ES. _ Ran) SaaSStrategies ix Creative Problem Solving H. Scott Fogler College of Engineering University of Michigan Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109-2136 Steven E. LeBlanc College of Engineering University of Toledo Toledo, Ohio 43606-3390 Prentice Hall PTR Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey 07632Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Fogler H, Seow. Scategies for Creative Problem Solving / H. Scott Fopes, Steven E. LeBlanc pom, Includes index. ISBN 0-13-179318-7, 1. Problem Solving, 2-Creative thinking, 1. LeBlanc, Steven E, IL. Tide BRA9.F7 1994 9426267 153.4°3—de20 cp Eeditorial/Production Supervision: Lisa larkowski Acquisitions Edivor: Mike Hays ‘Manufacturing Manager: Alexis R. Heydt Cover Design: Doug Delwca © 1995 Prentice Hall PTR Prentice-Hall, Inc. ‘A Paramount Communications Company Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be repeal inay fom or by any mca ou ‘permission in writing from the publisher. Jolly Green Giants a rogitered ademak of Green Giant Co, The Pilsbury Co Pere Jouer is trademak of Seagrars Chateau 8 Estate Waites Ca, Pose It Notes isa registered ademark of 3M Corporation Pionary ira registered ademark of Wescen Publishing Co, Inc. (Alia of Mate, Inc) Shockblockes i repbteredrademak of U.S- Shoe Corporation Snickers, Milly Wayr Mar Bar are relied rademal of MeM/Mats, In. Hench Baris a regntred trademark Lat Ine ‘The Pankin Dey Manner a epotered raderak of Franklin Quest Co, Coors isa registered trademark of Adolph Coors Co, ‘Tae publi fs dnunson his ook when odd in bulk unites Corporate Sales Department PTR Pence Hall” 113 Sylvan Avenue Englewood Clif, NJ 07632 Phone 201-392-2863 FAX. 201-592-2249, Printed in the United States of America 1098765432 0-13-179318.7, Hall International (UX) Limited, London c-Hall of Australia Pry. Limited, Sydney Prentice-Hall of Canada, Ine, Toronco Prentice-Hall Hispanoamericana S.A., Mexico Frenie Hal of India Private Limited, New Deh Prentice-Hall of Japan, Inc., To Sloun Sas Aa Pe Lal Singapore Ecditora Prentice-Hall do Brasil, Lid, Ro de JaneizoTABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE CHAPTER 1 Problem-Solving Strategies-Why Bother? 1.1 What's the Real Problem? 1.2. Right Problem/Wrong Solution. Summary .. References .... Further Reading Exercises CHAPTER 2. Getting Started . 2.1, Getting in the Right Frame of Mind. 2.2. Taking Risks... 2.3. Looking for Paradigm Shit 2.4 Having a Vision 2.5. Using A Heuristi 2.6 Fostering Creativity. 2.7 Interacting Creatively 2.8 Working Together in Teams Closure Summary References Further Reading . Exercises... CHAPTER 3. Problem Definition .. 3.1 The First Four Steps .. 3.2. Defining The Real Problem 3.2A Finding Out Where the Problem Came From 3.2B Exploring the Problem ; 3.2C Using the Present State/Desired State Technique 3.2D_ The Duncker Diagram 3.2E Using the Statement-Restatement Technique 3.2F Evaluating the Problem Definition ... 3.3. The Next Four Steps.. Summary References Further Reading Exercises... iitCHAPTER 4 Contents Generating Solution: 4.1 Recognizing Mental Blocks .. 4.2. Blockbusting . 4.3. Brainstorming 4.3A Osborn’s Checklist. 4.3B_ Random Stimulation 4.3C_ Other People’s Views 43D Futuring.. 4.4 Organizing Brainstorming Ideas ‘The Fishbone Diagram . 4.5. Brainwriting ... 4.6 Analogy and Cross-Fertilization 4.7 Incubating Ideas Closure. Summary . References Further Reading .. Exercise: CHAPTER 5 Deciding the Course of Action 5.1 Situation Analysis 5.1A Evaluation Criteria. 5.1B The Pareto Analysis and Diagram .. 5.2. K.T. Problem Analysis and Troubleshooting 5.3, Decision Analysis 5.3A Cautions ....0 3B Missing Information .. 5.3C__Is the Decision Ethical? 5.4 Potential Problem Analysis ... Summary . References Further Reading .. Exercises. CHAPTER 6 Implementing the Solution 6.1 Approval. 6.2 Planning... 62A. Allocation of Time and Resources 6.2A.1 Gantt Chart.. 6.2B Coordination and Deployment 6.2C Critical Path . 6.2D Necessary Resources .Contents CHAPTER 6 (Cont'd) 6.3. Carry Through Revealing the Solution . 6.4 Follow Up.. 6.5 Problem Statements That Change with Time. 6.6 Experimental Projects .. 6.6A Do You Really Need the Experiments 6.6B Define the Objectives of the Experiment 6.6C Choose the Responses You Want to Measure 6.6D_ Identify the Important Variables 6.6E Design the Experiment Types of Errors ... The Minimum Number of Experiments 6.6F Performing the Experiment: How Many Times? 6.6G Analyze the Results .. 66H Report Closure. Summary References Further Reading Exercises. CHAPTER 7 Evaluation ... 7.1 General Guidelines 7.2. Ethical Considerations . 7.3 Safety Considerations Summary ...... References Further Reading Exercises CHAPTER 8 Putting It All Together... 8.1 Case Study: Meet Me at the Mall 8.2. Case Study: The Silver Bullet .. Closure Appendix 1 . Appendix 2 . INDEX .PREFACE The purpose of this book is to help problem solvers improve their street smarts. We know that every individual possesses creative skills of one type or another, and that these skills can be sharpened if they are exercised regularly. This book provides a framework to hone and polish these creative problem-solving skills. Strategies for Creative Problem Solving is for students, new graduates, practitioners, or anyone who wants to increase their problem-solving skills. After studying this book, the reader will be able to encounter an ill-defined problem, identify the real problem, effectively explore the constraints, plan a robust approach, carry it through to a viable solution, and then evaluate what has been accomplished. 42. The skills to achieve these goals will be developed by examining the components of a problem-solving algorithm and studying a series of graduated exercises to familiarize, reinforce, challenge, and stretch the reader’ s creativity in the problem- solving process. In order to cut through the maze of obstacles blocking the pathway to the solution to the problem, we need skills analogous toa pair of scissors with two special blades. EE @ KNOWLEDGE ——>— One of the shears is made of the knowledge necessary to understand the problem and to develop technically feasible solutions. However, no cutting can be done to solve problems of invention with just one shear. The other shear contains creativity that can generate new and innovative ideas. Creativity alone will not generate solutions that are necessarily technically feasible, and again no cutting can be done. Creativity along with a strong technical foundation, however, allows us to cut through the problem to obtain original solutions. Over the past five years, we have researched problem-solving techniques used in industry. Teams of students and faculty have visited a number of companies (see acknowledgments) to study problem-solving strategies. We also carried out an extensive survey of new employees, experienced engineers, and managers in industry to collect information on the problem-solving process. AS a result of our research, we know you can be a better problem solver. ‘A number of the engineers and managers provided examples of industrial problems that were incorrectly defined. These examples of ill-defined problems highlight the need to define the real problem as opposed to the perceived problem. viPREFACE vii We believe that if a problem-solving heuristic had been applied to some of these problems in the first place, the true problem would have been uncovered more rapidly. A problem-solving heuristic is a systematic approach to problem solving that helps guide us through the solution process and generate alternative solution pathways. The heuristic in this book is quite robust and therefore applicable to many types of problems. However, we are not advocating the methods illustrated here as the only heuristic available; they are not. The problem-solving techniques presented in this book do, however, provide an organized, logical approach to generating more creative solutions. The book is designed to lead the reader through the problem-solving process. Chapter | illustrates the need for an