
side to appear natural; the fill light compensates for the shadow cast by the
subject from the key light; backlights are employed to distance the subject
from the background and are usually hidden between the subject and the
background to minimize the possibility of unwanted shadows being cast.
The intensity of lighting can also be controlled to suggest different conditions
or evoke particular emotions. Sets bathed in strong light are described as
having high-key lighting, whereas subtle depictions are considered as
being low-key. Specialized variations of these core principles can be
applied according to the director and lighting designers instructions to give
extra dimensions to the sets.

Construction materials for sets and props

Despite often meticulous planning, there is still an element of uncertainty
involved in the construction and modeling of sets. As designs mapped out
on paper are translated into three dimensions, hybrid solutions are often
employed to construct sets and build supporting props. It is essential to
experiment with materials, processes, and techniques to best represent ideas
concerning surface properties, in order to achieve believable representations
of products. It should be remembered that where the production is being
used in an advertising context, many clients require their products to be
displayed outright and this needs to be borne in mind throughout the
development process.

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 Extensive research and testing of materials goes
into the construction of an animation set, to create
an environment that befits the production.

Most sets are constructed around a wooden framework and glued and
screwed together for strength and durability. The outer paneling of the stage
set itself is often fashioned out of plywood as this is relatively light but sturdy.
Plywood can also be quickly removed or applied using a system of dowel
rods and holes to give flexibility to some shots where changes in camera
angle might be required. High-density foam core also offers possibilities for
filling and modeling surfaces, as it can be easily fixed and shaped using
simple tools and mistakes are easy to rectify.
Using a metal foundation, such as perforated steel, as a floor keeps a set Hours of painstaking work is required to
manufacture each individual prop to perfection to
rigid and has the added benefit of acting as a magnetized surface, which add believability to scenes.
allows props and characters to be positioned accurately, holding poses
without the aid of supports. The floors surface can easily be disguised or
covered to resemble other materials as required yet still allow magnetism.
Other forms of tie-down systems for holding characters in place on a set
include wire loops or spikes that can be threaded through the floor of the
set, screws for more substantial models, or low-tack adhesive agents where
models are lightweight. Each requires experimentation to determine the best
suitability for purpose.
Ingenious solutions are often required to create props to furnish sets.
Props makers go to extraordinary lengths to source a wide variety of
materials and test these out through exhaustive processes to make objects
appear real. Using sculpting products such as Sculpey, Fimo, or Milliput, it is
possible to cut, mold, shape, and texture using a variety of hand tools, and
then bake the props using a household oven. They can even be painted for
extra effect if necessary. A larger item, such as a flag on a pole, might have
its own simple wire framework if it is to suggest movement, or if the join is
load-bearing. In some cases complex props have their own armatures to
allow movement where necessary. Where multiple props are required, such
as a row of soccer boots, a simpler solution may be to use a silicon mold
filled with fast-cast resin.
The central issue that is applied to all props is one of believability of scale.
In a set situation, clearly each prop needs to feel like it belongs in the scene.

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 On the set of Guilherme Marcondess Tyger
5. (2006), the crew check each movement of the
puppet on the facing video screen.
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Nonetheless, in shots that offer a close-up of the character interacting with

a prop, such as pouring tea from a teapot, it may well be more appropriate
to work in a larger scale to show more detailssuch as labels, patterns,
or surface texturesand to scale up the characters hands in proportion
to compensate.

Checking the lming of stop-motion animation

As 3D stop motion is a slow process requiring many separate actions to
facilitate movements, it is important for the production crew to check filming
as it is being recorded. Studios use a system called video assist, which
shows the scene being filmed on a television monitor, flattening the three-
dimensional set into a two-dimensional image. A video camera is mounted
on the studio camera viewfinder, at the same lens angle, ensuring that the
production crew see exactly the same shot that the studio camera is seeing.
Animators can then examine movements of the figures by directly tracing
onto the monitor screen using a water-soluble pen, checking whether these
movements flow correctly by imitating the principles of anticipation, slow ins
and outs, and so on.
Using a parallel computer-based video recorder, the image is viewed
on the studios digital frame store, which looks like a small video mixing desk.
It stores the last shot image and compares it to the one about to be shot.
A slider control allows the crew to gently mix between the two images,
ensuring details are correct and spotting any mistakes, such as unexpected
movements with the characters, props, or set. Increasingly, digital stills
cameras are employed as the technology has developed significantly in
a short space of time. The recorded still images are stored on a computer

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attached to the video assist, allowing the animator to add or delete frames
during production. The crew are able to employ onion-skinning during
shooting, checking several frames in unison using semi-opaque layers to
determine the best sequence.

3D computer-generated images
Animation has enjoyed a long tradition of experimenting with emerging
technologies and animators have been quick to seize on the creative
possibilities that computer-generated imagery enables. As a result, there
has been a significant digital shift, which has been felt in three-dimensional
animation as well as its two-dimensional counterpart. Such emerging
technologies have been capitalized upon both by creators already interested
in animation and by users who have seen the possibility of telling stories or
exploring ideas that were previously difficult because of a lack of knowledge
or opportunity. Inevitably, pioneering work in the field has encouraged some
to work in tandem with software and hardware industries to develop new
products, such as Dragonframe, that can push the medium forward.
3D computer-generated animation merges stop-motion animation
and frame-by-frame animation by allowing animators to create and
manipulate worlds in which characters and environments are constructed
as mathematically-rendered data. Like stop-motion animation, three-
dimensional computer-generated imagery is predominantly created in an
artificial state, and every aspect of what is seen on screen needs to be
constructed. This primarily includes characters, props, and sets, but also
involves how these elements are painted, lit, and positioned, and indeed,
how they move. Animators working in this field, therefore, need to have
not only complete knowledge of the programs they are using to create
the production but also a significant awareness of cinematography,
movement, and narrative techniques to bring ideas to life. While different
programs offer myriad approaches to designing, producing, and outputting
three-dimensional computer-generated creations, the basic operational
sequence of production involves designing and modeling, creating a
framework or rig, animating and lighting, applying surface textures and
colors, adding special effects, rendering, and compositing the material,
checking and touching up any inaccuracies, and finally outputting the
material ready for distribution (see pages 17377).

Designing and modeling

Designing and modeling a character on screen may require different kinds
of physical skills, but the intellectual approach to describing, developing, and
testing shapes is similar to conventional means. A basic shape on screen
can be created by establishing a point, known as a vertex, and then plotting
another vertex in a different location. The computer connects the path

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 Technological advances have enabled the
5. realistic simulation of hair and skin, which are
notoriously hard to recreate.
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between each vertex with a line known as a vector. Subsequent vector

lines define squares, rectangles, and triangles that can be pieced together
to create the properties and contours of the imagined shape. These shapes
can also be joined together to create the basic model. And like stop motion,
virtual armatures can be created inside the model to be coded to perform
particular roles in the production if necessary.

Rigs and texturing

With the basic model assembled virtually, more complex adjustments can Exquisite lighting design in this frame plays
on the sense of anticipation and wonder in
be made throughout the process by clicking a vertex or vector and dragging a dreamscape environment, as Marc Craste
it across the screen to a desired position through a process known as directs a television advertisement for The National
Lottery in the UK.
rigging. Rigging provides the ability to finely adjust the virtual model,
but it also enables a series of connected moves to be established through
parenting objects. This effectively groups together shapes and enables
animators to mimic real-life actions by anticipating or following on actions.
With rigging complete, the animator can begin to color and texture the
virtually modeled object, applying surfaces that give added information
and authenticity to the shape.
The transparency and opacity of colored and textured surfaces can
be altered using alpha channels. These are graded controls, created in the
computer program, that allow the animator to try different visual description
options to give maximum versatility. In recent years, imaging technology
has developed to simulate more natural properties like fur, hair, and skin,
but identical matches with real examples are difficult to achieve and are,
perhaps, overrated. Instead, the animators ability to ingeniously improvise
and experiment with importing surfaces into the computer program can
pay handsome dividends in creating unique and specialized results that
interpret situations and circumstances more convincingly on screen than
a faithful rendition.

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150
5. Animating and lighting Opposite The application of visual special
effects gives a production an added dimension,
To animate convincingly, the virtual environment needs to be correctly helping to achieve the directors vision by
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staged just as in any other animated process. The spatial properties of the intensifying the atmosphere and creating
theatrical drama.
set and character design, and their relationship with each other, must be
considered in tandem or the results on screen will seem awkward and forced.
The animator first establishes a path in virtual space with a start and end key
frame where the character will move from and to, calculating how much time
will be required to deliver the move. Using these key frames and processing
the time required to enact the movement, the computer simulates the action
by in-betweening the missing frames.
Lighting design, established as being important in traditional stop motion,
is crucial in a digitally rendered environment. Here, the animator has the
luxury of not having to worry about the physical weight and bulk of a real
lighting rig and instead can move the virtual light source to any position
without restriction. Key and fill lights can be dragged to various positions and
can equally be used in multiple configurations to amplify the key components
of an overall scene. This can create really atmospheric and surprising results
if used intelligently, but can also seem unnatural and glaringly wrong if the
animator does not have an empathy with the subject. Experimentation and
testing are thus key.

Visual special effects, rendering, and compositing

Despite the multiple tools at an animators disposal in the shaping, texturing,
coloring, and lighting processes, the application of visual special effects
gives production crews an extra set of tools to authenticate a project with
unique structural and atmospheric attributes. Custom-made visual special
effects are invented to simulate everything from violent thunderstorms to
spring blossoms, and from explosions to the glow of a candle. Major
animation studios occasionally employ visual special-effects studios, such as
George Lucass influential and celebrated ILM, to specifically create effects to
give their work an added dimension. For example, Steven Spielbergs movie
Jurassic Park (1993) was the first time ILMs digital visual special-effects
technology was used to depict a complete and living detailed creature.
Once designed, visual special effects produced for characters, sets, and
props are rendered, along with all of the previous processes, to blend them
together creating an overall visual outcome. The rendering process ranges
from relatively simple processing of data for independent productions right
the way through to industrial studio-sized render farms where banks of
computer processors harness the colossal processing power required to
blend the layers of information together. The compositing process takes all
the visually recorded material (such as characters, props, and sets) and
merges them together with aural components (such as dialogue, soundtrack,
and sound effects) in the order that the audience will see them. This shows
up any mistakes, which are then touched up before the material is distributed.

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Unorthodox animation
Experimentation with creating artificial forms of movement and recording them
has given artists plenty of opportunities to explore the medium of animation.
As a testimony to this, the range of unorthodox processes continually
expands, incorporating ideas from advances in technological innovation,
cultural awareness, or scientific advancement. Unorthodox animation might
encapsulate the re-programming of games or devices to create animation or
to showcase it in an unexpected venue or surprising situation. Examples of
unorthodox processes include pixilation, brick animation, auteurist or artistic
approaches, performance, live-action/animation hybrid productions,
installations, Machinema, and augmented reality.
Such developments are enthusiastically embraced by the animation
community and continue to make the subject evolve in culturally rich and
diverse ways. Unorthodox works are occasionally screened by national
broadcasters, but with the growth of the Internet have quickly and inevitably
established a cult fan base online, and also at the various international Norman McLarens experimental work,
represented here by A Chairy Tale (1957),
animation festivals. marked him out as being an important figure in
the field, and he eventually founded an animation
department at the National Film Board of Canada.
Pixilation
Exemplified by the work of such artists as Norman McLaren through films
including Neighbours (1952) and A Chairy Tale (1957), the technique of
pixilation allows the creator to use a natural subject such as a human form
but manipulate it to perform in stylized ways that are surprising or unexpected.
By moving the real-life subject incrementally, and shooting each incremental
hold of a pose as a frame, the animator is able to build a sequence that
seems to move when played back. These incremental moves may be
recorded by still or moving image cameras, and the frequency of captured
movements, together with their resulting playback, can communicate
ideas in ways that live action cannot. Filming and playback speeds can
be determined before, during, or after motion capture by the animator.
A parallel understanding of technology, and an ability to communicate
with the actor or subject, is highly desirable.
A variation of this technique, known as variable-speed cinematography,
allows the operator of a moving picture camera to record movements at
a speed of their choice. A good example of this technique is time-lapse
imagery, where a slow-speed camera is positioned to collect real-time
imagery, while the resulting footage seems to speed up when played at
normal speed. A commonly used example in live action is the depiction of
changes in atmospheric conditions leading up to a rain shower or storm.

Brick animation
Simple, cheap animations can be created using childrens building bricks
to create scenes and then shooting individual frames as stop-motion
sequences. The building bricks have the advantage of having a versatile

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5. fixing mechanism that ensures that the models will stay in position throughout
shooting. They can be customized in various ways, including by painting or
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drawing designs onto the surface, by changing the shape and form of the
blocks, or by projecting other images, lights, or shadows onto the models to
create layers of meaning for the audience. Software enhancement also opens
up the possibility of adding additional computer-assisted drawn elements
and special effects in postproduction. From humble beginnings, these films
have a cult following all of their own, and many creators have films screened
at festivals either based on their own work, or as highly accomplished
pastiches of other works, including George Lucass Star Wars (1977).

Auteur or artistic processes

Describing work as auteur (French for author) signals the recognition that
a defined and charismatic attempt has been made by the creator to imbue
their own creative direction and style on a production. Originally coined as
a term by film theorists in the 1950s, it champions the idea that the creator
or director of the production wields influence in the same way that a writer
does through the penning of his or her thoughts. As far as animated
processes of production are concerned, the term auteur more usually
identifies work that is celebrated as being unconventional and innovative,
shaped by the intervening hand of the creator. It covers a huge range of
narrative, conceptual, and ideological approaches that apply equally to
vision and sound.
Auteurist creators have discovered they can add their own imprint to
animated productions through manipulating film by cutting, scratching,
drawing, or painting images onto the surface. Equally, additional
representative or even abstracted pictorial elements can be incorporated

German-born exponent of silhouette animation,

Lotte Reiniger, took three years to produce
The Adventures of Prince Achmed (1926).

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by collaging found materials, or splicing (cutting and rejoining) previously
exposed film footage, to communicate realized or abstracted ideas.
Art and craft techniques such as batik, engraving, and stenciling are just a
few examples of the spectrum of processes that can potentially work on film.
When projected, they give an altogether different and visually arresting result.
Recognized influential exponents of auteur animation include animators Len
Lye, Lotte Reiniger, and Robert Breer. These artists championed pioneering
approaches, pushed the boundaries of the form, and celebrated the marriage
of fine art and technology as an important aspect of animation production.

Performance animation and live-action hybrids

Animation enjoys a successful history of engaging with performance and
theatrical events, in both originating and interpretative capacities. Stories
are vividly brought to life with immediacy and some degree of improvisation,
projecting a sense of awe and magic. A noted historical example includes
Winsor McCays live engagement with his animated character Gertie the
Dinosaur on stage as part of his vaudeville shows in 1914. The performative
nature of the production consumes the audience as an integral part of the
theatrical space and demands some form of engagement.
The opportunity to mix live action with animation is not solely confined to
major studios, and there are numerous examples on the independent circuit
of animators experimenting with such hybridization, often piecing together
material shot on commercial hand-held digital video cameras with animated
interjections. Liz Walker and Gavin Glovers Faulty Optic company played with
the audiences perceptions of theater and choreography through often bizarre
but heart-warming enactments.

Winsor McCay drew 10,000 illustrations and

photographed each of them to create Gertie
the Dinosaur (1914).

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 Animation and live-action performance are
5. routinely employed by Liz Walker in her
performances, including Plucked, which was
created in her more recent role as artistic director
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of Invisible Thread.

Experimenting with living painting, Robert Seidel

merges explorative imagery with ambient music
at the Phyletic Museum in Jena, Germany.

Installations
Several animation film festivals have experimented with the concept of
installation animation, thereby bringing art to the public sphere rather
than using conventional means of showcasing work, notably the Platform
Animation Festival in Portland, Oregon, in 2007. The process exposes
animation to different potential audiences and allows featured work to exist
in a different scale and surroundings from that originally intended. Installation
animation works most successfully where it incorporates some form of
audience engagement or interaction, and is becoming more commonplace

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for such places as museums, galleries, and information centers to explain
their exhibits, especially where factual knowledge is still being uncovered.
A good example of installation animation might be a planetarium, where
images of planets, stars, and faraway galaxies are projected into the viewing
arena, simulating space travel.

Machinema
Computer games and animation share a number of common attributes,
including artificially created worlds, characters, and storylines. More
fundamentally, many creators of animation have cut their creative teeth
in the world of computer games design, or have found animation through
playing some form of computer games. The two disciplines have many
creative, technical, and cultural crossovers.
Machinema exploits these similarities by essentially borrowing scenes,
characters, props, and even entire sets from computer game engines and
using the tools inside the computer game, such as changes in camera
angles and editors, to subvert the original meaning of the game into
something wholly different. This can be achieved by, for example, reordering
scenes, aping environments, and transporting game characters into other
game worlds. Games such as Grand Theft Auto, Quake, and The Sims have
all been used by Machinema animators as the basis for their own work. As a
note of caution, copyright laws sometimes make the legal copying of material
problematic, and some films made using this process have been stung by
legal demands from games companies.

Augmented reality
An exciting possibility for animation, augmented reality effectively allows
creators the opportunity to modify the audiences real-life view, using
animated virtual computer-generated imagery. Augmented reality is an
immediate interactive facility that merges real and virtual information in a
three-dimensional viewing area. The technology is being explored by both
individual creators and major corporations for products and services as
diverse as enhancing retail environments, selling properties to interested
buyers, supporting museum and gallery interaction, and even teaching
medical students in the middle of clinical procedures.
Augmented reality can be seen to good effect on many personal
digital assistants (PDAs), including Apples iPhone 4, which uses a global
positioning system (GPS) and solid state compass to present a view of what
the user can see in real time, regardless of his or her pose. Using layers of
information, such as statistical data, collected imagery, and other available
footage, the device enables a real worldview to be supplemented by
interactive live information. An example of this is a televised swimming race,
where a world-record pace is established for a viewer by a virtual line that
seemingly moves on the pool surface, allowing viewers to measure the real
swimmers progress against a known measurement of time.

