BH30A0201

Nuclear Reactor Design

Lectures 1-2, Autumn 2017

Prof. Juhani Hyvrinen

Presented by D.Sc. Heikki Suikkanen
 Our main focus:
How to design a nuclear
A few initial practicalities reactor for power production

The lectures Nuclear Reactor Design (former

Ydinvoimatekniikka I) will be in English
Exercise classes are given separately in
Finnish and in English
Homework assignment and seminars also
in two languages
We circulate a namelist in which
write your name and nationality
sign the line to confirm the information
also, indicate if you are taking this course
as part of your Major, Minor, Double
Degree, or Elective Subject.
Nuclear Engineering education is restricted
to nationals of countries that adhere to
nuclear nonproliferation regime of the IAEA.
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 3

Course structure
Period 1
2 x 2 h lectures
1 x 2 h exercises, starting next week (w37)
Pair work: seminar presentations on the
status of nuclear energy in selected
countries
Interim exam nr. 1
Period 2
1 x 2 h lectures
1 x 2 h exercises
Individual homework assignment
Interim exam nr. 2
Lectured by prof. Juhani Hyvrinen (room
3428); occasionally substituted by Dr. Heikki
Suikkanen (3406)
Exercises and homeworks tutored by
Ms. Anne Jordan (room 3409)
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 4
Homework schedule & guidance

Period 1:
the Seminar presentation guidance and topics will
be available in Moodle by Sep 15st (w37)
Seminar to be held on October 18th (w42).
Reserve all day for the seminar (9-16)!
Period 2:
Homework assignment and reporting guidance will
be distributed on the week of October 30th (w44)
Completed report to be turned in at the latest on
Monday, November 27th (w48)

Seminar presentation and homework assignment will

be graded and influence your overall grade for the
course.
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 5

Course grading system

To pass this course you must

1. pass either the two interim exams, or one final exam (max. 48 points in all)
minimum condition for passing is 24 points (50%) from the exams
if you are unhappy with your grade, course final exam may be repeated
later during the year
the full grade scale from 0 (fail) through 5 (excellent) is used
2. turn in acceptable homework (max 10 points)
3. give an acceptable presentation (max 10 points)

Thus the homeworks will constitute about 30% of your total grade.

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 6

 Course materials

We refer a lot to Lamarsh & Baratta, Introduction to Nuclear Engineering, 3rd

edition, Prentice Hall 2001.

Occasionally we also refer to Reuss, Neutron Physics, EDP Sciences 2008.

Course contents are available in Finnish in the lecture notes

Ydinreaktorien fysiikka 1, Ydinreaktorien fysiikka 2, and Kevytvesireaktorien
st, nopeat reaktorit ja grafiittihidasteinen kanavareaktori (as applicable)

The lecture slides and answers to exercise problems will be available in

Moodle.

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 7

Course contents, 1st period

Lecture/ week Substance
1-4 / 36 What is nuclear energy. Nuclear engineering. Radioactivity.
Atomic and nuclear physics. Nuclear reactions, binding energy.
5-8 / 37 Reaction energetics. Nuclear models, Atom density. Interaction of
radiation (neutrons) with matter. Reaction rate.
Attenuation. Neutron flux. Cross section data. Neutron slowing down.
9-12 / 38 Nuclear fission, Decay heat. Charged particle interaction with matter. Two
paths to a critical reactor. Multiplication factor.
13-16 / 39 Criticality of an infinite reactor: four-factor formula. Reactor dynamics
without and with delayed neutrons. Reactivity.
Diffusion theory
17-20 / 40 Diffusion equation and its basic solutions.
One-group theory: criticality condition. Basic geometries.
21-24 / 41 Thermal reactor parameters and power distribution example.
Multi-group and Modified one-group theory.
25-28 / 42 Seminar presentations
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 8
 Course contents, 2nd period (preliminary plan)
Lectures / week Substance
29-30 / 44 Reflected reactors.
31-32 / 45 Heterogeneous reactors.
33-36 / 46 Heat removal from nuclear reactor: conduction, convection, boiling.
Axial temperature distribution in cooling channel.
Core and fuel dimensional optimisation.
37-38 / 47 The Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR).
39-40 / 48 The Boiling Water Reactor (BWR).
41-42 / 49 Channel reactors, CANDU and RBMK.
43-44 / 50 Fast reactors. Breeding and actinide burning.