organized method of solving problems. Chapter 2 discusses the importance of approaching the problem with a positive attitude, the need for risk taking in the problem-solving process, and gives an overview of the heuristic (i.e., systematic approach). Subsequent chapters move step-by-step through the heuristic, shown below, to increase the reader’ s problem- solving street smarts. Chapter 7 Chapter 6 Decide the Course of Action Chapter 4 Generate Solutions £ 1 2 Yj ee Define the Problem G The Five Building Blocks of the Heuristic Chapter 5 ABOUT THE SOFTWARE Interactive software that reinforces the concepts developed in the text is available for use on IBM compatible computers. The software has been sentto every engineering college in the United States, contact your dean for more information. Individual copies may may be obtained for a nominal charge by writing P.S. Interactive Software, clo Professor H. S. Fogler, 3168 H. H. Dow Building, 2300 Hayward, Ann Arbor, Michigan, 48109-2136. FAX: 313-763-0459viii PREFACE Eleven interactive modules are available to supplement and reinforce material in the text. The modules are: * CONCENTRATION (Ch. 1 & 2) - An interactive puzzle/game that stresses the foundations of problem solving helps students learn the concepts. + EXPLORE (Ch. 3) - This module reviews and exercises problem definition techniques as the student chooses the membrane for a heart-lung machine. + DUNCKER (Ch. 3) - The student sharpens his/her problem definition skills by working on one of three scenarios involving vague problem statements. + BRAINSTORMING (Ch. 4) - This module leads the student through a variety of brainstorming and blockbusting techniques. * SITUATION (Ch. 5) - The student analyzes a scenario based on the explosion of a gas truck to appraise a situation with many simultaneous problems. + PROBLEM (Ch. 5) - Acting as a paint engineer, the student tries to determine the source of paint defects that are occuring as cars leave the assembly line. * DECISION (Ch. 5) - As the interviewer of several job applicants, the student is guided through the decision analysis process. + POTENTIAL PROBLEM (Ch. 5) - Based on the 1992 World Solar Car Race, this module exercises one’s ability to recognize and deal with potential problems. + PLANNING (Ch. 6) - This module helps the student practice implementation of a problem solution using a student bridge building competition scenario. + EVALUATION (Ch. 7) - As an employee in a paper mill, the student is asked to evaluate a proposed plant expansion. + ETHICS (Ch. 7) - Ethical considerations are stressed in this module that finds the student as an engineer in a chemical company with an environmental problem. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This book had its origins in The Commission on Undergraduate Education formed by Charles M. Vest, Dean of the College of Engineering at the University of Michigan. This commission's charge was to point the directions for engineering education for thenext decade. It was during the workings of this commission that the need to focus on the development of students’ problem-solving and creative skills was required more than ever before because of the increased global competition. To carry out the necessary research and data collection to develop strategies and materialsto fulfill this need, a proposal was submitted to, and funded by, the National Science Foundation. This funding was instrumental in the conception and in the writing of this book. We would like to acknowledge a number of people and organizations who helped make this work possible. We wish to thank the following companies for participating in this project: Amoco Chevron Specialty Chemicals Dow Chemical Dow Corning DuPont Eli LillyPREFACE ix General Mills KMS Fusion Kraft General Foods Mobil Monsanto Procter & Gamble Shell 3M Upjohn We would also like to thank the following faculty and students at the University of Michigan: S. Bike, R. Curl, C. Kravaris, J. Linderman, P. E. Savage, L. Thompson, and H. Wang; and A.C, Bushman, S, Bushman, J. Camp, P. Chen, D. Korotney, J. Gyenese, and J. Komiski, who helped collect, organize, and polish many of the problems in this book. Corinne Falender helped collect data on industrial problem-solving needsand examples. Michael Szachta participated in the preparation of a number of the figures as well as in the development of some of the industrial examples. A number of undergraduate students helped research and collect a number of the real-life examples used in the book by visiting shops, companies, and local merchants. These students are Chad White, Matthew Gdowski, David Graham, James Piana, Chris Teeley, Margaret Michael, Christina Nusbaum, Jen Casteel, and David Turezyn. Cathy Obeid, Susan Montgomery, Phillip Westmorleland, and Jeff Siirola gave a number of careful readings of the book and offereda number of helpful suggestions. Annette User proof read and corrected the copy edited version of the book, and also gave a final reading of the book, along with Michael Farum, Matthew Gdowski, James Piana, and Christopher Domke. David Zinn provided most of the art work that appears throughout the text. In addition, Dr. Montgomery was a key participant in the development of the interactive software. H.S.F. would also like to thank his colleagues in the Chemical Engineering Department at Imperial College. London, and especially Julia Higgins and Stephen Richardson for their help and encouragement, We are also grateful to Professor Donald Woods for his pioneering work in bringing a structure of problem solving to the chemical and other engineering professions as well as initiating and stimulating the authors’ interest in teaching problem solving, Janet Fogler spent endless hours editing and re-editing the book. Her comments and suggestions were invaluable to us. Last but not least we recognize Ms. Wendy Dansereau who helped prepare the initial versions of the manuscript, and Mrs. Laura Bracken, who typed and retyped what must have seemed like a never-ending succession of revisions as we converged on the final version, Their cheerful dispositions were always appreciated. H.S.F. Ann Arbor, MI Sl Toledo, OH July, 19941 PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES- WHY BOTHER? Everyone is called upon to solve problems every day, from such mundane decisions as what to wear or where to go for lunch, to the much more difficult problems thatare found in school or onthe job. Mostreal-world problems have many possible solutions. The more complex the problem, the more alternative solutions there are. The goal is to pick the best solution. All of us will be better able to achieve this goal if we exercise our problem-solving skills frequently to make them sharper. By understanding and practicing the techniques discussed in this book, the reader will develop problem-solving street smarts and become a much more efficient problem solver. 