Chapter 6

DRYING

Modified and Presented by:

Dr. Muhammad Abbas Ahmad Zaini,
PhD (Japan) CEng (UK)

Courtesy of:
Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd. Ghazali Mohd. Nawawi,
PhD (Canada) CEng (UK)
Drying It is expected that students
will be able to:
Introduction and
methods of Drying Explain the principle of
drying of materials
Equipment of Drying
Identify a different types
Vapor Pressure of Water
of dryers
and Humidity
Use the humidity chart to
Equilibrium Moisture
estimate humidity
Content
Calculate the equilibrium
Rate of Drying
moisture content of the
Constant-Rate Drying materials
Curve
Calculate the rate of
Calculation methods for drying
Constant-Rate Drying
Calculate drying time for
Period
constant-rate and falling-
rate period
Drying

Removal of relatively small

amounts of water as vapor by air

Removal of water from process material

and other substances

Removal of other organic liquids from solids

Evaporation removal of large amounts of

water

Usually the final processing step before

packaging - as a preservation technique
especially for food

Water vapor

Wet solid Dried solid

General Methods of Drying

Batch material is inserted into the

drying equipment and drying proceeds for a
given period of time

Continuous material is continuously

added to the dryer and dried material
continuously removed

Drying is categorized according to

physical conditions used to remove water

9 Direct contact with heated air at the

atmospheric pressure - water vapor
removed by air

9 Vacuum drying heated indirectly by

contact with a metal wall or by radiation

9 Freeze drying water is sublimed from

frozen materialWhy??
Drying Equipment

Tray dryer

Drum dryer

Continuous microwave dryer

Spray Dryer
 Humidity

Humidification - transfer of water from

the liquid phase into a gaseous mixture of
air and water vapor.

Dehumidification - water vapor is

transferred from the vapor state to the
liquid state.
 Humidity

Humidity, H of an air-water vapor mixture

is the kg of water vapor contained in 1 kg of
dry air.
18.02 p A
H=
28.97 P p A

Where P is the total pressure and pA is the

partial pressure of water vapor in the air.
Percentage Humidy, Hp percent of
actual humidity H divided by the humidity Hs,
air saturated with water vapor at the same
temperature and pressure.
H
H p = 100
HS
Relative Humidity, HR the amount of
saturation of an air-water vapor mixture

pA
H R = 100
p AS
Note : MW of water 18.02 kg/kg mol and air
28.97 kg/kg mol
 Vapor Pressure of Water

Pure water can exist in three physical

states: solid ice, liquid and vapor; depends on
the pressure and temperature.

If ice at point (1) is heated at constant

pressure, the temperature rises and the
physical condition is shown horizontally. From
point (3) to (4), ice sublimes (vaporizes) to a
vapor without becoming a liquid.

Along line AB, the phases liquid and vapor

coexist in equilibrium along the line AB, which
is the vapor pressure line of water. Boiling
occurs when the vapor pressure of the water is
equal to the total pressure above the water
surface.
 Humidity Chart

Humidity chart for mixtures of air and water

vapor at a total pressure of 101.325 kPa

Wet bulb temperature

Q1 The air in a room is at 26.7 oC and a pressure of
101.325 kPa and contains water vapor with a
partial pressure pA = 2.76 kPa. Calculate the
following :
a) Humidity, H
b) Saturation humidity, HS, and percentage
humidity, HP
c) Percentage relative humidity, HR

Q2 An air stream at 87.8 oC having a humidity H =

0.030 kg H2O/kg dry air is contacted in an
adiabatic saturator with water. It is cooled and
humidified to 90% saturation.
a) What are the final values of H and T?
b) For 100% saturation, what would be the values
of H and T?
Give Yourself a Try!!