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 9

What you need to know in advance

Calculus of one variable (solving simple differential equations)

Elementary classical mechanics and electromagnetics
Conservation of energy and conservation of linear momentum
Kinetic energy momentum interrelation
Attraction / repulsion of opposite / equal electric charges
Some engineering thermodynamics
Basic notions of intensive variables and the thermodynamic potential
function enthalpy
Properties of pure substances; phase change, especially boiling
Formulating mass and energy balances for an open system
Some chemistry: Avogadros number. Well do a lot atom (density) counting

And good to know: basic heat conduction and convection

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 10

 Introduction to Nuclear Energy
Prof. Juhani Hyvrinen

What is nuclear energy?

All matter consists of atoms.

The mass of the atom is contained

in the nucleus (note its small size!)
the chemical behaviour of the atom
is governed by its electron shell.

The parts of the atom are held together by respective binding energies
(measured in electron volts, eV; 1 eV = 1.619 J):
between the outermost electrons and the nucleus ~1-10 eV
between the protons and neutrons in the nucleus ~5-8
MeV

energy of one nuclear reaction corresponds to roughly a million chemical

reactions!
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 12
Why is nuclear energy so high?
Protons, being positively charged, Potential energy
Proton well
repel each other electrically
This repulsive force ~/, Electrical
repulsion
where is the distance between
the protons
Distance from nucleus
To keep the protons of the nucleus
from flying apart, something must
overcome electric repulsion. Strong force range

strong nuclear force has a short Potential energy

range (~1 fm) but, within that
range, it exceeds electrical force
by a factor of ~100
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 13

Why is nuclear energy so high?

Neutrons, being neutral, do not Potential energy
sense electrical forces. But they feel Neutron well
the strong force, just like protons do. Distance from nucleus

Concept of potential well: the

particles drop in the hole, releasing
potential energy in the process

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 14

Nuclear shell model Potential energy (protons)
Potential energy (neutrons)

Carbon-12:
6 protons
6 neutrons

The nucleus can be thought of as a combination of proton and

neutron wells; nuclei stack up in the well, filling in characteristic
energy levels, much like the electrons in the electron shell of the
atom excited states are possible
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 15

Basic nuclear reactions

Fusion: the merging of light nuclei: one from two
Fission: splitting of a heavy nucleus: two from one

Radioactive decay is a transformation of a nucleus by emission of

particle(s) (and energy)
alpha decay: a nucleus emits a He-nucleus
beta decay: a nucleus emits an electron ( -; or positron, +)
gamma decay: a nucleus emits a photon in the keV to MeV range
(neutron or proton emission)

Radioactive decay always involves

change in the structure of the nucleus or its excitation state
(arrangement of nuclides at internal energy levels)
loss of energy for the nucleus. This energy will be absorbed
elsewhere, usually away from the decaying atom
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 16
 Nuclear energy in the Nature

Fusion reactions in the sun provide the energy to sustain life on earth.
In addition, stars and supernovae have generated, in various nuclear
reactions, all elements beyond hydrogen (and some primordial helium)
[image: gosunstove.com]
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 17

Natural nuclear reactions on Earth

No fusion
Spontaneous fission reactions in heavy elements of the Earths crust
(rare)

Geothermal heat is mainly due to decay of the radioactive elements

inside Earth (uranium and its decay products)

Background radiation due to decay of naturally generated radioactive

elements
Carbon-14 (C-14), potassium-40 (K-40) generated by cosmic
radiation
Radon-222, noble gas, a decay product of U-238 (common in the
bedrock); this is the single biggest source of natural radiation in
Finland, responsible for 54% of the average annual dose

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 18

Man-made nuclear reactions
Nuclear reactions on industrial scale are used for
Electric power (and heat) generation
Medical isotopes production

Nuclear electricity generation covers 11 % of the global electric

energy consumption
440 nuclear reactors, 390 000 MWe installed power, in
commercial operation
virtually free of air pollutants and greenhouse gases (GHG)
GHG emissions smaller than hydropower and wind power
emissions, even over the whole lifecycle and including fuel
production and waste disposal
very resource efficient: fuel consumption ~24 tn / 1000 MWe /
year (common light water reactors)
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 19

Comparison of nuclear and fossil fuels

Fuel Heat value (MJ/kg) Ratio to coal
Nuclear (light water 4 320 000 123 000
reactors) (50 MWd/kgU)
Natural gas 48 1.37
Coal 35 1
Light water reactors can utilise only ~1 % of the energy content in the
natural uranium. Still they use ~100 000 times less fuel by mass than
fossil-fuelled plants.

Breeder technologies would allow utilisation of up to 80 % of the energy in

natural uranium, but such technology has not been commercialised.