1.1 WHAT’S THE REAL PROBLEM? ‘THE CASE OF THE HUNGRY GRIZZLY BEAR' OR AN EXERCISE IN DEFINING THE “REAL PROBLEM” A student and his professor are backpacking in Alaska when a grizzly bear starts to chase them from a distance. They both start running, but it’s clear that eventually the bear will catch up with them. The student takes offhis backpack, gets his running shoes out, and starts putting them on. His professor says, “Youcan’ toutrun the bear, even in running shoes!” The student replies, “I don’t need to outrun the bear; only need to outrun you! ‘The student realized that the bear would be satisfied when he caught one person; consequently the student defined the real problem as outrunning the professor rather than the bear. This example illustrates a very important point: problem definition. Problem definition is a common but difficult task because true problems are often disguised ina variety of ways. Ittakesa skillful individual to analyze a situation and extract the real problem from a sea of information. Ill-defined or poorly posed problems can lead novice (and not so novice) engineers down the wrong path to a series of impossible or spurious solutions. Defining the “real problem” is critical to finding a workable solution. Sometimes we can be “tricked” into treating the symptoms instead of solving the root problem. Treating symptoms (e.g., putting a bucket under a leaking roof) can give the satisfaction of a quick-fix, but finding and solving the real problems (i.e., the cause of the leak) are important in order to minimize lost time,2 ProBLeM-SOLvING StRaTEeGiEs—Wiy Borer? Cuap. | money, and effort. Implementing real solutions to real problems requires discipline (and sometimes stubbornness) to avoid being pressured into accepting a less desirable quick-fix solution because of time constraints. The next three pages present a number of real-life examples from case histories showing how easy itis to fall into the trap of defining and solving the wrong, problem. In these examples and the discussion that follows, the perceived problem referstoa problem thought tobe correctly defined butis not. These examples provide evidence of how millions of dollars and thousands of hours can be wasted by poor problem definition and solution. Examples ofili-Defined Problems. Impatient Guests The Situation: Shortly after the upper floors of a high rise hotel had ben renovated to increase the hotel's room capacity, the guests complained that the elevators were too slow. The building manager assembled his assistants. His : “Find a way to speed up the elevators.’ | Aiter calling the elevator company and an independent expert on elevators, it was determined that nothing could be done to speed up the elevators.. Next, the manager's directions were. “Find a location and design a shaft to |. elevator.” An architectural firm was hited to carry out this request. However, | the shaft nor the new elevator were installed because shortly after: hired the real problem was uncovered. The real [problem wasto find a way to take thé guests’ minds off their wait rather than to install more'elevators: The quests: ‘stopped: complaining When’ mirrors. were installed on each floor: in foe thé: elevators.” Leaking Flowmeter | “thenstien: . Flowmeters, ‘such as the ones at iu gatcinecunnee oie the number of gallons of gas delivered to your gas tank, are commonplace in ee Arosa sa installed in a chemical secret 1Sec. 1.1 WHat’s THE REAL PROBLEM? 3 Bargain Prices The Situation: A local merchant on Main Street in Ann Arbor was having difficulty @ health food mix from the rain forest called Rain Forest Crunch, which was. ‘hot selling item in other stores. Part of the attractiveness of Rain Forest Crunch aetiataae indeed from the Brazilian rain Le hlotabamdtiiba sere essctab a ‘gale went to protect the rain forest. The inst @ “Lower the price of theiitem to increase sales.” Bain Forest Crunch sil ‘did inotsell. The manager lowered the price further. Still no sales. After lowering the price two. ‘more times to a level that was well below the competitors’, the item still did not sell. Finally, the manager walked around the store, and studied the display of Rain Forest Crunch. Then the real problem was uncovered. The problem was not the high cost of the item; the real problem was that it was not in a prominent position inthe slore 10 be ousily: Seen'by the customers, Once the item was made more visible, sales pe to soar.* Wherels the Oil? The Situation: Water flooding is a commonly used technique in oil recovery in. which water is injected into @ well, displacing the oil and pushing it out another ‘Nearby well. In many cases, expensive chemicals are injected along with the water to facilitate pushing out the oil. A major oll company was having problems with a Canadian light-oll reservoir where the recovery was turning out to be much lower. Various studies costing hundreds of shounsns oon were carried out. ra 20-year iod aimed at determining haw to get more oil from the reservoit of low oil recovery efficiency but rather one of miscalculation in the estimate. ase Ten nea porieaee oll. In other words, there just wasn't uch oll down: i eee eciats oase a of Ie satan ay ‘rather than how to find ways to improve oil recovery. Price Reduced $4499ProseM-SOLvING StRATEGIES-Wuy BotHer? Cuap. | Making Gasolinefrom Coal The Situation: A few years ago a major oil company was developing a process for the Department of Energy to produce liquid petroleum products from coal in order to reduce our dependence on foreign oil. In this process, solid coal particles were ground up, mixed with solvent and hydrogen, then passed through a furnace heater toa reactor that would convert the coal to gasoline (see figure below). After installation, the process was not operating properly. Excessive amounts of a tar- like carbonaceous material were being deposited on the pipes in the furnace, fouling, and in some cases plugging the pipes. Solid coal Ve >, e Crusher Tarclike depogits To reactor to convert coal into gasoline ‘problem: these tar-like deposits.” A major research program was initiated. After a year and a half of effort was spent on the process, no one solvent proved to be a better solution tothe problem than any other. Perhaps amore general problem statement such as, “Determine why the carbon deposits are forming and how they can be 6liminated" would have revealed the true problem. The real problem was that the particles and solvent were reacting to form a coal-tar-like substance that was building up on the inside of the pipes in the furnace. The problem was solved by increasing the velocity through the furnace pipe, so that the particles and solvent had less time to react in the furnace to form the tar-like deposits. ‘In addition, the high velocity caused the coal particles in the fluid to act as scouring agents on the furnace pipe wall, This velocity increase was accomplished by using a pipe of smaller diameter while maintaining the same total flow rate. After the furnace pipe was changed, no further problems of this nature were experienced.Sec. 1.2 Ricut Progtem/WRoNG SoLuTiON 5 Better Printing Inks The Situation. in 1990 the Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP) initiated a lit it ‘inted in the Unked States : “Develop a program to find beter printing inks” A umber of workshops and panels were convened to work on this problem. After a year and a half of hard work by both government officials and college faculty on the perceived problem, research programs at several universities were chosen to try to develop better printing inks. Just as these programs were to be initiated, BEP withdrew the funds stating they had found that the real problem was not with the inks but with the printing machines. Consequently, the money earmarked for research on inks was diverted to the purchase of new printing machines. By originally defining the wrong problem, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing wasted thousands of hours of effort ‘of government officials and college faculty. Decreasing Profits The Situation: \n the 1980s, a government-operated factory in a developing country was taking material from a refinery and using it to make fertilizer. When the plant was designed and built, the price of the fertilizer was quite high and large profits were expected to be made. Unfortunately, shortly after the plant was in ‘operation, the price of fertilizer dropped, andas'a rea the plant was operating at loss. ‘lose the pal because he price othe far a oe ind we can no inger afford to operate it." However, student engineers investigated the situation as a class project and found the real problem was not the price of fertilizer, but the inefficiency of operation which resulted from a power failure to the plant three to four: times per week. There were enormous costs associated with restarting the plant after each power failure. The plant could still have made a substantial profit if the power failures had been prevented with emergency generators. 