Digital Color Basics

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Table of Contents
Table of Contents ................................................................................................1

Principles of Color...............................................................................................1
Principles of Color....................................................................................................................1
Electromagnetic Waves....................................................................................................1
The Visual Spectrum ........................................................................................................4
Reflection and Absorption ................................................................................................5
Color Mixing .....................................................................................................................7
Brightness, Saturation, and Hue.....................................................................................13
Color Models / Color Spaces..........................................................................................14
Color Separation ............................................................................................................15

Communicating Color .......................................................................................16

Color Vision ............................................................................................................................16
Millions and millions........................................................................................................16
Feel the colors................................................................................................................17
Color Memory.................................................................................................................17
The neighborhood plays a part.......................................................................................17
Metamerisim...................................................................................................................18
Standardize .............................................................................................................................18
Color Temperature .........................................................................................................19
Perceptual Color Models ................................................................................................20
Colors in printThe Conventional Printing Process ..........................................................21
Standardizing Printing Characteristics............................................................................21
Digital Color Printing..............................................................................................................22

Imaging & Printing.............................................................................................23

Digital, discrete by nature......................................................................................................23
Personal Computer Operating Systems ...............................................................................25
Microsoft Windows:......................................................................................................25
Apple Mac OS:.............................................................................................................25
Common Software Applications ...........................................................................................26
Bitmap & Vector......................................................................................................................27
Common image file formats ..................................................................................................28
Lossy and Loss-less compression..................................................................................28
TIFF................................................................................................................................28
GIF .................................................................................................................................28
BMP ...............................................................................................................................29
PICT ...............................................................................................................................29
EPS ................................................................................................................................29
JPEG ..............................................................................................................................29
PhotoShop......................................................................................................................29
Common Image Rendering Terms ........................................................................................29
Photographic halftones...................................................................................................29
Digital halftones..............................................................................................................30
Continuous tone (CT or contone) ...................................................................................30
Raster Image Processing ...............................................................................................30
Bitmap direct image rendering........................................................................................30
Bitmap halftone rendering ..............................................................................................30
Rendering vector graphics ....................................................................................................31
Vector rendering to bitmap....................................................................................................31
Scanning introduction............................................................................................................31
Types of scanners (Drum/Flat Bed/Portable) .................................................................31
Scanner profiles (IT8) .....................................................................................................32
Color Separation and Color Conversion Overview..............................................................32
The "Big" Picture - The Digital Color, Scan and Print Process... .......................................36
Corona Charge...............................................................................................................36
The Analog Copy Process..............................................................................................36
The Digital Copy Process ...............................................................................................37
The CCD: .......................................................................................................................40
Printing:...................................................................................................................................55
The laser and laser optics... ...........................................................................................55
In The Field - The "Mechanics"of Color Scanning and Laser Printing ...........58
Analog Scanning ....................................................................................................................58
RGB Separation .............................................................................................................59
Digital Scanning......................................................................................................................59
Mirrors, Lens and CCD Scanning...................................................................................59
Color CCD ......................................................................................................................60
Direct Digital Scanning (SELFOC +CCD)..............................................................................60
Contact Image Sensors ..................................................................................................61
Moir ..............................................................................................................................61
Analog Signal Processing .....................................................................................................62
CCD Output....................................................................................................................63
Auto Shading..................................................................................................................63
Zeroing ...........................................................................................................................66
Signal Combining ...........................................................................................................66
Black Level .....................................................................................................................67
Automatic Gain Control (AGC) .......................................................................................67
Auto Image Density ........................................................................................................68
A/D Conversion.......................................................................................................................69
Digital Signal Processing.......................................................................................................70
Scan Line Correction ......................................................................................................70
Picture Element Correction.............................................................................................71
Scanner Gamma Correction...........................................................................................71
ACS (Auto Color Selection) ............................................................................................72
Auto Text/Image Separation...........................................................................................72
RGB Filtering..................................................................................................................73
Auto Image Density Control............................................................................................74
Color Conversion............................................................................................................75
Positive/Negative Reverse .............................................................................................75
UCR (Under Color Removal)..........................................................................................76
UCA (Under Color Addition) ...........................................................................................77
MTF (Modulation Transfer Function) ..............................................................................78
Dithering .........................................................................................................................79
Printer Gamma () Correction and Auto Color Calibration..............................................81
Color Balance..........................................................................................................................84
Auto Color Calibration (ACC) .........................................................................................84
Laser Printing .........................................................................................................................84
Overview ........................................................................................................................84
The Latent Image ...........................................................................................................85
Optical Path....................................................................................................................85
Optical Components...............................................................................................................86
Laser Diode Unit.............................................................................................................86
Cylindrical Lens ..............................................................................................................86
Polygonal Mirror .............................................................................................................87
F-theta () Lenses .........................................................................................................88
Second Mirror.................................................................................................................88
Focusing Lens ................................................................................................................88
Laser Synchronization Detector............................................................................................89
Laser Diode Power Control....................................................................................................91
Laser Signal Profile ........................................................................................................91
Image Processing ...................................................................................................................92
Printer Gamma Correction..............................................................................................92
Gradation Processing .....................................................................................................93
Laser Diode Pulse Positioning........................................................................................94
Color Development.................................................................................................................96
Fixed Position Development Systems ............................................................................96
Revolver Systems ..........................................................................................................98
Tetradrive Systems / Four-Tandem System ...................................................................98
Four-Tandem System .............................................................................................................99
Color Image Transfer..............................................................................................................99
Two-step Color Image Transfer....................................................................................100
Direct-to-Paper Color Image Transfer ..........................................................................101
Ink Jet Printing......................................................................................................................103
Ink Cartridges ...............................................................................................................103
Print Head ....................................................................................................................103
Purge Unit ....................................................................................................................104
Carriage Drive Mechanism ...........................................................................................105
Ink End Detection .........................................................................................................105

Appendixes .................................................................................................107

Bibliography .................................................................................................109
Principles of Color

Principles of Color
This chapter of the Digital Color Basics Manual deals with color specific principles of color.
Discussions of monochromatic specific process or general subjects that are not affected by
color will be found in other chapters.

Principles of Color
When discussing the processes involved in color
copying, it is important to understand what light
is and how just three basic colors can create a 0
1 11
vast array of colors. 0 110 01
1
0

Electromagnetic Waves
Once thought to be the smallest particles of matter - atoms - have over time been shown to
consist of a variety of subatomic particles. These subatomic particles are organized into three
groups -hadrons, leptons, and bosons.
The first group, the hadrons, includes among
others the protons and neutrons that are found
in the nucleus of the atom.
Of the second group, the leptons, the electron
is the most important from the standpoint of
color. Electrons are part of ordinary matter; the
volume of an atom is nearly all occupied by the
cloud of electrons surrounding the nucleus.
The final group the bosons, includes the
particles responsible for carrying the
fundamental forces of the universe such as
electromagnetic energy and gravity. One of
them, the photon, is a particle of major interest
here. You can think of the boson group of
particles as the universes tiny energy
transporters. Photons then, are particles that
form a packet of electromagnetic energy and
can transport this energy.

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Principles of Color

All matter and energy (as they are understood at present) consist of these particles. All matter
that we normally deal with is made up of atoms. For our purposes, we will consider an atom to
consist of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a negatively charged cloud of electrons.
These negatively charged electrons encircle the nucleus in fixed orbits or shells. Each shell has
its own energy level, and when energy is to be released from the atom, we will call upon the
boson group of particles to transport this energy outward.
If sufficient energy, say in the form of heat, is applied to
the atom, one or more of the orbiting electrons will be
forced to move to an outer shell. This process is
referred to as absorption. An atom in which the
electrons are boosted to higher energy levels is said to
be in an excited state.
As the electron returns to its normal energy state,
electromagnetic radiation is released. This process is
referred to as emission. One type of electromagnetic
radiation is visible light. The color of the visible light
depends on the atom, how far the electron moved to
return to its initial orbit, and how much energy was released.
Wavelength
Electromagnetic radiation consists of rapidly changing
electrical and magnetic fields, and is released from the atom
in the form of particles or packets of energy. These tiny
packets of electromagnetic energy are referred to as
photons. These particles of radiation released in mass
numbers take on the characteristics of a wave. The three
wave characteristics of amplitude, wavelength, and
frequency are described below. Photons are sometimes defined as particles of energy that
behave like waves.

Along the radiation wave, the electric and magnetic fields oscillate or go up and down in
strength. The amount that the wave varies in strength is the amplitude.

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Principles of Color

The distance between one peak of the wave to the

next in either the electric or magnetic field is called
wavelength, which is measured in meters.

And, the number of peaks that pass a given point in one second is called the frequency.
Frequency is measured in Hertz (Hz).

1 second

Electromagnetic radiation covers a very broad spectrum of wavelengths. From the longestthe
extremely long frequency radio waves (ELF)through radio waves, television, microwaves,
radar, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays and on down to the shortest wavesthe gamma
rays.
The principle difference between the various kinds of radiation is their differences in
wavelength, frequency and energy. As the wavelength decreases, both the frequency and
energy increases.
Notice that visible light occupies only a narrow band of the spectrum between about 400 and
700 nanometers.
FM BROADCAST / TV

AM BROADCAST
SHORT WAVES
VISIBLE LIGHT
ULTRAVIOLET

MICROWAVES
GAMMA RAYS

INFRARED
X RAYS

ELF

-1 6 -1 4 -1 2 -1 0 -8 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8

10-16
10 10-14
10 10
10-12 10-10
10 10-8
10 10
10-6 10
10-4 10
10-2 1 10
102 10
104 10
106 10
108

WAVELENGTH,
METERS

Ultraviolet V B G O R Infrared
400 500 600 700 (nm)

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Principles of Color

Some wavelengths are long and less frequent.

Other wavelengths are short and more frequent.
The longer the wavelength the lower the photons
energy.
The shorter the wavelength the greater the
photons energy.
A red photon of light (longer wavelength) has
about half the energy as that of a blue photon of
light (shorter wavelength).

The Visual Spectrum

Visible light occupies a very small portion of this
continuous spectrum. The electromagnetic energy
with wavelengths of between about 400 nm and 700
nm makes up the entire visible light spectrum. (The
abbreviation nm refers to a unit of measure called a
nanometer. One nanometer is equal to 0.000000001
meters or written in exponential form 1x10-9 meters.)
This range of wavelengths consists of all the colors of
light that humans are able to perceive. White light
contains all these wavelengths and hence, contains
all the colors of the visible spectrum.
This can be demonstrated through the use of a prism.
A prism works on the principle of refraction, or the
bending of light. As light passes through dense
matter (such as glass), longer wavelengths of color
bend less than shorter ones. In this manner the
various wavelengths of color bend differently from
one another. The result is that all the individual colors
that make up white light are separated from one
another, producing a rainbow of colors.
As you can see in the previous illustration, the
divisions between the colors are not pronounced or
sharp. If you begin at the top, you may notice the
color red, then going down through the spectrum you
may be able to pick out a reddish-orange, then
maybe an orange, a yellowish-orange and so on down
through to the color violet.

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Principles of Color

We perceive certain colors based on the proportion of

one color to another. For example, if the ratio of yellow Range of Wavelengths Color
light to orange is 1:1, we would perceive the color as 400nm to about 500nm Blue
yellowish-orange. If the ratio was increased to 2:1, we
would perceive the color as yellow-yellowish-orange, 500nm to about 600nm Green
and so on. There are, however, three primary colors of 600nm to about 700nm Red
light that when any two are mixed together, in equal
amounts, a new or secondary color is produced. And,
when all three of these colors of light are blended together in equal amounts white light is
produced. The three primary colors of light that best produce this effect are the colors red,
green, and blue.
Since all the various colors of light, as well as white light, can be created by combining these
three colors in varying amounts, it is then possible to categorize visible light (from about 400nm
to about 700nm) into three basic categories

Reflection and Absorption

Luminous Color and Intrinsic Color

We see objects that create, reflect, or transmit, visible
light. Objects that create light are said to be luminous.
Luminous color is the color emitted by an object, and
is dependent upon the wavelengths produced.
Objects that reflect or transmit light are said to be
intrinsic. Intrinsic color is the result of the wavelengths
of light that are bounced off an object (reflected), or
that are allowed to pass through a translucent or
transparent object (transmitted color).

For example, the sun, a candle, a television or a red

spotlight are all examples of luminous color. They all
generate light.

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Principles of Color

Reflection and Absorption

An orange, the pages in a book, a leaf or a
transparent piece of blue glass have intrinsic color.
The colors they produce are the result of absorbing
or stopping some wavelengths of light, while
reflecting or passing others.
As white light strikes the leaf, the green
wavelengths are reflected, while the other
wavelengths are absorbed.

When white light strikes the blue glass, the blue

wavelengths pass through and all other
wavelengths are stopped (absorbed). The eye
perceives the color blue.
Substances which are colorless, such as air, are
unable to absorb any of the wavelengths of light.
Colorless substances either reflect all the
wavelengths of light striking it, such as white
clouds, or allow all the wavelengths to pass
through, such as the glass in a window.
All the visible colors of light can then be expressed as some combination of three principle
colors of light - red, green, and blue. It is this ability to reproduce all the colors of light using only
three basic colors that is called additive color mixing. Red, green, and blue light are referred to
as the three additive primaries.

Light Reflective Characteristics of Color Toner.

The light reflective characteristics of color toner are of special interest to us. We will get into this
in more detail later, but for now lets take a quick look at how color toner reflects light.
Cyan toner absorbs red rays and reflects blue and green rays. Reflected B and G rays are
seen as cyan. R
G
B

Cyan Toner
White paper

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Principles of Color

Magenta toner absorbs green rays and reflects blue and red rays. Reflected B and R rays
are seen as magenta.
R
G
B

Magenta Toner
White paper

Yellow toner absorbs blue rays and reflects green and red rays. Reflected G and R light rays
are seen as yellow.
R
G
B

Yellow Toner
White paper

Color Mixing

The Primary Colors

Colors can be created by mixing three primary colors in two basic methods. One is additive
color mixing, which is the mixing of the three primary colors of light.

Additive color
mixing uses red,
green, and blue.

The other is subtractive color mixing, which is the blending of the three primary colors of
pigment (such as ink, paint, or toner).

Subtractive color
mixing uses yellow,
magenta, and cyan

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Principles of Color

Additive Color Mixing

In additive color mixing red, green, and blue light
are blended in various amounts to produce all
other colors and white light. Additive Color Mixing
is the process used by color televisions, and by
color computer monitors.

As discussed earlier, if equal amounts of red light,

green light, and blue light are mixed together, white
light is produced. The resultant color created when
mixing colors of light using the additive theory of
color is brighter and lighter in color then either of its
elements. The colors ADD together.

When only two of the three primary colors are mixed together, in equal amounts, the color
created is referred to as a secondary color.
When equal amounts of red light and green light are mixed together, the color yellow is
produced.

Red + Green Yellow

Mixing equal amounts of red light and blue light,

produce the color magenta.
Green + Blue Cyan

Red + Blue Magenta

And when equal amounts of green light and
blue light are mixed together, the color cyan is
produced.

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Principles of Color

When one of the additive primary colors is

combined with one of the secondary colors and the Additive Complementary
result is white or near-white light, the two colors are Primary Color Color
said to be complementary. For example, cyan light
consists of green and blue light, adding cyan to red Blue Yellow
light would create white light. So, the color cyan and Green Magenta
the color red are considered to be complementary
colors. Red Cyan
By the same reasoning, the color magenta is formed
by the mixing of equal amounts of blue light and red
light. If these colors were added in the correct proportions to green light, white light would be
the result. Magenta and green are complements.
The table lists the additive primaries and their complementary colors.
When mixing pigments, such as ink or dye, these complementary colors are used as the
principle or primary colors in a process known as subtractive color mixing.

Subtractive Color Mixing

Mixing colors of light is one thing, but mixing
opaque colors such as pigments or dyes is quite
another. For example, red and green pigments will
not blend to produce the color yellow no matter how
hard you try. This is because these materials get
their color by absorbing or subtracting certain
amounts of red, green, and blue light, and reflecting
what is not absorbed.
This means that a pure red pigment would absorb
blue and green light and reflect only red light; a pure green pigment would absorb red and blue
light and reflect only green light; and a pure blue pigment would absorb red and green light and
reflect only blue light. The mixing of any two of these three pigments, red, green or blue would
result in all three primary colors of light being absorbed, which is black. So as you can see, in a
three-color print process, using the colors Red, Green, Blue, as pigments would not work. What
must be determined are the three principle or primary subtractive colors.
As you read the above paragraph you may have noticed that for each color pigment: pure red,
pure green, and pure blue; two colors of light were absorbed or subtracted by each. If we had
three different colors, colors that would each absorb only one color of light, then by mixing these
three colors we could control the absorption of any combination of the three colors of light,
resulting in the ability to create any color.
As we mentioned earlier, three separate colors do exist that will each absorb only one of the
three colors of white light, namely the complementary colors of red, green and blue which are
cyan, magenta, and yellow. These three colors are referred to as the subtractive primaries.
Cyan, Magenta and Yellow will each absorb a different additive primary and reflect the
remaining two.

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Principles of Color

When white light strikes a pure yellow pigment the

additive primary blue is absorbed and the remaining
two additive primaries, red and green, are reflected.
Remember, red and green light create yellow light.
When white light strikes a pure magenta pigment,
green is absorbed and red and blue are reflected.
Red and blue light create magenta light. And as
shown here, when a pure cyan pigment is used, red
is absorbed and green and blue are reflected. (Green
and blue = cyan)

When magenta pigment (the circle on the left) is mixed with yellow pigment (the circle on the
right) in equal proportions the color red is produced (center).

Magenta + Yellow Red

When yellow pigment and cyan pigment are mixed together in equal proportions, the color
green is produced.

Yellow + Cyan Green

When cyan pigment is mixed with magenta pigment in equal proportions, the color produced is
blue.

Cyan + Magenta Blue

Page 10
Principles of Color

When all three colors: cyan, magenta and

yellow are blended together in equal pro-
portions, the result is that all the wavelengths
of light are absorbed, and black is produced.
This black color is referred to as processed
black, and depending on the purity of the
colors for cyan, magenta, and yellow will
actually appear to be a very deep blue or
brown. (This is why all present color print
devices use at least the three "primary"
colors: cyan, magenta, yellow and a
separate color - black. These "colors" make
up all the four-color print process devices.
Adding a "true" black to the process greatly
improves the image's quality and depth.)
The final color created, when mixing
pigments using the subtractive theory of
color, is always darker and deeper in color
than either of its elements. The colors, when mixed together, Subtract light, preventing it from
being reflected.
The colors, cyan, magenta and yellow, known as the subtractive primaries, will be the colors
used to print the images when using the three color print process.
The illustration below is an example of a simple color wheel. Starting at the color green and
following the top arrow, moving
clockwise toward red is the color
yellow. Remember, yellow is
produced by mixing equal amounts of
green and red light. Continuing
clockwise past red is the color
magenta, which is a mixture of red
and blue light. Then comes cyan and
so on... Notice that each portion of the
color wheel points to its
complementary color. For example
the red wedge points to its
complement cyan, the blue wedge to
its complement yellow.
Not only does this color wheel show
the relationships of the additive
primaries, it also demonstrates the
relationships of the subtractive
primaries. For example, yellow and
cyan pigments mixed in equal amounts create green. The color green sits between yellow and
cyan on the color wheel. Green also points to its complement which is magenta. There are
other, more elaborate color wheels, that can also demonstrate all the various hues of colors
created as the proportions of the various colors mixed are changed.

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Principles of Color

Familiarizing yourself with the color wheel

Some Color Wheels can be a strong aid towards describing a
specific color. For example, using the color
wheel, when equal proportions of magenta
and yellow pigments are mixed, red is
produced. If the amount of magenta were
A continuous reduced the color would take on a more
color wheel orange look. Reduce the magenta even
more and the color would begin to appear
A subtractive more and more yellow. Understanding the
mixing color concept of how cyan, magenta and yellow
wheel interact in forming all the printed colors is an
important step towards being efficient in
both operating and servicing any device
An additive using the four (and three) color print
mixing color process, such as in a full color document
wheel system (digital color copier).