Nuclear industry does not dump its wastes into environment but collects
them and provides for controlled disposal. Energy was concentrated, and
so is waste toxicity. BH30A0201 NRD A2017 20
Global electricity supply

OECD/IEA World Energy Outlook 2014. Finland 2014 ~80

TWh

OECD/IEA World Energy Outlook 2014. Finland 2014 ~80 TWh

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 21

Projected Finnish electricity supply SHKNsupply,

HANKINTA,
Electricity TWh TWh
100

90

80
Nettotuonti
Net import
70 Tuontia tai lauhdevoimaa
Import/conventional
Lauhdevoima
Conventional
60
Nuclear
Ydinvoima
50 Cogeneration, kaukolmp
Yhteistuotanto, municipal
Cogeneration, teollisuus
Yhteistuotanto, industrial
40 Windja&aurinkovoima
Tuuli- solar
30
Hydropower
Vesivoima
Consumption
Shkn kulutus
20

10

0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030

[Ministry of Economy and the Employment, Climate and Energy Strategy (2016)]
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 22
Other uses of nuclear energy
Measurement techniques: radioactive tracers, activation analysis

Nuclear medicine: Diagnostics, Gamma and neutron radiotherapy

Naval and space applications

Nuclear ice breakers in the Arctic North-East passage
Cargo freighting tried but not adopted (Savannah, Otto Hahn,
Mutsu)
Nuclear batteries to power satellites sent to outer solar system
Prospective missions to Mars and beyond
Cold war (1950-1990) created an image
Military: weapons, submarines, warships of a Nuclear Armageddon that still
hovers on peaceful applications of
radiation and nuclear energy
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 23

Nuclear Engineering
Engineering is the skill of
using substances and materials to
produce something useful
utilising Laws of Nature, expressed in mathematic relations
between physically meaningful quantities.

Nuclear Engineering is the skill of

utilising nuclear reactions and radioactive materials to
useful ends.

This course focuses on nuclear engineering skills needed for

electric power generation.
Nuclear heating is also feasible.
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 24
 Atomic and Nuclear physics
Radioactivity

Fundamental particles of interest in atomic

physics
Particle Rest mass Charge
Electron 9.10954E-31 kg e = -1.60219E-19 C
(Positron) same +1.60219E-19 C
Proton 1.67265E-27 kg = 1836 me +1.60219E-19 C
Neutron 1.67495E-27 kg = 1839 me 0
Photon 0 0
(Electron) neutrino and ~0 0
(electron) antineutrino
Electrons, protons, and neutrons make up atoms. Internal structure of protons and
neutrons has been figured out but nuclear engineers do not need to worry about it.

Positrons, neutrinos and antineutrinos appear in certain -decay modes. Positron is the
antielectron upon contact, they annihilate each other, converting their total mass to
gamma rays (energetic photons).
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 26
Why are rest mass and charge so
important?
Nature works with conservation laws.
In low energy (everyday) physics,
mass is conserved
linear momentum and angular momentum are conserved
energy is conserved
electric charge is conserved.

In nuclear engineering we encounter high energy physics, and relativistic

effects need to be considered. For us, the main consequence of relativity is
the merging of mass and energy conservation:
the sum quantity mass + energy is conserved mass can be
converted to energy, and vice versa, through the famous equation
=
where the speed of light = 2.9979 108 m/s

Momentum and charge continue to be conserved separately.

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 27

Structure and size of the atom

The mass of the atom is concentrated in
the nucleus.

The total number of protons in the nucleus,

the atomic number, is . Thus the total charge of
the nucleus is +, and this is neutralised by
electrons orbiting the nucleus.

The number of electrons in neutral atom (=number of protons in the

nucleus) identifies the element chemically.

Neutron number tells how many neutrons are present in the nucleus.

Atomic mass number = + is the total number of nucleons in the

nucleus.

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 28

Nuclides, isotopes and marking conventions
Each combination of and (specifying ) uniquely identifies a
nuclide.
Nuclides are identified by their chemical symbol, which specifies ,
and atomic mass number as a superscript:
1H for ordinary hydrogen, with one proton as the nucleus
2H for heavy hydrogen or deuterium, with one proton and one
neutron in the nucleus
14C for carbon that has six protons ( = 6, making it carbon) and
eight neutrons ( ) in the nucleus. This nuclide is unstable.