1.2 RIGHT PROBLEM/WRONG SOLUTION In this section, we discuss some examples where the real problem has been correctly defined, but the solutions to the problem were woefully inadequate, incorrect, or unnecessary. The persons who made the decisions in the situations described in these examples were all competent, hard-working professionals. However, some essential details that might have prevented the accidents and mistakes were overlooked. Using 20/20 hindsight, consider whether or not the following situations could have been avoided if an organized problem-solving approach had been applied. Profits ($) TimeDOWN Carry out a KTPP, 6 PROBLEM-SOLVING STRATEGIES-WHY BOTHER? Cuap. 1 Dam the Torpedoes or Torpedo the Dam The Arcadian government wanted to increase agricultural production by finding ways to grow crops on waste lands. It was decided to cultivate land in the Pantoon region of southeastern Arcadia, which is very arid. Some wild plants could be seen ‘growing in the soil from time to time, but there was insufficient moisture to grow crops. It was believed that the land could be irrigated and that agricultural food ‘crops could be grown. The Orecha River, which flows naturally from the mountains to the sea, passes through the region. The solution chosen by the Arcadian government was: “Design and build a dam to divert the river water inland to irrigate the land.”A multimillion dollar dam was built and the water diverted. Unfortunately, when the irrigation was achieved, absolutely no new vegetation grew, and even the ‘vegetation that had previously grown on some of the land died. It was then determined that the infertility of the soil occurred because the diverted water dissolved abnormally high concentrations of salts present in the soil, which then entered the plant roots. Little of the vegetation could tolerate the salts at such high concentrations and as a result the vegetation died. A Potential Problem Analysis (Chapter 5) might have prevented this costly experiment.’ Currently efforts are underway to deal with this salinity problem ranging from desalination to the construction of salt ponds. AnUnexpected Twist ‘On June 1, 1974, the Nypro factory in Flixborough, England was destroyed and 28 menwere killed when a vapor cloud of cyclohexane (a flammable chemical) ignited. ‘Three units in the plant, each on a different level, were connected in a series. The middle unit was not operating efficiently. The problem statement was: "Remove and repair the middle unit.’ What followed was a faulty solution to the correct problem statement. When the middle unit was removed for repairs, a bent makeshift replacement pipe was used to connect the first and third units. A slight rise in the pressure and flow rates between the units caused the bent pipe to twist, = producing excessive strain. The pipe then ruptured, causing leakage of the vapor, which subsequently ignited, resulting in the explosion. Unfortunately, the only design consideration for the temporary pipe was a chalk drawing on the plant floor. ‘Seemingly, the ramifications of such a replacement were not thoroughly thought ‘out and certainly no. concern was givento the strain that eventually caused the leak. ‘This example shows the danger of a quick-fix solution that was not well thought out. Using the Kepner-Tregoe® technique of Potential Problem Analysis (KTPPA) might have prevented this disaster.Sec. 1.2 RIGHT PRosLeM/WRONG SOLUTION 7 The Kansas City Hyatt The newly constructed Kansas City Hyatt Regency Hotel opened in 1980. It had three skywalks connecting the bedroom areas with the conference areas on all three levels, The skywalks were 120 feet long and were suspended from the roof. LOWER AY LOBBY QRIGINAL DESIGN SUPPORT BOLT On July 17, 1981, a tea dance was being held in the lobby area, and people were watching from the skywalks and from the lobby below. The lower two skywalks. collapsed, plummeting to the lobby below. Over 70 tons of concrete and girders fell to the ground. There were 114 people killed and hundreds more injured. It did not take long to determine the cause of the accident. In the original design, the top walkway was to be hung from the ceiling by long rods that passed through it and also supported the lower walkway. In this version of the design, each bolt had to support only one walkway. But somewhere between the original design and the actual construction, it was decided to replace each single long rod by two shorter rods. As a result, the bolt under the top walkway had to support not only the upper walkway, but the lower one as well, which doubled the force on the upper bolt. The connection failed when the bolt pulled through the upper walkway, and as a result, both walkways fell. A Potential Problem Analysis (PPA) onthe modified design may have prevented the change from being implemented.8 ProsLeM-SoLvinG StRaTEGIES~Wuy BotHeR? Cxar. 1 ‘What’sthe Disease? On a lighter note, we end with the following true example of Right Problem/Wrong Solution. .At an American Medical Association (AMA) convention a number of years ago, an upper-body X-ray was displayed at the registration desk, The instructions given to the physicians as they registered: “Diagnose the ailment from the X-ray, and place your answer in the contest box near the display” (a correct problem statement). The winner of a valuable prize would be drawn from those who had made the correct diagnosis.. Because of the focus on the upper torso, virtually every known lung disease was suggested by one physician or another. There was no need to hold a drawing from the correct diagnoses Submitted because only one person discovered the true solution: Set a broken left arm.” Nearly all project design failures, such as those above, result from faulty judgments rather than faulty calculations. The goal of this book is to structure the process of defining and solving real problems in a way that will be useful in everyday life, both on and off the job. We shall achieve this goal by providing a structure to the problem-solving process called a heuristic. A problem -solving heuristic is a systematic approach that helps guide us through the solution process and generate alternative solution pathways. While a heuristic cannot prevent people from making errors, it provides a uniform, systematic approach to deal with any problem. In Chapter 2, we will continue discussing the use of a problem-solving heuristic. SUMMARY Why bother with using a problem-solving strategy? This chapter presented a number of factual case histories that illustrate what happens when the real problem isn’t defined or there is no organized approach to problem solving. In the chapters that follow, we will present a heuristic and a number of techniques that can greatly enhance the chances of defining and solving the real problem as opposed to the perceived problem and to identify potential problems during the design process. REFERENCES Prof. John Falconer, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80302. Adapted from Chemtech, 22, |, p. 24, 1992. Dr. R.G, McNally, Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI 48667. Margaret Michael, University of Michigan, April 1993, Dr. Mark Hoefner, Mobil Research and Development Corp., Dallas, TX. 75387, Prof. Antonio Garcia, Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ 85287-6006. . True life example; only the country and other names have been changed. nm aVEeDpeCuap. 1 EXERCISES 9 8. Kepner, C.H., and B.B. Tregoe, The New Rational Manager, Princeton Research Press, Princeton, NJ, 1981. 9. Prof, Brymer Williams, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109. FURTHER READING Copulsky, William, “Stories from the Front,” Chemtech, 22, p. 154, 1992. More anecdotal cases of histories of ill-defined situations and solutions. EXERCISES 1. Keep a journal of the ideas that speak to you as you go through this book. Begin by writing some thoughts below on what types of problems you would like to become more skilled in solving. 2. Collect two or more ill-defined problems similar to the case histories described in this chapter.2. GETTING STARTED 2.1 GETTING IN THE RIGHT FRAME OF MIND Extensive research has been carried out on the differences between effective problem solvers and ineffective problem solvers.'