Spectral Power Distribution

Spectral power distribution or SPD is the relative amount of light for each wavelength of a color,
which can be plotted and will form a unique fingerprint for that color. When plotted, this value is
referred to as the spectral power distribution curve for that specific color.
Similarly, a spectral transmittance curve is the spectral power distribution for a transparency.
And, a spectral reflectance curve is the relative amount of light for each wavelength reflected
from a colored surface.
Color Temperature - A Blackbody is an object that is
perfectly black, that absorbs all light cast upon it, when it is
cold. Most solid objects are good approximations to
blackbodies. Stars (which are essentially dense balls of hot
gas) also behave like blackbodies. The peak of a
blackbody's spectrum is determined by its temperature, the
hotter the object the ``bluer" the light. The Sun (6000 K)
emits most of its radiation at visible wavelengths (0.5 m).
Room temperature objects (300 K) emit most of their
radiation at infrared wavelengths (10 m).
Color temperature is measured using the Kelvin scale, zero
K is equal to minus 273 degrees Celsius (-273o C). Using
the properties of blackbodies it is possible to establish very accurate associations of color to
temperature. Using this method, lower temperatures are more yellow, while higher temperatures
are bluer.
The CIE, Commission Internationale de lEclairage, has defined a series of color temperatures,
which are used as standard illuminates (or source lighting). For example, an illuminant with a
color temperature of 5,000K, which is similar to natural daylight, is known as a D50 illuminant.
This illuminant is widely used in the graphic arts field for viewing proofs, color originals and final
prints.

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Principles of Color

Brightness, Saturation, and Hue

We will finish the section on the Principles of Color with a discussion of three important terms -
brightness, saturation, and hue.
These color characteristics form one of the White
systematic models available for classifying
colors. It is based on how the eye perceives
shades of color.

Brightness
Brightness: This is related to the amount of
black or white in a color. It is also a measure
of how much light the color is reflecting.
Adjusting the lightness changes the intensity Blue Violet
of R, G, and B but keeps their proportions Green-blue
the same. Brightness is also known as
Saturation
lightness. Blue-green Red
Hue
Saturation: Colorfulness with respect to a
neutral gray (chroma is another term used). Green Orange
To adjust saturation, the intensity of the Green- Yellow
yellow
complementary RGB color is adjusted,

Brightness
keeping the dominant color the same.
Hue: This is the color of an object. It is a
measure of the proportions of R, G, and B in
the color.

Black

These three characteristics of color can be shown on a three-

dimensional diagram. The illustration on this page is a color
representation of this concept.
In this diagram, the brightness increases towards the top apex and
decreases toward the bottom apex. All colors can be represented
as a vertical color section in the solid, with a white apex at the top
and a black apex at the bottom.
The colors going through the center of the solid from top to bottom
are all shades of gray. Also, colors get brighter (more white) above
the equatorial plane, and darker (more black) below it.
The colors get more intense as you move away from the vertical
axis (the percentage of gray decreases). This represents increase
in saturation.
A 3D brightness, hue, Any horizontal slice through the solid yields our friend the color
and saturation color wheel. The hue changes as you move around the center.
diagram

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Principles of Color

Color Models / Color Spaces

A "color model" is a method by which we can organize
color. To do this we can associate predetermined names
or numbers to a range of specific colors. For example:
the CMYK dot densities as reproduced by an offset
press, the RGB voltages sent to the electron guns of a
computer monitor, the CIE LAB numbers as measured
by a "colorimeter," or the Pantonetm color numbers as
seen in the "swatch books" published by that company.
(When it is possible to define a "distance" between two
sets of numbers that bears some relation to the
difference between two colors, the color model may be
referred to as a color space).
The importance of a color model is that it allows
communication regarding how the color should appear
when produced. When a graphic designer calls a printer on the telephone to specify a color by
referring to a swatch book, he is in effect communicating color. When two computer programs
communicate through a digital CIE LAB specification, they are doing the same thing. One group
of color models, referred to as device-dependant color models, (i.e. RGB and CMYK) use
values that are directly related to a physical color reproduction system. Another group of color
models referred to as device-independent color models, such as the CIE LAB color models
developed by the CIE (Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage) is based on human perception
and are not directly associated with any one specific color production device. While widely
regarded as the more accurate color model, CIE is only now beginning to be used in the color
printing and color display technologies and as of yet is not widely incorporated. Consequently,
these technologies need to use other color models, such as device-dependant CMYK and RGB.
There is a growing trend, however, to make all color models relative to the CIE models. This
would make it easier to translate from one model to another. Below lists some of the more
common color models:
CIE-XYZ - The international standard capable of representing all colors
CIE-xyY - A variation of the CIE model
CIE-uvY - Another variation of the CIE standard using two color components plus
luminance (Y)
L*u*v* - a popular perceptually uniform space
L*a*b* - A popular perceptually equalized space
CMYK - Cyan, magenta, yellow, black (the Key color) for four-color printing
DIN FSD - German standard
Munsell HVC - US standard; hue, value, and chroma
RGB - Red, green, blue; for color monitors and scanners
HSV - Hue, saturation, value
HLS Hue, lightness, and saturation
National Bureau of Standards Dictionary of Color Names Thousands of popular and
commercial color names (i.e. cobalt, mauve, teal, etc.)
National Bureau of Standards Color System - A stylized system of about two hundred
names encompassing all colors
See also, Perceptual Color Models in Communicating Color.

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Principles of Color

Color Separation
Color Separation can be thought of as the opposite of Color Mixing. The process of color
separation will take a full color image and break it down to its fundamental or primary
components. This is accomplished using the intrinsic color transmission properties of optical
filters. Although the process of color separation can be accomplished by using either the
additive filters - Red, Green, or Blue (R,G,B), or subtractive filters - Cyan, Magenta, or Yellow,
when used in the three color print process, such as used in color document systems, generally
R,G,B filters are used. For this reason we will limit our explanation to the use of these three
filters.

The Characteristics of Filters

Red FilterThe Red filter allows Red light to pass through and absorbs Blue and Green.
B G R

Red Filter

Green FilterThe Green filter allows Green light to pass through and absorbs Blue and
Red.
B G R

Green

Blue FilterThe Blue filter allows Blue light to pass through and absorbs Green and Red
rays.
B G R

Blue Filter

It is the properties of these filters that enable us to take a full color image
and break it up into its R, G, and B components. These individual red,
green and blue images, which together represent the original full color
image, are referred to as color separations, RGB separations or simply
Seps.

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Communicating Color

Color Vision
Light enters the eye through the lens and is focused on the retina, where an array of tiny cells,
known as photoreceptors, respond to the light by stimulating specialized nerve cells. These
nerve cells pass signals on to the brain. The light
receptors in the retina of the eye are called Rods
and Cones. The rods are responsible for us
being capable of detecting light and dark. The
Cones are used to perceive color.

There are three types of cones, referred to as

Long (L cones) - for blue wavelengths, Medium
(M cones) - green wavelengths and Short
(S cones) - red wavelengths cones. Each type:
L, M, and S cones respond to a different band of wavelengths. The three cones are also not
equally distributed on the retina. They are present in a ratio of 40(S): 20(M): 1(L). The green
cones are the most sensitive and the blue are the least sensitive.

Millions and millions

The ability to discriminate between
different colors is very important in color
reproduction, as it makes us very
sensitive to colors that are similar but not
identical. We are especially sensitive to
differences between neutral colors (i.e.
white, grays, and near-grays). We are
more sensitive to changes in lightness,
but we find changes in color more
objectionable.

The 6 million or so cones in the eye are

stimulated when light passes through the lens and strikes the retina. The impulse is first
processed in the ganglion cells immediately behind the retina, and then sent through the optic
nerve to the region of the brain known as the visual cortex, where further image processing
takes place.

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Feel the colors

A small percentage of the population does not see color in quite the same way as the average
person. An individual whose color vision differs from the majority will often have some type of
inherited malfunction of one of the cones, however some cases of visual divergence are caused
by damage to one of the brain's image-processing centers.
Another instance of unusual color perception is the phenomenon of Synaesthesia, the very rare
ability to produce "color sensation" from different senses, such as sounds, smell or taste. (The
artist, Vasily Kandinsky, was a Synaesthetic and many of the images he produced were
influenced by music that he listened to while painting.)

Color Memory
In theory, color management is simple: the
colors either match the original, or they
don't. In practice, however it's quite complex
because of differences in the color models,
colorants, and devices employed at every
stage of the print production process. The
problem is especially acute with color
photographs, because the human eye is
intolerant of colors that are off, especially
the memory of colors of food, trees and
flowers, water, and above all, flesh tones.

The neighborhood plays a part

In the brain, the perception of an object is not
just a scan of the visual field, but a result of
comparing it with its surroundings and
combined with a memory of what the object
"is supposed" to look like. By looking at the
difference between the object and its
surroundings, the brain perceives relative
color rather than absolute color. Changing
the immediate surroundings must then lead
the brain to adjust its perception of the color
of the object.
(Viewing Conditions) The eye will always adapt to the ambient light source and see it as neutral
white and also adjust the perception of any colors viewed under it. More over, if the spectral
power distribution of the light source is uneven and weak in some wavelengths, it will be
impossible to judge colors accurately. For example, a blue cornflower viewed under a tungsten
light source appears violet because of the relative absence of blue wavelengths.
The various viewing conditions make it extremely important to have some standardization in the
graphic arts industry. The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has specified viewing
conditions for the graphics arts industry.

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Metamerisim
Metamerism is a common illusion in which two or more
colors appear identical under certain light sources, but are
markedly different from each other under other light
sources. Metamerism is viewed as a problem in the paint,
plastic, and textile industries, but it is essential for color
printing with just three colorants (CMY).
A common example of
metamerism can occur if
you take a fabric sample
with you to the hardware
store when you want to
select a complementary paint color for your living room wall.
The fabric and paint chip might match perfectly under the
store's fluorescent lighting, but look quite different from each
other in your home's blend of incandescent and natural light.
When shopping for clothing. Consider the lights under which
they'll be worn.

Standardize
The ANSI standard specifies characteristics of the light source to be used as summarized in the
following table:

Chromaticity Color Spectral Color Intensity

Coordinates Temp. Power Rendering
Distribution Index
Transparencies X=0.3457 5000K D50 >90 1400cd/m3
Y=0.3586 +300cd/m3
Photographic X=0.3457 5000K D50 >90 2200 LUX
Prints Y=0.3586 +470 LUX
Reproductions X=0.3457 5000K D50 >90 2200LUX
Y=0.3586 +470 LUX
A light source with a color temperature of 5000K and a spectral power distribution similar to
natural daylight is known as a D50 illuminant.
A completely neutral white light source is considered to have a color temperature of 5000 K
(Kelvins).

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Color Temperature

Correlated Color Temperature of typical light sources

12000 K
Clear blue sky at noon
11000 K
10000 K
Graphics arts monitor
9000 K
8000 K North Sky Light
7000 K Overcast Sky at noon
6000 K Sunlight at noon
Standard Color viewing lamps
5000 K
Cool white florescent
Photoflood tungsten
4000 K
Warm white florescent
2854 K Tungsten incandescent lamp
Sunlight at sunset
2000 K
Candlelight

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Communicating Color

Perceptual Color Models

When our eyes perceive a color, we observe three things about the color: These three human
visual characteristics of color are:
Its hue. What are the proportions of red, green, blue and yellow, or what wavelengths
are present?
Its colorfulness also called saturation or chroma. Is the hue clearly visible or is it
contaminated by other colors?
Its brightness also called lightness or value. How much light is it reflecting?
These three subjective attributes of human
color perception form the basis of a number of
broadly similar color models. To understand
color perception, color scanning, color display,
and color reproduction, we need numerical
models of color. A color model is a way of
expressing colors as a numerical value, or as
data that computers can work with. Some
examples of color models include hue,
lightness and saturation (HLS color model),
hue, saturation, and brightness (HSB color
model), hue, saturation, and value (HSV color
model), and luminance, chroma, and hue
(LCH color model).
The perceptual color models all give hue more
or less the same meaning, but differ in their
definitions of the other components. Saturation or chroma corresponds to the colorfulness
attribute. Luminance, lightness, or value are organized around a brightness axis and two axes
that contain the hue and colorfulness information. These last two axes can be thought of as
forming a two-dimensional chromatic plane where the color information is defined independently
of luminance.
One problem with some color models is that they are device dependent. That is to say, that the
same data sent to different devices results in different colors being output. For example, a given
set of RGB values will produce noticeably different colors when displayed on two different
computer monitors manufactured by different vendors. One solution is to use a device
independent color model such as the CIE color model. The CIE color model (La Commission
Internationale de l'Eclairage) is based on spectral data, which precisely measures color values
with reference to a standard object, standard illuminant, and standard observer. A truly
independent and objective method of defining colors must be independent of both input and
output device.
Strictly speaking, CIE is more than only a color model, it is a "color stimulus specification
system." Although only recently applied to color imaging and reproduction, the CIE system has
proven invaluable in such industries as paint, plastics, textiles and the basis for the world's TV
system. Because the CIE system can be used to store color information in a device independent
manner, it has become a crucial part of "open" desktop color solutions that incorporate products
from a vast array of vendors.

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Colors in printThe Conventional Printing Process

The conventional printing processes are mature technologies,
based on simple physical and chemical principles that have
developed and evolved over many years. Now, with the
advent of digital electronics even the most conventional
printing methods have improved the techniques of putting ink
on paper. The many changes in press development have
resulted in reducing the time taken to prepare and run each
job. With this, the cost of color printing has fallen dramatically
in each of the last two decades, making color a real option for
every printed product.
The major conventional printing processes are: offset
lithography, flexography, gravure, and screen printing.
These are all established technologies capable of producing commercially acceptable color on a
range of materials. The largest sector of the market is occupied by general commercial printers,
that can produce everything from small leaflets and CD inserts, to reports, brochures, and short-
run magazines. (Photo by Heidelberg Americas, Inc.)

Standardizing Printing Characteristics

Before films or plates can be made, it is essential that the exact characteristics of the printed
output are known in order to set gray balance and tone compression correctly and compensate
for any distortions, such as dot gain. Rather than expect the film supplier to attempt to calibrate
the films to the individual press, many lithographic printers specify printing characteristics that
most printers are capable of matching. The publisher needs only to know which standard
applies to automatically generate correctly adjusted films. The most common standards are
incorporated into applications such as Adobe Photoshop, making it unnecessary to specify
details such as the precise dot gain compensation for each color. They are included in the way
the program builds up its color separation tables.
Some color printing standards:
Standard Published by:
Specification for Web Offset Printing SWOP, Inc.
(SWOP)
Eurostandard Offset System Brunner
Specifications for European Offset International Federation of the
Printing of Periodicals (FIPP) Periodical Press
Specifications or Non-heatset Printing Industries of America
Advertising Printing (SNAP)
UK Offset Newspaper Specifications Newspaper Society (UK) and
(UKONS) Pira International

The alternative to generating films to known standards is to calibrate the films to the individual
press, once the specific characteristics of the press have been established.

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Digital Color Printing

There are countless methods of transferring a
rasterized image from a computer to paper. The
contending technologies can be broadly grouped into
non-impact systems. Systems that have been
modified to accept and print direct digital images. The
term "non-impact" was originally coined to describe
computer printers that did not employ printing heads
that marked sheets by impact against a ribbon, such
as teletype, dot matrix, or daisy-wheel printers. Non-
impact systems include ink jet (where a liquid ink is
propelled onto the paper), electrostatic (where a toner
is transferred by an electrical charge), and thermal
A modern full-color digital laser (where a wax or die colorant is transferred to the
(electrostatic process) printer paper by heat).

In 1987, the first full-color copiers that could

also connect to a computer and act as a color
printer were introduced. Since then, other
manufactures such as Xerox, Agfa,
Kodak, and Minolta have developed their
own connected color document systems.
Ricoh Corporation Limited released their first
version of a connected color copier (color
document system) in 1994, teaming with
Electronics for Imaging, a Raster Image
Processing (RIP) company. Ricoh's innovative
products now help lead-the-way in office color
technology.
Color publishers found the use of these
"connected document systems" useful.
Publishers who eventually print thousands or
millions of copies of their publications on a
conventional printing press find that color
document systems provide a quick and
inexpensive way of creating "pre-proof"
composites, or comps. Color document systems
also served as a digital printing press, which
provided a quick and easy way to produce a
"short run" of a few hundred or a few thousand
copies of a full-color document.
The two illustrations above show two modern full-
color document systems that are built around a digital
laser (electrostatic process) printer engine.

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Imaging & Printing

Digital, discrete by nature...

Quantities that vary over a broad range of values are referred to as analog quantities. Examples
of analog quantities are: temperature, pressure, time, light intensity and volt age. These items
are continuous or linear in nature. Digital quantities, on the other hand, are not linear in nature
but are discretely varying quantities that increase or decrease in set amounts. Our
measurement of time is an example of a digital quantity. Time increments in discrete units called
seconds; 60 seconds creating one minute, or in minutes; 60 minutes to one hour. When
measuring seconds of time, since 60 is the number of discrete units used, 60 is considered the
base number.
Did you notice in the above explanation that time was defined as an analog quantity but our
measurement of time was defined as a digital quantity? Yes? Well thats the basic idea, we
digitize time by breaking it into fixed units and assigning a base value. This is also true for any
analog quantity. Lets use voltage in our next example...
Voltage is an analog quantity, as illustrated
in this analog data signal example. The line
representing the signal is smooth and
infinitely varying. Because of all the subtle
voltage changes that form this wave,
handling any data as an analog quantity is
very difficult. This is because many things
can occur which will create a voltage
change within the signal. Those who work
in the branch of electronics referred to as
Analog Electronics are constantly
concerned about waveforms, impedance
matching, feedback, stray oscillations, and
noise. Not surprising, given the range of
voltages used.
But voltage can also be represented digitally by assigning it to fixed or discrete units. The total
number of discrete units used, is called the base number. The base number used almost
exclusively for data processing is 2. In this method, the voltage values selected occupy only
two values, or states, one value for digit zero (0), and a second value for digit one (1). This two-
digit system is referred to as the binary system and is the basis for the branch of electronics
referred to as Digital Electronics. In this system a wide range of states, such as the voltage
values possible in analog system design, are handled as strings or a series of binary digits, 0s
and 1s. These 0s and 1s are called bits. When these bits are grouped in units, generally
eight bits, the unit is called a byte. For example, the binary number 10111101, is one byte of
data.

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Since bits are voltage units of only two predetermined states, it is possible to implement number
processing systems and effective number storage/retrieval systems using this method. This
would be very difficult to do with analog based designs. It is this very concept, using bits that
can occupy only one of two possible voltage states, that makes up the modern day computer.
Because there are only two possible voltage states, digital information is more immune to
interference, distortion or signal loss than analog systems and is responsible for the tremendous
growth in electronics today.

Digital signals are represented by "streams" or "strings" of binary numbers. The greater the
number of bits used, the greater the number of quantities or values that can be represented.

The table below demonstrates the number of values (for example, the number of different
voltage values) that can be expressed or represented using one to eight bits.

Number of Bits Number of quantities (values) that

can be represented
1 21 = 2
2 22 = 4
3 23 = 8
4 24 = 16
5 25 = 32
6 26 = 64
7 27 = 128
8 28 = 256

Notice, that with each additional bit, the number of quantities that
can be represented doubles.

If you have a basic

understanding of the concepts discussed on the
previous pages, you should have no difficulty with
the process of Analog to Digital or A/D (pronounced
A to D) conversion. It is this process which when
used in a digital document system or other digital
imaging device such as a scanner or digital camera,
will convert the analog voltage output from an
imaging device, called a CCD, to digital values that
can be manipulated, modified, and/or transmitted.
This A/D conversion is where digitizing the image or
original document takes place.

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Before we get too far ahead, it is important to remember that these bytes of data, either
acquired as a result of scanning or as the result of using some software program, will eventually
form our printed text and images. There are many stages in the "Document's or Image's
Workflow," where things can occur that will change our data in some undesirable way.
While the primary focus for this document is digital color basics, with an emphasis on color
scanning and digital color laser printing, let's take a moment and briefly mention the "front-end"
of image creation. We can now put those bits and bytes to work.

Personal Computer Operating Systems

As part of the color creation process, the operating system can play a significant part in color
reproduction. It is important to remember that any operating system color corrections that are
performed are performed prior to sending the data to the printer driver. (A printer driver is
software that tells the operating system about your print device.). In this section we will briefly
review the color management systems included in Microsoft's Windows (i.e. Windows 98 and
2000) and Apple's Macintosh (i.e. Mac OS 9) operating systems.

Microsoft Windows:
Color management technologies in the Microsoft Windows 2000, Windows 98, and future
versions of Windows operating systems help users to consistently reproduce color when using
scanners, cameras, displays, printers, and applications. Windows "Image Color Management"
(ICM) 2.0 is the program that is built-in and used to perform these functions:
Map colors between devices that have different color gamuts
(for example, printers and displays)
Transform colors from one color space to another, for example,
RGB to CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and Black)
Provide accurate on-screen or print previews that allow for corrective
action
ICM 2.0 is an integral part of Microsoft Windows 98 and Windows 2000. Because ICM 2.0 is
built into the Windows family of operating systems as a set of Win32 API functions, it is readily
available to any application, device driver, device calibration tool, or color management module
(CMM). sRGB (Standard RGB Color Space) is the default color space in Windows 98 and
Windows 2000 operating systems for all color images that do not have an embedded ICC
profile, or for images that are not specifically tagged with other color information.