Nuclides with same atomic number but varying neutron number

are called isotopes.
Sometimes the is also written out: the most common isotope of
uranium is uranium-238, 238U92
An easy-to-write format for isotopes is U-238 (Symbol - Atomic mass
number)

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 29

What makes isotopes so interesting

Isotopes of an element are chemically similar, but nuclear physics of
different isotopes of the same element is completely different

Ordinary hydrogen, H-1 Deuterium, H-2 Tritium, H-3

Stable Stable Unstable
Absorbs neutrons Almost no absorption
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 30
Relative abundance of some naturally
occurring isotopes

[Lamarsh & Baratta, App II] y = years, m = minutes.

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 31

Nuclear stability
The more protons in the nucleus,
the higher mutual repulsion
Heavier nuclei need
more neutrons per proton
to remain stable
Light nuclei are stable when
~
Heavier nuclei are stable when
~ 1.5
The heaviest nuclei are all unstable

This can be illustrated on a nuclide chart, by placing stable and

unstable nuclei on coordinate system formed by the neutron
number and atomic (proton) number
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 32
Radioactive decay

Unstable nuclei can decay by three major mechanisms:

alpha radiation = emission of helium nuclei, He-4: two
protons, two neutrons
beta radiation =
emission of an electron (and an antineutrino), when a
neutron transforms to a proton
emission of a positron (and a neutrino), when a proton
transforms to a neutron
gamma radiation = emission of electromagnetic radiation

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 33

Alpha decay
Emission of a 4He nucleus

Most alpha emitters are heavy nuclei,

with = + > 200

As a consequence, the element drops to two lower

position,
, 2, 2
4

238 234
E.g. uranium-238: 92U 90Th + 42He
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 34
Alpha spectrum is a peak spectrum

Alpha-emitting nuclei emit particles at definite, specific

energies, dictated by the differences of energy levels in the
nucleus.
E.g. Alpha particle energies of radium-226

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 35

Beta (minus) decay

Typical decay mode for nuclei with excess neutrons, e.g.
fission fragments
Converts a neutron to a proton, changing the element
(determined by ) to one higher:
, + 1, 1;

19
O 19F +
The opposite reaction, beta-plus decay, occurs in neutron-
poor nuclides, changing 1 , + 1. This
transition can also occur via electron capture, where a
proton in the nucleus absorbs an inner electron from the
electron cloud of the atom, becoming a neutron.

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 36

Beta spectrum is continuous

Beta energies range from 10 keV to MeVs.

Qualitatively, the beta spectrum is like this:

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 37

Gamma decay

Emission of electromagnetic energy,

due to transition from higher to lower
excitation in the nucleus

The and do not change, so strictly speaking,

gamma radiation does not involve decay of the
nucleus. Its identity does not change.

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 38

Alpha and beta are always associated with
gamma
Alpha and beta decay mode leave the daughter nucleus in an excited
state, which is the subsequently relaxed by gamma emission.

E.G. cobalt-60, a radiologically important nuclide, decays into nickel-60

by beta and gamma emission.

Note how first the cobalt

decays by beta emission into
excited nickel, and then
the excitations are released
as gamma rays

Such figures are called

decay schemes.
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 39

Decay chains
Frequently, the daughter of one decay event is itself
unstable, and undergoes further decay:

20 20
O F 20Ne (stable)

Such sequences are called decay chains.

The decay chain of U-238 has 14 steps, ending with stable
Pb-206

https://www-
nds.iaea.org/relnsd/vcharthtml/VChartHTML.html

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 40

U-238 decay chain

[Reuss, Fig. 2.7]

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 41

Size of the atom and the nucleus

Average radius of the electron orbits in most atoms is ~2 1010 m
(0.2 nm) heavier atoms have denser electron clouds

Radius of the nucleus depends on the atomic mass number .

Experimentally it has been found that the nuclear radius is about
= 1.25 1/3
where is in femtometers (1 1015 meters) and , the number of
nucleons, is unitless.
Volume of the nucleus is proportional to the cube of the radius, thus
~ 3 ~
Consequently, the number of nucleons / is constant for all nuclei.
Thus the density of nuclear matter is same for all nuclei, suggesting
that nuclei behave like liquid droplets.
Liquid drop model can explain many nuclear phenomena, in particular
fission.
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 42
Atomic and molecular masses (weights)

In nuclear engineering calculations, we frequently need to

count atoms (or atoms per volume) in a sample or system.
To simplify this, a dedicated unit, the mole, has been defined
such that one mole contains = . atoms.
This number is called the Avogadros number; it is a very
important constant.
is the number of atoms in exactly 12 g of neutral
carbon-12
Can be used as a dimensional constant:
= 0.6022045 1024 (atoms)/mol = 0.6022045 1024
1/mol
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 43