? The most important factors that distinguish between ineffective and effective problem solvers are the attitudes with which they approach the problem, their aggressiveness in the problem-solving process, their concern for accuracy, and the solution procedures they use. For example, effective problem solvers believe that problems can be solved through the use of heuristics and careful persistent analysis, while ineffective problem solvers think, “You either know it or you don’t.” Effective problem solvers become very active in the problem-solving process: They draw figures, make sketches, and ask questions of themselves and others. Ineffective problem solvers don’t seem to understand the level of personal effort needed to solve the problem. Effective problem solvers take great care to understand all the facts and relationships accurately. Ineffective problem solvers make judgments without checking for accuracy. The table below further identifies differences between effective and ineffective problem solvers. By approaching a situation using the characteristic attitudes and actions of an effective problem solver, you will be well on your way to {finding the real problem and generating an outstanding solution. Characteristics of Effective/Inetfective Problem Solvers'” Effective ineffective Believe the problem can be solved. Give up easily. Reread the problem several times. Lie back and hope a solution will occur. Redescribe the problem. Unable to redescribe Ask themselves questions, the problem. Create a mental picture. Draw sketches, write equations. Don’t jump to conclusions. Jump to conclusions. Accuracy: — Check and recheck, Do not check. Solution Procedures: Break the problem into subproblems. Don’t break the problem apart. Start at a point they first understand. Don’t know where to start. Use a few key fundamental concepts Fail to identify key concepts. as building blocks. Use heuristics. Guess. Persevere when stuck. Quit. Use quantitative formulas, descriptions. Do not do so. Keep track of progress. Use no special format. i if you think you can-- ‘you will Ifyou think you can’ ‘you won'tIt would be sad to work very hard to cut a path through a dense jungle only to find out it is the wrong Jungle, “Do not fear mistakes-fear only the absence of creative, constructive responses to those mistakes.” 12 Gerrinc Startep Cuap. 2 People who are effective problem solvers develop mind sets and habits which aid them in dealing with difficult problems. Stephen Covey’s" research on highly effective people revealed that there are certain habits these people practice. The seven habits you should consider developing are shown in the table below. The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People Be Proactive. Take the initiative and make thingshappen. Aggressively seek new ideas and innovations, Don’t let a negative environment affect your behavior and decisions. Work on things that you can do something about. If you make a mistake, acknowledge it and learn from it, Habit 2 Begin with the End in Mind. Know where you are going and make sure all the steps you take are in the right direction. First determine the right things toaccomplish and then how to best accomplish them. Writea personal mission statement describing where you want to go and what you want to be and how to accomplish these things. Habit3 Put First Things First. List your top priorities each day for the upcoming week and schedule time to work on them. Continually review and prioritize your goals, Say NOto doing unimportant tasks, Focus on the important tasks, the ones that will have impact if carefully thought out and planned. ‘Think Win/Win. Win/Win is the frame of mind that seeks mutual benefits for all people involved in solutions and agreements. Identify the key issues and results that would constitute a fully acceptable solution to all. Make all involved in the decision feel good about the decision and committed to a plan of action, Habit 5 Seek First to Understand, Then to Be Understood. Lear as much as you can about the situation. “Listen, listen, listen.” Try to see the problem from the other person's perspective. Be willing to be adaptable in seeking to be understood, Presentthings logically, notemotionally. Be credible, empathetic, and logical. Synergize. Make the whole greater than the sum of its parts. Value the differences in the people you work with. Foster open and honest communication. Help everyone bring out the best in everyone else. Renewal, Renew the four dimensions of your nature: Physical: Exercise, nutrition, stress management. Mental. Reading, thinking, visualizing, planning, writing. Spiritual: Value clarificationand commitment, study and meditation, Social/Emotional: Service, empathy, self-esteem, synergy ‘The upward spiral: Learn, Commit, Do; Learn, Commit, Do; Learn, . . "The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, COPYRIGHT®, 1989 by Covey, Stephen R. Reprinted by permission of Simon & Schuster, Inc., New York.Sec. 2.2 Takine Risks 13 The previous table is meant to give only a thumbnail sketch of the 7 Habits, and the reader is referred to Covey’s number one best-selling book for a more complete discussion, which includes a number of examples that illustrate these habits. 2.2 TAKING RISKS Risks are actions, with little chance of succeeding, that require significant effort, resources, and/or time. However, if they are successful, they will have a major impact. Truly innovative solutions that make a significant difference in your life, organization, and/or community are almost never found without some risk taking. Although we don’t advocate risk taking merely for its own sake, it can be an essential component to really creative solutions. Remember the old adage . .. the greater the risk, the bigger the reward. Arsenio Hall was a successful department store manager. He gave up a “safe” job by taking arisk asa budding comedian. He failed a number of times before hitting it big, but we can safely say the reward was worth the risk! The Dallas Cowboys was for years one of the most successful football franchises and Coach Tom Landry was one of the most respected field generals in the game. He was synonymous with the Dallas Cowboys. However in the late 1980s when the injury- laden Cowboys were having some unsuccessful seasons, the ownership changed. In a surprising move the new owner, Jerry Jones, fired the Dean of footballl coaches, Tom Landry and took a major risk by replacing him with Jimmy Johnson, who was an NFL rookie coach, and his college roommate. Within five years the Cowboys won two Superbowls, compared to only one Superbowl victory in the previous 25 years. There are many similar examples and we should take a lesson from them. Effective problem solvers have developed the proper attitude towards risk raking. HoHoHo Another example of risk taking concerns the logo for Green Giant™ food products. “The Jolly Green Giant’ first appeared as the symbol for Minnesota Valley Canning Company in 1925. However, when the company president proposed putting a green giant onto the label for canned peas, executives argued that it was ridiculous. tohave a giant with green skin: The executives were afraid to take a risk. “Whoever heard of green skin?" Fortunately, the president of the company was willing to take arisk, One could now ask the question “Who hasn’theard of the green giant?” He has appeared more than 450 million times on cans and been heard to say “Ho Ho Ho" more than 16,000 times in over 300 television commercials. (NWA World Traveler, 25, No. 3, p. 20, 1993)“We are ‘making more progress by our failures than by ‘our successes.” John Dunbar in “Dances with Wolves”, 14 Gerrinc Startep Crap. 2 ‘There are some simple activities you can do that will make you become more comfortable with risk taking. For example, + ask a question in a large lecture. + go somewhere you have never gone before, (e.g., visit the Amazon). + try anew sport, (¢.g., skydiving). + join a thespian group + volunteer to be the organizer of a group activity. * take a challenging course outside your