Apple Mac OS:

ColorSync is system software that provides a comprehensive framework for exchanging and
matching color information between input devices, displays, applications and output devices, all
of which have quite different methods for representing color information. ColorSync calls upon
the computational power of "CMMs" (color matching modules) which convert images from one
color space to another - for example, from RGB to CMYK - and simultaneously apply the
information in the profile to correctly render the image. In each step of the workflow, ColorSync
compensates for any deviations in the image-capturing systems of scanners, the display
anomalies of monitors, and the color imaging components of printers and output devices. This is
a system level approach to color management and offers more functionality than Microsoft's
ICM system.

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Imaging & Printing

Common Software Applications

Microsoft PowerPoint
PowerPoint is primarily used to prepare and present slide presentations. The output is formatted
for monitors and overhead display units. The default color palettes in this program are optimized
for these devices. This means that PowerPoint utilizes the RGB color space.
Because this Microsoft program is optimized for the color space used by monitors and other
display devices, printed documents often have a different appearance from that on screen. This
is particularly true of the deep rich blue which PowerPoint displays on screen, but is out of the
gamut range of many print devices. PowerPoint does have an option to improve print quality.
Located under Tools> Options>Advanced in the PowerPoint program, the user can select the
method of saving export pictures to optimize either for print or for display monitors.
Microsoft Word
Microsoft Word is primarily used to prepare and print text documents. Since the bulk of text
documents are black and white, handling color is not a primary function of this program.
Therefore, Word uses the same color handling processes developed for PowerPoint.
QuarkXPress from Quark
QuarkXPress is an electronic integrated page layout and publishing package, QuarkXPress lets
you combine writing, editing, and typography with color and pictures to produce final paper or
film output. This program gives you total command over page layout and allows for HTML
conversion of documents for application on the Web. Some considerations to keep in mind
when using this popular software package are:
Images printed through Quark are processed individually
(RGB images are sent as RGB, CMYK images are sent CMYK)
All necessary program components must be loaded during installation, not after
Printer setup must be done properly
Color management should be enabled and set up properly
Adobe Photoshop
Adobe Photoshop software provides the user with image editing and imaging features that
has made it one of the most popular imaging software programs. Unlike a page layout or word
processing program, Adobe Photoshop is designed exclusively to edit and create images. Prior
to Photoshop 6 only "Bitmap" type images could be edited, but now even vector graphics can be
created and edited. One of the many features of Photoshop is the CMYK support provided.
Another is the ability to save images in a format that allows for individual layering in the image.
Some color tips when using Adobe's PhotoShop:
Use the Histogram to analyze the tonal range of images.
Use Curves or Levels to adjust contrast and/or brightness.
Dot gain adjustments affect RGB to CMYK conversions.
Separation tables, separation setup and printing inks setup are used to convert
RGB images into CMYK. These must be loaded prior to converting the RGB image
to CMYK.
Monitor setup (v3,4) or RGB setup (v5) should be done before any work begins.
Use only one monitor calibration method.

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Imaging & Printing

We have only touched the surface of the vast number of software programs available to today's
desktop publisher. But the ones we mentioned do represent some of the best of the
"Presentation," "Word Processing," "Page Layout," and "Image Editing" software programs
available today. There are many other programs offered by Adobe, Macromedia, Quark and
Microsoft, among others, which provide the user the features necessary to make desktop
publishing as versatile as it is today. When you have the opportunity search the Web for some
of the additional products offered by the manufacturers listed here and by other manufacturers.
There is one major thing that all these programs do have in common. That is, when the
presentation, image or document is finally completed, and the user wants to make it available in
the future, it must be saved to some storage media, such as to a hard drive or disk. And in order
to save the work it must be formatted, that is compiled or assembled into a data file of some
form. Most software programs allow the user's work to be saved in the program's "native" file
format. The programs native format is usually a proprietary format that allows for the work to be
easily opened and edited in the original program. For example, the native file format for
Microsoft PowerPoint is ".ppt" or ".ppd." These formats are usually referred to by the file
extension that is given to the file when saved, such as "mypresentation.ppt." The native file
format for Adobe Photoshop is ".psd" or .pdd." These file formats allow the users work (image)
to retain its original layering and can be opened using Photoshop with all the image's attributes
intact.

Bitmap & Vector

There are basically only two methods for describing images digitally, bitmap and vector. Bitmap
images describe the color of every pixel, or dot within the image and then places these pixels
into a grid or matrix. Vector images break the image down into lines or regions, include color
and shading and represent this information as complex formulas. Bitmap images are analogous
to dot matrix, ink jet printers, or electrostatic printers in which the image is composed of a large
number of distinct dots on the page. A vector image in analogous to a pen plotter, which draws
the image on the page by moving colored pens across the page in specific lines. Vector images
can be scaled easily, while bitmap images become blurry or distorted when enlarged.
Without compression, bitmap images of a given size and bit depth will always require the same
amount of storage space, regardless of the content of the image. For instance, an image of one
thousand pixels by one thousand pixels, with one byte of color information per pixel will always
require ten thousand bytes of storage. Both a solid white image and a complex picture with
many characters in it will require the same ten thousand bytes to render as a bitmap image.
The amount of memory required for a vector image will vary depending on the complexity of the
image. A solid white image will require only a few bytes to record the color, height and width of
the image. A complex picture with many characters will require more memory space to describe
the size, shape and color of each distinct region in the image.

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Common image file formats

Once an image is created (or acquired, such as when an image is scanned) in a graphics
program, an image must be stored in some file format. Many image capture and graphics
programs have their own file formats, which provide for flexibility that the program uses to alter
the image. Most programs, however, also have the ability to read or write files more common file
formats, which are recognized by many programs. Some file formats are recognized across
operating systems and hardware platforms as well.

Some image file formats use compression routines to reduce the size of the file. Compression
schemes come in two forms, lossy, which sacrifice some image quality to achieve greater
compression rations, and loss-less, which ensure image quality, but sometimes provide little
compression.

Choosing a file format depends on several factors including the applications and platforms to be
used, the type of image and output image quality desired.

Lossy and Loss-less compression

Compression reduces the amount of memory required to stored data, such as an image. Some
compression methods maintain all detain in the original image. These compression methods, or
routines, are called loss-less. Other compression routines sacrifice some detail in the image in
order to reduce the image size. These routines are called lossy compression routines.

Loss-less compression methods include Run-Length-Encoding (RLE), in which the image is

broken down into lines. When long strings of data of a given color are encountered, the
compression routine records the color and the number of consecutive pixels of that color. For
images with large areas of white space and relatively small areas of color, this can result in
significant image compression. For complex images with lots of fine detail, very little
compression will be achieved. In general, the compression ratio achieved by loss-less
compression routines will vary depending on the complexity of the image. Lossy compression
routines are often less sensitive to the amount of complexity in the original image.

TIFF
A Tagged Image File Format or TIFF file is a bitmap graphic file format. It supports up to 24 bit
color, and provides several compression routines. TIFF files are supported by many applications
in Microsoft, Apple and Unix platforms. Because it is very flexible and supports numerous color
depths and compression routines, some TIFF files may not be properly opened by some
applications. TIFF files are accepted by many page layout and imaging software programs
making it an excellent choice for cross-platform and cross-file projects.

GIF
The Graphics Interchange Format (GIF) is a widely used file format for graphics on the world
wide web. GIF supports up to 256 colors and provides loss-less file compression. The low color
depth and compression result in small file sizes that make GIF files easy to download. GIF files
are supported in a wide array of applications and operating systems.

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Imaging & Printing

BMP
The BMP file format is one of the most commonly used formats in the Microsoft operating
system environment. BMP is the native format for Microsoft Paint. It supports up to a 24 bit color
depth per pixel (picture element), provides for a RLE (Run Length Encoding) compression
method and is considered a very stable bitmap format. There is only limited support for BMP
files in Apple or Unix operating environments and is not popular in page layout operations.
PICT
The PICT file format is the most common graphics format used in the Apple operating
environment. It supports up to 32 bit color. PICT files use the QuickDraw language to describe
images and so is a vector graphics format. Support for PICT files in other operating
environments is limited.
EPS
Encapsulated PostScript or EPS files use the Adobe Postscript language and TIFF or PICT
formats to store graphic images. EPS files are widely supported by desktop publishing software
in Microsoft and Apple operating system environments. EPS provides for high quality graphic
output, but has only minimal compression. With EPS you can save the file as a single composite
file of RGB or CMYK images for direct output to a PostScript printer, or you can save the image
in a "CMYK color separation" five file form. The five file form consist of a Cyan file, Magenta file,
Yellow file, Black file and a Preview/Thumbnail Image file and are referred to as CMYK Digital
Color Separations (DCS) EPS files.
JPEG
More a lossy compression method than a file format, the Joint Photographic Experts Group
(JPEG) file format is a popular bitmap format that offers excellent compression for photographic
images. JPEG is supported in many applications and operating systems environments. Not all
implementations of JPEG are compatible, however. This means some JPEG images will not be
interpreted correctly by all applications that read JPEG. The JPEG file extension is .jpg.
PhotoShop
As described previously, .psd and .pdd are Adobes Photoshop internal (native) file format.
There are actually several versions of this format including 2.0, 2.5, 3.0 and 4.0. Each version
number corresponds to the Photoshop version number. The more current versions allow the
user to save up to 99 layers and twenty-four 8-bit channels of information. This format includes
a loss-less RLE compression routine and allows the user to save the image using a number of
different color spaces.
Common Image Rendering Terms
Photographic halftones
A photographic halftone is created by a special type of graphic arts camera, called a "stat"
camera. The camera has a built in optical filter that converts the photographed image into a
pattern of dots. The film negative from the camera is then used to create a positive image on a
printing plate which is then used to print the image to paper. The term photographic halftone is
also used to describe the shades of gray or color that result from reducing or increasing the
density of pigment (ink or toner). See "Continuous Tone" on the next page."

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Imaging & Printing

Digital halftones
Many output devices such as digital printers produce images using only one density level of ink
or toner. If only this method was used, these binary devices would be able to directly produce
only a very small tonal range. To increase the range of shades and colors that these devices
can reproduce, the image is created using patterns, called dither patterns or dither matrices, of
individual identical density dots. The greater the spacing between the dots, the lighter the color
or shade. Images created in this manner are referred to as halftone images.

Continuous tone (CT or contone)

Contone refers to images that have a virtually unlimited range of color or shades of grays.
Traditional contone images were not created using individual dots. Photographs and paintings
for example, are continuous-tone images. In contrast, computer hardware and software is
digital, which means that they can represent only a limited number of colors and gray levels.
Converting a black-and-white continuous-tone image into a computer image is known as gray
scaling. Digital continuous-tone printers are able to print each dot at many different shades of
lightness and darkness. Though this isn't true continuous-tone because the level of shades is
limited, there are enough shades (256 or more) so that the difference between one shade and
the next is imperceptible to the human eye.

Raster Image Processing

Raster image processing, or RIPping is the process by which an image, either bitmap or vector,
is converted into bitmap data specifically intended for a particular output device, such as a color
printer. RIPped data can be sent directly to the print device, or stored for later use. Only the
intended output device will be able to properly interpret and print RIPped data. If an image is to
be sent to a different output device, such as another printer, raster image processing must be
repeated for the new intended output device.

Bitmap direct image rendering

With bitmap direct image rendering, each bitmap pixel of the image matches with an output
imaging element. Perhaps the best example of direct image rendering is a computer monitor.
The optimum way to output to a direct imaging device is to match bitmap pixels to the outputs
imaging elements one-to-one. If there are more bitmap pixels in the image than there are
imaging elements, the image will not display. Also, fewer bitmap pixels in the image result in the
image not filling the display area completely.

Bitmap halftone rendering

Electrostatic printers, image setters and printing presses only print solid areas of a color. To
create an illusion of tone, the image process of the output device creates solid dots referred to
as halftones. These halftone dots are fixed and printed in a predetermined grid, called a matrix
pattern, that is designed to broaden the tonal range of the output. Image setter or standard print
presses, such as an offset press, can also vary the size of the halftone dots to increase the tonal
range of the output. Most modern electrostatic print process can now vary the intensity of the
laser light, in effect making the halftone dot darker or lighter. This also has the effect of
broadening the number of halftones (screen tints, or gray tones) that can be created.

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Rendering vector graphics

Unlike bitmaps which relate pixels to output imaging elements, vector data relates more to the
certain size and shape of an area. When rendering vector graphics, the output device produces
the lines and shapes requested by the vector data by turning on the appropriate imaging
elements needed to execute the print instructions. Since vector graphics are created based on
instructions and not pixels, vector graphics generally have smoother edges and smoother lines
than bitmap images and will print better at higher resolutions. You may argue that if the imaging
element prints in a series of dots, than all images are in effect printed as bitmap images since
bitmap images are composed of strategically positioned dots. While this seems true initially, it is
how page description print languages that support vector images, such as PostScript, cause the
imaging elements to print that makes the difference.

Vector rendering to bitmap

Instead of going directly to an output device, it is sometimes advantageous to first convert vector
image data to a bitmap data. Color blends or colorful ornamental designs and illustrations are
good reasons to convert a vector image to bitmap. Due to the complexity of color, rendering
vector created color blends into bitmap generally improves quality and increases the speed of
the output. Vector blends can have problems with banding or noticeable sharp tonal steps in the
color output. Another reason to convert vector to bitmap is to help simplify editing. There are
many software applications, such as Adobe Photoshop, that are primarily designed to edit
bitmap images.

Scanning introduction
Scanning is the process of converting a printed image into digital information that can be
manipulated, stored or reprinted. Scanning is a step in the copy, fax or document imaging
processes. In each case, an original paper document is rendered as digital data.

Types of scanners (Drum/Flat Bed/Portable)

There are basically three main types of scanners, drum type scanners, flat bed and hand-held or
portable scanners. Each type of scanner has its own individual applications and benefits.
Most portable/hand-held scanners are inexpensive devices that are dragged across the image
to be scanned. The hand-held scanner contains a light source and contact image sensor (CIS)
in a single unit. The CIS converts the image into digital data. Some models, using a color CIS,
are capable of fairly high resolution, 600 dpi (optical) and good color depth (24 bit color).
However, these scanners do not tend to be very consistent in their color performance.
Flat bed scanners are common on copiers as well as stand-alone scanners. A flat bed scanner
passes the light source and mirrors across under the stationary image's surface, reflecting the
image onto a charge coupled device (CCD.) This type of scanner generally provides much
better image quality than portable or hand-held scanners.
Drum scanners rotate the original, via a spinning drum, under separate photo-multiplier tubes
(one for red, green and blue), splitting the image into its RGB elements. As the original image,
which can be very large in size, spins, these photo-multiplier tubes (PMTs) are slowly stepped
down the length of the original.

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Drum scanners are less susceptible to errors due to refraction or focus than are flatbed
scanners. Also, the PMT sensor is more sophisticated than a CCD and helps account for their
superior performance. Drum scanners are expensive though and are generally used today only
for specialized high-end applications.

Scanner profiles (IT8)

Scanner profiles are used to ensure that the color generated by the scanner for the digital image
closely matches the color of the original image. Because every device (scanner, printer,
copier) has unique features, each must have a unique profile. Typically, a scanner will use a
calibration sheet with known parameters and software which checks the scanned data image
with the known parameters of the calibration sheet. The software will then note any necessary
adjustments to match the scanned data image to the original and create a color profile. This file,
the color profile, can then be used to adjust the colors of the users original images to maintain
color integrity.
Because every device has unique characteristics, a unique calibration sheet is required to
achieve the best possible calibration. Some black and white scanners, known as VRS or Virtual
Rescan Scanners, have a black backing behind originals, in order to detect skewed images or
bent corners. These scanners require a white calibration sheet to set white levels for the device.
Color scanners generally use IT8 targets. IT8 targets are calibration sheets that follow a
carefully defined pattern of independently defined color patches and device specific color
patches.

Color Separation and Color Conversion Overview

In this section, we will focus on the processes used by color document systems in today's
enterprise office environment. Offset and production techniques will not be described here. If
you are interested in production color techniques, such as offset printing, there are many
available sources of information.
Color separation occurs during the scanning of
the original. For reasons of clarity, we will
examine a three-scan process. Most scanners
today complete the color separation process in a
single scan. However, multiple scans or a single
scan, the overall process is the same. Lets look
at the color separation process...
White light is first cast upon a full color image or
object. Depending on the color of the image or
object, certain wavelengths of light will be
absorbed while others are reflected. The colors that are reflected can be considered as being
composed of various proportions of the three primary colors: red, green, and blue.
By passing the reflected light through a red filter, only the reflected light that consists of a red
component will pass through. The intensity or amount of red that passes through is in direct
proportion to the amount of red light reflected by the image. In other words, a pure yellow
pigment would reflect red and green light in equal amounts. A red filter passes only the red
element, hence the intensity of the light passed is only half of when the red and green light were
combined.

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White light is cast on the image again. This time the

reflected light is passed through a green filter. The
filter transmits only the green element of each color;
the other colors are blocked.

Again, white light is cast on the image. This time a

blue filter intercepts the reflected light. Only the
blue element of each color from the image is
allowed to pass.

These steps are basically what occur during the color separation process in a full color copier.
Each time white light is cast on the image would be equivalent to one scan of the original. For
each scan, the reflected image is passed through a different color filter. The end result is that
the image is broken apart" into its R,G,B,
components.
Original image
Today, the three-scan process has been
replaced by either a single scan, where
RGB separation is made to occur with one
pass of the scanner or a four-scan process.
The fourth scan is used to determine how
much black pigment or toner should be
added to the reproduced image. This is
because the pigment or toner colors used
are not necessarily pure. The magenta CMYK
used may not be a pure magenta color, the separations
cyan, not a pure cyan, and the yellow, not a after RGB to
pure yellow. This is due primarily to CMYK
manufacturing, since the materials used to conversion
create the pigment color must also meet a
range of requirements that are independent
of color, such as: resistance to caking or
clumping, consistency of particle size, or in
the case of liquids the flow rate. The
materials chosen to meet all the
specifications may not wind up being pure
in hue.

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For this reason black toner is used to produce a more true black, instead of the bluish or
brownish look of a processed black. The amount of black used is usually a percentage of the
C,M,Y ratio used, a process referred to as under color removal.
After scanning, the next process involves using the RGB separated color data to determine how
much toner (toner is a type of dry pigment) to apply. This is referred to as "RGB to CMYK
conversion" (the letter "K" is used for black). This step is generally performed immediately after
each scan before the next scan occurs. Since the subtractive primaries (C,M,Y) are the
opposite or complements to the additive primaries (R,G,B), the amount of toner used is
inversely proportional (or the opposite of) the amount of light transmitted through each filter.

As an example, lets examine the light transmission and toner

selection process for an original that is a solid pink color.

Since a large
amount of red light is reflected from the pink
image, then very little red light was absorbed.
The color that absorbs red light is its comple-
mentary color cyan. Cyan pigment absorbs red
light. Since very little red was absorbed by the
image, the image must contain very little cyan
pigment. So a very small amount of cyan toner
will be used.

The pink original reflects only a very small

amount of green light; so, a large amount must
have been absorbed. The color pigment that
absorbs green wavelengths of light is the
complementary color of green, which is the color
magenta. So, a large amount of magenta toner
will be necessary to reproduce the color of this
image.

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Finally, the pink original reflects a moderate

amount of blue light; so, a moderate amount must
also have been absorbed. The color pigment that
absorbs blue light is the complementary color
yellow. And a moderate amount of yellow toner
must be added to reproduce this image.

Finally, blended together using heat and pressure,

the end result is a copy or reproduction of the
original image in full color. In this example the
color Pink is reproduced.

By altering the proportions of cyan, magenta and

yellow pigments used, based on the levels of red,
green and blue light reflected, any color can be
reproduced. Adding a fourth pigment, black, at the
proper amount adds depth to the copy and
improves black reproduction. And those are the
basic processes surrounding light and color mixing.
Obtaining an image from a color laser printer is very
similar to what occurs in a digital color copier, if we
simply eliminate the scanning process. With a color
printer, the RGB separations are performed by the
computers software application and then sent to the printer either as RGB images or the
software will first convert the image to CMYK data. The printer's electronics will then either work
directly with the RGB separations or CMYK data and determine the correct laser "exposure" of
the photoconductor. The next step is to precisely apply toner (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow and
Black). This step is referred to as development. Next, transfer the toner to the sheet of paper.
And then finally bond the toners to the paper (using a process called fusing), thus creating the
final printed mage.