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5. Sound in production
AnimationProduction

In preproduction, sound can be a standalone or an integral catalyst for

an animated project. An animated documentary might be based around
recorded interviews gleaned in the research and conceptual phase of a
project, while an animated music video will have a demonstration (demo)
track recorded for reference. These recorded sounds become the basis of
the first animatic, building the foundation for the gathering of more reference
to be incorporated into later animatics as more direction over the production
is exercised. In other instances, some test recordings are made of passages
of scripted dialogue or narration for creation of the animatic, and a rough
working musical score, known as a temporary (temp) track, is written,
performed, and recorded. These sound recordings also sometimes provide
the starting point for characters to be developed, while occasionally they act
as invaluable evidence that the tone of the actors voice is not right for a
particular role and needs changing or recasting.
The animatic is reincarnated over and over again, producing many
variables in terms of visual information and instructions to the crew
concerning camera angles, which invariably change depending on the
directors (or commissioners) view. However, the variations do develop
through decisions made by the director and facilitated by the crew and
the animatic will, at the very least, have its timing approved and confirmed.
This allows the sound editor to charge the sound engineers with the job of
fitting dialogue and/or narration, music, and special effects to the scenes.
Each stem of every scene is carefully edited, mixing the sound details,
playing back the recording, and checking for any mistakes or inaccuracies.
The meticulous task of processing the information received, from fine-tuning
down to the final edit, and against budget schedules and production
timelines, is now being prepared for output onto the right format for
postproduction.

Simple sound design used economically can

grammatically alter the pace of a production,
ensuring that key information is imparted to
the viewer.

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 When elements of a production are combined,
the resulting imagined world is full of magic and
intrigue.

Conclusion
The process of creating an animated production differs depending on the
technique being employed by the production crew. While some projects are
reasonably simple and straightforward, many rely on mixing production
techniques or on preparing animated sequences to be edited into live-action
material, and it is imperative that the crew remain vigilant of the final expected
outcome. This requires testing completed sequences by seeing them in
conjunction with sound, making decisions about the progress of the
animation, and either altering or confirming the schedule and keeping the
workflow on target, or reporting issues that need addressing. The director
works with the production supervisor to oversee all the elements of
production, managing the crew to keep on schedule and on budget.
Production is both an exciting and nerve-wracking time for many in
the studio, but there is also a sense of excitement and anticipation about
what is being produced. At this stage, it is sometimes necessary to have
prescreenings with production footage for specially invited audience
members. These events offer invaluable insights into how well a story is
being absorbed, and the crew will watch closely to see if characters have the
necessary appeal to and resonance with the audience. If a product or service
is being promoted, the director will carefully screen audience opinion about
whether the commercial has the right tone of voice, trying to avoid obvious
advertising but making sure the product or service conforms to the brand
expectation and the aspiration of the commissioning agency.
Regardless of which production processes are employed, the production
process is complete when the rendering has occurred and a final edit can be
signed off by the director. This is known as the final workprint, and forms the
solid foundation from which the postproduction team work on tidying up the
animation ready for release and distribution. The next chapter considers
these processes in greater depth.

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 6.

Postproduction
Postproduction signals the final phase of the animation project journey.
The purpose of postproduction is to integrate the image, sound, and special
effects aspects of the animation process into a cohesive package. This
chapter introduces the nature and scope of the animation postproduction
process for the integration of visuals and sound effects, and considers the
range of approaches that can be employed to alter the feel and potential
scope of the project. It illustrates how this phase packages the animation
into a relevant and compatible output format such that it can be handed
over for release, distribution, and screening. Discussions concerning postproduction issues
are held between an instructor and student at
California Institute of the Arts (CalArts).

The animation pipeline in postproduction

Unlike traditional film production, animation postproduction is comparatively
short as a process but can be time-consuming to complete. While much of
the physical creation and manufacture of the animation has happened in the
lengthy production cycle, postproduction may be significantly longer in terms
of time scheduled, depending on the complexity of work needed
to prepare the animation for screening. The increasing variety of uses
for animation, together with the developing viewing platforms available,
require consideration to ensure the work meets the necessary technical,
practical, and critical expectations of the intended audience or target market. The adoption of digital editing technology has
enabled greater control over the postproduction
Digital processes have massively helped to streamline animated process for independent animators.
postproduction workflow by allowing some editing, rendering, and
processing jobs to be centralized. In the digital age, increasing amounts of
postproduction occur in-house, while bigger-budget projects are sometimes
sent to specialists to prepare them for screening. Where facilities exist to
process a project in-house, considerable time and expense can be saved,
while at the same time helping to preserve the directors vision concerning
the authenticity and distinctiveness of the production. On a larger scale,
many feature-film studios are increasingly using animation processes,
especially in relation to special effects in postproduction, resulting in greater
facilities being required to render and process enormous amounts of digital
data. Larger animation studios set aside areas that have become known as
render farms, where many banks of computers process huge amounts
of data for each feature film.

Preparing the production

The postproduction process relies heavily on the observation, planning,
and technical skills of the crew, testing their attention to detail, tenacity, and
patience to make necessary changes to the production prior to distribution
and release. This is the final opportunity for mistakes in the production to be
corrected, by skillful editing of the footage through cuts, fades, and

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6. transitions, or, as a last resort, by reshooting certain scenes before the
production is completed.
AnimationPostproduction

Managing postproduction
The postproduction crew are managed by the director and overseen by the
postproduction supervisor, who is sometimes known as a technical director.
His or her role is to ensure that the completed animation is produced and
packaged for distribution. The crew include re-recording mixers, who are
responsible for checking and mixing the recordings of dialogue, sound
effects, and musical scores to ensure parity and fluency between sound and

Each spotting session determines which sound-

effect components will be required, and they are
Date:
logged in a report that describes the kind of
Sound Effect Spotting Record
Page:
sound required, the start and end points of the
Title
sound in the sequence, and therefore the length
Sound Effect Editor
of the sound required.

Sound effect
Name
Start Time
Length
End Time

Sound effect
Name
Start Time
Length
End Time

Sound effect
Name
Start Time
Length
End Time

Sound effect
Name
Start Time
Length
End Time

Sound effect
Name
Start Time
Length
End Time

Sound effect
Name
Start Time
Length
End Time

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vision, and the foley editor, who decides what sound effects need adding in
postproduction to artificially enhance an action.
The first task of bringing the production to this conclusion is to gather
the visual and audio elements of the production together. The director
and postproduction supervisor make creative choices about the project
through spotting. Here, observations are made about each aspect of the
production, checking for parity between vision, sound, and effects and noting
any gaps or omissions, and also highlighting where the flow of the animation
is stilted or disjointed. Notes are made about these spots, and tasks are
apportioned to members of the crew with particular expertise in identifying
and correcting the issues. The spotting notes in turn create a postproduction
schedule that is used to direct the team to edit, superimpose, and exaggerate
material using the various production tools at their disposal. If the problems
cannot be rectified, it may be necessary for the voice talent artist to return
and re-record a section, but these decisions must be balanced against the
production schedule and budget. In a digital age, many problems can be
fixed and smoothed over in postproduction using software capable of
blending elements together to create seamless transitions. It is important
here to maintain objectivity and clarity, for the crew are aware that timescales
are now short, budget constraints are pressing, and both client and creative
expectations must be achieved.

Visuals
The variety of animation production techniques has historically meant that
material arriving at the postproduction studio might be delivered in several
formats, including inked and painted animation cels, photographs, and
assortments of developed film stocks. In traditional filmmaking, linear
editing technically allowed the picture editor to control the composition of a
production by physically cutting a section of film and splicing, or assembling,
it onto another section, thereby altering the footage to achieve both practical
narrative and emotional follow-through goals. In digital animation, in line
with many television programs and feature films shot digitally, the
postproduction process is commonly undertaken through non-linear video
editing, using software applications such as Avid or Apple Final Cut Pro.
The latter was used for Tim Burtons animated feature, Corpse Bride (2005).
Digital technology has revolutionized the postproduction process,
especially for productions in which cost and timescale are vitally important
considerations. Where the animation process is directly captured in digital or
processed to digital in production, efficient control can be exerted to rectify
mistakes or review the work incrementally. The clear advantage of digital files
is that information can be stored quickly and conveniently but crucially the
files can be read instantaneously. Postproduction software uses embedded
codecs that are designed to read the data encoded in digital files, and

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6. provides extensive tools for shaping and controlling the material. Files self-
evidently need to be organized, named, and ordered using a method that is
AnimationPostproduction

clear and understood between the production and postproduction phases.

Non-linear editing
The clear advantage of using non-linear editing software is that the choice
of editing tools available is maximized without damaging or compromising
the original material. Historically, cutting and splicing film meant making
irreversible incisions into the stock, both affecting the integrity of the original
material and causing issues concerning its use and archiving in years to
come. The job would have been undertaken by the negative cutter, who
would work closely with the editor to cut a film negative precisely identical to
the final edit. Traditionally, the film was cut using scissors and repaired using
a piece of equipment called a film splicer and film cement. In recent years,
the arrival of digital intermediates means that the skills of the negative cutter
have been used to lift selected takes from rushes and composite them to
reduce the amount of digital scanning required.

The Disk Cache feature in Avid Pro Tools HD 10

greatly improves system performance, essential
when all visual and audio assets are being
managed centrally.

Avid Pro Tools HD 10 is the fastest, most powerful

version of Pro Tools ever released.

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New non-linear editing software allows different video, audio, and SFX files
to be seen in clear layers as a timeline on screen. The postproduction
team work simultaneously, synchronizing their workflow through networked
computers to ensure that everyone is viewing the latest version of the project.
Their task is to piece together the various files, or assets, to provide continuity
between the video, audio, and SFX design streams, adjusting levels within
each to elicit the feeling of movement and progression within the wider work.
In short, their work predicates the synchronicity between design and action
that is so vital to the animation being believed by the audience.
For an individual crew member, the process of non-linear editing allows
a flexibility of actions in an easy-to-use format. For example, using the
established principle of cutting and pasting, it is possible to find and isolate
a single video frame swiftly in an imported video clip, cut it, and transfer the
frame to another part of the timeline without destroying, losing, or modifying
it in any way. This is known as a move and is recorded by the program.
In some instances, for example, with layers that need to be moved in a
particular sequence through corresponding frames in a sequence, it may be
necessary to perform multiple moves in batches, so the program manages
this process by performing moves in groups. Extensive records are
accumulated so that any individual or group actions can be read, analyzed,
and undone by other individuals, or the crew as a whole, without affecting the
rest of the editing workflow.
As the process develops, sections of data can be saved and stored as
standard-definition broadcast-quality material, allowing different versions to
be created to compare and contrast the subtle differences being engineered.
Once decisions have been reached and signed off on the postproduction
schedule, high-definition broadcast-quality files can be created.

German experimental filmmaker Robert Seidels

work is characterized by his continual fascination
with blending art with science to examine issues
of space and temporality, which has won him
many admirers and awards.

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6. Synchronicity
Achieving consistency between the often conflicting aspects of visual, aural,
AnimationPostproduction

and SFX is a challenge in postproduction, especially with large numbers of

people working on a project, and not necessarily all in the same country. To
combat irregularities, an SMPTE time code is often employed, which denotes
hours, minutes, seconds, and frames that have elapsed in the production to
provide continuity and parity to the editing process. The SMPTE coding helps
time frame rates to recognize the variation that exists for different broadcast
formats, since film and video have different playback rates (film 24 fps
[frames per second] and video 25 fps) for the number of frames processed.

The SMPTE is an industry-standard way

of ensuring synchronization.

Hours (reel) Minutes Seconds Frames

Color correction
The color timer (also known as a color grader) is responsible for
regrading film stock by altering, enhancing, or subduing its appearance
using photochemical or, more commonly, digital processes. The process of
color correction is required for a number of reasons. Variations in the quality
of each frame can be adjusted to provide an overall balance and continuity,
eradicating any irregularities. The process compensates for variations in the
quality of production materials or studio conditions, by artificially returning the
frames to their intended condition.
Crucially, correcting the color through the digital grading process allows
certain aspects of the image to be isolated and altered. For example, primary
color grading allows the intensity of reds, blues, and greens (the primary
colors), together with mid-tone or gamma colors and blacks and whites,
to be manipulated first. Secondary grading concentrates on altering the hues,
saturation, and luminance in the secondary colors, namely cyan, magenta,
and yellow, and enables more subtle changes to be made.

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Understanding color

Huethe property of a color in the palette, determined by wavelengths

of light.
Chromaticity (chroma)describes the vivid purity of a single hue that has
no other hues added to it.
Saturationdenotes the strength or weakness of the hue in certain
lighting conditions.
Valueregisters the brightness (high) or darkness (low) of a single hue.
Luminance (lightness)measures the intensity of light per unit area of
its source.
Tones, shades, and tintshues can be altered by adding grays, blacks, or
whites to make hues duller or brighter to the eye.

Canadian actor, Laurie Maher, is made up with

motion-tracking markers so that her actions can
be recorded smoothly.

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 Avid Media Composer offers professional color-
6. correction technology in an easy-to-use graphic
user interface.
AnimationPostproduction

Additionally, creating layers with mattes allows separate elements to be

contrasted. A matte is effectively a mask that can be applied to a particular
object or background as part of a layer. The matte blocks the particular
object or background element from being seen or exposed and effectively
allows other objects to be overlaid on separate layers, altering the
composition and perception of the frame. It is obviously possible to apply
mattes to many images that make up the overall frame, giving the
postproduction supervisor and crew the opportunity of making incremental
but significant corrections to scenes where spotting has indicated that
actions are required.
By using software such as Adobe Photoshop, it is possible to emphasize
the presence of a certain object by changing its color qualities against
other pictorial elements in the composition, while equally toning down other
elements to control the look and feel of the scene. For even greater dexterity
and specificity over the process, motion tracking can be employed to isolate
a particular component of a shot and make necessary adjustments, without
affecting the whole frame. A good example of motion tracking occurs in
Clyde Henry Productions animated short film Madam Tutli-Putli (2007),
where the central characters eyes are manipulated onto the stop-motion
puppet in postproduction.
Color-correction technology essentially allows the mood of the production
to be altered according to the directors overview of the process, as the
desired visual atmosphere is sought. Historically, this process was centered
in the photography lab, where the reel of film was altered by hand. Digital
technology has superseded this method of postproduction and files are
increasingly altered in the studio color suite, with such programs as Autodesk
Lustre, Sony Vegas, and Apple Final Cut Pro.

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 Designing title sequences is an important aspect
of postproduction activity and should be given
sufficient attention, as they represent the outward
face of the production to the audience.

Titling and credits

The title designer is responsible for designing the opening and closing titles
and credits for the production. Animated productions, especially feature films,
shorts, and independent releases, have a good track record for producing
title sequences that are inventive and memorable. A good animated feature
example is Monsters, Inc. (2001), where the title sequence not only pastiches
childrens picture book illustration in terms of style, but also foreshadows the
plot by mimicking the forthcoming chase scenes through the use of dynamic
title credit transitions. Additionally, animated sequences have been frequently
used to provide title sequences for live-action feature film and television
productions to dramatic effect. Examples include Saul Basss iconic titles
for Alfred Hitchcocks masterpieces Anatomy of a Murder (1959) and Vertigo
(1958), as well as Steven Spielbergs 2002 movie Catch Me If You Can, with
animated titles that reflect the playful nature of the content by Olivier Kuntzel
and Florence Deygas (Kuntzel+Deygas).
Information concerning titles, credits, and potential menu designs
for DVD releases needs to reflect the agreed hierarchy of a production.
This is achieved either through internal studio decisions or, in some larger
productions, through agreed protocols with outside employers and unions.
The title designer uses software applications such as Adobe Photoshop and
Illustrator to communicate basic information, including the title and creators,
as well as highlighting the main talents lying behind the production. The titles
serve to provide a cue about the tenor and scope of the work, creating a
sense of anticipation in the audience. In foreign-language films, subtitles
may also require designing. They perform a vital role in helping the audience
understand the plot, and can be used as a valuable support tool to help
visually or aurally impaired viewers to appreciate the work.
Student independent animators sometimes overlook the importance
of title sequences and credits, especially in relation to their timing and

168
6. placement. Titles must remain on screen long enough to be absorbed by the
audience but not obscure important visual elements. Information not relevant
AnimationPostproduction

to the title sequence should be reserved for the credits at the conclusion of
the production. Again, in the end credits, the rules on establishing a hierarchy
of information need following, but it is especially important to thank supporters
and funding agencies if the work has been made possible by commissions
or donations.
With the content edited and synchronized, the titles and credits added,
and the production quality approved and signed off, a final print can be
made. The production is now ready to hand over to the sound postproduction
team to work on prior to release.

Sound in postproduction
The postproduction phase essentially allows the different sound stems
narration and dialogue, music, and sound effects (see pages 11224)
to be drawn conclusively together. Discussions about how the sound will
support and enhance the audiences enjoyment and appreciation of the
production fall to the director, postproduction supervisor, and sound editor
and team. They recommend and schedule a workflow that will allow a
soundtrack to be finalized.

Producing a soundtrack
To create an integrated soundtrack, the director needs to conduct a series of
further spotting sessions. The director views the final film print with the sound
editor, together with possibly a conductor, sound designer, and sound-effects
designer, depending on the scale and nature of the production, to determine
where the stems that will constitute the soundtrack will be placed and plotted.
These sessions may happen individually or collectively, depending on the
production. The resulting conversations generate detailed spotting notes that

New features like Clip Gain dramatically save time

while mixing in Avid Pro Tools HD 10.

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form layered accounts of every aspect of the soundtrack, from dialogue,
narration, and music to special effects, creating an agreed workflow for the
synchronization of postproduction.

Premix
Each element of a stem is first mixed to create a premix. This allows the
number of individual audio file assets to be reduced into, typically, eight-
channel premixes, which are more streamlined, manageable chunks of
audio information, illustrating where cleaning or re-recording is required.
For example, dialogue, and narration are synchronized to specific characters
and objects. Meanwhile, music premixes divide the rhythmic, melodic, and
harmonic music recordings from the orchestral or man-made, while
specifically designed recorded sound effects, and accompanying foley
sound effects, are premixed together at this point.

Final mix
When the finished premixes are complete, they are played together with
images for the first time in the final mix. Here, the director and sound editor
make decisions regarding the specific balance and panning of the sound,
matching them with the sequencing of images to create a pleasing flow, free
of jumps and technical glitches. It is now important to condense the number
of files down to a manageable amount, and this is achieved by mixing down
each music, dialogue, and sound-effect stem to a six-channel output to
enable clean mastering through global compression compliant with the
technical output requirements of the destination of the final production.
For example, mono mixes are used widely for 16mm films, while stereo mixes
are sometimes prepared for festival screenings, compatible with the sound
technology capability at most auditoriums. Increasingly, the standard for
most output is Dolby 5.1, which is used for release on DVD, supported in

The final mix enables the director and sound

designer the opportunity to place and shape
sound in screen with the synchronized visuals.

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6. most larger auditoriums and used for surround-sound experience in the
home. The final mix allows the sound to be placed (panned) to different parts
AnimationPostproduction

of the auditorium, enhancing the viewing experience by shaping the sound

in synchronicity with the visual content.