area of expertise. + challenge established patterns of doing business in your organization. Remember, to truly be considered risk, an activity must have a chance of anegative outcome. To get in the habit of taking risks, you will need to developa thick skin (i.e. not being too sensitive to criticism). Anytime you take a risk there will most likely be someone out there to criticize it. Whyis Champagne Dry, Charles? Up until the mid 1880s, champagnes were sweet and consumed at the end of a meal in much the same manner as ports and sherries. Charles Perrier was a ‘successful champagne producer in France. In 1837 he began marketing and selling Perrier-Jouét™ Champagne in the United States, and between 1840 and 1870 exported over a million bottles. His success and fortune continued to grow. to the extent that he constructed a $120,000 chateau (1870 dollars) in Epernay, France. The chateau featured six miles.of underground cellars containing eight miflion bottles of champagne. In the mid 1880s, a family friend, John Crocktort, encouraged Perrier-Jouét to produce a dry (i.e., less sweet) champagne, one that would not compete with the after-dinner sherries and ports. Perrier-Joubt considered the idea and thoughtit was interesting. But why should they change? Who would buy it? Though not the leading champagne company in France, they ‘were extremely successful and were concerned that such a change could bring tuination. Nevertheless, they did take ariskand began producing adry champagne, Although it did take a white to catch on, by the early 1890s it was out-selling sweet champagne. By the turn of the century, ne Weak no | champagne were being exported worldwide. Nowadays, virtually all champagnes are dry. wa Waar 25, NO8, p28 1993) : The fear of failure is the greatest inhibitor to risk taking. When you are concerned about taking a risk, outline what the risk is, why it is important, and what would be the worst possible outcome. Next, describe what your options would be, given the worst possible outcome, and how you would deal with the failure. Learning how to deal with failure helps us to break away from the pattern of generating solutions that are “safe,” but less than innovative. Failure accelerates the learning process by generating new information.Src. 2.3 Lookinc ror Parapicm Suirts 15 A course was recently offered in the University of Michigan’s business school called Failure 101.3 The basic premise of the course was to encourage risk taking by teaching the students not to be afraid to fail with the ideas they generated. The course provided many opportunities for students to fail on a number of projects in the marketing area. The class discussed examples of first failures that eventually ¢-gaiiiGim developed into major successful ventures. The first pizza store of Tom Monaghan, owner of Domino’s™ Pizza, went out of business, A glue the 3M company developed didn’t stick well enough and was nearly abandoned until someone used it to develop Post-it™ notes. When the Petrossian brothers, who fled from Russia in 1917, introduced caviar at the Ritz Hotel in Paris, the French made ready use of the nearby spittoons. They were quite discouraged and could well have given up on the idea. Fortunately they persisted and overcame this first rejection, and today Petrossian Caviar is sold throughout France with prices up to $1,000/Ib. If major breakthroughs are to be made, risks will have to be taken. Failures resulting from these risks will occur but should not deter any future risk taking. The knowledge gained from these failures should be used constructively so that the chances of success will be even greater on the next try.* 2.3 LOOKING FOR PARADIGM SHIFTS Joel Barker, in his work Discovering the Future speaks of the concepts of paradigm shifts, paradigm paralysis, and paradigm pioneers.’ A paradigm is a]: Boldly go | model or pattern based on aset of rules that defines boundaries and specifies how to Jeane before.” be successful at and within these boundaries. Success is measured by the problems J Cplin Jean-Lug you solve using these rules. Paradigm shifts can occur instantaneously or they can develop over a period of time. They move us from seeing the world one way to another. When a paradigm shifts, a new model based on a new set of rules replaces the old model. The new rules establish new boundaries and allow solutions to problems previously unsolvable. All practitioners of the old paradigm are returned to “ground zero” and are again on equal footing because the old rules no longer apply. For example, the guidelines (rules) followed by the most successful manufacturer of slide rules became useless by the paradigm shift in computation brought about by the invention of pocket calculators. Barker describes paradigm paralysis a8 someone (or some organization) who is frozen with the idea that what was successful in the past will continue to be successful in the future. Paradigm pioneers ate people who have the courage to escapea paradigm paralysis by breaking existing rules when success is not guaranteed. f They realize that there are no easy roads when traveling in uncharted territory, and &, they cutnew pathways, making itsafe and easy forotherstofollow. Thecharacteristics of a paradigm pioneer are the intuition to recognize a big idea, the courage to move 1 forward in the face of great risk, and the perseverance to bring the idea to fruition” 2 You need to be a paradigm pioneer, not only as you generate alternative solutions to a problem, but also as you look for ways to improve things when no apparent“If you don't know where you --Yogi Berra 16 Gertinc Startep Cuap. 2 problems exist. Additionally, paradigm pioneers should continually be searching for opportunities to initiate a paradigm shift to improve their process, product, organization, etc. Barker uses the example of the Swiss watch industry to make this point about paradigms.° AParadigm Shift In 1968 the Swiss, with a respected history of making fine watches, held approximately 80% of the world market in watch sales. Today, they hold less than 10% of the market because of the emergence of the quartz digital watch. You will be surprised to discover, however, that the Swiss invented the quartz digital watch. ‘A paraaigm shittin wristwatch technology had occurred. The Swiss failed to adopt this new technology because they were caught in a paradigm paralysis: The idea that whatwas successful in the past will continue to be successful in the future. After all, “the digital watch didn’t have a main spring, it didn’t tick; who would buy such awatch?” Consequently, the inventors did not protect their invention with a patent, allowing Seiko of Japan and Texas Instruments (T!) to capitalize on the idea and market it. As a result of this paradigm paralysis, the employment in the Swiss watch industry dropped from about 65,000 to. about 15,000 in a period of alittle over three years. Evenifthe Swiss haddecided to manufacture the digital watch after realizing its success, they would only have been on equal footing with Seiko and TI because of the paradigm shift. That is, all of their vast experience in making watches with gears and mainsprings would have given them absolutely no advantage in manufacturing digital watches. Have you ever heard someone in your organization or business say “This is the way we have always done it. Everything seems to be going along OK, so why should we change what we are doing now?” If you have, you may have found someone caught in paradigm paralysis. If you recognize the symptoms of paradigm paralysis, you will be in a position to cure them by providing a vision and direction for your organization. 