Q3 Air having a dry bulb temperature of 37.8

oC and a wet bulb of 26.7 oC is to be dried

by first cooling to 15.6 oC to condense

water vapor and then heating to 23.9 oC.
a) Determine the initial humidity and
percentage humidity
b) Determine the final humidity and
percentage humidity

Q4 Air entering an adiabatic cooling chamber

has a temperature of 32.2 oC and a
percentage humidity of 65%. It is cooled by
a cold water spray and saturated with water
vapor in the chamber. After leaving, it is
heated to 23.9 oC. The final air has a
percentage humidity of 40%
a) What is the initial humidity of the air?
b) What is the final humidity after heating?
 Moisture Content

1. Equilibrium Moisture Content, X*

The lowest moisture content obtainable at

equilibrium under the drying conditions used

Expressed on a dry basis (kg of water per

kg of moisture-free solid)

It depends on the structure of the solid, the

temperature of the gas and the moisture
content of the gas

Varies greatly with the type of material for

any given % relative humidity

Decreases with an increase in temperature

Assumed constant for moderate

temperature ranges
Typical equilibrium moisture contents of some
solids at approximately 298 K (25 C)
 Typical equilibrium moisture contents of
some food materials at approximately 298 K
(25 C): (1) macaroni; (2) flour; (3) bread; (4)
crackers; (5) egg albumin
2. Free moisture content X

Moisture above the equilibrium moisture

content

Moisture that can be removed by drying

under the given % relative humidity

X = Xt X*

where ;

Xt = total moisture content

X* = equilibrium moisture content

 Drying: Experimental Procedures

Solid placed on a tray

Only top surface exposed to air stream

Tray suspended from a balance

Record loss in weight during drying

Condition closely resemble actual large

scale operations

Ratio of drying to non-drying surface,

bed depth, air velocity, humidity,
temperature and direction of air
 Rate of Drying Curves
Data :
W: total weight of wet solid
Ws: weight of dry solid
To obtain data as free moisture X vs
time, t
Total moisture, Xt = (W-Ws)/Ws kg total
water/kg dry solid
Free moisture content X = Xt X*
To obtain rate of drying R: get slope of
tangents at different value of t
LS dX
R=
A dt
Where R is drying rate in kg H2O/h.m2,
LS kg of dry solid, A exposed surface area
for drying in m2.
Rate of Drying Curves
Calculation Method for Constant-Rate
Drying Period

Time of Drying

Instead of using the drying curve, the rate-

of-drying can be used

The rate of drying R is defined as

LS dX
R=
A dt
This can be rearranged and integrated over
time interval to dry from X1 at t1 = 0 to X2 at t2
= t,
t 2 =t
LS X1dX
t = dt = X 2 R
t1 = 0 A
And R is a constant = Rc,

t=
LS
(X1 X 2 )
ARc
Calculation Methods for Falling-Rate
Drying Period

Method using graphical integration

In the falling-rate drying period, the rate
of drying, R is not constant but decreases
when drying proceeds past the critical
free moisture content Xc.
When the free moisture content X is
zero, the rate drops to zero.
In the falling-rate period, R varies. So it
can not be integrated as in the constant-
rate period.
However, it can be graphically
integrated by plotting 1/R versus X and
determining the area under the curve.

LS X1dX
t=
A X 2 R
Calculation Methods for Special Cases
in Falling-Rate
L X1dX
t=
A
S
X 2 R
R is linear in X
R=aX+b and dR=adX
R1
LS dR LS R1
t= = ln
aA R 2 R aA R2
R1 R 2
a = slope =
X1 X 2
R is linear through origin
R=aX and dR=adX
RC
a = slope =
XC
LS X C RC
t= ln
ARC R2
LS X C X C
t= ln
ARC X2
 Tutorial

Q5 A solid whose drying curve is

represented in slide #19 is to be dried
from a free moisture content X1 = 0.38
kg H2O/kg dry solid to X2 = 0.25 kg
H2O/kg dry solid. Estimate the time
required.

Q6 A batch of wet solid whose graphical

drying-rate curve is represented in slide
#19 is to be dried from a free moisture
content of X1 = 0.38 kg H2O/kg dry
solid to X2 = 0.04 kg H2O/kg dry solid.
The weight of the dry solid is LS = 399
kg dry solid and A = 18.58 m2 of top
drying surface. Calculate the time for
drying.
Q7 A wet solid is to be dried in a tray dryer
under steady-state conditions from a
free moisture content of X1 = 0.40 kg
H2O/kg dry solid to X2 = 0.02 kg H2O/kg
dry solid. The dry solid weight is 99.8
kg dry solid and the top surface area
for drying is 4.645 m2. The drying-rate
curve can be represented by figure
shown in slide #19.

a) Calculate the time for drying using

graphical integration in the falling-rate
period.

b) Repeat but use a straight line through

the origin for the drying rate in the
falling-rate period.