Multichannel mixing
In the final mix, it is possible to separate or blend sound to create
different characteristics and amplify the sonic experience for the audience.
A two-channel mix essentially creates fields of sound on the left and right
sides of the auditorium and, as they merge in the center, a stereo sensation
is achieved. Adding further channels deepens and intensifies the
soundscape, panning sound to specific areas of the auditorium to maximize
impacts, provide ambient sensations, or impart deliberate sonic information.
An example is the lower-frequency effects channel that is used to convey
sounds such as tremors that build intensity and suspense.

AMBIENCE
sound
sound

sound

MUSIC MUSIC
off-screen off-screen
sound DIALOGUE sound

sound
sound

foley
foley
foley
foley

In this example of a traditional stereo mixing,

dialogue is anchored in the center of the mix with
accompanying music panned equally left and
right. Sound and foley effects are dotted into the
mix at specific intervals to echo the actions taking
place on screen.

171
Postproduction panning
The final mix also offers the opportunity to pan sounds in synergy with the
visuals on screen. This process is important as it helps establish a seamless
link between the sounds and visuals by smoothing out any jarring. Two types
of panning are used in animation postproduction. A static pan can be used
to emphasize fixed sounds to a static shot. A moving pan supports
on-screen action. For continuity, dialogue is usually panned centrally, while
music and special effects benefit from being more spatially panned, linking
them to specific visual objects to evoke certain atmospheric moods and
conditions, and to support transitions.

Digital mastering
The sound equivalent to color correction, mastering processes the final
soundtrack by equalizing the sound and compressing it ready for release.
Equalization effectively filters final mixed sounds to a frequency that will be
comfortable for the audience, and supports the format in which the production
will be shown. Compression is applied to lower-frequency sounds to limit
irritating sounds like clipping, where editing may not be completely smooth.

Formatting
The process of formatting prepares the production for its release format.
Traditionally, mono formats were prepared, and occasionally exist today,
for television and 16mm film, but the limited bandwidth and narrow frequency
ranges, plus the desire for digital broadcast, have paved the way for stereo
and multichannel formatting. The most commonly available stereo format is
DigiBeta, a form of digital video, which is used for showreels and at festivals.
Dolby SR (spectral recording) is also a popular format for festivals, since it
can be used with both stereo and multichannel mixes, and is characterized
by noise reduction applied on optical tracks to boost frequency. Digital video
is used for DVD releases played with a surround-sound system.

This delightful animated short by Steve Small for

the charity Sing Up uses minimal sound panning
to create maximum impact.

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6. Release and distribution
AnimationPostproduction

The release of an animation is akin to a book being published, but no one

will see the work unless the prints are successfully distributed. The releasing
and distributing of an animation production are controlled by the distribution
manager. In an animated feature context, the distribution manager works
with one or more distribution agents, who in turn represent the international
distribution networks and media broadcast organizations vying to win
contractual rights to show the animated production globally. In other
instances, including animated commercials and television series where
the client has commissioned work, the distribution manager liaises with
the broadcast agents and creative directors to ensure smooth handover
of the finished material.
Once an animated production has been approved by the director and
postproduction editor and supervisor, a master can be created, synchronizing
the image to the sound to create an answer print. This is transferred to
either video or digital video, depending on the playback format, to create
the print master. For film releases, the print master is then sent away to a
laboratory to transfer it to film, known as the release print. Full production
files can be compressed and sent using FTP (file transfer protocol) to remote
server sites or through direct systems such as Telestream, which can stream
large data files direct to clients, advertising agencies, or broadcasters.
There is no universal standard video or digital video format. Instead,
world regions have variations that need to be considered when preparing
productions for release (although an all-region DVD format does exist),
and there remain dangers of copying and piracy.

A distribution network is essential for getting

work into the public domain and needs careful
consideration by independent animators in
particular.

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Video and digital video formats

Video formats can be grouped in three dominant clusters:

NTSCNational Television System Committee is the predominant format
in the Americas.
PALPhase Alternating Line is prominent in the United Kingdom,
parts of Europe and Scandinavia, Australia, Southeast Asia, and China.
SECAMSquential Couleur Mmoire was developed and mainly
used in France and is also found in Eastern Europe, Russia, and some
areas in Africa.

Digital video defines its regions in numerical values:

Region 1: United States and Canada
Region 2: Western and Central Europe, the Middle East, Japan,
South Africa.
Region 3: Southeast Asia, Hong Kong, South Korea, and Taiwan.
Region 4: Australia, New Zealand, Central and South America, the
Caribbean, and Oceania.
Region 5: Africa, Russia, the Indian subcontinent, and North Korea.
Region 6: China.

Marketing and publicity

It is perhaps in the fields of marketing and publicity that the difference among
animated productions is most noticeable. Feature films and television series
have the commercial might and media connections to create networking and
distribution capabilities, investing huge sums of money in promoting their
product for market. At the opposite end of the spectrum, independent
animators struggle to get their work noticed without the goodwill, support,
and persistence of a few who believe in the production. That said, allowing
time and devoting energy to thinking about how a film will be marketed and
publicized is worthwhile, and need not fall on the shoulders of one individual.
Releasing films on DVD allows for effective direct and indirect marketing
of the production through the inclusion of selected supplementary material.
Besides the final work, with a choice of subtitles and viewing format
possibilities, a DVD allows the chance to include bonus elements, such as
behind-the-scenes footage, documentary pieces exploring the making of,
games, interviews, and film stills. It may also allow bigger studios to preview
future releases and even offer concessions for animation fans.
Regardless of the size of the production, targeted marketing is vital to
bring in the required demographic and volume of audience needed to ensure
success and possible future commissions. Some studios have dedicated
marketing departments that work endlessly on promoting and advertising
their directors, productions, and awards, while some use outside agencies
to do the job, preferring instead to devote their creative energies to the work

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6. itself. Many productions create press packs, issue press releases, or
offer sneak previews of productions to raise awareness and promote
AnimationPostproduction

their offerings and, of course, will tempt media critics, broadcasters,

and publicists by holding movie premieres or special screenings for invited
audiences. Social media such as Facebook and Twitter have ensured that
it is possible to launch highly focused and genre-specific viral campaigns
that promote directly, but permit and encourage the spread of self-directed
communication to like-minded parties.
Based around an orchestrated campaign that promotes roving live
public appearances by directors, animators, and writers nationally and
internationally, social media offer cost-effective, immediate, and tangible
benefits to those wishing to get to the heart of the audience they need to
convince to watch. Animation festivals are an important forum for introducing
works to an invested and knowledgeable audience, made up not only of
fans but also of publicists, financiers, critics, and executives, where the
independent animator of today might well be the executive animation
producer of years to come.

Marketing a film release has been given a whole

new lease of life by the advent and adoption of
social media, including blogs that can be
explicitly targeted to reach a desired audience
and create the necessary hype.

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Film festivals

A great way to see new films, meet their creators, and generally get
inspired by contemporary animation is to visit the many dedicated
animation film festivals.

Here is a selection of global events that take place in different locations,

all year round.

2d Or Not 2d Animation Festival, Seattle: United States

Anifest Czech Republic, Teplice: Czech Republic
Anifest India, Mumbai: India
Anifilm, Trebon: Czech Republic
Anima Mundi, Rio de Janeiro / So Paulo: Brazil
Animac, Lleida: Spain
Animasyros, Syros Island / Athens: Greece
Animated Dreams, Tallinn: Estonia
Animated Encounters Festival, Bristol: United Kingdom
Animateka, Ljubljana: Slovenia
Animerte Dager, Fredrikstad: Norway
Animest, Bucharest: Romania
International Animated Film Festival, Poznan: Poland
Animex International Festival of Animation and Computer Games,
Teesside: United Kingdom
Annecy International Animated Film Festival, Annecy: France
Bradford Animation Festival, Bradford: United Kingdom
Brickfilmsfestivalen Sweden, rnskldsvik: Sweden
Brisbane International Animation Festival, Brisbane: Australia
Canterbury Anifest, Canterbury: United Kingdom
Cartoons on the Bay: International Festival of TV Animation,
Positano: Italy
China International Cartoon and Animation Festival, Hangzhou: China
Cinanima, Espinho: Portugal
CTN animation eXpo, Los Angeles: United States
Fantoche International Animation Festival, Baden: Switzerland
Flip Animation Festival, Wolverhampton: United Kingdom
GIRAF, Calgary: Canada
Holland Animation Film Festival, Utrecht: Holland
Hiroshima International Animation Festival, Hiroshima: Japan
International Digital Film Festival Kinofest, Bucharest: Romania
KLIK! Amsterdam Animation Festival, Amsterdam: Netherlands
London International Animation Festival, London: United Kingdom
Melbourne International Animation Festival, Melbourne: Australia
New York Animation Festival, New York: United States

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6.
AnimationPostproduction

Ottawa International Animation Festival, Ottawa: Canada Over the years, countless animation festivals
have sprung up all over the world. The annual
Platform International Animation Festival, Portland: United States Ottawa International Animation Festival, held in
Red Stick International Animation Festival, Baton Rouge: United States September each year, is one of the oldest, with
more than 20,000 festival-goers regularly
Savannah International Animation Festival, Savannah: United States attending.
South Beach International Animation Festival, Miami: United States
Stuttgart Festival of Animated Film, Stuttgart: Germany
Tecnotoon Animation Fest, Miami: United States
Tofuzi Festival of Animated Film, Tbilisi: Georgia
Waterloo Festival for Animated Cinema, Waterloo: Canada
Zagreb World Festival of Animated Films, Zagreb: Croatia

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Conclusion
With this chapter the animated project draws to a conclusion, synthesizing
all the components into a coherent and logical package ready for broadcast.
With the process of animation complete and the work out in the public
domain, inevitably a period of evaluation is desirable to reflect on what has
been achieved and how the animation was received in the wider public
sphere. Depending on the kind of production released, this might range from
a company looking at its financial figures in relation to an animated
advertisement, or it could be measured against a reported audience viewing
share. On a more pragmatic level, it could simply be the acclaim and
recognition of fellow animators at a festival screening, or the plaudits of fans.
Any reflection is destined to be short-lived. In reality, productions seldom
happen in isolation and it is quite conceivable that the conclusion of one
workflow simply heralds time and space for other projects that have been
waiting to assume their place in the production hierarchy.
The next chapter considers some relevant practical steps to getting
started in the animation field. It covers topics that animators who have
contributed to this book have highlighted as being essential to understand
before embarking on a career path in this expanding discipline, suggesting
ways of exploring the subject and showcasing your particular strengths and
talents, and offering some guidance on how to avoid making time-consuming
mistakes. That said, the process of animation is evolving and some mistakes
will inevitably happen, for they prove that decisions are being made and
acted upon.

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 7.

Animated Futures
This final chapter provides practical advice for those wanting to enter the
exciting field of animation. As this book has illustrated, there are many
different opportunities available. Whether you hope to work as an
independent creator or as part of a global studio, on small-scale charity
projects or full-length animated feature films, on a modest budget or a multi-
million dollar contract, the journey will certainly be interesting and rewarding.
The chapter considers educational routes to acquiring knowledge and
understanding of the discipline, outlines the core skills required by focusing
on what potential employers are looking for, and examines some The much-respected California Institute of the
Arts attracts excellent would-be animators from
of the promotional choices available, including portfolios and showreels. all over the world and has an impressive list of
Information is also provided on the benefits of gaining relevant knowledge alumni.
and experience through placements and residencies, and on the places
where job advertisements and opportunities might be found, as well as
advice on preparing cover letters, application forms, and rsums and on
performing in interviews. The chapter concludes with a brief overview of other
forms of employment, such as freelance representation, and what
you can expect from your new position.

Education, knowledge, and

understanding

In a world where more people appear to be qualified than there are job American animation phenomenon Don Hertzfeldt
opportunities, one might cynically ask, What is the point of doing a degree? was the youngest filmmaker to receive the San
Francisco International Film Festivals Persistence
It is certainly true that a degree is not required for employment in the of Vision Lifetime Achievement Award. He was
animation industry, and many people are employed globally without any thirty-three years old.
formal art training. This merely illustrates, however, the massive developing
opportunity of the medium, as witnessed by any visit to an animation festival,
where the audience will routinely be made up of scientists, architects, artists,
computer programmers, developers, and investors, drawn to the possibility of
animation as a compelling communication tool.
So while formal education is not wholly necessary, anyone who wants to
succeed in the animation field must possess knowledge and understanding.
This can be achieved only through being prepared to educate yourself about
the subject. Given the complexity of animation, the idea of signing up to
a program of study that has done all the structural planning for you, has
designed classes to explain the subject in varying degrees of detail, and
which provides a supportive and creative environment to study in, suddenly
becomes more appealing.
Established teaching environments have the added advantage of
dedicated technical facilities populated by highly trained and experienced
staff, and excellent resources and connections to networks that are influential
and hard to penetrate independently. They are also able to demonstrate their
success through current student projects and awards, and through

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 Students from all over the world enroll on the
7. MA Animation program at the Royal College of
Art in London every year, drawn by the many
successful animation graduates to have made
AnimationAnimated Futures

their names here.

long-established alumni who hold jobs in prestigious and inspiring places.

And, of course, it is possible to continue your animation education to an
extremely advanced academic, technical, or philosophical level, allowing
your study journey to take you all over the world seeking the knowledge you
desire. Without an educational framework, all of this planning, mapping, and
resourcing falls on the shoulders of the individual, when all he or she wants to
do is to create.

Skills for future employment

Animation is a developing industry full of possibilities for students with a wide
and varied skill set and an appetite to learn. Preparation for employment is
vital and should be treated seriously. To demonstrate how focused and Preparation, commitment, and focusthree core
committed you are, taking time and effort to create the very best impression skills required to be a successful animator.
of yourself is fundamental to your future success. Critically, you will need to
consider whether you want to be employed, or whether your future lies in
controlling your own destiny by being self-employed. There are benefits and
pitfalls to both approaches, and your decision will depend on your personal
ambitions, core skills, and resilience, together with your ability to market and
promote what you do.

Skills and attributes

As a general rule, you will need to present yourself positively to people who
do not know you, so their first impressions of you are extremely important.
In order to do this, you first need to understand what it is that you are offering.
This can be difficult, as the idea of being objective about yourself is not
altogether straightforward. In some cases, you may have to recognize your
weaknesses before you can concentrate on your strengths. And you may
have to answer difficult questions about whether any of those weaknesses
can be addressed, and if so, how to go about this process convincingly.

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Understanding and evaluating yourself

If you find the process of being objective difficult, perhaps ask a critical
friend or mentor to list your qualities and faults. Asking more than one
person to do this helps depersonalize the results and can show trends,
thereby being more reliable and informative.

Being honest about your strengths and weaknesseseven if the truth

hurtswill help you to be more focused in promoting your skills and
concealing your faults in your search for employment.

Learning how to take and respond to criticism positively and learning

from experience is part of everyday life. Everyone has been through it
learn from others mistakes and acknowledge your own.

Take time to reflect on these soundings. Are they a fair and accurate
interpretation of you and your career goals?

Summarize your experience and make an action plan that can help you
address your findings by focusing your energy and resolve.

If the initial process of investigating your core abilities has revealed

unexpected questions (or confirmed what you had already suspected),
what are you going to do to answer them? Tenacity and ambitiousness are
important qualities in every aspect of animation and by demonstrating that
you have not given up at the first hurdle, you are already providing evidence
to employers, partners, and collaborators of a desire to succeed.

The dedication and commitment needed to study

animation should not be underestimated, but the
rewards are often very satisfying.

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7. Answering your critics promote animation and make a point of attending
events, workshops, and activities so that you understand
AnimationAnimated Futures

If you need inspiration or more dedicated action to what is happening in the field you want to be part of.
address your current weaknesses, consider one or more Film clubsget involved in local clubs and societies
of the following as a way of positively helping to hurdle and meet fellow admirers and critics as you watch
the obstacles to your success: films, organize and participate in festival visits, and
perhaps even arrange your own. Investing time, effort,
Researchfinding innovative ways of investigating, and energy is a great way to interact socially with
understanding, recording, and analyzing subjects others, encouraging you to engage critically with the
through concentrated periods of exploration and subject with like-minded people who will support,
discovery should be at the heart of what you do as a question, and challenge your point of viewusually on
way of questioning, interpreting, and authenticating the same night.
your world. Social mediaseek out and follow inspiring talent
Drawing classesthese are helpful in understanding online through sites such as Twitter, Facebook, or
not only classical anatomy and figurative form, but LinkedIn to find out what plans are afoot, how
also nuances of the subject, such as the figure in the particular productions were created, and to establish
environment and, crucially, the body in movement. where future opportunities might exist as they unfold.
You will also see the way that others interpret the same Being up to date and aware is important in animation
subjects, as you develop your critical, technical, and since the subject, and the industry that supports it,
aesthetic skills. is in constant flux.
Writing classesthese are useful for meeting other
writers and learning how to write scripts, develop
characters, and create plot lines, subplots, and
narratives that animation production is predicated on.
Writing classes can also provide a critical environment
in which to ask questions and be questioned, help
provide excellent networking opportunities, and offer
a supportive environment to learn, develop, and test There is no better way of finding out what is
your craft. new and exciting than by getting out and about
on the festival circuit to actually talk to like-
Concerts, performances, gigs, and recitalsregardless minded creators and enthusiasts about
of what entertainment you prefer, go and see different animation, as here at Ottawa.
performances, concerts, and so forth live. Watch how
the performers engage with their audience and observe
how the stage is set to allow maximum connection
between them and the spectators. Live venues allow
you to feel and experience the show by evoking
all of your senses. Understanding this will help you
to create better work, evoking similar feelings in
your audience.
Animation eventsagain, move away from your
comfort zone. Keep abreast of industry news by
going to see directors and creators talk about their
latest projects at festivals, film openings, and gallery
events. Sign up to become a friend of places that

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What are employers looking for?
Given the variety of possible roles in animation, there is a range of core and
transferable skills that are required to perform various functions. Some
people possess very specific technical skills that are highly sought after,
while others prefer to be more generalist in approach, enjoying the variety
and diversity of their creative existence. Whether you are a specialist or a
generalist, you can maximize your opportunities in a changing marketplace
by keeping your skills up to scratch. Look to resources such as Animation
World Network (www.awn.com) or Skillset (www.skillset.org) for information
and advice to contextualize your requirements.
Employers invariably are looking for really talented people who are
engaging and enthusiastic and who truly understand the medium.
Demonstrating that you are a good communicator and a team player, and
possess the flair and drive to work unsupervised to tight deadlines will be
advantageous. It also helps to be able to have a good sense of humor,
a calm disposition, and the ability both to see the bigger picture and to
concentrate on the smaller details. Above all, be yourself. Being honest about
your limitations suggests that you know your capabilities and hopefully you
will get the chance to showcase them, allowing others to see where you can
develop creatively, organizationally, and strategically, and flourish with
support and guidance.

While a perception of animators is that they

spend hours alone, employers look for a range
of skills that often involve teamwork and shared
responsibility.