2.4 HAVING A VISION Having a vision of the future is being able to see the way things ought to be (as opposed to the way they are now). Italso includes a master plan for reaching this destination. It is imperative to identify a destination that is worthwhile reaching. A vision is essential for those who want to make a difference. George Bernard Shaw said: “Some people see things and say why, I see things that never were and say why not.” Each one of us must look forward and find the voids in our organization, community, and life and try to fill them. We can achieve this by bringing together a coherent powerful vision through listening, reading, talking, and focusing our thoughts to find better ways of doing things. A vision with a master plan also makes day-to-day decisions easier by determining which of the decision choices is the mostSrc. 2.5 Usine a Heuristic 17 consistent with the master plan. We use our ethical and moral values to measure the rightness of our vision. However, vision is not the only thing we need. Vision without action is merely a dream. Action without vision merely passes the time. Vision with action can change the world. To develop a vision, occasionally set aside a block of time (anywhere from a few minutes to several hours) to become introspective and to step back and look at the big picture. Determine what directions your life (or organization) should be taking, what needs to be accomplished, and devise a plan to meet your goals. 2.5 USING A HEURISTIC In Chapter 1 we saw many examples of ill-defined and incorrectly solved problems. How can we avoid the same pitfalls as the people in these examples? The use of a problem-solving heuristic will help prevent many of these mistakes. A heuristic is a procedure that provides aid or direction in the solution of a problem. A heuristic is analogous to a road map. It can tell you where you are, where you want 4 to go, and how to get there. Heuristics, like road maps, may also help you determine % alternative routes to a destination, A complex problem, like a route selection, can be ill-defined, can have many choices, or possibly can have no feasible solution as posed. While there is no unique or preferred way to solve open-ended problems, we believe the use of a heuristic is an effective technique. The heuristic which we will be using is shown below and finds its origins in the McMaster Five-Point Strategy.® ‘The complete McMaster Five-Point Strategy is given in Appendix 1. Decide the Course of Action A Define the Problem Figure 2-1. The Five Building Blocks of the Problem-Solving HeuristicImplement J 18 Gertine Startep Cuap. 2 Building Blocks of the Heuristic As you have seen in Chapter 1, the problem definition phase of the heuristic is very important, In practice, this phase can resurface at any point of the problem- solving process as one finds dead ends or changing criteria or conditions. Six techniques to help you arrive at the correct problem definition will be discussed in Chapter 3. We don’t anticipate that you will use all six techniques all the time. In fact, different people will find some of the techniques more comfortable to use than others and the preferred techniques will vary from person to person. Once you have defined the real problem, itis then important to ask the following questions: Has this problem been solved before? Is it worth solving? What resources (time, money, personnel) are available to obtain a solution? Have you collected all the necessary information by reviewing data, reading the literature, and talking to colleagues and those involved in the problem? After gathering significant information about the problem, you can proceed to the next step in the heuristic, which is to generate alternative solutions (Chapter 4). One of the most popular techniques used in industry to generate ideas is brainstorming. This technique is useful in expanding thinking as to what is possible and what is nor possible. In addition to brainstorming, other methods to facilitate idea generation include analogies and blockbusting. After you generate a number of solution altematives, the next step in the solution process is to decide which alternative to choose (Chapter 5). Here, logic and analysis of each alternative are major factors in reaching a decision. Once the decision is made, you need to plan to ensure its success by identifying things that could go wrong, the causes of each potential problem, the preventive actions that could be taken, and the steps of last resort. Having made the decision and planned for its success, you may now implement the solution (Chapter 6). The first step is to plan the activities you need to do to solve the problem. A number of techniques to allocate time and resources are presented to carry the solution through to successful completion. In the evaluation phase (Chapter 7), you need to look back and make sure all of the criteria in the problem statement were fulfilled and that none of the constraints were violated. Has the problem really been solved, and is the solution the best solution? Is the solution innovative, new and novel, or is it merely an application of principles (which, in some cases, may be alll that’s necessary)? Is the solution ethical, safe, and environmentally responsible? Although evaluation is listed at the end of the heuristic, you should also evaluate the problem solution at various points along the way, especially when major decisions are made or branch points occur.Sec. 2.6 Fosterinc Creativity 19 2.6 FOSTERING CREATIVITY Apple Computer is perceived as being one of the more creative companies of the past decade. John Sculley (former chairman of Apple Computer) discussed the philosophy of maintaining a creative environment for product development.’ Some of the ideas that he suggests for team leaders or managers to foster a creative environment are shown in Table 2-1. TABLE 2-1: Establishing a Creative Environment’ “Don’t give people goals; give them directions (i.e., roughly aim them).” “Encourage contrarian thinking.” Dissent stimulates discussion, prompting others to make more perceptive observations. It ultimately influences decision making for the better. “Build a textured environment to extend not just people's aspirations but their sensibilities.” You can’t buy creativity, you can inspire it. Creative people require an atmosphere conducive to thinking in nonstandard ways. The work environment needs to be informal and relaxed. “Build emotion into the system.” Defensiveness is the bane of all passion-filled creative work, One way to keep defenses down is to encourage problem-finding as well as. problem-solving. The world is moving so fast that problems are being created all the time. The people who can find them have tremendous powers of creative observation. “The safer you make the situation, the higher you can raise the challenge.” The workplace should be safe, so that the workers are not afraid to take risks and make mistakes, but the standards should be set high. “Encourage accountability over responsibility.” Traditional responsibilities, like punching a clock from nine to five, can inhibit creativity. Instead, people are made accountable for the results of their work. “Getting ordinary people to reach beyond themselves and do extraordinary things can be the result of establishing a nurturing creative environment.” To establish this type of atmosphere requires the reconciliation of traditional corporate attitudes with more iconoclastic entrepreneurial attitudes. Ifthis fine line canbe traversed without abandoning the very characteristics that have led to a company’s success in the past, much progress can be made.* Itis essential to set the proper atmosphere for creativity to flourish. One of the ways to do this is being an effective leader who inspires others and leads by example, There are distinct differences between leaders and bosses, as summarized in the following table.20 Gertine Startep Cuap. 2 Characteristics of Leaders and Bosses A Boss... A Leader... demands respect but earns respect is a taskmaster is acoach is critical is encouraging rules by fear guides by example commands inspires makes work a burden makes work fun punishes mistakes rewards success Dora Dodge* effectively sums up these difference in her short poem “The Boss,” which ends with “The boss gets compliance. The leader gets committment.” Everybody needs leaders, but nobody needs a boss. 2.7 INTERACTING CREATIVELY The ideas presented by Sculley for establishing a creative working environment are complemented by Scholtes who discusses the necessity forcreative interactions with all people.