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The "Big" Picture - The Digital Color, Scan and Print Process...

As the function of a photoconductor is basically the same from manufacturer to manufacturer,

whether in a black and white system or a color system, we will not focus on the photoconductor
in this program. Also, there are other training programs available that explain the photoconductor
and related processes in much more detail than we could cover here.
The following illustrations show a "drum" type photoconductor.

Corona Charge
Scorotron MethodNegative charge (OPC)
This brief explanation is added here as the term [A]
[B]
photoconductor is mentioned throughout. The [C]
negative charge system, illustrated here, is best
suited to organic photoconductors (OPC) and is
one of the most common methods used for color [D]
laser printing and copying today.
The photoconductor charging process begins [E]
with several thousand volts of electricity being
applied to a charge wire [A], a corona discharge 050102.pcx

is generated from the charge wire. The corona

discharge ionizes air particles and the negative ions concentrate around the charge casing [B]
and grid [C]. The negative ions adhere to the photoconductor [D] (insulator in the darkness),
causing positive electrostatic charge in the aluminum base [E], retaining the electrostatic
charge.
After scanning and image processing, the laser removes some of the photoconductors surface
charge which helps to cause the toner (a special dry pigment) to be attracted to specific areas
(the image areas) on its surface.

The Analog Copy Process

An analog copier processes the original image
differently than does a digital copier. This
illustration shows the path reflected light from the
original image takes to the photoconductor in an
analog copier. As you can see during the
scanning process the reflected light from the
original image is sent directly to the
photoconductors surface, the light source is
slowly moved under the original image. Mirrors
then direct the reflected image to the lens. The
lens is responsible for creating or maintaining the
images size and focus. The image is then reflected off another mirror, finally to the
photoconductors surface forming a latent image of the original. Problems with this system do
arise, especially in the features that can be offered to the customer. Such a system is very
limited in the magnification ratios possible due to the optics used. And special effects such as
shadowing, negative/positive or outline are impossible.
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The Digital Copy Process

Digital document systems process the
original image very differently. This
illustration shows a simplified block
diagram of a digital black & white copier.
As in the analog copier, the digital
document system begins the process by
scanning the original. The reflected
image is then directed via mirrors to the
lens. One difference here is that
generally the exposure lamp used in a
digital document system does not have
to be as bright as the ones used on an
analog copier. One of the benefits of
being able to use a lower intensity light
source is that a fluorescent lamp can be used. Fluorescent lamps generally produce a light that
is a truer white than other more intense light sources. While you may find products using
fluorescent exposure lamps, many modern color document systems also use quartz-halogen
lamps. The lens then, reduces the size of the reflected image and focuses it on a special device
called a CCD (C.C.D.) or Charge Coupled Device unit.
The CCD unit is made up of many small CCD elements. These small elements act similar to a
photodiode, which is a type of photocell that produces a charge based on the amount of light
that strikes it, and a capacitor in which to store the charge created. From this point on, digital
processing of the image begins.
The simplified illustration right shows a
typical image flow used by a four
scan, sometimes referred to as a
multiple scan, digital full color
document system. Notice the flow that
the data takes after the CCD unit. To
make a full color copy, this is an
excellent method. But, due to the
multiple scans it is a rather slow
process. One way to speed this
process up is to add sufficient
memory, usually in the form of video
RAM, so as to store all the data
necessary during a single pass of the
scanner. Using this method, most
modern digital full-color document systems and color scanners are now single pass scanners.

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There is another excellent method, that can be used to produce full color copies and prints that
is considerably faster.

This type of digital full color document

system accomplishes the red, green,
blue color by using a fiber optics array to
pipe the reflected light from the original
down onto a full size CCD unit, and by
using thousands of individual R,G,B,
filters. Also, although not shown in this
illustration, this method uses four
separate drums, four lasers, four
development units, etc., to create a full
color print or copy in a "linear" process.

Both of these full color copying methods

will be explored in the next section.

But, as you more closely compare these three ways digital copying is accomplished, it is easy to
see that there are many similarities between digital black and white document systems and
digital full color document systems. Because of these many similarities, lets begin by taking a
closer look at these common processes found in a digital black and white document system.

The beginning...

The digital copy process can be broken

down into two basic steps:

Step 1. - Scanning, the process of creating

a reflected image, bringing that image into
the document system and processing the
image, and...
Step 2. - Printing, which begins with the
exposure of the photoconductor. Exposure
occurs as a result of the laser creating the
latent image on the photoconductor, and
ends with the creation of the copy on paper.

The first section we will examine, beginning

on the next page, is Step 1, Scanning.

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Scanning:
The process of scanning the original image can best be described in seven steps:
Original Art - Light is projected onto the
original. The reflected light is directed to
the CCD unit.
CCD - The Charge Coupled Device or
CCD unit receives the reflected light.
Since the CCD unit consists of
thousands of photo-sensitive elements,
the reflected light from the original
image is broken into thousands of small
units referred to as picture elements or
pixels, and converted into an electrical
(analog) value.
Pre-Amp - The electrical values, from
each element of the CCD unit is transferred out of the CCD, but this signal is low in strength.
Because of this, it is necessary (in most document system models) to amplify the signal and
remove any stray dc components in the signal. For some models amplification occurs twice,
once at the Pre-Amp and again at a second stage amplifier.
Auto-Gain - Auto-Gain and Auto-Shading are both methods to ensure that the image signal
and later, the digital data derived from this signal, consists only of image data. Variations in
the sensitivity of each element of the CCD unit, variations in the light source used to
illuminate the original, can all effect the output of the CCD. This step in the scanning process
corrects for these, and other variations, and ensures only image data is processed.
A/D Conversion - This step is responsible for the conversion of the analog signal from the
CCD after amplification and signal inversion (note: some models invert the signal after A/D
conversion) into a language the Image Processing Unit or IPU and associated components
can work with - a digital signal.

IPU - The Image Processing Unit contains the digital electronics necessary to process the
digital image signal. This includes all features such as Negative/ Positive, Shadow, Image
Outline, Dithering, Slant Image, Main Scan Magnification, to name just a few. The IPU is also
responsible for determining whether the laser should be on or off for every pixel of the
image.
Laser - All digital document systems use a semiconductor laser. The laser is responsible for
exposing and hence forming the latent image on the photoconductors surface. The range of
output intensities from the laser is over a very small range. So, in order to reproduce a
broader range of shades a digital process called dithering is used. After laser control and
from the moment the exposure of the photoconductor occurs, the Printing processes begins.

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The CCD:

The CCD, or Charge Coupled Device unit,

can be thought of as the eyes of the digital
document system since it sees the original.
A typical CCD unit, in a black and white
document system, is capable of a resolution
of 400 dots per inch and consists of about
5000 individual elements. Although the
resolution is still 400dpi, some color
document systems, have CCD units
consisting of over 15,000 individual elements.
Each CCD element consists of a photodiode,
which is a type of photocell, and a capacitor
that is used to temporarily hold the charge
generated by the photocell. The photocell produces a charge in direct proportion to the amount
of light that strikes it. In other words more light more charge.

At the appropriate time all the charges

from all the CCD elements leave the
CCD unit in a single line, referred to as a
serial video signal. This process of
transferring the charges from one
element to the next, moving each charge
across the CCD unit in a kind of bucket
brigade to be output, is called charge
coupling. Hence, the name; charge
coupled device or CCD.

Here is a good time to mention again color separation. It is at this point in the
color image's processing that color separation will take place. When a color
image is scanned using a full-color CD the image is "broken" into its Red,
Green and Blue components. This is done through the use of filters placed in
front of the CCD. If you need to reread the section on color separation. You
will find more about color CCDs in the "Mechanics of Scanning and Printing,"
section later in this manual..

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As the image is scanned, the CCD processes

a thin line of the image, across the images
width, into thousands of individual elements.
The size of these image elements depend
upon the size of the image striking each of the
CCD elements, but about 1/400th of an inch
square is common. These tiny pieces of image
are referred to as picture elements or pixels.

All the elements, across the width of the

original, in one single line, form what is called the Main Scan. One main scan, is one thin line of
image data (one pixel high), which consists of the line of pixels across the images width, created
by the CCD unit. For those familiar with the copy process, the main scan direction is equivalent
to the horizontal direction of the scanned
image.

As the light source slowly moves down the

originals length, the CCD continuously
segments or breaks the reflected image
into tiny elements. These pixels, (also the
number of main scans down the images
length), form what is called the Sub-scan.
The sub-scan direction is equivalent to the
vertical direction of the image.

The scanning resolution refers to the image

detail the CCD is able to see. The scanning
resolution of the image is determined by the
size of each pixel and hence, the number of
pixels that make up the image. The scan
resolution in the main scan direction depends
upon the number of picture elements, in one
line, that make up the images width. The scan
resolution in the sub-scan direction is
determined by the number of pixels or the
number of main scans generated down the
length of the original image.

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For example, a scan resolution of 200 dpi x 100 dpi means that along the main scan direction
the image is segmented into 200 picture elements per inch, while along the sub-scan direction
the image is only 100 picture elements per inch. Some manufactures describe the sub-scan
resolution in increments called LPI or lines per inch. This refers to the number of main scan
lines created per inch in the sub-scan direction. Even though the CCD unit may be thousands of
elements wide it is usually only 1 element long. Because of this, when referring to the sub-scan
scanning resolution lpi and dpi are generally equivalent. However, the dpi increment is presently
more common.

Here is an illustration of what a scan

resolution of 50dpi x 50dpi might look like, as
you can see the pixels are large and the
resultant scanned image is very course.

At a scan resolution of 400dpi x 400dpi,

which is referred to as 400 x 400 or simply
4x4, the scanned image is considerably
better in detail. All digital document systems
scan and print at a resolution of at least
400dpi x 400dpi. Most facsimile machines,
yes these processes are used by modern
facsimile machines, scan and print at about
200dpi x 200lpi (in detail mode). Notice we
used the lpi unit of measurement here,
some manufacturer's manuals toggle
between the use of lpi and dpi when
discussing sub-scan resolution.

As mentioned earlier, the CCD is constructed of thousands of elements (typically

over 5,000) wide, but only 1 element long. Because of this, the entire image along
the originals width is processed simultaneously, for a length of just one pixel.
Hence, the length is a function of processing the original images width over and
over at different points down the length of the original. This method of scanning is
sometimes referred to as one-dimensional or one direction scanning.

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Pre-Amp / Amplification:

Before Analog to Digital conversion occurs, it is necessary to amplify the serial video signal that
is output by the CCD unit. This is because the initial output gain of the CCD is very low. And, in
order for the A/D converters, they are specialized ICs, to perform correctly their input must be
within a certain range. Prior to amplification many document system models invert the signal at
this time. This inversion of the analog video signal is necessary to obtain the required output
from the A/D converters. Some models however, wait until after digital conversion takes place to
invert the signal so as to obtain the required output digital signal. Other models do not invert the
signal at all. It all depends on the imaging circuitry and the desired output.

Auto-Gain / Auto-Shading :
Auto-Gain: Some document system
models add a compensation value to the
video signal immediately after amplification.
This compensation value increases the gain
of the video signal in order to correct for
variations in the video data that would
create imaging problems. These variations
are caused by fluctuations in the scanning
lamps intensity due to the age of the lamp
or the lamps temperature. Auto-gain is an
overall adjustment of the output from the
CCD unit. During auto-gain, the first thing
that occurs is that a sample white plate,
which has a uniform color and reflectivity, is exposed by the scanning lamp and the values from
each and every CCD element is read. An overall voltage or gain adjustment is gradually and
automatically made by the document system to the video data to bring the value of at least one
of the CCD elements up to a specified value, for example 3 volts. When at least one of the CCD
elements reach 3 volts, the auto-gain amplification factor which was used is then stored in
memory. This factor is added, along with the value obtained during auto-shading which will be
discussed next, to all the image video data during the original document scan. This way, the
image reproduced is not affected by the fact that the scanning lamps intensity may not always
be the same which obviously would create imaging problems. In summary, what is
accomplished during auto-gain is that the
CCDs output is roughly calibrated to
see a standard white the same way for
every scan.
In this method the video gain is altered to
reach a specified value.
This illustration shows a typical auto-gain
control circuit where auto-gain is
accomplished by changing the video data
in order to reach a standard value for white.

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In some document systems auto-gain is accomplished differently than by directly altering the
output of the CCD as explained and illustrated on the previous page. Some document systems
alter the input to the CCD to obtain a certain value when scanning the standard white plate. This
is accomplished by varying the exposure lamp intensity. In this method, while scanning the
white plate the exposure lamps intensity is gradually changed until the output from at least one
CCD element reaches a specified value. This exposure lamp setting is stored in memory and
used during the scanning of the original document.
Auto-Shading: Like auto-gain, auto-shading is based on the data obtained from scanning a
standard white plate. However, auto-shading differs from auto-gain in that auto-gain was a
rough or overall correction to the video data and auto-shading is a fine or bit-by-bit correction
to the video data. Auto-shading consists of two processes: White Shading and Black Level
Correction, and is performed before each scan of the original document. White Shading is
necessary for the following reasons:
the light sensitivity variations that exist between individual CCD elements. These
sensitivity variations arise from the CCD units manufacture.
the loss of brightness towards the ends of the scanning lamp.
variations in the optical path such as those created by the lens or mirrors (i.e. dust ).
or if used, the light transmission characteristics of the fiber optics array.
To perform white shading the document system first reads the data while scanning a standard
white reference (white plate). The white plate video signal for each pixel is output by the CCD
and digitized using an A/D converter. A correction factor for each CCD element is calculated
based on this output and is stored in RAM.
The appropriate correction value is then added to the output from each CCD element when the
original document is scanned.
In this way, the output from each CCD element is corrected, in effect fine tuning the output
from the CCD unit. After this correction, the white level of each element will be equal. The two
illustrations below illustrate the output from each of the CCD elements after auto-gain (fig. 1)
and with the bit by bit corrective value added, shown as the gray shaded areas (fig. 2), thats the
result of auto-shading. Of course these values are somewhat exaggerated, but notice that the
end result is that every CCD element outputs the same value when scanning a specific white
reference called the standard white plate.

fig. 1 fig. 2

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The second auto-shading method is called Black Level Correction: By performing white
shading we have corrected for how each CCD element sees white. The digital data derived
from the video signal of the CCD unit will now have the same value for white for each element of
the CCD. But how is black processed? How can we be certain that each element of the CCD
unit outputs equal values when black is scanned? Black Level Correction ensures that the
output of each element of the CCD is the same when black is scanned.
Black level correction works similarly to white shading, but sets the black base level rather than
the white one. Black level correction is necessary due to the variations in sensitivity between the
elements of the CCD which are again a result of production processes used in the manufacture
of the CCD unit.
Like white shading, black level correction occurs before each scan of the original document. The
difference is that black level correction is performed by reading the video data from each of the
CCD elements with the scanning lamp turned off. With the scanning lamp off, each CCD
element should generate the same voltage of zero volts (0 V.). But because of the variations in
the sensitivity between the CCD elements, this is not the case and the output between elements
varies. The video signal from each element of the CCD, while the lamp is off, is digitized using
an A/D converter and the values are stored in RAM. This value is subtracted from the white level
result. After this correction, the black level of each element will be even. The two simplified
illustrations below demonstrate this process. First, the voltage values present on any of the CCD
elements are detected with the scanning lamp off (fig.3). These values, which are stored in
memory as digital data, and are shown as the shaded areas below (fig. 4), are subtracted from
the white level prior to original image scanning.

fig. 3 fig. 4
There are two other important processes that help to ensure accurate original image video data:
Modulation Transfer Function Correction, and Gamma Correction. We will discuss these two as
part of Image Processing.

A/D Conversion:

As we have previously seen, analog to digital conversion takes place immediately after the
conversion process of changing the reflected light of the image into a voltage value which is
done by the photocells of the CCD unit.

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In this simplified example, you can see that the

charge generated by a single photocell (or CCD
element) gradually increases as the amount of
light striking it increases. This output is linear.
By using a predetermined value, shown here as
the dashed horizontal line, a choice as to
whether the output voltage should be converted
to a binary 1 for black or a binary 0 for white
is made, as shown by the white and black
blocks at the bottom. In this example then, all
the voltage values obtained by each CCD
element that are below the dashed line are
assigned a binary 1. For all the voltage values
generated by each CCD element above the dashed line, a binary 0 is assigned. So in this
example, the entire range of outputs by the CCD element for all the possible shades, called
halftones (shown above the graph, in the above illustration) can be converted into only 1 bit, a
0 or a 1. If this system were used in a document system the document system would be able
to recognize only black and white. This may be fine for text images but what about photos and
colored originals? Obviously, it is impossible to represent a range of gray shades or halftones
using only 1 bit.

In order to represent the voltage output by each CCD element, in sufficient detail, the analog to
digital conversion must use more than 1, 2, or even 5 bits. This is why most digital document
systems convert the analog output into six or eight bit digital data.
Once the analog value from the CCD element is converted to a digital value, that digital number,
representing the density of one pixel of the original, is processed along with all the other digital
values from all the other CCD elements representing all the other pixels along one main scan
and, as the process continues, for all the main scans in the sub scan direction throughout the
entire original image.
The illustrations below and on the following page demonstrate the relationships between the
analog value from the CCD element, the digital value after A/D conversion and the density of the
pixel being represented: (The voltage values chosen are for illustrative purposes only.)

The analog output from the CCD The analog output from the CCD
element is 0 volt. The pixel's density is element is 3 volts. The pixel's density is
black. white.

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The analog output from the CCD The analog output from the CCD
element is 1 volt. The pixel's density is element is 2 volts. The pixel's density
a dark gray. is a light gray.

This process of representing one pixels density, first as an analog value and then as a digital
value, is done over and over for every copy cycle.

IPU - Image Processing Unit:

Whenever digital data is manipulated it is
handled here, in the Image Processing Unit of
the document system. The image processing
unit is the image data work station for the
document system. The responsibilities of the
IPU include: auto-shading, a compensation
factor called Modulation Transfer Function
(MTF), Gamma Correction and all the features
and imaging capabilities of the document
system. In order to properly manipulate all the
individual pixel data the IPU section may
require and consist of several printed circuit
boards. A few of the items that the IPU is
responsible for is shown in this illustration.
There are many similarities between a color
document system and a black and white one. Later in this document we will emphasis two areas
of difference, the scanning process and the development (print) process. But, because of the
similarities in image processing, and to keep things simple, lets look at the IPU data flow for a
basic black and white digital document system.

Remember, the IPU processes shown on the following pages are very
similar to what would occur in a color system, with the exception that
instead of dealing with a single image data channel, color systems deal
with three (and later four) individual image channels. The three channels
are Red, Green and Blue (scanned data) and later Cyan, Magenta,
Yellow and Black (print data).

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In the document system from which the IPU data flow example above was taken, the CCD is
located on a board called an SBU, Sensor Board Unit (not shown in the illustration) which is just
before the VPU (Video Processing Unit). Also on the SBU, the output from each CCD element is
sent through a pre-amp, where the analog signal is amplified. From there, the amplified video
signal is sent to the VPU. On the VPU the video signal is first inverted and then modified via the
auto gain correction. The signal is then digitized using an 8 bit A/D conversion. The digital video
data is then sent to the IPU section where the first thing to occur is auto shading. Although not
illustrated on the diagram, this particular document system uses both of the auto-shading
methods: white shading and black level correction.

You may have noticed at this point, that we have added a few new terms here, namely SBU and
VPU. Also, you may be asking yourself what are all those items in parenthesis, GA2, GA3, GA4,
etc., shown in the IPU data flow illustration. It may even seem we are drifting into a model
specific discussion, after we stated in the beginning of this manual we would not. We are not. So,
if you have started to try to memorize the IPU data flow, stop. What you should focus on is to
attain an understanding of what processes are used in making a digital document system work.
To this end we have tried to keep this material as generic as possible. Oh, by the way, the items
labeled as GA in the illustration are specialized integrated circuit packages (chips) referred to as
Gate Arrays. These custom ICs are responsible for performing the various processes to the
digital data, for example, Gate Array #2 is responsible for performing, among
other things, Auto-shading.

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After auto-shading, the data then follows a specific branch. The direction the data takes for
processing depends on the mode selected. For our purposes here we will observe only the
branch to the right in the illustration; Letter/Photo Mode Processing.
Following the data flow, remember at this point only original image digital data is processed, the
next thing to occur after auto shading is MTF Correction.
Modulation Transfer Function Correction - MTF Correction: This correction deals with
compensating for a limitation the CCD experiences when certain types of original images are
processed.
When the CCD processes an original with strong transitions from black to white, or from white-
to-black such as in a letter or letter/photo mode original; this page for example, the video signal
produced by the CCD unit deteriorates as the width and spacing of the black and white areas
become too narrow. If this occurs, it is possible to loose some parts of the image.
It is the ratio of the difference between the black and white levels of the video signal, and the
difference between the black and white levels of the original, that is called the modulation
transfer function or MTF. The MTF is usually expressed as a percentage.