184
7. Skills and communication skills, and an ability to edit out
irrelevant material.
AnimationAnimated Futures

General Scriptwriterneeds the creative skills to write the

Regardless of your projected dream animation job script and develop dialogue, story arcs, and sequential
role, it is imperative to demonstrate a knowledge of and narrative for the production. He or she also needs to
preferably expertise in the following skills: ensure that written material is originated, developed,
and revised in tandem with the storyboard and
Animationthe ability to be able to animate forms previsualization of the work.
convincingly using the principles of animation to Storyboard artistmust be able to communicate
convey movement in visual form. through drawing and visualization, to think
Observationthe art of seeing through looking, being sequentially, and to apply acting and dramatic skills
able to recognize and record pertinent critical thoughts and interpret dialogue, sound, and special effects.
that connect with both the production team and the Animatorneeds to demonstrate the ability to draw
wider viewing audience. and visualize movement, interpret dialogue, sound,
Writingthe dexterity to communicate ideas, and special effects, and communicate effectively. He or
thoughts, and sequences convincingly with an she also needs to be patient.
awareness of different genres, styles, and expectations.
Professionalismthe ability to work to deadlines
through self-motivated tasks or dedicated team
working where appropriate to meet production
challenges and schedules with an awareness for others
in the wider process.
Communicationthe ability to listen and talk, both
within and outside a production, using appropriate
language, protocols, and technology to talk to global
markets, funders, supporters, and audiences.

Specific
By demonstrating an awareness of, and strengths
in, the above general skills, it is possible to position Students at California Institute of the
Arts learn that the animation industry is
yourself as a candidate for roles that require varied, requiring a range of creatives with
specific attributes and skills. As an illustration, differing skill sets.
the following roles are characterized by some or
all of the listed skills:

Directorneeds to have an overview of the entire

production. He or she must possess good coordination
and management skills in order to oversee the
production crew, and must be able to make decisions
about every aspect of the production and also to
delegate tasks that require completion. Managing the
schedule and budget also requires organizational,
strategic, and detail-planning skills.
Researchermust have an attention to detail, an
inquisitive and inquiring mind, good organizational

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Promotion
There is no argument that the best industry professionals promote
themselves intelligently, but there is plenty of discussion about how this can
be achieved. In a competitive environment, the need to stand out is obvious,
but the promotional approach is not quite so clear-cut. Time spent looking at
what others have done is useful, but should also be set against quality advice
from the people you actually want to see your work. This involves doing
extensive research and analysis, through visits, events, and openings where
animation is being screened and reviewed, as well as thoughtful, intelligent,
and well-constructed questions directed to individuals and organizations
earmarked as being able to provide you with insightful answers. Remembering
that a base level of aesthetic, technical, and critical prowess is a given, what
you will need to show when promoting yourself is that you have a personalized
take on the subject that differentiates you from others in the field, and which
invites inspection and scrutiny from those you are trying to impress.
This level of expectation and rigor raises the obvious questions of how Londons Studio AKA have won a commercial
and critical following with their intelligent and witty
much promotion is required and what format that promotion should take. productions that span short animated features,
The quantity and quality of promotional material will largely depend on the television advertising, and collateral projects
where animated content is desired.
kind of work that you want to do, your budget, the time you have available
to promote yourself, and the level of engagement in the industry you expect
to attain. It is very important for you to set the agenda in relation to your
own promotional strategy, manage the content of your own marketing, and
appraise whether your branding of yourself is fair, accurate, and inviting
for the market you are selling to.
The whole promotional strategy must be consistent in terms of design,
language, and sentiment. Any poorly researched marketing strategy will
undermine the story about you. This in turn necessitates decisions
concerning the promotional devices you will employ to tell your story
effectively. Showreels, traditional portfolios, and supplementary paper-based
promotion should certainly be explored as they are basic expectations, but
you should also make efforts to research a digital presence in the form of
websites, blogs, and social media.
What remains crucial is making the right statements about yourself,
using the correct choice of promotional tool to illustrate a coherent story.
Inevitably, that story will change as you progress, acknowledging skills that
you have acquired, successes that you have achieved, and knowledge you
have harnessed. Your promotional material must recognize and promote these
developments effectively. It is, therefore, essential to recognize that different
promotional materials have different lifespans. For example, a blog can be
maintained chronologically like a diary, requiring continual feeding if you want
your target market to consult it frequently. Printed cards advertising your latest
production, however, have a longer shelf life, acting as a central focus to your
advertising when the project is live or providing a useful back history of
previous achievements as well as supporting material for future projects.

186
 Promotional material must quickly hit the mark
7. and provide an instantaneous insight into the
work you create.
AnimationAnimated Futures

The following sections on promotional tools assume you have the right to
publish material that is your own. However, any material that is not created
by you, or has been created in collaboration with others, must be cleared for
publication so as not to infringe copyright. Never assume that you have the
right to publish, or you may be faced with a hefty legal bill. If in doubt, check
with previous employers, collaborators, and clients, and credit their involvement
where appropriate so that your work can be seen in this wider context.

The portfolio
The most necessary passport into the animation industry for anyone
considering a visual role is the portfolio and showreel. These are the true
showcases of your ability to demonstrate an understanding of animation
as a form. It is imperative that the portfolio and showreel work together,
emphasizing the message that you are a talent worth seeing and harnessing.
A strong portfolio provides you with a crucial tool to bridge the gap
between training and employment. The work contained in the portfolio
may explain your work better than you are able to do verbally, and can create
a level of reassurance and confidence. Planning what to include, and where
to position it, adds to the all-important story about you, and it is important,
therefore, that the portfolio is frequently updated.
The portfolio provides reviewers with evidence of your skills in origination,
development, and creative decision-making, and of the potential in your
work. Consider having both a physical and virtual portfolio so that your work
is showcased in static and moving form. Using a digital platform to show
work is vital since moving images on screen can be effectively displayed and
accessed on a website. Crucially, the portfolio can be laid out differently
depending on your changing aims and objectives. Designing it to have a
coherent and consistent visual style demonstrates that you are able to see
your work as part of a bigger picture, which is appealing to employers
wanting you to work as part of a team, especially in work for commissioned
television series or feature films.
The portfolio must further showcase and project your skills and abilities,
as anyone inviting you to show your work will have already searched for

187
 Recent RCA graduate Julia Potts film Belly (2011)
has been popular on the animation festival circuit,
being selected for the Sundance International
Film Festival 2012.

188
7. examples online. If your main area of interest lies in the development of
characters, for example, then you should promote this by showing where
AnimationAnimated Futures

your ideas come from, how the characters develop their significant and
underlying characteristics, and how they are differentiated from one another.
In this regard, you might consider supporting your portfolio with sketchbooks
showing figure studies and the starting points from which you have
developed characters, or by including sheets that demonstrate your A portfolio should show your ability to animate
with sensitivity for the subject matter being
understanding of anatomy, movement, and body rhythm. depicted.
Animation relies on the development of ideas, so do not feel pressured to
include only finished pieces. The portfolio need not be laid out chronologically,
but it must illustrate how your working process allows you to develop your
ideas sequentially. Briefly captioning material can be helpful if the portfolio
is being looked at without the creator present. If you have material in the
portfolio that has been produced as part of a partnership, ensure you have
obtained permission from those concerned to show it to others. Above all,
the portfolio must be easy to look at, quick to catch the viewers attention,
and, perhaps most difficult of all, memorable.

The showreel
The showreel provides your main opportunity to reveal your ability to animate.
Like the portfolio, the showreel should ideally focus on those core skills
relevant to the nature of work you want to create, emphasizing them through
carefully selected and edited material. Reels should be no more than five
minutes in length and should show your most recent work first. It is generally
accepted that not all reels are viewed in their entirety, so it is important to

A showreel offers the chance to get an overview

of animated work, presenting core technical skills
with evidence of an ability to expressively interpret
material through the synergy of sound and vision.

189
present your strongest work at the beginning and to consider your edits
carefully so that they provide a coherent, punchy statement of intent about
the kind of work you do and the ideas and skills you can bring to the
employer. Crucially, the showreel should demonstrate that you have
sensitivity to the way that subjects move, and this is often best achieved
by including well-edited clips rather than full productions. Incorporating
such elements as lip-synching or extreme moves is a good way to show
the basic animation principles underpinning your work.
Again, a showreel may be physical, in which case it is usually supplied on
a DVD (or on a format dictated by the studio), or embedded into your website,
usually as a QuickTime movie or Windows player. The showreel should be
attractively packaged, complete with a title, contact details, and a credits list.
It is worth briefly explaining shots, techniques, and software applications
used to help viewers understand what they are looking at and to provide a
context of how and why different works have been created. This explanation
also allows you the chance to distill some of your knowledge concerning shot
selection, choice of camera positions, moves, and editing transitions.
When you come to output your showreel, make sure your playback
settings are regionally compatible if you are intending to send it to
international destinations, and be aware that certain subjects may be
interpreted differently culturally than you had anticipated. You may need to
consider editing several versions and adding subtitles if you are intent on
working overseas. The showreel should be packaged sympathetically to
resonate with any supporting documentation, such as flyers or posters.

Print-based promotion
The emergence of digital media does not necessarily mean that self-
promotion needs to be exclusively digital. Print media still has a strong
resonance with some and allows a tangible opportunity to engage your
audience through a medium that, depending on the materials used, relies
on touch and smell, two sensory routes not embraced by digital technology.
For example, screen printing your own promotional posters or flyers with
oil-based inks will create both a tactile artifact and one that releases an
aroma when it is unpacked. However, you can also be certain that anyone
serious about the subject of animation will expect you to have at least some
online presence, often because they will have familiarized themselves with
you through an online search engine.
Many animators and writers try to maintain a portfolio of promotional
devices. While there is no prescriptive formula, you might consider including
paper letterheads, cards, envelopes, flyers, posters, small booklets (perhaps
with interesting dimensions, folds, or printing effects such as foil stamping,
embossing, or die-cutting), promotional toys and games as part of your
promotional checklist. Some of this material will be designed to be sent out,
but it is equally valuable to have cards, booklets, and flyers available to hand
out at festivals and events, where recipients can make personal connections

190
 Promotional material comes in many sizes and
7. forms, creating interesting opportunities to
promote work to expectant audiences.
AnimationAnimated Futures

with you and place your work more effectively. Many festivals, galleries, and
organizations are happy to accept printed matter to promote your work,
provided that you have asked permission rather than assumed they will
do your promotion on your behalf.
When designing any physical literature, it is essential to consider the
recipients carefully. Receiving material through the post can be exciting,
but it should be in a size and format that is friendly and non-obtrusive,
otherwise the first impression is one of frustration and annoyance rather
than delight. The choice of printing methods, sizes, and quantities is also
important. Many prospective animators underestimate the cost of promotion,

191
so you will need to work out what best fits your budget, resources, and
ambition. Getting a professional printer involved with your promotional
needs may not be as expensive as you think, can save time, and creates a
professional, cohesive look. If your budget will not stretch that far, you might
consider using a print cooperative where you can create your own
promotional material, or one of the many online resources such as Blurb
(www.blurb.com), Qoop (www.qoop.com), or MyPublisher (www.mypublisher.
com) that offer a customizable set of templates leading to a range of
professional, fully bound publications. These kinds of services are an
economical way of creating a good impression, and the buyer can stipulate
the scale of the print run, format, materials used, and a choice of bindings to
present the publication ready for market. However, these services do require
a sympathetic eye when designing in order to maintain your personal design
direction and embrace your work ethos.

Websites
The Web is an immediate resource with many benefits for aspiring promoters.
However, it is also one that should be treated with great care. The apparent
attractiveness, versatility, and accessibility of the Internet must be measured
against its security and volatility. While the site must promote your work,
it is quite conceivable that it will also need to handle your daily productivity,
as you use email, upload files, and generally go about your business.
It is worth spending time and money on choosing a service provider
and Web host who can accommodate the kind of website you are intending
to build, site, and maintain, especially if it will involve such functions as
streaming video, which take up a great deal of bandwidth. Comparison sites
are useful in enabling you to see providers, services, and charges in one
place. Web space should be free of advertising and annoying pop-up
banners, and should include the provision to host email accounts, online
purchasing where necessary, and some form of FTP functionality that
allows large data files to be sent and received. Inevitably, these services
cost more as indirect revenue from advertising is not forthcoming, but the
price is worth paying because they avoid any contradictory messages or
unwanted statements, allowing the viewer freedom to look at your work.
Your website should have a clear hierarchy of design to reflect the visitors
needs and should use simple navigational devices to help access the site.
To achieve this, it is necessary to plan the site in detail and test out its
structure on people whose opinions you trust. Some sites offer templates
that can be used to create sites, such as www.weebly.com, but beware of
keeping within corporate guidelines that do not best showcase your work.

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7. Website checklist
AnimationAnimated Futures

Where possible, keep information simple, concise, and correct within a

consistent designed framework that promotes continuity but does not
impede the work.

The home page should include your name, contact details, and a menu
of information as simple, uncluttered headings that act as links to
other pages.
The home page must be well designed, inviting, and immediately
understandable to the visitor. It should reassure them that this is
a site of note and entice them to explore further.
It is helpful to include a brief but relevant biographical history of
yourself, citing meaningful examples of your experience to date.
It may also be worth publishing testimonials, provided that they
are seen as supportive and informative for the viewer.
Choices about what work to show and how best to show it largely
depend on the kind of work you create, but it is at least worth
considering some images (and possibly brief descriptions) of work
in progress as well as final film stills.
Think carefully about where and how to embed moving-image
components and consider the user in the process, as it is not certain
they will have the same access to technology that you do.
Make certain that the design works on different devices and Web
browsers (Safari, Chrome, Firefox, etc.) and that the examples fairly
and accurately reflect the work that you do.
You will need to view the site on a smartphone to check whether your
proposed design is compatible with this increasingly popular format.
Good website navigational practice suggests that visitors should never
find themselves more than three clicks away from the home page.
The website should be built to a detailed schedule and should be
reviewed regularly, especially checking spelling and grammar, as
mistakes in basic language annoy users and send out a poor message
concerning your attention to detail.

Once you have built your website, ask for critical guidance by placing it on a
host server and making it initially available only to invited viewers. Importantly,
listen and respond to the feedback you receive and make the necessary
changes. Dont become despondent by the comments, but instead accept
that content or systems you have designed may not be perceived in the same
way by someone using the site. A dysfunctional website, with broken links
and inaccurate content, can seriously damage your reputation, so it is
important to make any changes before you go live.

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Social media platforms
The emergence of social media has had a profound effect on the way
that information is published, read, and digested. Online forums and the
blogosphere provide scope to report and respond to posted information,
encouraging increasing numbers of the public to review their consumption
of news and information from traditional sources such as newspapers,
magazines, and television. Blogs and forums have no length limitations,
allowing correspondence to be archived and retrieved by both the writer
and the user. Social networking sites, such as Facebook, allow individual
users to create profiles to report news and events, or read the postings of
others. They also allow common-interest user groups to be established,
promoting information, awareness, and debate to a wide community of
like-minded individuals, groups, and organizations. Most animation studios
have their own Facebook page that they routinely update with news, job
opportunities, and events. Microblogging sites, such as Twitter, offer further
opportunities to instantaneously post news or feedback to stories or events
globally. Their capacity to facilitate such immediacy is tempered by the limit
to the number of characters that may be utilized.
The crucial thing to remember about social media is that their currency
lies in the moment. Posting information is instantaneous, and it must be
accurate and non-discriminatory. Your responsibility lies in ensuring that the
information contained on any social media platform that you manage is
professional, rigorous, and reflects well on you as a host. Ensure that your
profile and information are well maintained and never share information that
you do not want in the public domain. Posted information cannot be recalled
and may cause irrevocable damage to you and your career. Maintain your
sites and immediately remove or block posts that may in any way harm your
chances of being perceived as professional. Guard against viruses and
hacking attempts both by understanding privacy guidelines published by
sites where you hold accounts, and by setting levels that tightly control what
can and cannot be posted. If in doubt, seek advice from others first.

Gaining experience
Getting experience of the workplace is an excellent way to understand
the nature and diversity of animation as a career path. Some college and
educational programs offer opportunities to undertake visits and placements
as a way of testing your skills in a real-life studio environment, while
residencies may be granted by some larger organizations where space and
funding permits. Studio visits organized in advance give students a chance to
see the inner workings of a production, offering behind-the-scenes exposure
to the working process, and allowing them the chance to meet and question
employees about their roles on the project. Access may be restricted at busy
times or where projects are in a sensitive state of development. If you are not

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 Nexus Productions use social media such as
7. Facebook to showcase the latest work from their
directors, and link themselves creatively to other
organizations to create an online community that
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permits greater exposure.

195
enrolled on an education program, it is still possible to request a visit and
some studios additionally have open studio days where the community is
invited to see the work being done in its neighborhood.
For those with more time available, placements (sometimes known
as internships) are worth considering as a prolonged foray into life in the
animation industry. Placements may last for days or weeks at a time, and
can be paid, unpaid, or expenses only, depending on the size of the studio,
the duration of the placement, and the location. Some college programs offer
placement opportunities with established studios, while others are content
for their students to forge their own career paths and promote themselves
externally. It is worth asking admissions officers about this route of study in
advance as this may help determine which program is right for you.
Securing placements requires good communication and diplomacy skills,
and you will need to agree terms, such as the duration of your stay, the work
you will be undertaking, any fees that you may earn, and whether the work
you do is subject to any legal restrictions concerning your right to promote it.
It is important to negotiate these details before commencing the placement
to avoid misunderstandings and difficulties occurring. Currently, the whole
issue of placements is undergoing scrutiny with regard to employment rights.
Working in a studio environment while at college
It is worth checking in your intended country of placement what employment is a very useful way of understanding the
intricacies of a career as an animator.

196
 The perils of the wider world face all students of
7. animation, but it is important to remember that
famous directors once started from scratch.
AnimationAnimated Futures

rights surround temporary placements. For longer periods of study,

residencies provide an opportunity for intensive work and immersion into a
subject. A residency might occur through an organization inviting an artist to
work in the studio, encouraging shared creative practice and mutual
inspiration for resident and employees alike. Residencies are usually offered
through particular invites, will last for weeks or months, and usually involve
payment. It is also worth noting that a different kind of experience can be
achieved for those already employed in the industry through a paid or unpaid
sabbatical. Organizations that offer residencies usually ask for examples of
work from invited participants, or through a competitive process. Animate!
Projects, based in the United Kingdom, are an excellent example of an
organization that promotes thoughtful, intelligent residencies as a way of
illustrating the diversity and ingenuity of the talent in the field.