Atomic and molecular masses (weights)

The mass of one mole of atoms in grams (g) is given by its atomic
mass (weight).
Thus atomic masses can be used with units g/mol (gram-
mole in older literature)
Atomic masses have been tabulated for all known isotopes.
An alternative unit of atomic weights is the atomic mass unit, u
(earlier amu)
12
12
1 = 1 =
1
0.6022045 1024

24

= 1.66057 10

Mass is energy, 1 u = 931 MeV
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 44
This completes the lesson

We have discussed
what nuclear energy is
structure and size of the atom
nuclear stability, radioactive decay
how to calculate atomic and molecular masses

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 45

Additional material
Lectures 1-2
 47
BH30A0201 NRD A2017

BH30A0201
Nuclear Reactor Design
Lectures 3-4, Autumn 2017

Prof. Juhani Hyvrinen

 Course contents, 1st period
Lecture/ week Substance
1-4 / 36 What is nuclear energy. Nuclear engineering. Radioactivity.
Atomic and nuclear physics. Nuclear reactions, binding energy.
5-8 / 37 Reaction energetics. Nuclear models, Atom density. Interaction of
radiation (neutrons) with matter. Reaction rate.
Attenuation. Neutron flux. Cross section data. Neutron slowing down.
9-12 / 38 Nuclear fission, Decay heat. Charged particle interaction with matter. Two
paths to a critical reactor. Multiplication factor.
13-16 / 39 Criticality of an infinite reactor: four-factor formula. Reactor dynamics
without and with delayed neutrons. Reactivity.
Diffusion theory
17-20 / 40 Diffusion equation and its basic solutions.
One-group theory: criticality condition. Basic geometries.
21-24 / 41 Thermal reactor parameters and power distribution example.
Multi-group and Modified one-group theory.
25-28 / 42 Seminar presentations
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 49

Course contents, 2nd period (preliminary plan)

Lectures / week Substance
29-30 / 44 Reflected reactors.
31-32 / 45 Heterogeneous reactors.
33-36 / 46 Heat removal from nuclear reactor: conduction, convection, boiling.
Axial temperature distribution in cooling channel.
Core and fuel dimensional optimisation.
37-38 / 47 The Pressurised Water Reactor (PWR).
39-40 / 48 The Boiling Water Reactor (BWR).
41-42 / 49 Channel reactors, CANDU and RBMK.
43-44 / 50 Fast reactors. Breeding and actinide burning.

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 50

 Atomic and Nuclear physics
Mass = energy
Decay calculations
Nuclear reactions
Binding energy

Mass is energy, energy is mass

The special theory of relativity states that mass and energy are
related by
= 2
where c is the speed of light. Thus 1 kg of mass any mass
equals
= 1 kg 2.9979 108 m s 2 = 89.87 1015 J 90 PJ

This is 25 million MWhs (25 TWhs).

A nuclear reactor releases nuclear energy (mass) as heat. The
power plant converts the heat to electricity at an efficiency
between 32..37 %
Hence 1 kg of mass converted equals 25 TWhs of heat and
about 9 TWh of electricity, the annual output of a ~1200 MWe
Light Water Reactor plant.
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 52
Mass is energy, energy is mass

Normally, nuclear engineers do not encounter other

relativistic phenomena.

Typical neutron released from fission travels at 2 107 m/s

which is well below the speed of light, 3 108 m/s.

Electrons from beta decay may be fast enough to

experience relativistic effects (mass increase).

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 53

The electron volt

An energy unit, defined as the change in
kinetic energy of an electron when it is
accelerated by a potential of one volt:
1 eV = 1 V 1.6 1019 C = 1.6 1019 J

Often occurring multiples are the

keV (1 000 eV) and
MeV (1 000 000 eV)

Atomic mass
1 u = 931 MeV

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 54

Useful orders of magnitude to remember

Thermal energy at room temperature (~300 K) 0.025 eV

Binding energies of outer electrons in atoms 1..10 eV

Binding energies of inner electrons up to ~100
keV

Average kinetic energy of neutrons from fission 2 MeV

Binding energies of nucleons in the nucleus ~5-8 MeV

Particle energies achievable in large accelerators GeV to TeV

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 55

Excited states and radiation

Electrons of an atom can occupy only definite
energy levels, specific to each element (isotope).
The lowest energy level is the ground state.
If a neutral atom has an unoccupied position
on an energy level, the atom is excited.
When an outer electron drops to the
unoccupied position, the potential energy
difference between the levels is released as
a photon (electromagnetic radiation)
Similarly, a photon at the right energy can
pull an electron up from a lower to a higher
level, thus exciting the atom
Excited states do not last forever, but decay Electron energy levels
to the ground state, emitting a photon. of the hydrogen atom.
Electron shell energies range from visible light Note the unit (eV)
through ultraviolet to x-rays. (not to scale)
[Lamarsh & Baratta]
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 56
Excited states of the nucleus
The nuclear structure is not as well
understood as the electron cloud structure
of the atom.
Liquid drop model can be used to
explain some phenomena
A shell model to explain other
phenomena