In the example to the right, the three dots

following the text MTF are located in such a
position on the original and are so small, that
they make up only four pixels. Also, each of
the pixels only contain the density of a portion
of the dot. Assuming the dot was illustrated as
black, the black level of the video signal for
some of these four pixels, when compared to
the black density of the dot on the original is
too low, an MTF of maybe 10%. In other
words, the black level from each of these four
pixels when compared to the density of the
original is too low.

Later in the imaging process, the data that

makes up these four pixels is compared to
threshold values that will determine if it is
necessary for the laser to print the pixel or
not. It is possible that the pixel data for
some of the CCD elements will be
determined as white enough not to print
(equal to or below the threshold value).
The MTF is too low and image data will be
lost.

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To help prevent this, the image data is

enhanced by applying an MTF correction
value. The correction value to be added to
each pixel is determined by a special
algorithm. (Now that we are working
exclusively with numbers that represent the
density of each pixel of the original, we can
process them as numerical values using
methods called algorithms.) An algorithm is
a kind of mathematical formula. The MTF
correction value applied to each pixels data
is dependant upon the data from several
pixels surrounding the one being considered
for correction, sometimes called the target pixel. In this way, only those pixels that require
correction receive it, those that do not will not be altered.
The important thing to remember is that due to MTF correction, data that otherwise would not
have made it to the print process will be printed.
The next thing that occurs as we proceed with the data flow through the IPU is Magnification.

Main Scan Magnification:

Reduction and enlargement in the sub-

scan direction, remember thats down
the length of the original also called the
vertical direction, is accomplished in a
digital document system much the same
way as in an analog document system,
by changing the scanner speed.
But enlargement or reduction of the
original's width or in the main scan
direction must be done very differently.
Scanning and laser writing (that is, using
the laser to make the latent image on
the photoconductor) are done at a fixed
pitch. Neither the CCD elements nor the
diameter of the laser beam can be
squeezed or expanded. So, to reduce or
enlarge an image a mathematical
process known as the polynomial
convolution method is used. This
calculation, which is done to all the data
in each main scan, first plots the
imaginary points that would correspond to a physical enlargement or reduction of the image.
And then, corrects the image density for each of the imaginary points based on the pixel
densities of the four neighboring actual locations.

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In other words, this formula manipulates the image data for each main scan by plotting new
locations for each pixel to be printed, which has the effect of enlarging or reducing the size of
the image. The problem that arises is that by spreading the pixels location out the image
density is reduced, or if the pixels location is moved more inward towards the center of the main
scan the pixels would bunch up, increasing the image density. To prevent this the density is also
corrected, so as to match the originals. Printing more dots, (as we will see shortly the laser
creates the image as a series of black dots), around the pixels new location increases image
density for an enlargement copy. On the other hand, by removing certain dots before printing,
the image density is reduced, as would be necessary in a reduction copy.
Continuing down the IPU data flow, the next item that influences the data is Gamma
Correction. You may also notice that at this same point in the data flow, that Binary Processing
and Marker Area Detection also occurs. For our purposes here, we will not focus on Marker
Area detection. We will discuss however, what Binary Processing is. It is important to note that
when we began this section we chose to take the Letter/Photo Mode Processing data path.

When letter/photo mode is selected by the operator of the document system, the document
system will choose the best digital processing method to use for the letter or text areas of the
original, and the best method to use to process the photo areas of the original. Binary
processing is the best method for text, while Dither Processing, is the best for the photo areas
(those areas of the original with many gray shades).

Lets follow the photo branch...

Gamma Correction is the next process that the image data is put through. As you saw earlier
we corrected the output from all the CCD elements so as to obtain a uniform output when a
standard white and when black was processed by the CCD. Gamma correction is used to
correct the response from the CCD for the various shades in the gray scale. For digital
processing methods to be most effective, the relationship between the original image density
and the CCD output voltage should be constant, as shown in figure 5 below. However, in reality,
due to slight electrical component variations, the response from the CCD is more like the one
shown in figure 6. Gamma correction corrects this deviation in the CCD response and forces the
response to come more in line with the originals image density, also shown below in figure 6.

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Next is Dithering. The laser itself is very limited when it comes to creating the many levels of
gray necessary during the print process. Many digital document systems only turn the laser on
and off, which would print only black and white. Although today, some digital document systems
can now control the power output of the laser, by varying the lasers on time or by varying the
lasers light intensity. Even those lasers that can be power regulated can only be controlled in
about eight levels. Obviously, it is impossible to print the number of gray shades necessary to
make a suitable copy using the laser output alone.

How then can a document system reproduce on paper the total number of gray shades
necessary? As a matter of fact, some document systems are actually capable of reproducing
256 different gray shades. The method they all use, is called dithering.

Dithering transforms the six or eight bit pixel data into just black and white data.

Stored in a special type of non-volatile memory

called a ROM or Read Only Memory, are a set
of matrices (which is a fancy name that means
a rectangular array of numbers, derived
through some means, which are used
according to some predetermined rules). This
is a simple example of a random dither matrix.
Each block contains the threshold value for
one pixel. The threshold values are used to
determine if the data from each pixel of the fig. 7
original should be printed or not.

The proper dither matrix, based on the

Manual Image Density selection made by the
operator, is pulled from ROM; for example like
the one above (fig. 7). Each pixel of the
original image corresponds to a location on
the dither matrix. This illustration (fig 8) shows
the video data from 16 different pixels, in their
proper locations.

fig. 8
The image data from each pixel is then
compared to the threshold value given for that location on the dither matrix. If the pixel image
data is greater than the given threshold value on the matrix, then the print data element
becomes a binary 1 and the pixel is set to black; laser is ON. If the image data is equal to or
below the threshold value, the pixel is set to white; binary 0, laser is OFF.

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If we were to do this comparison using our

dither matrix and our video data from the
previous illustrations the result would look
like this...

Which would print a pattern that

looks like this one in the
foreground....

It is the special selection and grouping of the threshold values of the dither matrix, which will,
when compared to the data values representing a certain gray shade of the original, enable the
laser to print a pattern of dots that when viewed appear to be the same shade as the original.
More on dither processing, such as dithering using various laser power outputs, will be
discussed during a manufacturers product training.

Binary Processing: Binary processing is used for character or line originals, and is simpler
than dithering. In binary processing ALL image data is compared to a SINGLE threshold level.
The threshold level is determined by the Manual Image Density level set by the operator. A pixel
is set to black if it is above the threshold or it is set to white if it is equal to or below the threshold
level.
Below is an example of some typical threshold level and their associated Manual I.D. settings:

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As you can see from the illustration on the previous page, by lowering the threshold level more
pixel data will be above the threshold, making the reproduced image darker. By raising the
threshold, less pixel data will be converted to black, hence the image will be lighter.

At this point, as you can see from the IPU

data flow diagram, the data then enters
the Image Editing section. Here the final
processing to the data takes place before
being sent to the Main P.C.B..

If we can back up just one minute, we

should mention Smoothing before we
leave the IPU section. Smoothing is only
used to process photo image data and
that is the reason it hasnt been discussed
until now.

Smoothing uses a special algorithm and

based on the density of the pixels
surrounding the target pixel (also called
the object pixel) the value of the target
pixel is altered. The end result is to
achieve an image that when printed has
smooth or subtle gradient (gray scale)
changes. In this way, the edge of the
density change in a photo image, does
not occur all of a sudden, for example
from black to white, and that the change
occurs more gradually, for example from
black, to dark gray, to light gray, to white.

At the beginning of this section, we said

digital copying can be broken down into two basic steps, step 1 - was scanning and step 2 - is
Printing.

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Printing:
The laser and laser optics...
The image data has now been corrected and processed and is ready to print. The print process
begins with a device responsible for creating an invisible image (called a latent image) on the
photoconductor's surface. That device is the LASER. The word laser is an acronym meaning
L(ightwave) A(mplification by) S(timulated) E(mission) of R(adiation).

As described earlier, when an atom takes on energy, this energy is imparted to the electrons
causing them to move to outer orbits or shells. The atom is then said to be in an excited state.
When the electrons release the energy imparted to it, as electromagnetic radiation, the electrons
return to their initial orbits. The atom is now said to be in the normal state. The wavelength of
the emitted radiation is dependant upon the type of atom, how far the electron traveled to return
to its initial orbit, and how much energy was released. But, in order for the atom to release light
energy it must first take on energy from an outside source.

It is possible, in an effect called induced emission, to use light as the source of energy to
cause atoms to release even more light. When light of a certain wavelength strikes an atom, the
atoms electrons can take on this energy, leap to an outer orbit, and just prior to returning to its
normal state, release this energy as light, and influence even more atoms. If we trap this
occurrence in a sealed chamber called an optical resonator and direct the light using mirrors
out one side of the device, what we have is a laser. Since the laser light is of one frequency, in
phase and emitted in one direction the light is
said to be coherent.

All modern office products that use lasers as

part of their operation, use semiconductor
lasers. This simplified diagram shows the layout
of a semiconductor laser.

In this example, as current flows across the pn

junction light is created. This is similar to the
operation of an LED. A mirror is located at either
end of the pn junction. One of the mirrors is
semi-transparent. As the light is bounced back
and forth, the junction acts as an optical
chamber, causing the intensity to build. The light
continues to build until some exits through the
semi-transparent mirror. The light beams
emerge as a single frequency and are parallel to
one another. This is laser light.

But just being able to create a laser beam is not enough. To be used in a printing application
some control of the laser light is necessary. The Laser Diode Unit also called the LD unit
implements the necessary control.

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Under control of the Main PCB, or in some models a Drum Exposure Control PCB, the LD Units
laser light output is controlled and monitored. The LD Unit consists of electrical current control
circuitry, the laser diode, and supporting optical components. The figure below illustrates the
basic components that comprise the Laser Diode Unit.

The Drive Board, based on the data

coming from the IPU for each pixel, the
drive board varies the power output of
the laser diode.

The laser diode generates the laser

light.

The collimating lens tightens the

parallel alignment of the laser beam.

The aperture trims the laser beam to

the proper cross sectional size.

The light emitted from all semiconductor lasers is in the infrared wavelengths, around 780nm,
and cannot be seen by the unaided eye.

As described earlier, the Image Processing Unit is responsible for determining the power output,
usually on or off, of the laser for each pixel of the original. (Many "newer" color and black and
white imaging systems now utilize four or as many as eight, different laser light intensity levels
for each pixel. By doing this the number of halftones, also referred to as gray levels or color
levels is greatly increased.) As each pixel has a specific place on the original image, the pixel
when processed and printed also has a specific place on the copy. A method then is necessary
to direct the laser light to the proper area of the photoconductors surface to print each pixel in
its proper location. The method used by almost all digital document systems is a series of
mirrors spinning at a precise predetermined
speed. This spinning set of mirrors is called
a polygon mirror. The word polygon
refers to the geometric shape of the mirror,
as it consists of usually six or eight sides.

While the polygon mirror is responsible for

positioning the laser light across the
photoconductors surface, a special device,
the Laser Synchronizing and Detector,
also called the LSD, is responsible for
ensuring the lasers start position for, the
laser exposure (writing) of, each main
scan is consistent. This device detects the
reflected light of the laser from the surface of the polygon mirror, signifying the mirrors surface
is in the proper position to start laser writing.

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The laser beam is pulsed as each pixel is printed or left blank. Using this illustration, and
following the path of the laser light coming from the Laser Diode Unit, the pulsing laser light first
enters the cylindrical lens to be focused. From
there, the light strikes one surface of the spinning
polygon mirror. Each surface of the polygon directs
the laser light across the photoconductor, printing
all the data for one complete main scan. The
polygon mirror is spinning at a very high rate of
speed, usually about 14,000 rpm. In this illustration
then, each rotation means that eight main scans
are processed for each revolution of the polygon
mirror. As the laser light is reflected off the polygon
mirror, it first passes through a series of additional
lenses. These lenses, called F-Theta ()lenses ensure the dot spacing produced by the laser is
consistent across the main scan. Finally,
a drum mirror directs the laser light
down through the toner shield glass to the
photoconductor, and as the photo-
conductor moves, the latent image is
formed in both the main scan and sub-
scan directions.
Although it is more common to have the
laser turn on for black and off for white,
referred to as a write to black system,
it is not the only method to use to write
the latent image. Another method used is
called write to white, and in this
system, as its name implies, the laser is
pulsed on for white areas of the original
and pulsed off for black areas.
The choice in methods depends primarily on the
photoconductor material used and the polarity of
the primary charge induced on it. In the market
today, the write to black method is used more
often.
But, no matter which laser writing method is used,
both incorporate most, if not all, of the basic
processes described in this section.
The end result of this process is a printed digital
representation of the original image.

The next section covers much of the same material presented here, but in
greater detail and in a format that an actual field service technician would
experience. It may seem complicated at first, but read on.

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In The Field - The "Mechanics" of Color Scanning and Laser Printing

In this section we will look at the detailed aspects of
image scanning and photoconductor exposure that
are unique to color systems. The details of processes
that are common to both color and black/white
systems are covered in other training programs.
Ricoh color products have used three different
Analog
scanning methods, depending on the underlying
basic architecture of the machines. These methods
can be classified as: 1. color analog
scanning/exposure, 2. digital systems using lens and
mirror scanning, and 3. direct scanning digital
systems using a fiber optic array. We will discuss and
look at examples of each.

Digital with lens and mirrors The number of scans that a color document system
makes depends on the amount of memory it has.
Most color document systems must make one scan
per color. However, digital color document systems
with a large amount of memory can store the full
image data for all colors (C,M,Y, K) and need only
one scan per image.

Digital with fiber optic array

Analog Scanning
Most color machines are digital. However,
there are some analog color machines in
the field.
The color analog scanning and exposure is
basically the same as the systems used for
black and white analog document systems.
The only major difference is that filters
have to be used to separate the colors and
the original has to be scanned for each of Exposure Light Path:
the primary colors to be reproduced. Exposure Lamp [A] 1st Mirror [B] 2nd Mirror [C]
3rd Mirror [D] Lens [E] 4th Mirror [F] Color Filter [G]
The illustration (above right) shows the Toner Shield Glass [H] Drum [I]. The Optics cooling fan: [J]
scanning mechanism of an analog color is not part of the light path but does play an important role by
document system. During the copy cycle, keeping the exposure area ventilated.
an image of the original is reflected onto
the drum surface via the optics assembly.

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RGB Separation
Three color filters (red, green, and blue) and
a neutral filter are mounted on a rotor. The three
color filters are used when the full color mode is
selected or single color erase mode is selected. [A
The neutral filter is used when black copies or
single color copies are made.
[B]
The filter rotor, which holds the four filters [A], is
shown to the right. The rotor turns to bring the
proper filter into the light path. A home position
sensor [B] informs the CPU when the rotor is at
the home position. A stepper motor [C] rotates
the filter rotor the precise angle to bring the
selected filter into the light path.
[C]

Digital Scanning [C]

[A]
Mirrors, Lens and CCD Scanning [D]
Most color digital machines use a
scanner with mirrors and a lens to reflect
an image of the original to a charge
coupled device (CCD). This is very
similar to the system used in most digital [E]
black and white document systems.
[F]
An image of the original illuminated by
the exposure lamp [A] (a halogen lamp) [B]
is reflected onto a color CCD [B] (Charge Coupled Device) via the 1st [C], 2nd [D], and 3rd [E]
mirrors, filter, and lens [F]. A special filter is used to remove infrared from the light reflected off
the original; this is particularly important for glossy photos with black areas, which can appear
reddish in copies.
The CCD shown here, is a one-chip color CCD. Common
scanning resolution for these devices is 400 dpi (5,000
pixels).
The key element in digital color machines is the color CCD.
The color CCD resembles the type of CCD used in black &
white digital machines; however, it has three rows of light
sensitive elements instead of one row. The color CCD
converts light reflected from the original into three analog
signals, one for each of the three basic colors Red, Green,
and Blue. The signals are called the R, G, and B signals. A
single scan generates a separate set of three signals
(RGB). This is where the RGB values of the original image
are separated. (Image by Kodak, Inc.)

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Color CCD
Using a mirror and lens system much like that
described in "Analog Scanning," a reflected image of
the original is properly focused onto the color CCD.
The color CCD converts light reflected from the
original into three analog signals, one for each of the
three basic colors Red, Green, and Blue. The signals
are called the R, G, and B signals.
The CCD consists of three lines of 5000 elements
each with a resolution of 400 dpi (15.7 dots/mm). To
make the R, G, and B signals, each line of CCD A166D540.wmf
elements has a different color separation filter (R, G,
or B).
The lines are spaced 8 pixels apart for full size magnification. To correct for these "gaps," the R,
G, and B signals must be synchronized. This is done using a memory work area in the image
processing circuits.
A filter removes infra-red; this is particularly important for glossy photos containing black areas,
which can appear reddish in copies.
Many color document systems do not have enough memory for the scanned RGB data to be
processed and converted to CMYK data all at once. Therefore, one scan is needed for each
toner color that will be used in the copy. For example, for a full color copy, the original is
scanned four times, as follows: (The order of the color data presented here may vary.)
First scan: The video processing circuits make K data from the
scanned RGB data.
Second scan: The circuits make C data from the RGB data.
Third scan: The circuits make M data from the RGB data.
Fourth scan: The circuits make Y data from the RGB data.

[A]
Direct Digital Scanning (SELFOC +CCD) [D]
Color direct digital scanning systems use a self-
focusing fiber optic array (SELFOC) and full-size
CCD mounted together on a scanner. The basic
principle of this method is quite simple. As the
scanner moves across (scans) the original, a strip
of the original is reflected through the fiber optic
array on to the CCD.
The scanner unit used in models direct digital
scanning systems, consists of two exposure [E]
lamps [A] (fluorescent lamps), the full-size CCD [C] [B]
[B], the CCD drive board [C], the CCD pre-amp board [D] and the optical fiber array [E]. The
light from the exposure lamps exposes the original and reflects on to the full-size CCD through
the optical fiber array.

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The full-size CCD board used in this method, has an

unusual design. There are 5 CCD chips on the CCD
board, each CCD chip has 2,928 elements (2,880
elements for model A105). Each element has a tiny
green (G), blue (B), or red (R) filter on top. This G.B.R.
order is repeated along the full length of the CCD
chips. One set of these G.B.R. elements is equal to
one picture element or pixel. The CCD elements are
angled 45 degrees, so that all three CCD elements of
any pixel receive the same reflected light.
45

1 pixel 62.5m

Contact Image Sensors

Most low-price compact or portable color scanners
(sometimes referred to as page scanners) use a contact
image sensor (CIS) instead of a CCD. A CIS consists of a
strip of photodiodes to illuminate the document, and a strip of
phototransistors covered by a row of self-focusing lenses and
filters. Color separation occurs in one pass. With a CIS, a
long light path is not needed, because the CIS contacts the
document directly, so the size of the scanner can be greatly
reduced (no mirrors, lenses, or shading plates are needed).
When using a fluorescent lamp/lens/CCD arrangement, the light path is about 300 to 500 mm.
However, a CIS, is positioned less than 0.1 mm above the surface of the paper.
However, the built-in analog processing circuits in CIS assemblies tend to be less consistent in
their performance than to the video processors of CCD models.

Moir
CCD

When one pattern is imposed over Original

Image
another sometimes they interfere with Data for
each other and form a third pattern called one CCD
element
a moir pattern. In our products, MTF CCD
Output
processing is a major cause of moir Data Waveform
patterns.
1.7 V
The illustration shows one of the moir
mechanisms. In this case, the pixel
density of the CCD is the same as the density of the regular lines on the original. However, the
regular lines are slightly out of step with the CCD pixels. As a result, each CCD pixel has a
different value (as shown in the figure). Since the length of a CCD pixel is very short, the
waveform from the CCD output looks like the cross lines in the figure. The moir pattern
appears when prints are made from this signal. Moir patterns typically appears when the CCD
pixel density is a multiple of the density of the regular lines on the original.