Opportunities, applications, and

interviews

Job opportunities in animation tend to follow one of two paths, namely

an advertised position or an opening becoming available. Some studios
advertise that they are hiring for positions both within the studio itself and
through trade publications, on their own studio website, or on linked sites or
forums where they are likely to attract suitable applicants with the necessary
skills and expertise. The Career Connections part of the Animation World
Network site (www.awn.com) is an example of an online marketplace where
studios can advertise positions and employees can upload rsums.
Applications for job interviews vary according to the role being advertised.
In some instances, the job description will ask for a completed application
form and will require you to register your interest so that the company can

197
keep a record. On other occasions, applying for a job usually involves writing
a cover letter and sending a rsum. Following the wider employment arena
will help you identify opportunities, compare job titles and responsibilities
across the sector, and give you helpful information about salaries and
benefits.

Job advertisements and opportunities

Some jobs emerge in-house as studios either take on more work or perhaps
need to bolster their human resources to meet deadlines. Since these
spikes in productivity may be temporary, most studios are reluctant to
employ staff on a permanent basis, and will look to an accomplished
freelance pool of talent instead to buy in the skills they require to complete
the production. Some animators make a career choice to follow this path as it
can provide higher fees and a more flexible working life, but they must also
contend with periods of unemployment and limitations on where they can
locate themselves in order to be close to studios. Where openings become
available, staff working in the studio as runners or on low grades will be
in a good position to benefit, as studio staff will have worked with them
and built up an opinion of their capabilities.
When seeking employment, it is important to survey the market rather
than jumping at the first advertisement, as you will need to show reasoned
judgment about why the particular role is right for you. This means
researching into the studio or organization that is advertising and
investigating its history, current work, and projected future output. Your
contacts and knowledge should help you be objective about your findings.
It is also worth considering whether an advertised job fits your career profile,

Employment in the animation industry is hugely

varied, from major studios and production
houses through to small independent creators,
each offering opportunities for growth and
development.

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7. or whether strategically it would be better to wait until you have more
experience before applying. It is quite acceptable to ask if you can speak to
AnimationAnimated Futures

the advertisers for more information on any job role. Always be professional
and courteous in your request and acknowledge any help you receive in
developing your application.

The application form

If you are required to complete an application form, you should have the job
description to hand in order to match up the essential requirements for the
role and to articulate these clearly. It is important to be concise and fluent in
your responses, so take your time to read the application form before filling
it in. Allow yourself enough time to complete the form, as you may need to
check specific details, such as dates, levels of responsibility, or references.
Always communicate in advance with the people you wish to use as
references to validate your application, and choose people who know your
work best for the role you are applying for.
Application forms provide the all-important introduction to you, and allow
prospective interviewers to formulate interview questions that try to align your
previous experience to their current and future requirements. Aim to include
details that are relevant and specific to the role being advertised, and provide
clear details of how you feel your skills and attributes match or exceed
expectations. At the same time, you may wish to introduce facts in such a
way as to necessitate specific follow-up interview questions, so balancing
how much information to give with how much to keep back is a strategic
move that requires planning.

The cover letter

In your personal absence, the cover letter becomes your representative and
ambassador. Any document leaving you must provide a consistent and
coherent story about you that is professional and articulate. A well-designed,
thoughtfully written cover letter is often the passport to ensuring that your
rsum gets read, and brings the offer of an interview a step closer. It is also
one of those instances where having physically printed letterheads on
specially chosen paper stock can be worth the investment, as the impression
created by a professionally printed document is often subconscious but long-
lasting. Print-on-demand means that it is possible to use decent stationery to
create the right impression at the same time as allowing for contact details to
be updated without having redundant stock.
Again, thoroughly researching your recipient and attending to the details
you find out is vital to ensuring your letter is well received. If you are looking
for work speculatively it is worth bearing in mind that inquiries by post are
more formal and less likely to be ignored than an email approach. You should
make efforts to obtain your recipients name, job title, and correct address
and include this in the letter. Briefly explain who you are and give relevant
details of your background, qualifications, and interests, and demonstrate

199
that you are aware of what the recipient and company has recently done. If
you are writing formally to answer an advertisement, you should additionally
state your availability to answer questions or to informally introduce yourself
in person. Spellcheck and proofread your cover letter, correcting any
mistakes and ensuring that your contact details are correct. Make sure
you keep a copy of the letter and log when it was posted. It is best to allow
a period of seven to ten days before making any follow-up approaches.
These can be conducted through email or telephone, again being respectful
and concise in your manner of inquiry.

The rsum
The rsum, or curriculum vitae (CV), is intended to provide an overview by
briefly introducing you, illustrating your experience, skills, and qualifications,
and summarizing your recent achievements. It should provide a complete
body of information for potential employers so that they can ascertain your
suitability for a particular role. For animation positions, the rsum will usually
accompany the showreel and portfolio. If this is the case, allow those visual
devices to show your ability and try not to replicate this information in the
rsum, but perhaps describe or denote the work in a descriptive summary
that provides a wider context for those viewing your material.
Taking a design lead from the cover letter, the rsum should provide
information in the order that you want the recipient to read about you and
should expressly address the position being applied for. The rsum should
never be more than two sides in length so, when constructing the document,
you will need to bear in mind that it will be reviewed by people wanting to
extract information from it. Therefore, keep your rsum factual rather than
overly conversational.
The basic requirements for a rsum are that it contains your name and
contact details, together with well-defined sections detailing your
qualifications, experience, skills, and achievements, concluding with details
of references. Provide your full contact details and make certain that these
are permanent numbers and addresses wherever possible. State your
nationality and whether you have relevant rights to work in the country to
which you are applying. Information should be given chronologically,
indicating your most recent relevant qualifications and experience first. Be
explicit about the work you did for each job or production, as this will allow
the reader to focus on your skills. You should also include any skills
accreditations, listing the most recently acquired first, as this promotes the
idea that you are continually improving your skills.
Make sure the language used in the rsum is representative of your
personality, as striking the right tone is important and, again, shows you have
researched the recipient. Spellcheck and proofread the information carefully
and consider asking a trusted, but critical, friend to do this as well. Always
ask your intended references for permission to list them and provide their
correct job titles and contact details. Finally, review the information on the

200
7. rsum to check it is focused and applicable to an advertised post before
sending the document.
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The interview
If you are called for interview, it is important to be professional in your
dialogue before the date, ensuring arrangements are made to suit both
parties. Having a portfolio and showreel to hand is a real advantage if you
are nervous. Remember that the people interviewing you have invariably The interview situation need not be a nightmare
boardroom experience if you have prepared
been in your situation themselves and so will take any anxiety into account. yourself correctly and believe in your own ability
Additionally, they will have a view on you already as your application, to make a positive difference to your potential
employer.
rsum and showreel will have preceded your arrival, and they may have
sought references.
Preparation is the key to a successful interview and the hard work should
be done beforehand by researching the company, finding out about their
history and current output, their competitors and ambitions, and by
understanding how the role you have applied for can help contribute
positively to these targets. Your preparation should make you more confident,
so practice talking about your work, explaining your choices and decisions
and making sure you are focused on the job in hand.
On the day of the interview, dress professionally but comfortably. Arrive
in good time and introduce yourself clearly. Be friendly but professional at Avoid being put on the spot in an interview
situation by doing your homework about the
all times and maintain eye contact and exhibit positive body language with employer well in advance and absorbing the
your interviewers. information so that you can answer questions
truthfully and accurately.
Questions during the interview will center on your relevant previous
experience, your qualities, strengths, and interests, and your ambitions for
the future. Always try to answer questions clearly and concisely, by providing
information that answers the question, rather than veering off at a tangent.
If you are encouraged to elaborate on a particular answer, try to use a
pertinent example to make your point, but again be mindful of the answers
you have already given, and refrain from repeating examples as it suggests
your experience is limited. In an interview situation, you should be prepared
to ask questions of your interviewer, so it is worth configuring your previous
research into a list of questions that you have not been able to find answers
to. These might include opportunities for flexible working, appraisal
opportunities, opportunities for career development, and team-building
exercises. This demonstrates your personality and shows your suitability
for the post or to be part of a creative team.
You may be required to provide evidence of your employability status,
so it is worth taking some form of official documentation with you, such as a
passport or drivers license. Contrary to popular belief, it is not necessary to
disclose your current salary. Instead, it is perfectly acceptable to answer that
you are prepared to negotiate a mutually beneficial package. It is unlikely that
a package will be discussed in an interview setting, but you must be
prepared to be called back in once the interview is completed to discuss
personal terms if you are successful.

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Salary scales are sometimes available in larger organizations and these
are useful in seeing your prospective employment threshold and projected
earnings, but you should also consider other benefits in kind, such as
pension arrangements, holiday, insurance, and healthcare cover, as these
all contribute to the overall package. It is quite appropriate to ask for time to
consider any offer that is made, and you will need to carefully weigh up the
benefits in relation to the responsibilities of the position. Consult with legal
representatives, employment agencies, teachers, friends, and confidants
if it will help you arrive at a measured and informed decision. Accepting a
position can be done by phone or email, but must be followed up with a letter
of acceptance. Declining a position should also be done via letter, remaining
polite, courteous, and professional throughout.

Representation
Some animators, voice-over artists, and directors who choose to work in a
freelance capacity opt to be represented on agency sites. For an annual fee,
the agency and creator agree representation terms and work together to
satisfy the creative and commercial needs of the commissioning client.
Such arrangements are attractive to freelancers as they promote their
work to a wide audience professionally, contextualizing it against other
professionals and providing an attractive and inviting shop window for
viewing. The arrangement benefits the agency through the commission and
advertising revenue received, the awards that might accrue with representing
a stable of exciting artists, and the diversity and specificity of talent on offer
for hire. Many agencies have branches or sister agencies throughout the
world, allowing maximum exposure to a variety of clients and markets.
Most agencies operate on a contractual basis that is mutually negotiated
and agreed between the agency and the creator. The contract covers the
terms of representation, the percentage of commission and royalties that are
charged, and the operational costs to the agency that will be charged to the
artist. If your work is represented by an agency then it is likely you will be
asked to contribute to advertising expenditure, marketing campaigns, and
promotional costs that will benefit your work. Agencies should be open and
transparent about the costs of representation and you should ask for their
terms and conditions of service before signing any contract. In return, it is
likely that they will demand exclusivity in representing you or, at the very
least, an assurance that any promotion you do will not conflict or interfere
with their publicity.
The commission rates of agencies can differ according to the kind of
work commissioned, the method of broadcast, and the type of rights
required. You should never sell your copyright to any works under any
circumstances, and should agree to limited rights purchases only where you
have gathered sufficient specialist legal advice. Selling any form of rights

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7. gives the buyer more control over how your work is used and viewed.
Retaining and asserting your rights as the creator in a digital arena is hugely
AnimationAnimated Futures

important, since any works created may have a completely different currency
in years to come and may be sold several times over for different purposes.
By retaining your rights, you have custody of those decisions that may benefit
your work financially, professionally, and critically.
Some studios actively promote their directors as effectively for hire
creatives for clients to pick and commission, and then produce the project
in-house using the studio talent behind the scenes directed by the
commissioned artist. Examples of such studios include Studio AKA,
Ridley Scott Associates, and Tandem Films.

Animation draws a wide and varied crowd with

a range of skills and expertise into an ever-
developing learning environment.

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Making it!
With your employment confirmed, now all that is left is to live up to your
billing. Many organizations have introductory processes to help new
employees become established, but it is not uncommon to have to
demonstrate your skills quickly in a pressurized, challenging environment.
If you have a period of time before commencing work, it may be helpful to
meet your new production team in advance, perhaps for coffee or drinks
after work, so that you become acquainted with the working dynamic on
friendly and informal terms. Remember, these are the people you are going
to work with, so first impressions count for a great deal.
If the studio gives you documentation to read prior to starting your period
of employment, you should read it and absorb the information. It is likely
that you will be working alongside others rather than in isolation, but being
employed means accepting responsibility for tasks. Above all, enjoy it
it is supposed to be fun! Immerse yourself in your new world. Be committed,
enthusiastic, and capable, accept others ideas, and offer some of your own
in the spirit of professional teamwork and an ethos of collective ambition.

Conclusion
This book has chronicled the journey of an animated project through
a notional production pipeline: from the origination of a concept to the
collecting of research and developing the idea, from structuring the story
to developing the images and sounds to a point where they can be
manufactured and tested, produced and synthesized, then finally outputted,
released, and distributed. That such a simple, linear process can have so
many wonderful and astonishing variations is credit both to the versatility and
possibility of a continually evolving medium, and to the intellect, expertise,
and fascination of the people who call it their home. Animation needs new
pioneers: those who can bring their talents, questions, and answers to the
field, examining, challenging, and redefining the boundaries of the medium
and thereby encouraging a whole new audience to become enthralled by
the wonders of the form.

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Glossary / Further reading / Resources / Index
Glossary

analog: a reproduction that is directly physically full animation: the technique of depicting full medium: a substance or technology employed
connected to its source material, such as a sound movement of figures or objects in a scene using a to portray visual or aural thoughts and ideas.
recording of a breaking wave. high proportion of frames created specifically to
show the fullness of the movement. metamorphosis: the process of transformation
animatic: a collection of static images from one form to another.
composited together with a soundtrack that genre: a category of animated production
creates a sequence in preproduction. characterized by purpose, style, process, and motion blur: a technique created by moving
variety of narrative construction. Examples an object in a frame as it is being shot, giving
armature: a structural framework (static or include documentary and performance. a natural look or feel to a sequence.
jointed) that acts as a base for stop-motion
models. green screen(ing): characters are filmed in motion capture: a technique of recording
front of a plain green (or blue) screen and other human movements using data capture, with
aspect ratio: the dimensional shape of a layers of scenery are composited into the final a motion sensor detecting signals transmitted
projected image. edit in postproduction. from sensors attached to the actors body.

axis: virtual line on which a character moves, in-betweener: a person traditionally employed motion control: a camera independently
defining direction, height, and space. to create the in-between animation cels operated by a member of the production crew
between key frames. and often used to capture shots from awkward
bandwidth: the quantity of digital data that can or extreme vantage points on a stop-motion set.
be processed by a network connection in a set increment (incremental movement): the
time period. slight sequential shift from one position to the multiplane camera: a vertical camera attached
next that animators make when animating a given to a rig, beneath which surface layers can be
camera-ready: a model that has been built, movement on a stop-motion set. manipulated and filmed. This camera is often
placed, positioned on set, and tested. used to capture oil or sand animation.
ink and paint: a process used in traditional cel
cel animation: clear acetate cels inked with animation, where individual acetate cels would be narrative: a story or plot that can be told in
a design, back-painted, and filmed under a inked and colored by studio teams in large various stylistic and structural forms.
rostrum camera. numbers and to a set pattern in a manner
reminiscent of industrial manufacturing. PAL and NTSC: two different types of video
compositing: the process of combining layers broadcast signals, widely used in different
of imagery in a single frame. installation: a site-specific piece of artwork regions of the world.
that creates an environment in which animated
computer-generated imagery (CGI): projection can occur. PDA (personal digital assistant): a mobile
animated images made using a computer digital device with a high-quality color screen
program. key frame: a frame that signifies an important that can be used to make and receive telephone
beginning or end action to a movement. calls, surf the Internet, compose and receive
digital: a reproduction that uses binary data, and pinpoint the users position via
mathematical information to construct the form. layer: a physical or virtual surface providing satellite tracking.
anchorage for material, which can be seen in
dope sheet: a spreadsheet indicating how isolation or in combination with other layers and performance animation: live-action acting
images will be recorded, including their duration stacked in different orders, thereby revealing or with animated material projected into a
and production. obscuring information. physical space.

extremes: also known as key movements, layout: the process of planning and mapping out perspective: a series of rules determining
these are depictions of the pivotal points of a content visually in preproduction to identify issues the captured visual depiction and description
moving action. to be resolved before production. of space.

field size: the area of information captured by a limited animation: uses an economy of visual pixel: a minute block of digital visual data on a
camera in relation to the original piece of artwork frames to create a movement, instead relying on display screen that has channels that can alter
that the camera is pointing at. supporting production facets such as dialogue or the value, hue, and saturation of colors and
soundtrack to fill in gaps. tones. When pieced together, pixels form images.
file: a digital document of captured data,
measured in kilobytes, megabytes, or gigabytes. lip-synch: a process of synchronizing a pixilation: An animation process by which
characters mouth movements with the actors are incrementally moved shot by shot
film stock: a transparent strip of celluloid words spoken. as individual frames that go to make up a
holding sequential photographic frames that greater sequence.
could be played through a projector. Strips were loop: a cyclical piece of film that can be played
typically 8mm, 16mm, 35mm, and 70mm wide. continuously and that may have no natural rendering: the process of making an animated
beginning or ending. product complete, either through the digital
frame: a single image. synthesis of collected data involving aspects
maquette: an early 3D rendition of a character or such as mass and movement of a form, or,
frame rate: the number of frames per second object, which is used for reference and guidance in traditional contexts, by working up material
of film. when constructing camera-ready versions. to a camera-ready stage.