Atomic nuclei (except the few lightest Energy levels of

ones) have excited states, and transition the carbon-12
between these states results in nucleus. Note
electromagnetic radiation in the gamma- the unit (MeV)
ray (-ray) range, due to the big
[Lamarsh and
differences (MeVs) of the state energies.
Baratta]

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 57

More excited states in the nucleus

Carbon-12:
6 protons
6 neutrons

The different ways of arranging nucleons results in different energy levels

(states) in the nucleus. Lowest level is the ground state, higher levels are
excited states.
Photon absorption (bringing energy) to the nucleus can move a proton or a
neutron up the ladder;
Dropping a nucleon from higher to lower level will release a -ray photon.
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 58
 Radioactive decay
Unstable nuclei can decay by three mechanisms:
alpha radiation = emission of helium nuclei, He-4: two
protons, two neutrons
beta radiation =
emission of an electron (and an antineutrino), when a
neutron transforms to a proton
emission of a positron (and a neutrino), when a proton
transforms to a neutron
gamma radiation = emission of electromagnetic radiation

The most likely mode depends on where the nuclide resides on

the chart; unstable nuclei transform towards stability

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 59

Proton number

The nuclide chart

Stable nuclide

Unstable nuclide

n(out) n(in)

2.8

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 60

Neutron number
 Atomic and Nuclear physics
Mass = energy
Decay calculations
Nuclear reactions
Binding energy

Radioactive decay

It has been observed that the rate of radioactive decay

[1/s] is constant:
1
= =

Integrating this, and assuming that at 0 = 0 there is 0
atoms present,

= ln ln 0 = 0 = 0

This is the well known exponential decay law. Formally,
represents number of atoms, but it can be thought of as
moles or mass just as well.
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 62
Activity

The activity of the sample is (negative) the rate of decay,

= = = 0 = 0

The unit of activity is becquerel (Bq), one decay per second
(1/s).
An old unit curie (Ci), 3.7 1010 decays/second may also
be encountered.

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 63

Half-life
The time that it takes for half of the
sample to decay is called the half-
life (1/2 ) of the nuclide in question.
1 2
0 = 0 1/2 1/2 =
2

Sometimes it may be convenient to

couch the decay law in half life-
terms:
1/2
1
= 0
2

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 64

Production and decay
In nuclear reactors, radioactive material is being produced
at a rate that is often proportional to the reactor power.
The balance equation for such material is
Rate of change of = Production Decay

=

( given in units of per second). Assuming that =
constant, this equation is solved by separating variables:

=

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 65

Production and decay

Initial conditions should be applied right away:


=
0 0

The integral of 0
= 0
for constant is calculated
as follows:
1
Rules of differentiation: ln = , thus

1
= ln

1 1 1 1
Rules of integration = = ln ;

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 66

Production and decay continued

Thus 0
=
becomes
0
1 1
=
0
Rearranging terms,

=
0
Exponentiating and rearranging again
1
= 0 = 1 + 0

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 67

Important properties of decay under

production
The general solution
1
= 0 = 1 + 0

has several interesting features:
1. the maximum amount (activity ) is independent of the initial amount

and will be obtained when t ; this equilibrium amount is =

2. the equilibrium is quickly reached if the half-life is very short (large )
3. if the half-life is very long, the decay constant is very small, and the
exponential can be approximated using the series expansion =
1 +

= + 0 1

= = + 0 1
i.e. both the decay and production proceed linearly.
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 68
Activity of a decaying isotope that is being
produced at a constant rate T << t 1/2
>> 1
E.g. N-16,
T1/2 =7.2 s
f
y1P/e

=
Activity A1(t)

()

= 1 + 0
Aktiivisuus

= = 1 + 0

Aika t
Time
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 69

Decay chains
Amount and activity of nuclide in the decay chain is
calculated as follows:
Time rate of change of = Rate of production from Rate of decay to

or

= +

where we may assume that decays without being produced, =

,0
Inserting this we get an equation that is best solved by using an integrating
factor + :

+ + + = + ,0 + = + ,0


+ = + ,0 + = + ,0

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 70
Decay chains
Integrating from = 0 at which = ,0 and = ,0 we get, after
some algebra,

= ,0 + ,0

This is the number (density) of atoms in the decay chain.