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Imaging & Printing

Analog Signal Processing

This section describes:
How the raw CCD output is prepared for conversion to digital data
How the corrected CCD output is converted to digital data
The table below illustrates the various steps and processes involved in preparing and converting
the analog signal. To help simplify our review of analog signal processing in a digital color
document system, we will use the analog signal processing that is performed in a digital black
and white (monochrome) digital document system as our example. The primary difference
between the two processes is that color separation occurs as a result of RGB filtering and that
instead on only one data channel, for color there are three (red, green and blue) that are
processed together. The following table quickly summarizes each step in the analog signal
processing.
CCD output How the raw data is output from the CCD.
Auto shading A key part of analog signal processing. It affects
most of the other steps and processes.
Zeroing Black level correction prior to signal combination.
Signal combining Merging of the odd and even picture elements.
Black level Detection and correction of residual CCD charges
Automatic gain control Signal amplification and white level correction.
Auto image density Removes background from the scanned image
Peak hold Holds the peak white value for A/D conversion.
A/D conversion Conversion of the analog signal to a digital signal.

Did you know that while the color blue is generally perceived as a cool
color, many people over the age of 60 describe it as warm. This is possibly
due to the yellowing of the eyes lens as we age.

Did you know, the color orange is a known appetite stimulant.

Also, the color orange is seen as the hottest of all colors,

in both temperature and appearance.

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Imaging & Printing

CCD Output
This diagram shows the CCD and its data Even
output lines as a simplified block diagram. CCD
Reflected
There are two outputs from the CCD. One is light
for odd-numbered pixels, and the other is for Amplifier
even-numbered pixels. A clock switches the
output for each pixel onto the odd or even
output line alternately.
ODD
Having two outputs speeds up the image
processing. CCDs in older models (mainly fax
machines) only had one output line.
The two outputs, per channel, are amplified Switching clock

before entering the analog signal processing

circuits.
Photoelectric Signal
Additionally, color CCDs also have three conversion amplification
ccdblock.wmf
separate channels, one for Red data, one for
Blue data and one for Green image data. This
illustration then could be for one of these
channels.

Variations in the
Auto Shading White Level

Variations in the a229d645.wmf

Black Level

Auto shading corrects errors caused by variations in the signal level for each pixel. Both the
black level and the white level are corrected.

1) White Level Correction

The video signal information for each pixel obtained during image scanning is corrected by the
image processing circuits.

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Imaging & Printing

The data has to be corrected for variations in white level across the page. These variations are
caused by the following factors.
Loss of brightness at the ends of the exposure lamp with age or temperature
(noticeable with fluorescent lamps and xenon lamps), or any bright and dull spots on
the lamp
Less brightness at the edges of the lens
Variations in response among the CCD elements
Distortions in the light path, such as differences in reflectivity across the scanner
mirrors.
To correct for this, the machine scans a white plate before scanning each original. (This white
plate is normally under the scanner cover or under the left scale of the exposure glass.) The
white plate is uniform in color and in reflection.
The output from each element of the CCD is
converted to digital and passed to a memory in
the auto shading circuit. The waveform of the
white platen cover from the CCD is not uniform,
because of the factors mentioned above.
c222d584.wmf

In some models, there is a protection circuit

that limits the white peak voltage. This is to prevent dark printouts resulting from an abnormally
high reference voltage caused by strong light intruding into the scanner.
In models that have a built in ADF, continuous scanning of large originals can cause the
scanner to heat up, which affects the CCDs response. Also, continuous exposure to light affects
the CCD. Therefore, the white plate is scanned every 30 s to recalibrate the white level (it is
done between originals; scanning is not interrupted).
After auto shading, the machine scans the page. The machine then uses the white waveform
stored in the auto shading memory to correct the data. This is known as Automatic Gain Control
(AGC). It is described later.

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Imaging & Printing

2) Black Level Correction

Method 1: Dummy Pixels
This zeroes the black level for each Video Signal Video Signal
scanned line of data while scanning Output Before Correction Output After Correction
the original. To get the current black (V) (V)
level, the CPU reads the dummy data
elements at one end of the CCD signal
(some pixels at the end are blacked
off), and takes an average of the 0 0
voltages read from these elements. 1 line 1 line
Then, the CPU deletes the black level blk-lvl.wmf

value from each image pixel.

This corrects the video signal for changes in response to the dummy black pixels as time
passes.
The black level is stored in the auto shading circuits (as a charge inside a capacitor, for
example).

Method 2: Black Level Waveform

In some older models, the black level is done every original, by shutting off the exposure lamp
and reading a black level waveform across the page. This is stored in memory in the auto
shading circuits in a similar way to that described earlier for the white level.

Method 3: Fixed Reference Voltage

Some models correct the black level using a standard reference voltage for the black reference
(about 1.5 Volts)

Zeroing Automatic Gain

Signal Combining Control (AGC) Black
Even
Level
Z/C
Analog Signal Input
CCD Z/C

Z/C
Odd
Straight
Straight Through Digital Signal
Fixed Voltage
Straight Through Example: 2.5 V Output
A/D
Through
Converter
1 Ref

0 Ref

Every line
Black Level

White Level
From white plate,
before each page
Auto Shading Circuits

shadcct .wmf

When the machine scans the white plate before scanning the original, the odd and even pixel
signals are combined. The resulting signal is converted to digital in the A/D converter, and
stored in the memory in the auto shading circuits.

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Imaging & Printing

The auto shading circuits are normally inside the digital processing circuits, and signals from this
feed back into the analog circuits when needed.
The black level goes to the auto shading circuit every line during scanning.
Peak white can be detected every scan line too - this is Auto Image Density mode (also known
as ADS mode). This is described later in this section.
In the previous diagram, the high level reference is arbitrarily fixed at 2.5 V and the low level
reference at ground. In some cases, analog to digital (A/D) conversion is done using the peak
value of the signal for the high reference, and half of the peak value for the low reference.

VPH

A typical field example:

Memory 4 bits
The potential difference between the
100%
output of each pixel and the 53% level
of the peak hold value is the value 53%
converted by an A/D converter into 4-bit VT2100/2130/2150: 1.7V
data. VT2300/2500: 1.4V
5,000 pixels
shading1.wmf

Zeroing
Zeroing Automatic Gain
A zero clamp (Z/C) on each output Even
Signal Combining Control (AGC) Black
adjusts the black level reference. The Z/C
Level

black level for the even pixels is adjusted CCD Z/C

to match the black level from the odd Odd

Z/C

pixels. Feedback of the black level from

the auto shading circuit is used. Feedback Feedback

Feedback

Black Level

White Level

Signal Combining Auto Shading Circuits

ana-ads.wmf
A multiplexer merges the analog
signals for odd and even pixels from
the CCD.
In very high-speed digital machines, 1 3 5 4995 4999
the signals are not combined until 4997

the digital processing circuits. These 1 2 3 4 4998

4999
5000

machines have separate analog

processing circuits for odd and even 2 4 4996 5000
4998
pixels. vid-comb.wmf

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Imaging & Printing

Black Level Signal Combining

Automatic Gain
Control (AGC) Black
Level
Before the data enters the A/D (analog-to- Z/C
Analog Signal Input

digital) converter, a zero clamp circuit again

fixes the absolute value of the black level
using feedback from the auto shading Feedback Feedback
A/D
Converter

circuit. Peak Hold 1 Ref

0 Ref

Feedback
Black Level

White Level

Auto Shading Circuits

ana-ads.wmf

Zeroing Automatic Gain

Automatic Gain Control (AGC) Signal Combining Control (AGC) Black
Even
Level
Z/C
The analog signal is amplified by CCD Z/C
operational amplifiers in the AGC Z/C
circuit. Odd

When the original is scanned, the Feedback Feedback

white level waveform is read back in Feedback

from the auto shading memory. The

AGC circuit uses the white level signal
to correct the video data signal. Black Level

In effect, each element of the scan line White Level

is amplified by an amount that

depends on the voltage of the same Auto Shading Circuits

element in the white level signal. An ana-ads wmf

example is shown to the right above.
For shading correction, the peak of Element 500

the scan from the white plate is set to

1. Let us take an example, in which
the level of the 500th element of the 1
white waveform is 0.8 (i.e., not 0.8
500
perfectly white).
0.6
Then, at a point during scanning, say 500

that element 500 in the video signal 0 0

has a value of 0.6; it would be higher White Waveform Video Image
if there were no scanner irregularities. Scan Line Scan Line
shadcorr wmf

So, element 500 in the video signal is corrected as follows: 0.6/0.8 = 0.75.
Each element in each video signal scan line is corrected in this way. Also, if the platen cover is
dirty, the values will be lower due to reduced reflection from the platen cover. This means that
the image data will be overcorrected, causing pale bands in the image.

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Imaging & Printing

Auto Image Density

In some machines, this feature is called Original Background Correction.
Auto Image Density (ADS) mode corrects for variation in background density down the page, to
prevent the background of an original from appearing on copies.
ADS mode detects the background level for the original, also known as the peak white level,
and removes this from the image, to make a white background. The machine must ensure that it
detects white level from areas of the original that are free from image data. There are two
methods, which are explained on the next page.
When an original with a gray background is scanned, the density of the gray area becomes the
peak white level density for that original. Therefore, the gray background will not appear on
copies. Also, in machines where peak level data is taken for each scan line, ADS corrects for
any changes in background density down the page.
Unlike with analog copiers, the user can select a manual image density when selecting auto
image density mode, and the machine will use both settings when processing the original. This
is useful when making copies of an original that has light image density with background; ADS
removes the background, and if the user selected a dark manual image density setting, the
image will be brought out more clearly in the copy.
Method 1: Scanned from a narrow strip near the 0.5mm
rear scale. [A]
The copier scans the auto image density
15mm
detection area [A]. This corresponds to a narrow
75mm
strip at one end of the main scan line, as shown
in the diagram. As the scanner scans down the
page, the machine detects the peak white level
for each scan line, within this narrow strip only.
Method 2: Scanned from a narrow strip at the
center of the leading edge.
In this method, the original is placed at the
center of the original feed path, and not at one Sub scan direction
side. Therefore, the peak level is read from the a229d581 wmf
central 64 mm at the leading edge of the
original.
One problem with this method is that, since scanning starts before the light intensity from the
fluorescent lamp stabilizes, the light intensity tends to increase for a little while. The voltage from
the CCD increases until the light intensity stabilizes. As a result, lighter image densities may not
appear on prints after the light stabilizes. To prevent this, the peak voltage is changed when a
higher (whiter) image signal is detected. If the peak voltage changes regardless of the output
value, like in the A229, there is a chance of mistaking gray areas in the center of the image for
peak white.

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Imaging & Printing

The peak hold circuit holds the peak white Automatic Gain
level. Signal Combining Control (AGC) Black
Level
Analog Signal Input
From this peak white level, the machine Z/C

determines the white reference value for A/D

conversion. Feedback Feedback
A/D
Converter
The white level from auto shading is fed Peak Hold 1 Ref

back to the ADS circuit to correct for 0 Ref

fluctuations in the white level across the Black Level

Feedback

page.
White Level

Auto Shading Circuits

A/D Conversion ana ads wmf

The A/D converter converts the analog signal to digital. In a typical machine, the resulting digital
signal has eight bits. This means that each pixel can have one of 256 values.
However, before this can be done, the A/D
converter must be supplied with reference Analog Signal Input
voltages that determine the black and white
limits. To do this, the A/D converter is supplied
with a black reference voltage (0 Ref). For Fixed Voltage
example, the input could be held to ground. This Example: 2.5 V A/D
sets the lowest of the 256 levels any pixel with Converter Digital Signal Output
1 Ref
the same voltage as the black level will become To Digital Processing
black. 0 Ref Circuits

Also, the highest of the 256 values is fixed with a

white reference voltage (1 Ref).
When the analog signal is digitized, 0 Ref and 1
Ref will serve as references for black and
Automatic Gain
white, and the 256 levels of the gray scale Signal Combining Control (AGC) Black
will be distributed between these two levels. Level
Analog Signal Input
Z/C
If ADS is not being used, the white
reference (1 ref in the diagram) is held to a
fixed voltage. Feedback Feedback
A/D
Converter

If ADS is being used, the white reference Peak Hold 1 Ref

voltage depends on the output of the peak 0 Ref

hold circuit. Black Level

Feedback

The A/D converter divides the range White Level

between the black and white reference
voltage into 256 levels and digitizes the Auto Shading Circuits
analog signal based on these levels. These
d f
256 levels are known as grayscales.

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Imaging & Printing

A typical field example:

In this example, the signal Analog Digital
has been inverted so that 2.9 V 256
........................... 00000000
White
digital 0 is white and 1 (0
Volts) is black. 0Ref
Range
The white level varies
between 1.7 and 2.9 V,
depending on the feedback 1.7 V 256 ............................ 00000000
from the peak hold circuit for 255
............................ 00000001
ADS. (If ADS were not being
used, the white level would 4 256 levels calculated
............................ 11111100
remain fixed.) 3
as follows:
............................ 11111101
256
The A/D converter divides up 2 ............................ 11111110 D= Vin x
0Ref
1
the range from black to the ............................ 11111111 (D is the Digital data)
Black
0V
current white level into 256 adcon.wmf
levels.
The gray scale is based on the peak white level. The right side of the diagram shows how the
range is divided up if the white level is 1.7 V. If the white level were 2.9 V, the spacing would be
wider. If the voltage for a pixel is between level 2 and level 3, this is converted into a digital
value of 11111101.
Pure black (above level 255) becomes 00000000. Pure white (below level 1) becomes
11111111.

Digital Signal Processing

Scan Line Correction

The three CCD lines providing the RGB signals are several scan lines apart (typically 8 scan
lines apart) when full size magnification is used. To compensate for this discrepancy, the line
correction circuits synchronize the output timing of the RGB signals to the digital processing
circuits by storing the data for each line in memory.
The discrepancy between RGB video
signals depends on the reproduction
ratio, and this is taken into account in
the correction.
For Example:
B: Standard (No correction)
G: (8 lines) x (Reproduction ratio)
R: (16 lines) x (Reproduction ratio)
If this calculation does not result in whole number (an integer: for example if the reproduction
ratio is 90%), the correction factor is set to the closest integer, but further correction is needed
(refer to Picture Element Correction on the next page).

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Imaging & Printing

Picture Element Correction

The target areas for this correction are shown in the
diagram. The Picture Element Correction circuit does
two things.
1. Completion of the Scan Line Correction process
This is done if the scan line correction process did not
result in an integer.
2. Correction if the CCD is not perpendicular to the light
If the CCD board is not perpendicular to the light axis, the position of each pixel is different from
the original image position. This difference becomes larger towards the ends. Under this
condition, vertical black lines (in the sub-scan direction) at the left and right edges of the original
are colored because the Y, M, and C toner dots are not properly positioned.
For this second stage, the green CCD line is taken as a standard, and the ends of the red and
blue lines are corrected.

Scanner Gamma Correction

The RGB video signals detected by the CCD are
converted to 8-bit digital signals. These signals are
proportional to the light intensity reflected from the
original image (see the first diagram).
However, the image processor converts the signal
levels as shown in the second diagram by using a
gamma correction table. This table reverses the
A166D507 wmf
output of the video signal for each color, and this
improves the accuracy of RGB to CMY color
conversion, which is done later in the image
process. The same table is used for R, G, and B
signals.
The scanner gamma () correction converts the
video signal levels as follows:

Dark (Black) Light (White)

Scanner Input (RGB) 0 255
After Correction (RGB) 255 0
Color Conversion
Printer Output (CMYK) 255 0
The reversal is not linear. Dark areas need finer gradations for better copy quality.

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Imaging & Printing

ACS (Auto Color Selection)

Auto color selection mode determines if an
original is black/white or color. Then black copy
mode or full color mode is automatically selected
to match the original.
To recognize if the original has a colored area or
not, the RGB video signals are compared. If the
maximum difference among RGB signal levels
(MAX-MIN in the above diagram) is within a
certain range, the original is considered black
and white.
A166D510 f
Increasing the value of MAX-MIN makes it more
likely that an original will be treated as a black-and-white original.
During the 1st scanning cycle, the latent image is developed with the amount of black toner as
specified by the gamma-corrected RGB video signals. If the original does not have any color
areas, the 2nd scanning is aborted and the developed image is transferred from the transfer belt
to the copy paper. Then the black and white copy comes out. If the original has a colored area,
copying resumes in the full color copy mode (4 scans).
Users can maximize the quality of their output by selecting priority for Black or Full color original
when using ACS mode. This will be discussed in more detail later in the section on Under Color
Removal (UCR)

Auto Text/Image Separation

This is similar to the method already
described for black-and-white systems.
However, there is an extra step for
determining which parts of text areas are
black and which are colored.
Black pixels and color pixels in text areas
A166d513 f
are identified by determining the
differences between the maximums of the RGB signals and by evaluating the output levels of
the RGB video signals.
The edge separation and dot screen detection steps are similar to those described for black-
and-white systems, but they are done using the green data signal only.
Auto letter/photo separation is mostly effective only for small letters or thin line diagram
elements. If there are big letters or solid line drawing elements in the original, only the edges of
these are processed using text mode; the inner regions are processed using photo mode.

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Imaging & Printing

RGB Filtering
The appropriate filters are applied to the R/G/B video signals, depending on the selected image
modes (text/image) or the result of Auto Text/Image separation.
Smoothing Filter

Before

After

A166D515.wmf

A166D514.wmf

The smoothing filter improves the image by smoothing the gradient between pixels in half-tone
areas.
Edge Emphasis Filter (High Contrast Filter)

Before

After
A166D520.wmf
A166D521.wmf

The high contrast filter improves letters by making the edges of text and line art elements stand
out more clearly.
These two types of filter are applied again in some models after conversion from RGB to CMYK.
(In the drawing, it is shown being used on CMYK data after color conversion.)
The user can adjust the strengths of these filters to make the image sharper or softer.

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Imaging & Printing

Auto Image Density Control

This prevents the background of an original from appearing on copies.

A typical field example:

Image Density Image Density

Threshold

0 0
Main Scan Line Main Scan Line
A166D522.wmf A166D524.wmf

If the user does not select ADS mode, the machine removes low ID image signals (background)
that are less than a certain threshold. The threshold that is applied depends on the color mode
(single color or full color). If the threshold is too high, colored backgrounds could be erased.

If the user selects ADS mode, the machine

calculates the threshold, guided by input from the
user (there are 4 settings for black-and-white, and
4 for full color).
In full color mode, after the first scanning (usually
the first scan is used to determine the amount of
black to use) the machine calculates the threshold
for removing background by referring to the RGB
data taken from the whole of the original.
In black and white mode, the machine calculates
the threshold for each pixel by referring to
neighboring pixels. A166D523.wmf

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Imaging & Printing

Color Conversion
The transparency of each color toner is not
ideal, as shown in the diagram.
Color conversion compensates for the
difference between ideal and actual
characteristics.
RGB video signals from each scanning cycle
are converted to YMCK video signals using a
matrix.
A166D516.wmf
A typical field example:
Original Color
Toner Bk R Y G C B M W
Y 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
M 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
C 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0
Bk 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Some user and SP modes can change the contents of the matrix.
For example: To change the color balance of the output, to allow for three types of photo mode
processing (Printed Photo, Glossy Photo, and Copied Photo).

Posneg1.wmf
Posneg2.wmf

Positive/Negative Reverse
In the positive/negative image mode, colors are changed to their complements, as shown below:
Red Cyan
Green Magenta
Blue Yellow
Yellow Blue
Magenta Green
Cyan Red
Black White
White Black

Page 75
Imaging & Printing

UCR (Under Color Removal)

Overview:
Getting the right colors using YMC toner addition does not always work perfectly. For example,
equal amounts of Y, M, and C toner should give Black. However, the result is a dark blue.
UCR compensates for this by removing equal amounts of each color toner and replacing them
with black toner.
The UCR ratio is the percentage of the common ID value for YMC that is subtracted and
converted to Black. In the above example, where the UCR ratio is 100%; the entire common ID
value is subtracted from Y, M, and C, and converted to Bk.
In actual use, the UCR ratio depends on the color mode and the image density. For example,
when the UCR ratio is 95%, 95% of the entire common ID value is subtracted from Y, M, and C,
and converted to Bk.
In the following examples, the UCR ratio is 70%.
Result after
70% UCR
ID 30%
Value
Y M C 70%

Y M C K
Ucr1.wmf

For a Black Image:

When a black image is copied, the ID values for all colors are equal (diagram on the left).
For each color, the ID value is reduced by the UCR ratio (70% in this example).
A black ID value equal to the 70% reduction is added to compensate for the color ID reduction
(diagram on the right).