206
 Further reading
AnimationGlossary / Further reading

rhythm: a series of visual, aural, or narrative Alexander, K., Sullivan, K. & Schumer, G., Ideas Cook, B. & Thomas, G. (eds), The Animate! Book,
points that occur with a similar frequency and for the Animated Short: Finding and Building UK: LUX, 2006
appear to give the production a continuous Stories, London and New York: Focal Press, 2008
beat. Corsaro, S. & Parrott, C. J., Hollywood 2D Digital
Bacher, H., Dream Worlds: Production Design for Animation, New York: Thompson Delmar
rostrum camera: a vertically positioned camera, Animation, London and New York: Focal Press, Learning, 2004
under which traditional cels are photographed on 2007
a platform that can be raised or lowered. Cotte, O., Secrets of Oscar-winning Animation,
Barrier, M., Hollywood Cartons: American London and New York: Focal Press 2007
rotoscoping: live-action footage is filmed and Animation in the Golden Age, New York and
each individual frame is projected onto a surface, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999 Culhane, S., Animation: From Script to Screen,
allowing it to be traced and manipulated by London: Columbus Books, 1998
the creator. Beck, J., Animation Art, London: Flame Tree
Publishing, 2004 Currell, D., Puppets and Puppet Theatre,
showreel: a collection of animated material that Marlborough: The Crowood Press, 1999
acts as a promotional or explanatory vehicle for Beckerman, H., Animation: The Whole Story,
animators, studios, and production companies New York: Allworth Press, 2004 Demers, O., Digital Texturing and Painting,
looking to showcase their work to potential Berkeley, CA: New Riders Press, 2001
employers and partners. Bell, E. et al. (eds), From Mouse to Mermaid: The
Politics of Film, Gender and Culture, Bloomington, Drate, S. & Salavetz, J., Pure Animation Steps to
single lens reflex (SLR): an analog or digital VT, and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, Creation with 57 Cutting-Edge Animators, London
camera capable of taking high-quality single- 1995 and New York: Merrell, 2007
frame images with film stock or a data storage
card, with a wide choice of interchangeable Birn, J., Digital Lighting and Rendering, Berkeley, Edera, B., Full Length Animated Feature Films,
lenses able to alter the recorded view from CA: New Riders Press, 2000 London and New York: Focal Press, 1977
an original scene or setting in various ways.
Blair, P., Cartoon Animation, Laguna Hills, CA: Faber, L. & Walters, H., Animation Unlimited;
stop motion: an animation technique by which Walter Foster Publishing, 1995 Innovative Short Films Since 1940, London:
objects are moved and recorded in increments. Laurence King, 2004
Brierton, T., Stop-Motion Armature Machining,
storyboard: a collection of frames that Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 2002 Finch, C., The Art of Walt Disney: From Mickey
represent the basic outline of an animated Mouse to Magic Kingdoms, New York: Portland
production, with descriptions detailing scenes, , Stop-Motion Puppet Sculpting, Jefferson, House, 1988
camera actions, and elements of narration NC: McFarland & Co., 2004
where applicable. Frierson, M., Clay Animation: American Highlights
, Stop-Motion Filming and Performance, 1908Present, New York: Twayne, 1993
timeline: a visual marker found in contemporary Jefferson, NC: McFarland & Co., 2006
animation production software, allowing the Furniss, M., Art in Motion: Animation Aesthetics,
creator to review visual and aural components of Brophy P. (ed.), Kaboom! Explosive Animation London and Montrouge: John Libbey, 1996
an animated project in tandem, much in the same from Japan and America, Sydney: Museum of
way a dope sheet allows traditional animators to Contemporary Art, 1994 , The Animation Bible: A Guide to Everything
see how different elements of the production From Flipbooks to Flash, London: Laurence King,
piece together. Bryman, A., Disney and His Worlds, London 2008
& New York: Routledge, 1995
tweening: a digital process that fills in required Gardner, G., Computer Graphics and Animation:
frames between two key action points as Byrne, E. & McQuillan, M., Deconstructing Disney, History, Careers, Expert Advice, New York and
stipulated by the animator. London and Sterling, VA: Pluto Press, 1999 London: GGC Publishing, 2002

variable-speed technology: a process Cabarga, L., The Fleischer Story, New York: Gehman, C., & Reinke, S. (eds), The Sharpest
allowing the speed by which frames are captured Da Capo, 1988 Point: Animation at the End of Cinema, Toronto:
by a camera to be altered, seemingly accelerating YYZ Books, 2006
or slowing down a filmed action. Canemaker, J. (ed.), Storytelling in Animation, Los
Angeles: AFI, 1988 Glebas, F., Directing the Story: Professional
video assist: a device that helps stop-motion Storytelling and Storyboarding Techniques for Live
animators see exactly what the camera is filming Cholodenko, A. (ed.), The Illusion of Life, Sydney: Action and Animation, Boston and Oxford: Focal
on set and how that will look during playback Power/AFC, 1991 Press, 2008
on screen.
Chong, A., Basics Animation: Digital Animation, Grant, J., Masters of Animation, London: Batsford,
walk cycle: a sequence of frames in which an Lausanne: AVA Publishing, 2007 2001
animator draws a flowing walking movement,
taking account of a characters natural body Cohen, K., Forbidden Animation, Jefferson, NC, Hahn, D., The Alchemy of Animation: Making an
positions through the repeated action. and London, McFarland & Co., 1997 Animated Film in the Modern Age, Los Angeles:
Disney Editions, 2008

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Halas, J., Masters of Animation, London: BBC Missal, S., Exploring Drawing for Animation, Segar, L., Creating Unforgettable Characters,
Books, 1987 New York: Thomson Delmar Learning, 2004 New York: Henry Holt & Co, 1990

Harnes, P. (ed.), Dark Alchemy: The Films of Jan Murphy, M., Beginners Guide to Animation: Selby, A., Animation in Process, London:
Svankmajer, Trowbridge: Flicks Books, 1995 Everything You Need to Know to Get Started in Laurence King, 2009
Animation, New York: Watson-Guptill, 2008
Harryhausen, R. & Dalton, T., A Century of Model Shaw, S., Stop Motion: Crafts for Model Animation,
Animation: From Mlis to Aardman, London: Napier, S., Anime: From Akira to Princess Boston and Oxford: Focal Press, 2003
Aurum Press, 2008 Mononoke, New York: Palgrave, 2001
Simon, M., Storyboards, Boston and Oxford:
Hart, C., How to Draw Animation, New York: Neuwirth, A., Makin Toons: Inside the Most Focal Press, 2000.
Watson-Guptill Publications, 1997 Popular Animated TV Shows and Movies, New
York: Allworth Press, 2003 , Producing Independent 2D Character
Hoffer, T., Animation: A Reference Guide, Animation, Boston and Oxford: Focal Press, 2003
Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1981 Paik, K. & Iwerks, L., To Infinity and Beyond!
The Story of Pixar Animation Studios, London: Smoodin, E., Animating Culture: Hollywood
Holman, L. Bruce, Puppet Animation in the Virgin Books, 2007 Cartoons from the Sound Era, Oxford:
Cinema: History and Technique, Cranberry, Roundhouse Publishing, 1993
NJ: Tantivy Press, 1975 Patmore, C., The Complete Animation Course,
London: Thames & Hudson, 2003 Stabile, C. & Harrison, M. (eds), Prime Time
Hooks, E., Acting for Animators, Portsmouth, NH: Animation, London and New York: Routledge,
Heinemann, 2000 Pilling, J. (ed.), Thats Not All Folks: A Primer in 2003
Cartoonal Knowledge, London: BFI, 1984
Horton, A., Laughing Out Loud: Writing the Subotnick, S., Animation in the Home Digital
Comedy Centered Screenplay, Los Angeles: , (ed.), Women and Animation: A Studio, Boston and Oxford: Focal Press, 2003
University of California Press, 1998 Compendium, London: BFI, 1992
Taylor, R., The Encyclopaedia of Animation
Johnson, O. & Thomas, F., The Illusion of Life, , (ed.), A Reader In Animation Studies, Techniques, Boston and Oxford: Focal Press,
New York: Abbeville Press, 1981 London and Paris: John Libbey, 1997 1996

Kanfer, S., Serious Business: The Art and , 2D and Beyond, Hove and Crans-prs- Tumminello, W., Exploring Storyboarding,
Commerce of Animation in America from Betty Cligny: RotoVision, 2001 Boston and Oxford: Focal Press, 2003
Boop to Toy Story, New York: Scribner, 1997
Pointon, M. (ed.), Art History (Cartoon: Caricature: Wasko. J., Understanding Disney, Cambridge and
Kerlow, I. V., The Art of 3D: Computer Animation Animation), Vol. 18, No. 1, March 1995 Malden: Polity Press, 2001
and Effects, New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2003
Priebe, K., The Art of Stop-Motion Animation, Webster, C., Animation: The Mechanics of Motion,
Kuperberg, M., Guide to Computer Animation, Clifton Park, NY: Delmar, 2006 Boston and Oxford: Focal Press, 2004
Boston and Oxford: Focal Press, 2001
Purves, B., Basics Animation: Stop-motion, Wells, P., Around the World in Animation, London:
Laybourne, K., The Animation Book, Three Rivers, Lausanne: AVA Publishing, 2010 BFI/MOMI Education, 1996
MI: Three Rivers Press, 1998
, Stop Motion: Passion, Process and , (ed.) Art and Animation, London:
Lent, J. (ed.), Animation in Asia and the Pacific, Performance, Boston and Oxford: Focal Press, Academy Group/John Wiley, 1997
London and Paris: John Libbey, 2001 2007
, Understanding Animation, London
Leslie, E., Hollywood Flatlands: Animation, Critical Rattner, P., 3D Human Modeling and Animation, and New York: Routledge, 2010
Theory and the Avant Garde, London and New New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2003
York: Verso, 2002 , Animation: Genre and Authorship, London:
Roberts, S., Character Animation in 3D, Boston Wallflower Press, 2002
Levi, A., Samurai from Outer Space: Understanding and Oxford: Focal Press, 2004
Japanese Animation, Chicago: Open Court, 1996 , Animation and America, Edinburgh:
Russett, R. & Starr, C., Experimental Animation: Edinburgh University Press, 2002
Leyda, J. (ed.), Eisenstein on Disney, London: Origins of a New Art, New York: Da Capo, 1988
Methuen, 1988 , Basics Animation: Drawing for Animation,
Sandler, K. (ed.), Reading the Rabbit: Explorations Lausanne: AVA Publishing, 2008
Lord, P. & Sibley, B., Cracking Animation: in Warner Bros. Animation, New Brunswick:
The Aardman Book of 3D Animation, London: Rutgers University Press, 1998 Wells, P. & Hardstaff, J., Re-Imagining Animation:
Thames & Hudson, 1999 The Changing Face of the Moving Image,
Scott, J., How to Write for Animation, Woodstock Lausanne: AVA Publishing, 2008
McKee, R., Story: Substance, Structure, Style, and and New York: Overlook Press, 2003
the Principles of Screenwriting, London: Methuen, Wiedemann, J. (ed.), Animation Now! London
1999 and Los Angeles: Taschen, 2005

208
 Resources
AnimationFurther reading / Resources

Whitaker, H. & Halas, J., Timing for Animation, International Animation Festivals GIRAF
Boston and Oxford: Focal Press, 2002 A great way to see new films, meet their Calgary, Canada
creators, and generally get inspired by Holland Animation Film Festival
White, T., The Animators Workbook, New York: contemporary animation is to visit the Utrecht, Holland
Watson-Guptill Publications, 1999 many dedicated animation film festivals. Hiroshima International Animation Festival
Here is a selection of global events that take Hiroshima, Japan
Williams, R., The Animators Survival Kit, London place in different locations, all year round. International Digital Film Festival Kinofest
and Boston: Faber, 2001 Bucharest, Romania
2d Or Not 2d Animation Festival KLIK! Amsterdam Animation Festival
Winder, C. & Dowlatabadi, Z., Producing Seattle, United States Amsterdam, Netherlands
Animation, Boston and Oxford: Focal Press, 2001 Anifest Czech Republic London International Animation Festival
Teplice, Czech Republic London, United Kingdom
Withrow, S., Toon Art, Lewes: Ilex, 2003 Anifest India Melbourne International Animation Festival
Mumbai, India Melbourne, Australia
Anifilm New York Animation Festival
Trebon, Czech Republic New York, United States
Anima Mundi Ottawa International Animation Festival
Rio de Janeiro / So Paulo, Brazil Ottawa, Canada
Animac Platform International Animation Festival
Lleida, Spain Portland, United States
Animasyros Red Stick International Animation Festival
Syros Island / Athens, Greece Baton Rouge, United States
Animated Dreams Savannah International Animation Festival
Tallinn, Estonia Savannah, United States
Animated Encounters Festival South Beach International Animation Festival
Bristol, United Kingdom Miami, United States
Animateka Stuttgart Festival of Animated Film
Ljubljana, Slovenia Stuttgart, Germany
Animerte Dager Tecnotoon Animation Fest
Fredrikstad, Norway Miami, United States
Animest Tofuzi Festival of Animated Film
Bucharest, Romania Tbilisi, Georgia
International Animated Film Festival Waterloo Festival for Animated Cinema
Poznan, Poland Waterloo, Canada
Animex International Festival of Animation and Zagreb World Festival of Animated Films
Computer Games Zagreb, Croatia
Teesside, United Kingdom
Annecy International Animated Film Festival Important Reference Sites
Annecy, France Here are some interesting starting points to see
Bradford Animation Festival and hear what others are doing.
Bradford, United Kingdom
Brickfilmsfestivalen Sweden Animation World Network
rnskldsvik, Sweden www.awn.com
Brisbane International Animation Festival Animation resources
Brisbane, Australia www.toonhub.com
Canterbury Anifest Animation links
Canterbury, United Kingdom www.animationarena.com/animation-links.html
Cartoons on the Bay, International Festival American animated cartoons reference
of TV Animation www.toonarific.com
Positano, Italy UK animated cartoons reference
China International Cartoon and www.toonhound.com
Animation Festival Cartoon news and discussion
Hangzhou, China forum.bcdb.com
Cinanima
Espinho, Portugal
Cineme International Animation Festival
Chicago, United States
CTN animation eXpo
Los Angeles, United States
Fantoche International Animation Festival
Baden, Switzerland
Flip Animation Festival
Wolverhampton, United Kingdom

209
Index

Page numbers in bold refer to picture captions blogs 7, 51, 175, 175, 186, 194 lighting 149, 151
Blue Sky Studios: Ice Age 24 modeling 1489
A Blurb 192 rendering 151
Aardman Animations 24, 42, 142 book adaptations 21, 34, 42, 52, 79, 80, 114 rigging 149
Chicken Run (Park, with DreamWorks) 24, 423 Box, Steve: The Curse of the Were-Rabbit (with special effects 150, 151
The Curse of the Were-Rabbit (Park and Box, Park) 24 texturing 23, 149
with DreamWorks) 24 Bradley, Scott 119 2D animation 23, 133, 1345
Wallace and Gromit 12 Branching Out for a Green Economy 114, 115 character design
The Wrong Trousers (Park) 24, 50, 143 Breer, Robert 154 appeal 12, 15, 101, 102, 158
accuracy issues 41, 44, 45, 678, 71, 72 brick animation 1523 and art 96
ActionScript software 92 briefs 13, 34, 37, 48, 52, 62, 79 characteristics 36, 74, 90, 967, 1012, 189
Adobe programs and software 92, 125, 132, 134, Briggs, Raymond exaggeration 12, 97, 102, 112
135, 167, 168 The Snowman (book) 79 fundamentals 94
advertising 6, 32, 37, 38, 45, 72, 145, 149, 186 When the Wind Blows (book) 52 heroes and villains 101, 102
see also commercials Broadbent, Jim 80 lip-synching 16, 989, 112
After Effects software (Adobe) 134 broadcast formats 9, 75, 165 metamorphosis 103
Allen, Tim 96, 114 Brothers Quay: Street of Crocodiles 97, 139, 141 movement 15, 978, 99100
American Museum of Natural History Journey to Bugs Bunny 21, 78, 96, 112 personality 15, 19, 20, 90, 101, 102
the Stars exhibition 8 Burton, Richard 114 protagonists 101
Anderson, Gerry and Sylvia: Thunderbirds 142 Burton, Tim 23, 24, 89 role and function 967
Animate Pro (Toon Boom) 134 Alice in Wonderland 42, 103 and storyboards 74, 78
Animate! Projects 197 Corpse Bride 24, 162 suspension of disbelief 12, 97, 1001
animatic reels 76, 93 The Nightmare Before Christmas 23, 24, 101 timing 12, 978, 114
animation Vincent 23 Chinese animation 21, 22, 23
defined 9 Clarke, Joe 87
principles 912 C claymation (clay animation) 23, 99, 137, 142
significance 6, 79, 26, 48 Cak, Ferenc: rints 136 close-ups 75, 85, 88, 90, 111, 147
uses 6, 79, 37, 46, 48, 128 California Institute of the Arts 180 Clyde Henry Productions: Madame Tutli-Putli 66,
Animation World Network 184, 197 Camberwick Green television series 22 67, 88, 124, 138, 145, 167
animators and animation teams 29, 54, 185 Cambridge Systems software 134 Cohl, mile: Fantasmagorie 19
Animo (Cambridge Systems) 134 camera shots 85, 88, 94 color, understanding 166
anthropomorphism 36, 103 cinematic thinking 867 color correction 17, 165, 167
anticipation 11, 78, 96, 978, 119, 126, 147, 149, in 3D animation 85, 143 commercials 6, 32, 46, 77, 99, 101, 158, 173 see
168 and storyboards 75, 81 also advertising
El Apstol 19 camera team 29, 30 communication 6, 7, 89, 185
appeal 12, 15, 16, 101, 102, 110, 158 Cameron, James: Avatar 96 computer games 6, 8, 156
Apple 223, 24, 57, 125, 156, 162, 167 Canemaker, John 75 computer-generated imagery see CGI
armatures 60, 82, 84, 1378 careers in animation 180, 204 concepts and ideas 13, 26
aspect ratios 86 agencies 2023 capturing 558
Attenborough, Sir David 114 applications 1978 conceptual frameworks 523
Audition software (Adobe) 125 application forms 1978, 199 development 5864
augmented reality 89, 156 cover letters 198, 199 doodles 58, 61
auteurism 1534 rsums 198, 199, 2001 drawing 558
Autodesk software 167 education and training 1801, 183, 194, 196 evaluating 624
Avery, Tex 78, 96 evaluating yourself 1823 investing in 4950
Avid software 125, 162, 163, 167, 169 gaining experience 194, 1967 pitching 14, 34, 63, 646
interviews 2012 research 51, 71
B job ads and opportunities 197, 1989 significance 49
Back, Frdric 132 promoting yourself 18694, 195 starting points 502
backgrounds 10, 15, 129, 138, 145, 167 representation 2023 studio environment 534
Barbera, Joseph 21, 22 salaries 201, 202 visuals 58, 65, 66, 72
Barney Rubble 22, 112 skills and attributes 1812, 184, 185, 203, 204 condensation 36, 58, 111
Barr, Raoul (Barr-Nolan Studio) 19 Carroll, Lewis: Alice in Wonderland (book) 42 copyright issues 156, 187, 202
Batchelor, Joy 21, 52 cartoons 19, 20, 21, 43, 78, 102, 119, 132 Corel Painter 134
Bauhaus Software 134 cel animation 10, 84, 86, 92, 1323 The Crab with the Golden Claws 21
Beattie, Zac 69 CelAction software 134 Craste, Marc (Studio AKA) 77
Betty Boop 20, 78, 133 cell phones 6, 89, 22, 62, 75 Lloyds TSB commercials 77, 128, 149, 158,
Bird, Brad CGI (computer-generated imagery) 128 189
The Incredibles 24, 79 history 23, 24, 79 National Lottery commercials 149
Ratatouille 24 in live-action films 23, 151 Varmints 77
Blackton, J. Stuart: Humorous Phases of Funny 3D animation 24, 148 Winter Olympics 2010 trail (with Klassen) 122
Faces 19 animating 151 criticism 52, 63, 182
Blanc, Mel 112, 113 compositing 151 Crusader Rabbit 21