The same method can be used to obtain time dependence of the of

further atoms in the decay chain (, , ). The expressions do get
longer, though.

The method of integrating factor is useful also for production/decay

problems where the production term depends on time.

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 71

Atomic and Nuclear physics

Mass = energy
Decay calculations
Nuclear reactions
Binding energy
Nuclear reactions
A nuclear reaction takes place when two nuclear particles and interact
to produce two (or more) nuclear particles or gamma-rays and :
+ +
Nuclear reactions obey four conservation laws:
1. Conservation of nucleons. The total number of nucleons (protons and
neutrons) before and after the reaction is constant
2. Conservation of electric charge. The sum of charges of all particles
involved before and after the reaction is the same
3. Conservation of momentum. The total momentum of interacting
particles before and after the reaction is the same
4. Conservation of energy. The energy, including the particle rest-mass
energies, of interacting particles before and after the reaction is the
same.

Conservation of charge and number of nucleons does not imply that

protons and neutrons would be conserved separately.
Conservation of momentum usually requires that there be two (or more)
particles on the right side of the equation.
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 73

Reaction energetics
Energy conservation for reaction
+ +
includes kinetic energies of the particles and their rest-mass energies
2 :
+ + 2 + 2 = + + 2 + 2
Rearranging this,
+ + = + ( + ) 2

The change of kinetic energy of the particles equals the change in the rest
masses. The right hand side can be thought of as a reaction energy :
= + ( + ) 2

if > 0 reaction is exothermic , if < 0 reaction is endothermic.

Nuclear reactions convert mass to kinetic energy or kinetic energy to
mass.

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 74

On nuclear masses
The preceding calculation involved masses of bare nuclei, which
unfortunately are not well known. Tabulated atomic masses are for
neutral atoms, i.e. for nuclei + the necessary electrons.
Luckily, charge conservation requires that the number of electrons be
conserved for all nuclei present. The reaction energy can be written as

= + + ( + ) + + ( + )

and, because
+ = +

electron masses cancel out of the equation tabulated neutral atomic

masses can be used as such.

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 75

Notation for nuclear reactions

The reaction
+ +
is often written with a shorthand notation
(, ) or (, )
where
is the heavier particle, target; often considered as being at rest
is the impacting projectile
(or ) is the heavier of the reaction products
(or ) is the lighter reaction product
For example, the reaction 16O + 16N + 1H
can be written compactly as 16O(, ) 16N

Nitrogen-16, generated out of the oxygen in water, is the biggest single

source of gamma radiation near an operating light water reactor.

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 76

Nuclear reaction example
Complete the following reaction:
14N + ? + 1H
Solution. The atomic number of 14N is 7, that of the neutron is 0. The
sum of the atomic numbers on the left-hand side of the reaction is
therefore 7, and the sum on the right must also be 7. Since = 1 for
hydrogen, it follows that Z of the unknown nuclide is 7 1 = 6 (carbon).
The total number of nucleons on the left is the sum of the atomic mass
numbers namely, 14 + 1 = 15. Since the mass number of 1H is 1, the
carbon isotype formed in this reaction must be 14C. Thus, the reaction
is
14N + 14C + 1H.

Carbon-14 is biologically active and decays with a relatively short half-

life, thus being a significant radiological poison.
All nuclear explosions release a huge number of energetic neutrons. In
atmosphere, the neutrons activate nitrogen according to this reaction.
Atmospheric testing of nuclear explosives were banned already in the
early 1960s largely for this reason.
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 77

Another nuclear reaction

3
H + 2H 4
He + + energy

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 78

Fusion energetics
Bombarding tritium (3H) with deuterons (2H) results in 4He and a neutron.
Compute the reaction energy for this reaction.
The reaction is 3H(, ) 4He

Solution. The value is obtained from the following neutral atomic

masses (in u):

Thus, from Eq. (2.37), the value in u is = 5.030151 5.011269 =

0.018882 u. Since 1 u = 931.502 MeV, = 0.018882 931.502 =
17.588 MeV, which is positive and so this reaction is exothermic.
For instance, when stationary 3H atoms (kinetic energy 0 MeV) are
bombarded by 1-MeV deuterons, the sum of the kinetic energies of the
emergent -particle (4He) and neutron is 0MeV + 1MeV + 17.588MeV =
18.588 MeV.
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 79