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Imaging & Printing

For a Color Image:

When a color image is copied, the color ID values are different from one
another. It is treated in three steps.
ID
Value
Y M C

Ucr2.wmf

1. The ID value for this image is broken Black Color

down into two parts: a set of values ID
component component

equal to the lowest color ID value, and Value

Y M C C
the remainders of the two higher values. Y M C Y

Ucr3.wmf

2. The part with the equal values is treated as a ID 30%

black image (see For a Black Image on the Value
Y M C 70%
previous page), using the 70% UCR ratio.
Y M C K
Ucr1.wmf

Color component
3. The resulting amounts are then added Black component RESULT
unchanged
after 70% UCR
to the remainders from step 1. The ID
Value
final result gives us the ID value for
each color and for black. Y M C K Y C Y M C K
Ucr4.wmf

UCA (Under Color Addition)

Using only UCR processing, the copy lacks
depth. So, a specified ratio of toner is added
for each color (YMC only). The amount of UCA
additional toner is proportional to the density of
that color on the copy.
UCA is only done in text and line-art areas. In Y M C K Y M C K
Uca.wmf
these areas, UCR is 100%, so some color may
need to be added back. In photo areas, the
UCR ratio changes with image density, so UCA is not needed.
Increase the UCA level if dark colors are appearing black on the copy. Decrease the value if
pure black on the original is not pure black on the copy.

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Imaging & Printing

MTF (Modulation Transfer Function)

When the CCD converts the original image to electrical signals, the contrast is reduced. This is
because neighboring black and white parts of the image influence each other as a result of lens
characteristics. This symptom is typical when the width and spacing between black and white
areas are narrow. MTF correction counters this symptom and emphasizes image detail.
Because of this, MTF is necessary for reproduction of details such as thin lines, points, and
complex characters. Without MTF, such details may be lost, or only partly reproduced. Small
dots and thin lines may be split up over more than one pixel. If the dot or line is small enough,
the pixel output may fall below the threshold required to register a black pixel, and it would not
be printed.
Because MTF sharpens the image, it is normally not used with photo mode. However, MTF can
be useful in photo mode when putting more weight on improving the resolution when copying
from continuous tone originals. Also, in text/photo or photo mode, MTF can be combined with
error diffusion, which reduces differences in contrast.
The MTF algorithm generates a new value for the density of the element, using an algorithm
that uses the density values of neighboring pixels in the image.

A typical field example:

Consider a small black point on an
original as shown in the illustration (a)
and (b). The 6-bit image data (range 0
to 63) for this section of the original is
shown in (c). If the threshold level is 32,
a) Section of original b) Enlarged view of dot
all the pixels in this area will become
single-bit white data and the image will 0 0 0 0
not be reproduced (d). 0 12 4 0
The MTF correction prevents this image 0 30 12 0
loss by modifying the value of each pixel 0 0 0 0
in the following manner 0 0 0 0

c) Image data after d) Print without MTF correction

A/D conversion (threshold level: 32)

The value of the target pixel is multiplied by 3.

Then, 3/8 of the values of the pixels to the left -1/2
and right, 1/8 of the values of the pixels two -1/8 -3/8 3 -3/8 -1/8
steps to the left and right, and 1/2 of the values
of the pixels above and below are subtracted -1/2
c223d668.wmf
from the new value of the target pixel. (If the
result is less than zero, then the pixel value is
set to zero.)

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Imaging & Printing

After the MTF correction is applied, the 0 0 0 0

image data of the example is as shown in 0 19.5 1.5 0
(e) and (f). The small black point is
0 63 22.7 0
reproduced on the print.
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
e) Image data after f) Printout after MTF correction
MTF correction
c223d624.wmf

The MTF algorithm can be strengthened by using -2

higher factors in the calculation. See the example on
the right. -1/8 -3/8 6 -3/8 -1/8
In some machines, the MTF algorithm can be -2
C223d625.wmf
strengthened in either the main scan direction, sub
scan direction, or both at once. For example, if the
original has a lot of thin horizontal lines, MTF can be
strengthened in the sub scan direction to preserve these lines, without applying an excessive
MTF in the main scan direction.
A stronger MTF filter sharpens the image and leads to better reproduction of low image density
areas, but may lead to the occurrence of moir in the image. Also, stains, scratches, and other
blemishes in the light path will appear on prints more easily.

Dithering
This is used to reproduce originals with continuous tones, such as photographs on machines
that cannot output true grayscales. Dithering produces different shades of gray by making
different patterns of black and white dots. There are no gray dots at all. Dithering is sometimes
called half-toning, and the various shades of gray are called halftones.

Main Scan
4
5 5 4 8
5 5 8 14 7
5 5 7 4
5 5 14 3
5 5 0 1
5 5 5 3 9
5 5 0 1
5 5 9 2 6
5 5 11 5
5 5 5 4 2 6
Sub 5 5 5 11 5 12
5 5 13 10
Scan 5 5 5 5
13 10 12 14
5 5 14 4 8
5
5 5 5 5
4 8 14 7
5 5 14 7
5 3
5 5 5 5
3 9 0 1
5 5 0 1
5 5 9 2 6
5
5 5 5 5
2 6 11 5
5 5 11 5
5 5 10 12
5 5 5 12 14 13
5 5 5 14 13 10

Image Data Dither Matrix Result

4-bit data
All pixels at 5 dith

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Imaging & Printing

A typical field example:

The diagram on the previous page helps to show how a dither matrix is used. In this machine, a
4 x 4 dither matrix is used, repeated many times so that it becomes the same size as the data
for the scanned original.
The dither matrix contains threshold levels. Each pixel of the scanned image is compared with
the threshold level at the same location in the dither matrix. Then, each pixel changes to either
black or white depending on whether the image data is greater or less than the threshold level.
This procedure is repeated for the whole of the original. In the example, the original is a single
tone of gray, and the repeated pattern output from the dither matrix appears gray to the human
eye.
The thresholds in the dither matrix are designed so that half-tones can be reproduced on prints
using only black and white pixels, by changing the ratio of black pixels to white pixels.
The matrixes can be adjusted in many machines to increase or decrease the detail on the copy.
Also, the greater the number of lines in the matrix, the better the image quality in photo mode.

Coarse and Fine Screen Mode example:

In this model a 12 x 12 dither matrix is used to convert 8-bit image data into single-bit data. The
dither matrix for fine screen mode is different from the one for coarse screen mode.
The diagram shows what happens to an original with a constant gray tone of grade 55 (out of
the possible 256).

Fine Screen Coarse Screen

1/400
inch
dith2.wmf

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Imaging & Printing

Printer Gamma () Correction and Auto Color Calibration

CMYK Gamma

A166D528.wmf
A166D529.wmf

A gamma curve describes the relation between the image density of the original and that of the
copy. The relationship is not linear: doubling the ID of an original does not double the ID of the
copy.
The printer characteristics are much more variable than the scanner. Therefore, the printer
gamma needs recalibration and adjustment from time to time.
Ideally, the gamma curves for Yellow, Magenta, Cyan, and Black should be identical, as shown
in the diagram above left. However, they are not, because electrical components always vary
slightly, resulting in varying gamma curves, as shown in the diagram above right.
To compensate for this discrepancy, the Auto Color Calibration (ACC) procedure can be done if
color reproduction is becoming unsatisfactory. ACC makes new gamma curves for each color in
each mode (letter, photo, black letter, glossy photo). After ACC, the gamma curve for each color
can be adjusted by the service technician. In some installations and for certain color products, it
is possible the user is also able to make very specific color adjustments.
Generally these adjustments are made by the servicing technician using adjustment procedures
right from the operation panel. These adjustment procedures are referred to as "Service
Programs." Using these programs, each gamma curve can be adjusted using 4 different modes:
ID max., High ID, Middle ID, and Low ID, as shown on the following page. (ID = Image Density)

On the following pages you will notice references to a "C-4"

color test chart. This color test chart is a standard color
adjustment reference tool used with Ricoh manufactured
color document systems. Most manufacturers use a
standard color test chart similar to the C-4 color test chart.

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Imaging & Printing

A typical field example:

ID max. 10
H
This mode is used to adjust the total image
density level. 0

Copy ID
ID MAX
Darker 10

Lighter 0
If the value is incremented by 1,
the ID is increased by 5%
L
L H
Original ID
Prtgam2.wmf

High ID
H
The High ID mode should be used to adjust the 20
image density between Level 6 and Level 9 of
the color gradation scale on the C-4 test chart. 0

High ID
Copy ID
Darker 20

Lighter 0

L
L Original ID H
Prtgam3.wmf
Middle ID
The Middle ID mode should be used to adjust H
the image density between Level 3 and Level 7
of the color gradation scale on the C-4 test chart.

Copy ID
30 Middle
Darker 30
0

Lighter 0

L
L Original ID H
Prtgam5 mf

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Imaging & Printing

Low ID
The Low ID mode should be used to adjust H
the image density between Level 2 and
Level 5 of the color gradation scale on the
C-4 test chart. Copy ID

Low ID
Darker 20

20
Lighter 0

L 0
L H
Original ID
Image Density Prtgam4 wmf

This shows how the gamma curve can be 1

H
adjusted to change the image density. 5
Copy ID 9

L
L H
Original ID
Prtgam6 mf

Contrast H Strong
This shows how the gamma curve can be
adjusted to change the contrast between
light parts and dark parts of the image. The Copy ID Weak
slope of the line in the graph changes, but
stays centered around point "A".
Weak
A

Strong
L
L Original ID H
Prtgam7 wmf
Pastel Mode
H
This shows how the gamma curves can be
Copy ID
adjusted to produce pastel mode images.
Another way to do this is by changing the 9 steps

parameters of the color conversion matrix.

L
L Original ID H
Prtgam8 wmf
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Imaging & Printing

Color Balance
The balance between the four colors CMYK can be changed by altering the gamma () curves.
Another way to do this is by changing the parameters of the color conversion matrix.

Auto Color Calibration (ACC)

A typical field example:

Some digital color document
system/printers automatically calibrate the
printer gamma curve when the user selects
ACC.
A test pattern, including the patterns for
Letter mode and Photo mode, will be
printed first. The user then scans the test
pattern. and the machine corrects the
printer gamma by comparing the ideal A172D534.wmf

settings with the current image density.

The test pattern consists of eight lines, Target
one for each color (CMYK) in letter mode,
and one for each color in photo mode. Actual

There are adjustment tables for L, M, H,

and ID MAX values stored in the Image Density
machine. The machine applies these to
approximate the actual curve to the target
curve as closely as possible. If needed,
the printer gamma curve can be adjusted
further manually using a procedure called
Color Balance Adjustment.
L M H
A172D540.wmf
Laser Printing

Overview
This section of the manual explains the optical and video data processing components of the
laser printing system. It also explains how the printout data signal is generated from the
received image data.
The machine uses a laser diode to produce electrostatic latent images on the photoconductor.
This gives high print quality and enables high-speed writing.
The laser diode unit converts received image data into laser pulses, and the optical components
direct these pulses to the photoconductor, where the laser beam forms a latent image.

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Imaging & Printing

Laser Maintenance Precautionary Notes:

1. Almost all manufactures models have safety features to stop the laser if the photoconductor
is not present or if certain covers are open. Interlock switches are normally used to ensure
these safety conditions. Always follow all the manufacturers cautions.
2. Additionally, observe the following cautions when servicing a laser printer:
Never remove the laser units covers while the main switch is on.
Never remove any components of the
laser circuit when the main switch is on.
Never touch the surface of the optical
components.

The Latent Image

Exposure of the photoconductor to the laser
beam creates the latent image. A rotating mirror
moves the laser beam across the
Main Scan
photoconductor to make the main scan while (Laser Beam Movement)
photoconductor rotation controls the sub-scan.
In this example, the photoconductor is charged Sub-scan
(Photoconductor Rotation)
to about -780 V. The charge on those areas
exposed to the laser beam drops significantly,
typically to between 0 and -100 V. [H]
[G]
(Voltage values differ from model to [A]
model, manufacturer to manufacturer.)
The area that is irradiated depends on [B] [C]
whether the 'write to white 'or 'write to [D] [E]
black' method is being used. Most
machines use the 'write to black'
method.

Optical Path [J]

The diagram shows the typical optical [F]

components of a laser printer.

[I]

A133d613.wmf
A: Laser Diode Unit E: Laser Synchronization Detector Board-2
B: F-theta Lenses F: Laser Synchronization Detector Board-1
C: BTL (Barrel Toroidal Lens) G: Polygon Mirror Motor
D: Drum Mirror H: Cylindrical Lens
I: OPC Drum J: Toner Shield Glass

Page 85
Imaging & Printing

A typical field example:

The laser diode emits a thin pencil-like laser beam. This beam is reflected by a rapidly spinning
polygonal mirror (usually a 5, 6, or 8-sided mirror is normally used). Each face of the mirror
scans the laser beam across one main scan line on the photoconductor. The photoconductor
then moves down one line, and the beam from the next face of the mirror writes the next main
scan line.
The beam then passes to the photoconductor through the various optical components.
At the start of each main scan, the laser hits the laser synchronization detector. This detector
then synchronizes the electronics for the start of a new scan line. The machine in our example
has two detectors; the reason for that will be explained later in this section.

Optical Components
The components of the optical path are described in the following pages. The actual
components used and their names may differ from model to model, manufacturer to
manufacturer.

Laser Diode Unit

This consists of the laser diode, collimating
lens, aperture, and laser diode drive board. Laser Diode
Drive Board Collimating Lens
The laser diode (sometimes called LD for
short) radiates laser beams of a
wavelength of 780 nm, which is in the far
red to near infra-red range of the Laser Beam
spectrum.
The power of the laser beam depends on Aperture
the type of photoconductor used, and on
Laser Diode
the paper feed speed (a faster engine Lsrcmp1.wmf
needs a stronger laser, if the
photoconductor type is the same). A
typical example is 0.6 mW.
The collimating lens forms the radiating beams into a parallel flux, which passes to the
cylindrical lens. The cross section of the beam at the aperture is an ellipse about 2.6 mm long
by 0.5 mm wide.

Cylindrical Lens
Laser
The cylindrical lens focuses the beam Diode
Unit
and sends it to the rotating polygonal
mirror.
Cylindrical
Lens

Beam Cross-section
L 2 f

Page 86
Imaging & Printing

Polygonal Mirror
The faces of the mirror are precision-ground for
high reflectivity, and to prevent pixel
misalignments in the main and sub-scan
directions.
The mirror rotates at a constant speed. As the Mirror
mirror reflects the laser beam, its rotation scans
the beam across the photoconductor, via lenses
and mirrors.
The beam reflected from one face of the Drive
polygonal mirror makes one main scan across the Board
photoconductor. This is illustrated below. Motor
Lsrcmp3.pcx

(2) (1)

The relationship between mirror face orientation and

scanning is as follows:
Laser Beam
1. Laser synchronization (main scan start) detector
position
2. Main scan start position
3. Main scan intermediate position
4. Main scan end position
(3)
(1) to (4) are repeated for each line.
One scan line on the photoconductor (raster line) is
formed by the laser light reflected from one face of the
mirror.
The diagrams at right illustrate the main scan. When the
beam hits the main scan start detector mirror (1), the
CPU recognizes that a new line is about to be scanned.
As the mirror rotates, the beam scans across the (4)

photoconductor [(2) - (3) - (4)]. Normally, there is no main

scan end sensor at (4) because, as the mirror rotates and
the beam hits the next face, the beam is instantly
deflected to the vicinity of (1) and a new main scan
begins. However, some devices have a sensor at the
opposite end of the main scan, and this will be explained
later.
Lsrcmp4.wmf

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Imaging & Printing

F-theta () Lenses
Thick

The angles between picture element

Polygonal Mirror
beams are equal. However, the diameters
of each element beam projected onto the
photoconductor are different. The beams
are thicker at both ends, of the main scan,
than in the center, as shown in the upper
Thin
diagram. The F (F-theta) lenses correct
for this.

The F lenses correct the laser beam so

that it passes over the photoconductor at
a constant distance. The lenses deflect
the beam slightly inward to ensure that
the diameters of all picture elements are
equal.
Lsrcmp6.wmf

Second Mirror Second

Mirror

The second mirror reflects the corrected

laser beam to the focusing lens. There Polygonal F Lenses
may be more than one mirror in this Mirror Focusing
Lens
position, if the optical path is not straight.
Photoconductor

Focusing Lens
This lens corrects the beam for surface F Lenses
irregularities on the polygonal mirror and Second
Mirror
second mirror, and focuses the beam
onto the photoconductor. Polygonal Accurately
Mirror reflected beam
In printers where the photoconductor is
close to the lens, a cylindrical lens is Beams reflected Focusing
inaccurately because of Lens
often used in this position. However, if mirror face irregularities
the photoconductor is not close to the
Photoconductor
lens, a cylindrical lens would leave the Lsrcmp8.wmf
left and right edges of the image blurred.
In many models, a focusing lens (sometimes called a barrel toroidal lens) is used; this lens
operates similarly to an F lens. The barrel toroidal lens is also used when plastic F lenses are
used to reduce costs. With plastic lenses, it is difficult to get the required beam deflection with
only F lenses.

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Imaging & Printing

The cross-section of the beam on the photoconductor (i.e., the size of each printed dot) varies
from model to model; it is roughly circular, with a diameter in the region of 80 m. This means
that the printed dots overlap each other slightly, as seen below in a typical example.
80 m is about 12 dots per mm, and
90 m is about 11 dots per mm.
However, the actual printer resolution
is 16 x 15.4 dots per mm. The dots are
larger than this resolution, so they
overlap. This results in a better image Lsrcmp9.wmf
than if there were no overlap.

Laser Synchronization Detector

The laser synchronization detector
(sometimes known as the main scan start Fiber Optic Cable
detector) synchronizes the main scan
start timing of the laser beam across the
photoconductor. F Lenses
Second
Each face of the polygonal mirror scans Polygonal Mirror
the laser beam across the Mirror
photoconductor for one main scan. Just
before the laser beam starts scanning
across the photoconductor, it hits the
laser synchronization detector. The signal
from the detector informs the CPU that a
new main scan is about to start. The CPU
then synchronizes the electronics for the
start of the new scan line.
Lsrcmp10.wmf
The laser synchronization detector is a
phototransistor. In some products, it is
connected with a fiber optic cable.

Page 89
Imaging & Printing

A typical field example:

Just before the laser beam starts scanning
across the photoconductor, it hits the main scan
start detector. An optic fiber or a mirror routes +5V
+5V
+
Comparator

the laser beam to the detector. [A]

_
The detector output passes to a comparator. Detector

The comparator output [A] goes high when Laser Diode

activated by the laser beam. It remains high for a Drive Board

few microseconds. The signal passes to the

Laser Interface (LIF).
An oscillator sends a clock signal to the clock
generator. The clock generator generates eight Oscillator
clock signals (CK0 to CK7) from this clock. Each
of these has the same frequency as the original Clock

clock signal, but there is a fixed phase difference Clock Generator

of 30 to 40 nanoseconds (depending on the
model) between each of the eight output signals. CK0-7 +5VD

(A thousand million nanoseconds make one

second.)
LIF
The LIF selects one of these eight signals to
time data output for the main scan line that is
about to start. The selection process is shown Lsrcmp11.wmf
below.
As shown in the timing chart below, the eight
clock signals CK0 to CK7 have the same
frequency but are out of phase with
each other.
The signal chosen is the one that CK0
has the nearest rising edge CK1
immediately after the signal from
the main scan start detector goes CK2

high. Here, CK2 is selected. The CK3

process is repeated at the start of
CK4
each scan line.
CK5
In some manufacturer's models,
the signal with the nearest rising CK6
edge before the main scan start CK7
signal is chosen; CK1 would be
selected in the above example. SYNC
Lsrcmp12.wmf

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Imaging & Printing

Laser Diode Power Control

Even if a constant electric current is applied to the laser diode, the intensity of the output light
changes with the temperature. The intensity of the output decreases as the temperature
increases.
In order to keep the output level constant, the output light intensity is monitored through a
photodiode enclosed in the laser diode. The photodiode passes an electrical current that is
proportional to the light intensity. The output is not affected by temperature, so it faithfully
reflects the changes in the LD output, without adding anything itself.

A typical field example:

The illustration here is an example from an LD Drive Board
actual machine.
LD5 V PD
Just after the main switch is turned on, and LD
every pixel during printing, IC2 on the LD +5 V
drive board excites the laser diode at full
power and stores the output of the
photodiode (PD) as a reference. IC2 VIDEO IC1
IC2
LVL1
monitors the current passing through the
photodiode. Then it increases or decreases
the current to the laser diode as necessary,
comparing the output with the reference LEVEL

level.
LD OFF
The laser power level is adjusted on the A133d618.wmf

production line. Do not touch the variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

resistors on the LD unit in the field.