210
AnimationIndex

Cuba, Larry 133 DreamWorks studio 24 Franz Ferdinand music video (Odell) 51
cultural issues 7, 27, 52, 67, 101, 152, 190 Antz 24 Fred Flinstone 22
Curtis, Chris: A Day in the Life of an Audi Driver 34, Chicken Run (with Aardman Animations) 24 full animation 11, 94
76, 82, 93 The Curse of the Were-Rabbit (with Aardman
Animations) 24 G
D Dumala, Piotr: Franz Kafka 110 Gardiner, Bob: Closed Mondays (with Vinton) 142
The Daedalum see zoetropes Gaumont studio 21
Daffy Duck 96 E genres 423
Danot, Serge: La Mange Enchant 22 editing 29, 901, 160, 163 Giacchino, Michael 111
Dayton, Helena Smith 142 digital technology 160, 1634 Gilliam, Terry: Monty Pythons Flying Circus
The Debut of Thomas Cat 20 music 30, 31, 112, 120 animation 137
development in preproduction non-linear 1634 Glover, Gavin (Faulty Optic) 154
character design 94, 96103 picture 16, 129 go-motion animation 137, 143
concept development 5864 sound and sound effects 1415, 30, 31, 106, Godfrey, Bob 22
development drawings 8993 118, 1212, 1234, 125 Gollum 24
dope (exposure) sheets 91 education and training 1801, 183, 194, 196 graphical user interface (GUI) 8, 23
layouts and scenes 847, 89 effects see sound effects; special effects Groening, Matt 96
script development 446 Eisner, Michael 23, 24 The Simpsons 23
story development 14, 32, 37, 3942, 44, 46, Elfman, Danny 42
74, 111 Emshwiller, Ed 133 H
storyboards 14, 40, 63, 74 Sunstone 23 Halas, John 21, 52
style guides 82, 84 establishing shots 85, 88, 145 Halas & Batchelor studio 78
DeWolfe 121 exaggeration 12, 35, 78, 84, 97, 102, 112, 162 Animal Farm 21, 34, 39, 52, 120
Deygas, Florence (Kuntzel+Deygas) 168 exhibition design 8, 40, 83 Dustbin Parade 78
digital photography 56, 57, 62 experimental animation 22, 62, 95, 128, 133, 152, Hanks, Tom 96, 114
digital technology 8, 10, 92, 1245, 132, 133, 160, 152 Hanna, William 21, 22
1629, 172 see also CGI exposure sheets (dope sheets) 91 Hanna-Barbera studio
digital video formats 173, 174 The Flintstones 22, 112
directors 28, 29, 46, 49, 72, 185, 203 F Tom and Jerry cartoons 21
Disney, Walt 7, 19, 20, 22, 77, 94 Feathers McGraw 50, 143 Hardstaff, Johnny 58, 59
Disney studios see Walt Disney Studios Feline Follies 20 Harryhausen, Ray 139
DisneyPixar field guides 856 Jason and the Argonauts 143
The Incredibles (Bird) 24, 79 film festivals 7, 155, 1767, 178, 183 Mighty Joe Young (with OBrien) 139
Ratatouille (Bird) 24 Filmfair Hattler, Max
Toy Story (Lasseter) 24 Postman Pat 22 Collision 95
Toy Story 2 (Lasseter) 119 The Wombles 22 Spin 109
Up (Bird and Peterson) 7, 24, 60, 111 Final Cut Pro software (Apple) 162, 167 Havoc in Heaven 22
Wall-E 116 FireWire 125 Head Gear 54
distribution see release and distribution Firmin, Peter (with Postgate) Hertzfeldt, Don 180
Docter, Peter The Clangers 22, 137 history of animation 8, 1924, 130, 131
Monsters, Inc. 79, 168 Ivor the Engine 137 Hobbs, Elizabeth 55
Up (with Peterson) 24, 60 Noggin the Nog 137 The Old, Old, Very Old Man 48
Donald Duck 20 Fischinger, Oskar Hodgson, Jonathan: The Trouble with Love and
Donaldson, Julia: The Gruffalo (book, with Fantasia 78 Sex 69
Scheffler) 79 Komposition in Blau (Composition in Blue) Hunt, Philip (Studio AKA) 96
doodles 58, 61 20, 21 Lost and Found 79, 80, 191
dope sheets 91 Kreise 6 Hurd, Earl 132
Doppler software 124 Flash (Adobe) 92, 135
Dragonframe software 148 Fleischer, Max 19, 78 I
Dragonslayer 143 Dizzy Dishes 20 ideas see concepts and ideas
drawing Gullivers Travels 21 illusion 11, 103
composition, placement, and emphasis 901 Out of the Inkwell 19 of movement 9, 61, 84, 130, 131
concepts and ideas 558 flipbooks 60, 61 sound 36, 37
development drawings 8993 foley artists 31, 1212, 162 see also sound effects Illustrator (Adobe) 132, 134, 168
dope (exposure) sheets 91 follow-through 1112, 97, 98 ILM (Industrial Light and Magic) 22, 23, 143, 151
drawing classes 183 Folman, Ari: Waltz with Bashir 52 Industrial Light and Magic see ILM
figure drawing 58, 60, 89 frames 9, 10 information storage and retrieval 57
imagination 89 composition, placement, and emphasis 901 inking and painting 16, 129, 132
line (pencil) tests 15, 60, 92, 94, 129, 134 frame rates 910, 84 installations 8, 152, 1556
and movement 58, 60, 61 in-between frames 15, 92, 129, 151 Invisible Thread 139
observation 8990, 185 key frames 15, 58, 75, 76, 78, 81, 92, 129, 151 iOS software (Apple) 57
story (animatic) reels 76, 93 registering (keying in) 10, 92, 132 iPhones 24, 156
value 12, 558 in storyboards 75 Iwerks, Ub (Walt Disney Studios) 20

211
 Logic Audio software (Apple) 125 in postproduction 31
J Lord, Peter 89 in preproduction 30, 11921
Jack Skellington (The Nightmare Before Christmas) LoveSport advertisement (Orchard) 45 scores and scoring 14, 74, 82, 106, 111, 119,
101 Lustre (Autodesk) 167 1201, 122
Jackson, Dianne: The Snowman 79 Lye, Len 154 timing 112
Japanese animation 22, 23, 94 music team 31
Jeffers, Oliver: Lost and Found (book) 79, 80 M music videos 51
job roles in animation 27, 28, 2931, 34, 445 Machinema 156 Muybridge, Eadweard 100
jobs in animation see careers Mackinnon and Saunders puppets 140 MyPublisher 192
Johnston, Ollie 11 magic lanterns and slides 131
The Illusion of Life: Disney Animation (with The Magic Roundabout television series 22 N
Thomas) 11 Maher, Laurie 166 narrative
Jones, Chuck 21, 78, 96 Mancini, Henry 120 constructing 37, 39, 41, 44, 46, 103, 111
Marcondes, Guilherme: Tyger 44, 141, 147 visual 14, 37, 43, 74, 78, 7981, 162
K marketing and publicity 1745 Newman, Randy 119, 120
kaleidoscopes 131 McCay, Winsor 19, 154 Nexus Productions 28, 195
Katzenberg, Jeffrey 23, 24 Gertie the Dinosaur 19, 154 Nezha Conquers the Dragon King 23
kinetoscopes 19 Little Nemo in Slumberland 19 Noe, Justin 87
Klassen, Jon: Winter Olympics 2010 trail (with The Sinking of the Lusitania 20 Nolan, Bill (Barr-Nolan Studio) 19
Craste) 122 McKee, Robert: Substance, Structure, Style, and Norstein, Yuri: Hedgehog in the Fog 137
Kovalyov, Igor 132 the Principles of Screenwriting 39 Nuendo software (Steinberg) 125
KPM 121 McLachlan, Sarah 119
Kricfalusi, John: The Ren and Stimpy Show 23 McLaren, Norman 9, 43 O
Kuntzel, Olivier (Kuntzel+Deygas) 168 A Chairy Tale 152 object animation 137, 143
Kuntzel+Deygas: titles for Catch Me If You Neighbours 21, 152 OBrien, Willis 139
Can 168 McNish, Allan 93 King Kong 20
Media Composer software (Avid) 167 Mighty Joe Young (with Harryhausen) 139
L Mlis, Georges 19 Odell, Jonas: Franz Ferdinand music video 51
Lang, Max: The Gruffalo (with Schuh) 79 Le Voyage dans la Lune (Voyage to the Moon) 8 Orchard, Grant
Lasseter, John metamorphosis 36, 64, 103, 136 LoveSport advertisement 45
Luxo Jr. 23 Mickey Mouse 20, 75 A Morning Stroll 119
Toy Story 24 microphones 57, 116, 117, 118, 123 Science Museum, London exhibition design
Toy Story 2 119 Microsoft 22, 23 40, 83
Lavis, Chris (Clyde Henry Productions): Madame Microsoft Windows Media Player 125, 190 Skype advertisement 32
Tutli-Putli (with Szczerbowski) 67 MIDI technology 125 Orton, Les: Under Milk Wood 114
layers and layering 10, 86, 91, 129, 132, 137, 167 Mighty Atom 22 Orwell, George: Animal Farm (book) 21, 34, 52
layout team 2930, 84 Mirage software (Bauhaus Software) 134 Otomo, Katsuhiro: Akira 10, 23
layouts and scenes 84 mixing 31, 157, 161, 169, 171 Ottawa International Animation Festival 18, 176,
cinematic thinking 867, 88 final mixes 124, 1701, 172 177, 183
in 2D animation 84, 85, 129 multichannel mixing 171
in 3D animation 84, 85 premixes 170 P
field guides 856 mixing desks 125 Pal, George 138
layers and layering 10, 86, 91, 129, 132, 137, Miyazaki, Hayao Panda and the White Serpent 22
167 Heidi (with Takahata) 22 Pannnia Filmstdi: Hugo the Hippo 22
planning and formulation 85 Spirited Away 24 paper cut-outs 137
in stop-motion animation 84, 85 modeling team 29, 30 Paramount Pictures 20
Leaf, Caroline 55 models and modeling 16, 60, 82, 129, 137, 143, Park, Nick (Aardman Animations) 96
The Street 23 1489 see also armatures; claymation Creature Comforts 99
legal issues 27, 51, 70, 156, 187, 196, 202 moral issues 51, 53, 101 The Curse of the Were-Rabbit (with Box) 24
The Legend of the White Serpent 22 motion-capture technology 24, 62, 100, 152 The Wrong Trousers 24, 50, 143
LicenseMusic 121 movement pencil tests 15, 60, 92, 94, 129, 134
light boxes 92 in character design 15, 978, 99100 penetration 35, 36, 37, 38
lighting 16, 85, 129, 144, 145, 149, 151 and figure drawing 58, 60 performance animation 8, 96, 154, 155
limited animation 94, 95, 135, 136 illusion of 9, 61, 84, 130, 131 Petersen, Bob: Up (with Docter) 60
line tests 60, 92, 94, 134 key movements 92 Petrov, Aleksandr: The Old Man and the Sea 24
Linnett, John Barnes 61 timing 978 phantasmagoria shows 19
lip-synching 16, 989, 112, 190 walk cycles 16, 99100 phenakistoscopes 19, 131
live-action films Murakami, Jimmy: When the Wind Blows 52 Photoshop (Adobe) 132, 134, 167, 168
animation compared 7, 8, 26, 32 museum and gallery guides 8, 9, 40, 83 picture fields 79, 81, 85
animation sequences 20, 23, 35, 93, 96, 110, music 14, 106, 119 Pink Panther series 120
130, 143, 168 delivery 11920 pipelines 1317, 267, 74, 106, 129, 160
CGI 23, 151 editing 30, 31, 112, 120 Pixar 24, 53, 135
live-action hybrids 23, 152, 154, 155, 158 importance of 109, 111, 122 A Bugs Life 24

212
AnimationIndex

Monsters, Inc. (Docter) 79, 168 3D animation 16, 129, 13751 79

see also DisneyPixar 2D animation 1516, 12935, 1357 Schuh, Jakob: The Gruffalo (with Lang) 79
pixilation 21, 152 unorthodox animation 1526 Science Museum, London exhibition design
placements (internships) 180, 194, 1967 production schedules 26, 27, 74 (Orchard) 40, 83
Plasticine 99, 142 production team 30 scripts and scriptwriting 13, 26, 33, 34
Plateau, Joseph 131 promoting and promotional material 1867 analyzing a script 46
Platform Animation Festival, Portland, Oregon portfolios 187, 189 approaches 334, 3742
(2007) 155 print-based material 1902 defined 323
Plympton, Bill 132 showreels 18990 event analyses 445
Porky Pig 112 social media platforms 186, 194, 195 genres 423
Porter, Edwin Stanton: The Teddy Bears 19 websites 1923 key stages 75
postproduction process 1601, 178 propaganda 20, 22, 51, 78, 110, 112 prose briefs 44
digital technology 160, 1629, 172 props 29, 84, 1467 script development 14, 34, 446
editing 160, 1634 Pseudopod (from The Abyss) 23 step outlines 44
evaluation 178 Puppetoons (Paramount) 138 story development 37, 3942
managing 1612 puppets 20, 21, 22, 128, 13842 synopses 14, 45
pipeline 17, 160 Purves, Barry 129, 139, 140 treatments 14, 34, 456
release and distribution 17, 31, 1735 Plume 84 vocabulary and language 26, 357, 116
rendering 160 Tchaikovsky 87, 140 scriptwriters and scriptwriting teams 334, 37,
software 1624, 167, 168, 169 445, 185
sound 17, 16972 Q Seiber, Mtys 120
special effects 17 Qoop 192 Seidel, Robert 164
spotting sessions 161, 162 Quay, Stephen and Timothy see Brothers Quay Black Mirror 121
visuals 17, 1629, 170 QuickTime Player 125, 190 living painting, Phyletic Museum, Jena,
postproduction team 31, 1612 Quinn, Joanna 41, 55, 61, 89, 132 Germany 155
Postgate, Oliver (with Firmin) Elles 60 Selick, Henry 23
The Clangers 22, 137 Family Ties 81 Coraline 24, 79
Ivor the Engine 137 set design team 2930, 143
Noggin the Nog 137 R sets and set design 2930, 84, 85, 137, 143, 144,
Pott, Julia: Belly 33, 71, 188 racial issues 52, 67 1456
praxinoscopes 19, 61, 128, 130, 131 Reiniger, Lotte 153, 154 Shakespeare: the Animated Tales (S4C) 23
preproduction process 26, 46, 48, 72, 74, 104, The Adventures of Prince Achmed 20, 153 Shepherd, Chris: Dads Dead 35, 130
106, 1256 release and distribution 17, 31, 1735 silhouettes 20, 138, 153
animation tools 55, 56, 57, 116 religious issues 7, 52, 67 Silly Symphonies 20
briefing 13 Renderman (Pixar) 135 Skillset 184
concepts and ideas 13, 26, 4866 research 183, 186 skin, texturing 23, 149
development 14, 37, 3942, 446, 5864, collecting 1314, 65, 678, 71 slow in and slow out 12, 98, 147
74104 in concept development 51, 71 Small, Steve: Sing Up short 172
digital technology 92, 1245 defined 13, 667 Smith, Webb 133
editing 13, 16, 29, 901 see also music; sound methodology 68, 70 SMPTE time codes 165
design permissions 70 social media platforms 7, 183, 186, 194, 195
pipeline 1315, 267, 74, 106 reviewing 712 Sony 22, 24, 167
planning 26, 27 researchers 29, 667, 185 sound design 1415, 26, 106
research 1314, 51, 65, 6672 residencies 197 dialogue 14, 106, 112, 114, 116
scripts and scriptwriting 13, 26, 3246 Rice, Sir Tim 119 digital technology 1245, 172
software 57, 92, 1244 Richter, Max 80 editing 30, 118, 125
sound 1415, 26, 10626 Ridley Scott Associates 203 formatting 157, 172
3D animation 84, 87, 97 rigging 16, 129, 149 grammar of 11112
2D animation 84, 86, 92, 97 Road Runner 21, 102 in history of animation 20, 21, 22
preproduction team 28, 2930, 34, 445 Robbers Dog studio 135 and illusion 36, 37
prescreenings 63, 158, 175 Roobarb television series 22 importance 108, 109, 11012
Pro Tools software (Avid) 125, 163, 169 rotoscoping 19, 133 mastering 17, 172
producers 29, 72, 134 Royal College of Art, London 89 mixing 31, 124, 125, 157, 161, 169, 1701, 172
production process 128, 130, 158 Ruhemann, Andrew: The Lost Thing 24 narration 14, 106, 112, 114
CGI 14851 panning 17, 110, 170, 171, 172
compositing 16, 123, 129, 133, 148, 151 S perception of 106, 1078, 110
digital technology 132, 133 sand and oil-paint animation 1356 in postproduction process 17, 16972
editing 129, 158 Sazae-San television series 22 in preproduction process 1415, 26, 10626
pipeline 1516, 129 scale issues 60, 84, 85, 142, 1467 principles 1068
rendering 16, 129, 151 scanning 9, 60, 92, 132 in production process 157
software 15, 16, 132, 1335, 148, 153 Scarfe, Gerald: The Wall 97 recordings 11618, 123
sound design 157 scenes see layouts and scenes sound stems 14, 17, 106, 108, 112, 114,
stop-motion animation 13548 Scheffler, Axel: The Gruffalo (book, with Donaldson) 11624, 125, 169