Atomic and Nuclear physics

Mass = energy
Decay calculations
Nuclear reactions
Binding energy
Binding energy
A low-energy neutron can combine with a proton to form a deuteron:
+ +
The -ray is emitted at 2.23 MeV; it escapes the reaction site. Hence the
mass of the deuteron is that much less than sum of the proton and neutron
masses. This energy is the binding energy released in the formation of the
deuteron.
The difference between the mass of the nucleus and the sum of the
masses of its constituent nucleons is called the mass defect (massavaje)
All nuclei are a little lighter than the sum of their constituents. The mass
defect for nucleus , having protons and neutron can be calculated
from
= +
but again this must be couched in terms of the tabulated neutral atom
masses, by including the electrons, whence finally
= + + ( + )
= 1H +
BH30A0201 NRD A2017 81

Meaning of binding energy

Binding energy is released when the nucleus forms from its
constituents.
It represents the strength of the bond between the nucleons
Binding energy equals the mass defect
This is why nuclei are lighter than their parts

The total binding energy of the nucleus increases continuously with

atomic mass number . It is the energy required to break up the
nucleus completely.

A convenient measure of the binding energy is the average binding

energy in a given nucleus, /
The higher the binding energy per nucleon, the more stable the
nucleus is (the deeper the nucleons sit).

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 82

Binding energy per nucleon, /, plot

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 83

Some interesting binding energies per

nucleon
Binding energy for + pair (the deuteron):
( 2H) = ( 1H) + ( 2H)
= 1.007825 u + 1.008665 u 2.014102 u = 0.002388 u = 2.224 MeV
divided by 2 nucleons, / = 1.112 MeV/n

Binding energy for the 4He nucleus (the alpha particle)

4He = 2 1H + 2 (4He)
= 2 1.007825 u + 2 1.008665 u 4.002603 u = 0.03038 u
= 28.3 MeV
divided by 4 nucleons, / = 7.074 MeV/n

In other words, two protons and two neutrons bind together 6.4 times
more tightly than as single proton ties to a single neutron. This explains
why heavy nuclei may decay via alpha emission, but not deuteron
emission.

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 84

Reaction energies in terms of binding
energy
Binding energy in units of mass equals the mass defect :
= 1H +
For nucleus
= 1H +
from which the mass of is
= 1H + ()
Similarly,
= 1H + ()
and so on for and . Substituting these masses to the equation
= + ( + ) 2
and cancelling the hydrogen and neutron masses due to charge and
neutron number conservation, we get finally
= [() + ()] [() + ()].

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 85

Reaction energetics again

The reaction energy = [() + ()] [() + ()]
is positive if the combined binding energy of the products (, ) is
higher than the combined binding energy of the input nuclei
(, ).
Energy is released when less tightly bound nuclei combine to
form more tightly bound (stable) nuclei

From the plot, it is obvious that two possibilities of increasing the

binding energy exist:
Combine two light nuclei to form one heavier nucleus
(+abandon some particles) - fusion
Split up a very heavy nucleus into two medium nuclei - fission

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 86

Binding energy per nucleon, /, plot

Fusion reactions
of light nuclei
release energy

Fission reactions
The tightest
of heavy nuclei
bound nuclei are
release energy
iron and nickel at
~ 56

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 87

Examples of reaction energies: D-D fusion

For example, two deuterons ( = 2.23 MeV) can combine
to form a tritium ( = 8.48 MeV) and hydrogen ( = 0):
2H + 2H 3H + 1H
+ energy

The binding energy gain in this case is 8.48 MeV 2

2.23 MeV = 4.02 MeV, and will be manifested as the kinetic
energy of the products.

This is another example of an energy producing fusion

reaction. The DT-reaction shown earlier, with ~17.6 MeV,
is the most energetic fusion reaction.

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 88

Examples of reaction energies: uranium
fission
From the chart, the binding energy per nucleon of U-235 is
7,59 MeV, whereas for nuclei half the uranium mass,
around = 118, ~8,5 MeV.
Splitting an uranium atom in two thus releases
235 (8.5 7.59) MeV = 211 MeV

Per nucleon, fusion peaks at 17.6 MeV / 5 nucleons

~ 3.5 MeV/nucleon;
Fission yields ~211 MeV / 236 nucleons ~ 0.9 MeV/nucleon
(25 % of fusion)

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 89

This completes the lesson

We have discussed
Radioactive decay calculations
Nuclear reactions, reaction energetics
Binding energy calculation

BH30A0201 NRD A2017 90

Thank you!