Laser Signal Profile f

On
The CPU does not send a continuous Off
a b c d e g h

stream of video data to the laser diode. If

it did that, the start of each line of data 4799 dots
Synchronization Signal
would not be properly synchronized. The Synchronization Signal
Detected Detected
transfer of data to the laser diode is made Lasersig.wmf
(1) Main scan start synchronization signal detected
line by line, using the signal from the main (2) Dummy bits ("a" and "b" on the diagram)
scan start detector to synchronize the (3) One main scan line of data ("c" on the diagram)
(4) Dummy bits ("d" and "e" on the diagram)
signal. The following timing chart shows (5) Dummy bits ("f" on the diagram)
how each main scan line of data is sent to (6) Dummy bits ("g" on the diagram)
(7) Laser on, ready to activate sensor ("h" on the diagram)
the laser diode. One page of data will
consist of many repetitions of this basic
signal profile.
When the CPU detects the main scan
start synchronization signal, it turns off the laser beam.

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Imaging & Printing

After a short while, it turns back on. The number of white dummy bits marked "b" on the diagram
depend on the paper width; the number of bits "a" are fixed. The main scan line data follows ("c"
on the diagram), then more dummy bits (the amount of the dummy bits marked "d" depends on
paper width; the bits marked "e", "f", and "g" on the diagram are fixed). During "c", the signal will
switch between high and low in accordance with the data signal. It also switches on and off
between pixels.
At point 7 on the timing chart shown on the previous page, the laser beam turns back on so that
it can activate the main scan start detector.
The signal profile on the previous page is for a "write to black" printing process. In a "write to
white" process, the signal profile is similar, except that dummy bits "b" and "d" are high instead
of low. Also, the polarity of the data signal during "c" is the reverse.
The duration of one cycle depends on the rotation speed of the polygon mirror.

A typical field example:

Six-sided mirror, rotation speed: 25984 rpm
Duration: 60/(25984 x 6) s = About 0.38 ms

Image Processing

Printer Gamma Correction

Printer gamma correction
corrects the data output
from the image processing
circuits to the laser diode
to account for the
characteristics of the
printer (e.g., the
characteristics of the
drum, laser diode, and
lenses).
Printer gamma correction
is done after image
processing, and before the
data goes to the laser
diode.
Prtgam1.wmf

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Imaging & Printing

Gradation Processing
This section explains how a laser printer reproduces grayscales.
To make the latent image, the laser beam illuminates the image area of the drum surface. The
longer the laser is on and the brighter it is, the darker the developed pixel becomes.

Power
Modulation Greyscale Greyscale Greyscale Greyscale Greyscale Greyscale Greyscale
8 Levels 1 4 8 12 16 34 64
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Pulse Width
Modulation
8 Levels
Lasgrad1.wmf

Changing the duration (also called the width) of the pulse is known as Pulse Width Modulation
(PWM). Models with this feature typically have 8 possible pulse width levels.
While the laser is on to make a dot, the laser can be made brighter or dimmer. This is known as
power modulation (PM). The lasers intensity is controlled by the amount of current sent to the
laser diode. Models with this feature typically have either 8 or 64 possible power levels.
The PWM and PM levels are combined to reproduce the various grades in the gray scale.
Typical examples:
8 PWM levels, 8 PM levels, giving 64 possible grayscale levels per pixel
8 PWM levels, 64 PM levels, giving 256 possible grayscale levels per pixel
8 PWM levels, 0 PM levels, giving 8 possible grayscale levels per pixel
The power is modulated only on the final part of the laser pulse (example: see Grayscale 12 or
34 in the diagram).
For example: Grayscale 34 is made from PWM level 4 and PM level 2

Page 93
Imaging & Printing

Some machines having a high number of possible grayscales per pixel do not use them all.

A typical field example:

The 8-bit data from the image processing Greyscale 1 Greyscale 50 Greyscale 100

circuits (enough for 256 grayscales per

1 1 1 1 4 3 5 3 6 8 6 8
pixel) are converted to 4-bit data for the
laser diode drive board (only enough for 1 1 1 1 3 5 4 4 8 7 8 6

16 grayscales per pixel). 1 1 1 1 5 4 5 3 6 8 7 7

However, the machine emulates 256 1 1 1 1 3 5 3 5 7 6 8 7

grayscales by dealing with the output in
blocks of 16 pixels (4 x 4), using the 16 Greyscale 200 Greyscale 256

grades per pixel in each of the 16 pixels 11 10 14 12 16 16 16 16

in the block to produce 256 grayscales for
blocks of 4 x 4 pixels. 10 14 12 11 16 16 16 16

14 13 12 11 16 16 16 16
The drawing shows an example of the
principle. This data is not taken from any 10 12 14 13 16 16 16 16

machine; it is just a fictitious example. Lasgrad2.wmf

Laser Diode Pulse Positioning

Left
The laser pulse position (at the left side of
the pixel, at the center, or at the right
side) can also change depending on the Right
location of the image pixel, so that the
edges of characters and lines become
cleaner. All of the examples in the
Center
previous section (gradation processing)
show the dot being reproduced at the left
side of the pixel.
Concentrated

In the example on the right, the machine

reproduces a thin diagonal line. At the left
edge of the line, the dot is on the right side of
the pixel, and vice versa.
In general, putting the pixel in the center
gives better results for photo mode.

a133d590.wmf

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Imaging & Printing

Edge Smoothing (Digital Copiers and

Printers)
When binary picture processing mode is
used, there are only two possible gray
scales, black and white.
With this process, sudden changes from
black to white mean that there might be
jagged edges in the image. Smoothing
attempts to remove these edges.
Using laser pulse positioning, dots on the
left side of black areas are made with only a
portion of the pulse width, and these dots
are moved to the right side of the pixel. In a
similar way, dots on the right edges are
narrower, and at the left side of the pixel.

a231d529.wmf

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Imaging & Printing

Color Development
Like black and white machines, color document
systems and laser printers use either dual-
component development or mono-component
development systems. However, color systems
require a separate development unit for each
color, and they must make at least one
development cycle per color.
The development systems of Ricohs color
products can be classified into three groups(1) Development
systems with the development units arranged in units in fixed
fixed positions around the photoconductor, (2) positions
systems with a revolver that brings the
development units to the photoconductor when
needed, and (3) tetradrive
systems. This section looks at representative examples
of each group.
M

K 2nd
C

d 1st

Development units
Tetradrive on a revolver

Fixed Position Development Systems

Many color document systems and printers have the four color development mechanisms
(CMYK) arranged in fixed positions around the photoconductor. Such an arrangement is logical
from a design point of view; however, such designs have two requirements that designers must
address.
1. Photoconductor Surface Area
Four development mechanisms take up a lot of photoconductor surface. For this reason, color
systems using fixed position development units must use a larger than normal photoconductor.
One way is to increase the drum size, as explained in example 1 on the next page. Another
method is to use a long photoconductor belt; see example 2 on the next page.
2. Prevention of Simultaneous Development
Although the development units are in a fixed position, only one color can be allowed to develop
the image at a time. Examples 1 and 2 on the following page, show two ways to handle this
requirement.

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Imaging & Printing

Example 1:
This type of machine utilizes one large [E]
[G]
development unit divided into four
[A]
sections. From the left they are the black
development section [A], the cyan
development section [B], the magenta
development section [C] and the yellow
development section [D]. Each
development section has a sleeve roller [B]
[E], dual mixing roller [F], doctor plate [G],
and toner density sensor [H].
To allow for the four development [F]
sections to be within close proximity to the
development units, some models will use
[D]
a drum with a larger diameter (such as
[H]
120 mm instead of a more common 90
mm) One interesting feature of this [C]
machine is the use of six motors to drive the
various development components. The color
development drive motor drives the dual mixing
rollers in the cyan, magenta, and yellow
development sections. The black development
drive motor drives those in the black
development unit.
Each of the four sleeve rollers is driven by an
independent, reversible motor [A]. When the
sleeve turns as shown by the black arrows,
developer is carried to the OPC drum. When the
sleeve turns in the direction of the white arrows,
all the developer left on the sleeve roller surface
[A]
is returned to the development section. Only one
color development section at a time carries
developer to the drum.

Example 2: [A]
This type of printer configuration has the four
color development units [K,Y,M,C] arranged along
one side of an OPC belt [A].
When the printer is idle, none of the development
units contacts the OPC belt. During printing, the
machine moves the development units into
contact with the belt one at a time. The
mechanism used is a standard mechanical
system using a solenoid, a spring clutch, and a
cam.)
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Imaging & Printing

Revolver Systems
M

Revolver Operation Overview

K 2nd
Machines using the revolver system have the C
four development units (K, Y, C, and M)
mounted around a rotating mechanism called
the revolver. The revolver rotates to bring the Y
proper color development unit to the drum. d 1st
Revolver systems use a standard size OPC
drum. [A
The revolver unit holds four development units,
one for each color (KYCM). It develops colors
by rotating the revolver counter-clockwise (as
viewed from the front of the document system),
90 degrees at a time, in the order K, Y, C, and
M. (In printer mode, this machine develops in
the order Y, C, M, and K to improve the
reproduction of black letters.)

Tetradrive Systems / Four-Tandem System

[A] OPC drum

[B] Development roller
[C] Toner supply roller
[D] Transport rollers
[E] Mixing augers

[D]

The tetradrive system as well as the four-tandem system uses

four print engines lined up in a row. It has four drums, four laser [E]
beams, four charge corona units, four transfer corona units,
and four development units. The four print engines allow the
creation of the CMYK images simultaneously, thus greatly [C]
increasing the full color copy speed. The primary drawback of
the tetradrive system is expense.
At present, only a few "high-price" products use the tetradrive [B]
system. The development units of these products use a
standard dual component development system. The [A]
components of a typical development unit used with the
Tetradrive configuration are illustrated to the right.

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Imaging & Printing

Four-Tandem System
As discussed on the previous page, this machine
uses four PCUs (Photo Conductor Units), four
development units, and four laser beams for color
printing. Each PCU consists of a drum, charge roller,
cleaning brush, and blade. Starting on the left, the
PCU stations are black, yellow, cyan, and magenta.
A transfer belt [A],feeds paper past the PCUs, and the
[A] toner image on each drum is transferred to the paper
in order.
The paper path is inclined about 38 degrees to make
the machine as compact as possible. One major
difference between the Tetradrive and Four-Tandem drive system is the mechanisms used to
drive the four PCU's and the Transfer belt.
OPC drum
Color Image Transfer
Image transfer in color machines is more challenging than in
single color document systems or printers. The image must
be developed and then transferred once for each color. Each
of the color separations must be transferred and overlaid to
achieve the complete colored copy or print. Ricoh products Transfer
have two basic methods of transferring the developed color belt
separations.
The most common method is a two step transfer system. In
Paper
the first step, each of the color separations transfers from the
OPC to an intermediate surface. The complete image builds
on the intermediate surface one color at a time. Once the
color image is complete, it is then transferred to the paper.
The OPC can be either a drum or a belt. When it is Two step image transfer
a drum, the intermediate surface is a transfer belt.
(Schematically illustrated to the right.) When it is a belt,
the intermediate surface is a transfer drum. OPC drum
The other method is to transfer the color separations
from the OPC drum the paper as they are developed
much in the same way as in single color imaging
systems. This is repeated for each color to build the Paper
complete image directly on the paper. This is the
method used in analog color document systems and
in tetradrive systems.
The following sections examine examples of both
methods. Direct-to-paper image transfer

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Imaging & Printing

Two-step Color Image Transfer

The two-step transfer method builds the
M
complete color image before transferring it to
paper. Each of the color images (color
separations) is first developed on an OPC and C K 2nd
then transferred from the OPC to an
intermediate surface. Once the color image is
complete, it is then transferred to the paper. Y
This method has the following advantages over
d 1st
direct transfer to paper.
It reduces paper handling (less chance for
slipping, wrinkling, jamming, etc.) Two A4/LT images made in one
It allows greater control over the revolution of the transfer belt
electrostatics of image transfer and more
precise registration of the color separations.
It is possible to increase the copy speed by designing the system so that more than one
image can be made at a time. The illustration above shows two images being created on the
transfer belt.

Two-Transfer Belt System example:

The illustration at right shows the typical
components found in a two transfer belt
configuration - an image transfer belt and
a paper transfer belt. The document
system transfer belt system first transfers
the 4 color toner images from the drum to
the image transfer belt and then transfers
the complete image onto the paper. This
permits image transfer to the paper in a
single operation.

For the paper transfer step, the 1. OPC drum 14. PTB cleaning brush
document system employs an insulated 2. Transfer belt bias roller 15. PTB back brush
transfer belt system to improve the 3. Image transfer belt (ITB) 16. Belt discharge corona
4. Belt mark sensor unit
efficiency of image transfer to the paper. 5. Transfer belt drive roller 17. Paper transfer drive
The paper transfer belt also provides 6. Transfer belt tension roller
smooth paper transport as the paper roller 18. Pick-off plate
passes through the image transfer area 7. Paper transfer counter 19. Separation corona
and receives the image. roller unit
8. Paper registration rollers 20. ITB blade counter
9. Paper transfer tension roller
roller 21. ITB cleaning blade
10. Paper transfer belt (PTB) 22. ITB lubricant brush
11. Paper transfer bias roller 23. ITB lubricant bar
12. PTB blade counter roller 24. Ground roller
13. PTB cleaning blade

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Imaging & Printing

Direct-to-Paper Color Image Transfer

Direct-to-paper transfer of color images is a method that can be found in analog color document
systems. It is also used in the unique tetradrive and four-tandem drive designs.
Example 1: Analog with Transfer Drum
The illustration to the right shows the image transfer mechanism of a typical direct-to-paper
transfer configuration. In this method the transfer drum rotates in contact with the OPC drum.
Paper is fed and clamped to the
transfer drum. The transfer drum then
makes the necessary number of
rotations (generally four) to transfer [D] [B]
each color to the paper.
The transfer corona unit is located
inside the transfer drum unit. A high [E]
negative charge is applied to the
transfer corona wire and the corona [E]
wire generates negative ions. The
negative ions are applied to the copy [F]
[F]
paper and the negative charge
attracts the positively charged toner [A]
away from the drum and onto the
paper. At the same time, the copy
paper is electro-statically attracted to [C]
the surface of the transfer drum.
[G]
When full color image is complete, the
clamp releases and the paper [A] Transfer drum [E] AC discharge
separates from the transfer drum. [B] OPC drum corona units
[C] Transfer corona [F] DC discharge
unit corona units
[D] Separation [G] Transfer drum
corona unit cleaning unit

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Imaging & Printing

Example 2: Digital Tetradrive with Transfer Sheet

C Y M K

[A
[A [A
[A

[C]

The image transfer method of the tetradrive system is different from all other color systems. It
uses a standard corona transfer system repeated four times. Transfer coronas [A] are located
below each drum to pull the toner image onto the paper.
The transfer belt position lever [C] raises the transfer belt to the drum to prevent void image
problems under high humidity conditions.
The transfer corona units for all four colors are the same, except for the corona wire height. The
corona wires for yellow and cyan are installed closer to the drum than those for black and
magenta [A].

The potential at the paper surface is increased

in steps as each color is developed [B]. This is
necessary because the top layers of toner
require a stronger transfer force than the bottom
layers.
The transfer corona current for each color is as
follows:
Black: 300 A
Magenta: 400 A
Yellow: 350 A
Cyan: 600 A

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Imaging & Printing

Ink Jet Printing

Ink Cartridges
[A]
Most ink cartridges consist of an ink sponge
and a print head.
Ink Sponge [A]: This contains about 20 [B]
grams of ink, which is enough for printing
about 550 ITU-T #1 charts. (These charts
are an industry standard.) [E]

Printer Head [B]: The printer head faceplate

contains a row of 64 nozzles [C], spaced at a
[D]
resolution of 360 dots per inch. Ink passes to [C]
these nozzles through a pipe [D], which
contains a filter. Printing signals arrive at
the printer head at the signal contacts [E].
Color ink cartridges contain a sponge for
each color of ink.
[C]

Print Head
[D]
Small heating elements force ink out of the
nozzles.
Ink from the sponge is filtered at [A] to [E] [A]
remove dust, and then passes to the
[B]
nozzles through pipe [B]. When the head [F]
drive current flows through a nozzles H505D508.wmf
heater plate [C], the ink at the plate boils.
The bubbles formed [D] eventually join into Black Ink Cartridge Colour Ink Cartridge
one large bubble [E]. The bubble forces a
drop of ink [F] out of the nozzle. 1 1
Head drive current stops before the bubble
is fully formed. The remaining heat of the
heat plate completes the bubble. The plate
cools by the time the ink drop is ejected,
and fresh ink enters the nozzle from the
sponge.
Yellow 1~24
Magenta 25~48
The nozzles are arranged in a straight line 128 Cyan 49~72 136
at intervals of 1/360 inch. There are 128 Black 73~136

nozzles in the black ink cartridge.

H505D509.wmf
The color ink cartridge has a total of 136
nozzles: 24 yellow nozzles, 24 magenta
nozzles, 24 cyan nozzles, and 64 black nozzles.

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Imaging & Printing

Purge Unit
This unit does the following.
Capping puts a cap on the nozzles to prevent drying of the nozzle and ink leakage when the
machine is not printing.
Cleaning: During cleaning, the wiper unit wipes the face plate to remove paper fiber and ink, and
the ink pump in the purge unit sucks old ink from the capped cartridge and fills the nozzles with
fresh ink.
In addition, the printer regularly ejects ink from all nozzles the cartridge to the purge unit to
prevent ink from drying inside the nozzles and blocking them up. This is known as the
maintenance jet function. The purge unit must absorb this waste ink.
The machine operates the purge unit at certain times automatically (for example, just after
switching on, at the start of each page, every 60 s during printing, after a certain number of dots
have been printed, or after a certain amount of time that the printer has been inactive).
Purge Unit Control Gear: The gear [A] drives the [A]
purge unit wiper, cap, and pump.
[D]
Wiper Arm: This contains a rubber wiper [B] and
the maintenance jet absorber [C]. The rubber
wiper cleans the cartridges face plate from top to
bottom every 60 seconds during printing and
when it is time for cleaning. The maintenance jet
absorber absorbs ink ejected from the nozzles
when power is switched on, before the start of [E]
printing, and every 12 seconds during printing.
The ink absorber removes ink from the rubber
wiper and the maintenance jet absorber when the [F]
wiper arm goes down.
Cap: The cap arm with its rubber cap [D] [C]
advances and caps the ink cartridge when the [B]
wiper arm goes down. The rubber cap connects to
the ink pump. During cleaning, this pump sucks
ink from the cartridge and fills the nozzles with
fresh ink. The capping mechanism pushes the
rubber cap against the face plate of the cartridge,
to stop ink at the nozzles from drying up or leaking
out.
Pump: The pump unit [E] sucks ink from the
rubber cap and passes it to the waste ink
absorber [F] in the paper feed roller.

Purge1.wmf

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Imaging & Printing

Carriage Drive Mechanism

A motor drives the print head backwards and forwards across the paper. The carriage position is
detected by counting stepper motor pulses, or by using an encoder, as in the following example.

[A]

[E]

[B]
[D]

[C]

H905d004 f H905d005 f

A typical field example:

The carriage drive motor [A] drives the print head carriage [B] through the belt [C].
The sensor [D], located under the carriage generates a pulse signal while it moves along the
encoder [E] , so that the printer engine can detect the horizontal location of the carriage.

Ink End Detection

To determine whether some ink is present in the cartridge, the machine prints a black dot
(known as the ink end mark) after printing the last line on a page. The ink end sensor reads the
white level around the mark, and then it looks for the ink end mark itself. If the sensor cannot
detect the mark, the machine determines that the cartridge is empty.

Some machines have no ink end sensor. The volume of ink used is monitored during printing by
counting the number of dots made. The machine displays a warning when the ink has almost
been all used up.

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Imaging & Printing

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Page 106
Appendixes

Appendixes

This section includes a Quick Color Reference sheet that can be used to review color filters
and the Additive and Subtractive Color Models.

Page 107
Appendixes

Page 108
Bibliography

Bibliography

This program is only an introduction to terms, concepts and some of the processes of "working
with color" in the home office and corporate business environments. If you are serious about
knowing and using color efficiently and accurately, you must continue reading, exploring and
working with color. The references below are only a small sampling of the
many resources available to you. All of the resources listed here were used
as references in the making of this training program. It is recommended that
as you continue your exploration of color and color printing/copying, that you
include these resources in your studies.

1. The Color PC Production Techniques - by Marc D. Miller and Randy Zaucha,

ISBN: 1-56830-179-0, Copyright 1995

2. Understanding Digital Color, Second Edition - by Phil Green

ISBN: 0-88362-233-5, Copyright 1999

3. Print Publishing, A Hayden Shop Manual - Donnie O'Quinn

ISBN: 0-7897-2102-3, Copyright 2000

4. Adobe Systems Inc. Training's web site at: http://www.adobe.com/support/techguides

5. Ricoh Company Limited's web site at: http://www.ricoh.com

6. The Ricoh Technical Services website at: http://tsc.ricohcorp.com

(a login name and password setup are required.)

Page 109