213
 sound studios 1245 symbolism 35, 36, 37, 45, 58, 101, 119 visual narrative in animation 14, 37, 43, 74, 78,
soundtracks 15, 22, 91, 106, 111, 16970, 172 Szczerbowski, Maciek (Clyde Henry Productions): 7981, 162
and space 11011 Madame Tutli-Putli (with Lavis) 67, 145 visuals
and story (animatic) reels 76, 93 color correction 17, 165, 167
synchronizing 124, 170, 171, 173 T concepts and ideas 58, 65, 66, 72
and time 111 Takahata, Isao: Heidi (with Miyazaki) 22 motion-tracking 166, 167
voice-overs 22, 46, 93, 94, 96, 106, 114, 116 Tan, Shaun 24 non-linear editing 1634
see also music; sound effects Tandem Films 203 synchronicity 165, 169, 170, 173
Sound Dogs 122 Technicolor 20, 21 titles and credits 17, 31, 1689
sound effects 1415, 31, 74, 106, 1214, 162, television series 6, 21, 22, 23, 94, 112, 137, 142
170, 171 Templeton, Suzie 17, 84 W
Sound Ideas 122 Peter and the Wolf 24 Walker, Liz (Invisible Thread and Faulty Optic) 139,
sound production team 30, 31, 169 thaumatropes 131 154
special effects 9, 16, 17, 110, 121, 138, 150, 151 Thomas, Dylan: Under Milk Wood (poem) 114 Plucked 155
Speedy Gonzales 112 Thomas, Frank 11, 94 Wallace and Gromit (Aardman Animations) 12
Spinifex: Winter Olympics (2010) opening The Illusion of Life: Disney Animation (with Walt Disney Studios 7, 11, 24, 75, 778, 94, 132
ceremony, Vancouver 9, 96 Johnston) 11 The Lion King 119
Stalling, Carl 119 3D animation 9 Alice in Wonderland (Burton) 42, 103
Starevich, Vladislav 139 camera work 85, 143 Alices Wonderland 20
Piekna Lukanida (The Beautiful Lukanida) 19 CGI animation 23, 24, 14851 Bambi 21
Le Roman de Renard (The Tale of the Fox) 20 history 23, 24 Cinderella 21
Stehura, John 133 layouts and scenes 84, 85 Fantasia 7, 21, 78, 119
Cibernetik 5.3 22, 133 preproduction process 84, 87, 97 Flowers and Trees 20
Steinberg software 125 production process 16, 129 Pinocchio 21, 78
stop-motion animation 10, 128, 135 rigging and animating 16, 129, 149 Plane Crazy 75
checking filming 1478 sets and set design 2930, 84, 85, 137, 143, The Skeleton Dance 20
history 19, 20, 22, 23, 24 144, 1456 Sleeping Beauty 22
layouts and scenes 84, 85 stop-motion animation 84, 85, 13748 Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs 21, 52, 133
lighting 144, 145 see also armatures; claymation; models and Song of the South 21
3D animation 84, 85, 13748 modeling; puppets Steamboat Willie 20, 75, 110, 112
armatures 60, 82, 84, 1378 time-lapse imagery 152 The Three Little Pigs 20, 75, 94
claymation 23, 99, 137, 142 timing 12, 14, 74, 76, 978, 112, 114 Tron 23, 789
models and modeling 16, 60, 82, 129, 137, Tintin 21 Vincent (Burton) 23
143 Tom and Jerry 21, 50, 102, 111, 119 The Wise Little Hen 20
object animation 137, 143 tools and toolkits 55, 56, 57, 116 Wan Guchan and Laiming: Princes Iron Fan 21
puppets 20, 21, 22, 128, 13842 Toon Boom 134 Warner Bros. 7, 21, 78
sets and set design 137, 143, 144, 1456 training see education and training Duck Amuck 21, 78
2D animation 84, 85, 1357 Trnka, Jir 138 Fast and Furry-ous 21
paper cut-outs 137 The Emperors Nightingale 21 Whats Opera, Doc? 21, 78
sand and oil-paint animation 1356 Ruka (The Hand) 22, 138 websites 6, 8, 75, 94, 135, 1923
see also go-motion animation Tweety Bird 112 Wells, Paul
story arcs 41 2D animation The Fundamentals of Animation 7
story development 14, 37 CGI animation 133, 1345 Scriptwriting 33
key stages 75 drawn cel animation 10, 84, 86, 92, 1323 Wile E. Coyote 21, 102
plot 26, 32, 40, 412, 74 layouts 84, 85, 129 Wood, Ivor 22
premise 37, 39, 40, 44, 45, 111 preproduction process 84, 86, 92, 97 workflow see pipelines
story arcs (storylines) 41, 46 production process 1516, 129 workprints 16, 129, 158
themes 42 stop-motion animation 84, 85, 1357 writing as a skill 183, 185 see also scripts and
see also storyboards scriptwriting
story ladders and friezes 40 U
story reels 76, 93 unorthodox animation 34, 1526 see also Y
story team 29, 323 experimental animation Yamamura, Koji 57, 132
storyboard artists 29, 185 UPA (United Productions of America) studio 7, Muybridges Strings 92
storyboards 14, 20, 40, 63, 74, 7581, 84, 85, 93 21, 94
storylines 41, 46 Z
Studio AKA 49, 77, 80, 135, 186, 203 V Zimmer, Hans 119
studios and studio environment 14, 26, 28, 534, variable-speed cinematography 152 zoetropes 19, 61, 128, 130, 131
123, 194, 196 Vegas (Sony) 167
style guides 82, 84 video formats 173, 174
Supermarionation 142 video games 22, 96
suspension of disbelief 12, 50, 97, 1001 Vinton, Will
Svankmajer, Jan 139 Closed Mondays (with Gardiner) 142
The Death of Stalinism 110 Mark Twain 23

214
 Picture credits
AnimationIndex / Picture credits

The author and Laurence King Publishing Ltd. wish to thank Gear Studio; 55T Elizabeth Hobbs; 55B Back to the Studio AKA, directed by Marc Craste, agency: RKCR/Y&R,
the institutions and individuals who have kindly provided Start, client: Chipotle, agency: CAA and Chipotle, director: client: Lloyds TSB; 129 Courtesy Barry Purves; 130 Chris
photographic material for use in this book. If sources for Johnny Kelly, producer: Liz Chan; 57 NFB, courtesy Koji Shepherd; 131 National Media Museum/SSPL; 132T
illustrations and copyright credits have not been given in Yamamura; 58 Headgear Sketches; 59 Courtesy Johnny NFB, courtesy Koji Yamamura; 132B Courtesy Royal
the captions or on page 2, then they are given below. While Hardstaff (www.johnnyhardsraff.com); 60 Joanna Quinn/ College of Art; 133B Courtesy Center for Visual Music; 134
every effort has been made to trace the present copyright TransEuropeFilm; 61 Beryl Productions International Ltd./ Courtesy Toon Boom Animation Inc.toonboom.com; 136
holders, the publishers and author apologize in advance for S4C; 63 Courtesy Royal College of Art; 65 Lost and Found, TOUCH created by Ferenc Cak (writer, animator, director,
any unintentional omission or error, and will be pleased to produced by Studio AKA, based on the book by Oliver producer), C.A.K.. Studio Ltd.; 137 Courtesy Dan
insert the appropriate acknowledgment in any subsequent Jeffers, adapted and directed by Philip Hunt; 66 Courtesy Postgate, Smallfilms; 138 Courtesy Jason Walker, Clyde
edition. Jason Walker, Clyde Henry Productions, and The National Henry Productions, and The National Film Board of
Film Board of Canada; 69 Animation: Sherbet, Animation Canada; 139T Courtesy BFI; 139B John Coombes
Numbers in bold refer to pages in the book unless Director: Jonathan Hodgson, Animation Producer: photography, Liz Walkerpuppet maker; 140 Courtesy
otherwise stated. Jonathan Bairstow, Producer / Director: Zac Beattie, Barry Purves; 141 Crew: Guilherme Marcondes, Andrezza
T = top, B = bottom, L = left, R = right, C = center Executive Producer: Nick Mirsky, All Rights BBC; 71 Valentin, Cia Stromboli, Trattoria, Cassiano, Joao, Samuel
Courtesy Julia Pott; 72 Courtesy Royal College of Art; 74 Casal, Birdo Studio, Paulo Beto, Zeroum; 142 Courtesy
5 Science Museum, produced by Studio AKA, directed by Courtesy of CalArts; 76 BBH Creative Team/Directors: Nick Jason Walker, Clyde Henry Productions, and The National
Grant Orchard; 6 Fischinger Trust, courtesy Center for Kidney & Kevin Stark, BBH Producer: Matt Towell, BBH Film Board of Canada; 143T The Wrong Trousers
Visual Music (www.centerforvisualmusic.org); 8T Courtesy Strategy Director: Simeon Adams, Neil Godber, BBH Team Aardman Animations Limited / Wallace & Gromit Ltd. 1993;
American Museum of Natural History; 8B Courtesy BFI; 9 Manager: Polly Knowles, BBH Team Director: Simon Coles, 143B Headgear set; 144 Holy Flying Circus, client: BBC,
Kevork Djansezian/Getty Images; 10 Characters and Production Company: Passion Pictures, Director: Chris production company: Nexus Productions, director: Jim Le
images depicted Otomo Katsuhiro, cel photographs Curtis, Producer: Belle Buckley, Postproduction/Editing: Fevre, producer: Luke Youngman; 145 Courtesy Jason
Joe Peacock and Art of Akia Exhibit; 12 A Close Shave Passion Pictures, Sound: Factory Studios, Exposure: UK Walker, Clyde Henry Productions, and The National Film
Aardman Animations Limited / Wallace & Gromit Ltd. 1995; TV, cinema, online; 77 Varmints, produced by Studio AKA, Board of Canada; 146T Courtesy Barry Purves; 146B
14, 15 Science Museum, produced by Studio AKA, directed by Marc Craste; 78B Courtesy The Halas & Suzie Templeton/BreakThru Peter Ltd.; 147 Crew:
directed by Grant Orchard; 16 Chris Shepherd; 17 Batchelor Collection; 80 Lost and Found, produced by Guilherme Marcondes, Andrezza Valentin, Cia Stromboli,
Suzie Templeton/BreakThru Peter Ltd.; 18 Courtesy Ottawa Studio AKA, based on the book by Oliver Jeffers, adapted Trattoria, Cassiano, Joao, Samuel Casal, Birdo Studio,
Animation Festival; 19L National Media Museum/SSPL; and directed by Philip Hunt; 81 Beryl Productions Paulo Beto, Zeroum; 149T Lloyds TSB, produced by Studio
19C Courtesy Anne Simon, Lobster Films; 19R, 20L International Ltd./S4C; 82 BBH Creative Team/Directors: AKA, directed by Marc Craste, agency: RKCR/Y&R, client:
Courtesy Ray Pointer, Inkwell; 20CT Courtesy BFI; 20RT Nick Kidney & Kevin Stark, BBH Producer: Matt Towell, Lloyds TSB; 149B The Big Win, produced by Studio AKA,
Courtesy BFI; 20RB Fischinger Trust, courtesy Center for BBH Strategy Director: Simeon Adams, Neil Godber, BBH directed by Marc Craste, client: The National Lottery,
Visual Music (www.centerforvisualmusic.org); 21RT 1952 Team Manager: Polly Knowles, BBH Team Director: Simon agency: AMV; 150 Courtesy Jason Walker, Clyde Henry
National Film Board of Canada. All rights reserved; 21RB Coles, Production Company: Passion Pictures, Director: Productions, and The National Film Board of Canada; 152
Courtesy The Halas & Batchelor Collection; 22C Courtesy Chris Curtis, Producer: Belle Buckley, Postproduction/ 1957 National Film Board of Canada, All Rights
Dan Postgate, Smallfilms; 22R Courtesy BFI; 23L Ed Editing: Passion Pictures, Sound: Factory Studios, Reserved; 153 Courtesy BFI; 154 Courtesy Ray Pointer,
Emshwiller. Sunstone, 1979. Courtesy Electronic Arts Exposure: UK TV, cinema, online; 83 Science Museum, Inkwell; 155T John Coombesphotography, Liz Walker
Intermix (EAI), New York; 23R Characters and images produced by Studio AKA, directed by Grant Orchard; 84T puppet maker; 155B Robert Seidel, robertseidel.com;
depicted Otomo Katsuhiro, cel photographs Joe John Coombesphotography, Liz Walkerpuppet maker; 157 LoveSport, produced by Studio AKA, directed by Grant
Peacock and Art of Akia Exhibit; 25 Beryl Productions 84B Suzie Templeton/BreakThru Peter Ltd.; 85 Back to Orchard; 158 Lloyds TSB, produced by Studio AKA,
International Ltd./S4C; 26 Chris Shepherd; 28T Crew: the Start, client: Chipotle, agency: CAA and Chipotle, directed by Marc Craste, agency: RKCR/Y&R, client: Lloyds
Guilherme Marcondes, Andrezza Valentin, Cia Stromboli, director: Johnny Kelly, producer: Liz Chan; 87 Courtesy TSB; 159 Courtesy Jason Walker, Clyde Henry Productions,
Trattoria, Cassiano, Joao, Samuel Casal, Birdo Studio, Barry Purves; 88 Courtesy Jason Walker, Clyde Henry and The National Film Board of Canada; 160T Courtesy of
Paulo Beto, Zeroum; 28C, 28B Nexus Productions; 32 Productions, and The National Film Board of Canada; 89T CalArts; 160B Courtesy Royal College of Art; 164 Robert
Skype, produced by Studio AKA, directed by Grant Joanna Quinn/TransEuropeFilm; 89B, 90 Courtesy Seidel, robertseidel.com; 166 Courtesy Jason Walker,
Orchard, agency: AMV, client: Skype; 33 Courtesy Julia Royal College of Art; 91 Courtesy Barry Purves; 92T Clyde Henry Productions, and The National Film Board of
Pott; 34T Courtesy The Halas & Batchelor Collection; 34B NFB, courtesy Koji Yamamura; 92B Courtesy Royal College Canada; 168 Courtesy of CalArts; 170 Avid MC6 Surround
BBH Creative Team/Directors: Nick Kidney & Kevin Stark, of Art; 93 BBH Creative Team/Directors: Nick Kidney & Mixer U1; 172 Sing Up, produced by Studio AKA, directed
BBH Producer: Matt Towell, BBH Strategy Director: Simeon Kevin Stark, BBH Producer: Matt Towell, BBH Strategy by Steve Small, agency: AMV, client: Sing Up; 173
Adams, Neil Godber, BBH Team Manager: Polly Knowles, Director: Simeon Adams, Neil Godber, BBH Team Manager: LoveSport, produced by Studio AKA, directed by Grant
BBH Team Director: Simon Coles, Production Company: Polly Knowles, BBH Team Director: Simon Coles, Orchard; 175 Nexus Productions; 177 Courtesy Ottawa
Passion Pictures, Director: Chris Curtis, Producer: Belle Production Company: Passion Pictures, Director: Chris Animation Festival; 179 Lost and Found, produced by
Buckley, Postproduction/Editing: Passion Pictures, Sound: Curtis, Producer: Belle Buckley, Postproduction/Editing: Studio AKA, based on the book by Oliver Jeffers, adapted
Factory Studios, Exposure: UK TV, cinema, online; 35 Passion Pictures, Sound: Factory Studios, Exposure: UK and directed by Philip Hunt; 180T Courtesy of CalArts;
Chris Shepherd; 38 BBH Creative Team/Directors: Nick TV, cinema, online; 95 Collision, director: Max Hattler, 180B Courtesy Ottawa Animation Festival; 181T Courtesy
Kidney & Kevin Stark, BBH Producer: Matt Towell, BBH production: Royal College of Art, 2005; 96 Streeter Lecka/ Royal College of Art; 181B Courtesy Jason Walker, Clyde
Strategy Director: Simeon Adams, Neil Godber, BBH Team Getty Images; 97T Courtesy BFI; 97B Courtesy Royal Henry Productions, and The National Film Board of
Manager: Polly Knowles, BBH Team Director: Simon Coles, College of Art; 99B Creature Comforts Aardman Canada; 182 Courtesy Royal College of Art; 183 Courtesy
Production Company: Passion Pictures, Director: Chris Animations 1989; 101 Courtesy Library of Congress; 102 Ottawa Animation Festival; 184 Courtesy Royal College of
Curtis, Producer: Belle Buckley, Postproduction/Editing: BEEP, BEEP and all LOONEY TUNES characters, names, Art; 185 Courtesy of CalArts; 186 Lost and Found,
Passion Pictures, Sound: Factory Studios, Exposure: UK and all related indicia are and Warner Bros. produced by Studio AKA, based on the book by Oliver
TV, cinema, online; 39 Courtesy The Halas & Batchelor Entertainment Inc. All Rights Reserved; 105 Robert Jeffers, adapted and directed by Philip Hunt; 187 Nexus
Collection; 40 Science Museum, produced by Studio AKA, Seidel, robertseidel.com; 109 Spin, director: Max Hattler, Productions; 188 Courtesy Julia Pott; 189T Lloyds TSB,
directed by Grant Orchard; 41 Beryl Productions production: Autour de Minuit, 2010; 110 Courtesy of Jan produced by Studio AKA, directed by Marc Craste, agency:
International Ltd./S4C; 44 Crew: Guilherme Marcondes, Svankmeyer; 112 Courtesy Barry Purves; 113 Warner RKCR/Y&R, client: Lloyds TSB; 189B Nexus Productions;
Andrezza Valentin, Cia Stromboli, Trattoria, Cassiano, Joao, Bros. Entertainment Inc. All Rights Reserved; 114 S4C; 191 Lost and Found, produced by Studio AKA, based on
Samuel Casal, Birdo Studio, Paulo Beto, Zeroum; 45 115 UNEP, Isabelle Pierrard: Communication Specialist the book by Oliver Jeffers, adapted and directed by Philip
LoveSport, produced by Studio AKA, directed by Grant UNEP, Natasha Serlin: Producer / Director, Shroomstudio Hunt; 195 Nexus Productions; 196 Courtesy of CalArts;
Orchard; 47 Courtesy Johnny Hardstaff (www. Alexander Hatjoullis, Simon Ansell, Arnau Millet, Christian 197 Lost and Found, produced by Studio AKA, based on
johnnyhardsraff.com); 48 Elizabeth Hobbs; 49 Produced Krupa, Christos Hatjoullis: Animation Team; 118 Courtesy the book by Oliver Jeffers, adapted and directed by Philip
by Studio AKA; 50 The Wrong Trousers Aardman Royal College of Art; 120 Courtesy The Halas & Batchelor Hunt; 198 Courtesy Jason Walker, Clyde Henry
Animations Limited / Wallace & Gromit Ltd. 1993; 51 Take Collection; 121 Robert Seidel, robertseidel.com; 122 Productions, and The National Film Board of Canada; 201T
Me Out, client: Franz Ferdinand, commissioner: John Winter Olympics, produced by Studio AKA, directed by Nexus Productions; 201B Lloyds TSB, produced by Studio
Moule, production company: Nexus Production / Marc Craste, designed by Jon Klassen, client: BBC, AKA, directed by Marc Craste, agency: RKCR/Y&R, client:
Filmtecknarna, producer: Julia Parfitt; 52T Courtesy The agency: RKCR/Y&R; 124 Courtesy Jason Walker, Clyde Lloyds TSB; 203 Courtesy Royal College of Art; 205 John
Halas & Batchelor Collection; 52B Director: Mr. Ari Folman, Henry Productions, and The National Film Board of Coombesphotography, Liz Walkerpuppet maker
Art Director and Illustrator: Mr. David Polonsky; 54 Head Canada; 127 Courtesy BFI; 128 Lloyds TSB, produced by

215
Acknowledgments

I am grateful to Laurence King and Helen Rochester for commissioning

Animation as part of the Portfolio Series, and indebted to Melanie Walker
and Donald Dinwiddie for their help and support in shaping and editing
the manuscript.
I owe a huge debt of gratitude to my picture researcher, Jemma Robinson,
who turned up leads and chased down contributors with dignity and grace
when others would have simply declared the task impossible. Without her
help, Animation would not have such varied and inspiring images. My thanks
go to the many contributors who generously supplied images and to the
rights holders who granted permission for their images to be reproduced.
This book began and ended its preparation in San Francisco. I started this
project on study leave with my family and concluded the final edit in a caf
on the junction of Mason and Washington Streets. It has been a long time
comingI thank my colleagues at Loughborough University for their
encouragement and support, and especially Felicity, Thomas, and Imogen
at home for their patience, understanding, and love.

Andrew Selby
San Francisco, March 2012.

216