° He makes the point that these interactions are essential for quality leadership. The principles of quality leadership stem from the premise that everyone you interact with at your workplace should be treated as a customer whom you must strive to satisfy: The customer may be a neighbor, supervisor, subordinate, co-worker, or an external client. Some of the leadership principles Scholtes specifically identifies are * Customer focus * Continued education and training * Obsession with quality * Unity of purpose Scholtes urges us to listen, listen, and listen again to the customer. Find out what the customer's needs are. Involve the customer in the problem-solving process. Brainstorm possible solutions with the customer. Get input from the customer at each step and make him or her an integral part of the process. Relentlessly pursue the best quality product and/or service. Provide a structure where everyone can continue to learn so they can not only upgrade their skills but also keep at the forefront of their fields. The continual upgrading of one’s skills is especially important in today’s competitive marketplace, because many companies no longer guarantee employment based solely on loyalty and years of service. Rather, companies look at an employee's current skills and how these skills will be useful to the company. Have everyone on your team committed to work together to strive for excellence in everything they do.Sec. 2.8 WorkiNG TOGETHER IN Teams 2 The Keyls Listening to Your Customers Arecent article in the New York Times (reprinted in the Detroit Free Press, p. B1, January 3, 1993) states that a major reason consumers have defected from purchasing automobiles from G.M. is because they compare the key entry system ‘and the key ignition of the G.M. car with that of a Toyota car. The G.M. cars require two keys: one that can be used only for the car door and the trunk while the other one can be used only for the ignition, The idea behind this developmentis that you could allow someone to drive your car without jeopardizing the safety of the trunk’s contents. In addition, the keys would work only if they were inserted right side up. The annoyance of such a system becomes acute when fumbling for the right key and right key alignment while trying to enter. a locked car with a bag full of groceries, or a bundle of packages, which fall to the ground as a result of the fumbling. In the mid-1970s, Toyota introduced a single key that unlocks the door, trunk, and glove compartment and starts the ignition. In addition the key could be inserted with either side up. This innovation was followed by other Japanese auto makers. However, more than 15 years later, G.M. has yet to adopt the idea and is not even considering it, now or in the near future. This paradigm paralysis exists despite research that shows customers prefer a single key. This example is not the only time G.M. has been caught in paradigm paralysis and resisted innovation. Other examples cited were resistance to seat belts, air bags, advanced engines, and transmissions. We believe that the principles and examples brought forth in this book will develop a customer awareness along with a set of problem-solving and decision-making skills that will develop creative responses to customer needs. 2.8 WORKING TOGETHER IN TEAMS Even with a good road map, travelers may arrive at the wrong destination or take an excessive amount of time to get to the correct destination, In a similar way problem solvers may come to the wrong solution or take too much time to obtain a solution. Travelers also have to approach the trip with a positive attitude and draw upon the characteristics of expert travelers who have navigated the road before them. Finally, they need to make sure there is agreement on the route among themselves because conflicts between the travelers can make the trip unpleasant, sometimes with a disastrous outcome. Similarly, problem-solving groups can be much more efficient when they work well together. This chapter concludes with a section of ideas for enhancing group interactions to help the problem-solving process run smoothly. As problems become more complex and interdisciplinary in nature, their solutions will require assembling groups of people with different areas of expertise. Consequently, itis important that the group dynamics of participants build cohesive, supportive, and productive teams. Because of the increasing focus in industry on the team approach to problem solving, many studies have been carried out on group22 Gertinc StarteD — CHap. 2 interactions and how to improve them.!®!? Scholtes identifies ten common problems of team dynamics and some solutions to these problems.’ Table 2-2 is an abbreviated summary. TABLE 2-2: Top Ten Listof Group Problems Problem How to minimize Floundering Make sure the mission is clear and everyone understands what is needed to move forward. . Overbearing Experts Have an agreement among team members that there are no sacred cows and that all team members have the right to explore all areas. Dominating Participants List “balance of participation” as a goal and evaluate regularly, Practice “gate keeping” t0 limit dominant participant. . Reluctant Participants Ask opinions of quiet members and encourage by validation. Require individual assignments and reports. Unquestioned Acceptance of Ask for supporting data and reasoning. Accept Opinion and encourage conflicting ideas. Rush to Accomplishment Confront those doing the rushing and remind them not to compromise the best solution, Make sure a consensus is reached. Attribution of Motives to Reaffirm agreement that the group sticks to the Others scientific approach. Ask for confirmation of data. Discounting or Ignoring Provide training in effective listening. Support Group Member’s Statement the discounted person, Talk off-line with any one who continually discounts other team members, Wanderlust: Digression and Follow an agenda with time estimates. Keep the Tangents topics in full view of the team and direct the conversation back to the topic. Feuding Team Members Focus on ideas, not personalities. Get adversaries to discuss the issues off-line or get them to agree to a standard of behavior during meetings.Cuap.2 Closure 23 For a more complete discussion of ways to further minimize these top ten problems, the reader is referred to Scholtes. Most problem-solving activities will require interaction with other people, either one-on-one or in group meetings. Meetings are essential tools for team problem solving. They should be carefully planned and skillfully run to realize the maximum benefit from them. The abbreviated list of guidelines shown in Table 2-3 will help team meetings be fruitful activities rather than time wasters: ald TABLE 2-3: Howto Run Effective Meetings Atyourfirst meeting, introduce yourselves, and givea little background, Sethe group norms and expectations (¢.g., showing up on time for meetings, responsibilities). + Appoint a leader who will inspire the group to high levels of performance and be an effective listener. Prepare and distribute an agenda prior to meetings and stick to it * State why the group has come together. + Bring all your materials (such as problem statement, group notes, handouts, your work, etc.) to all the meetings. + Keep the discussion focused. + Have someone in charge of keeping the meeting on track. + Appoint a “devil's advocate” to challenge ideas as they arise. + Have someone take minutes to remind participants of decisions made, actions to be taken. * Draft an agenda for the next meeting, identifying what is to be covered and who is responsible for it The importance of meetings and positive group interactions cannot be ‘overemphasized. For the problem-solving process to function smoothly, group members must get along. In many instances, the success of the project will depend upon how well people communicate and interact with one another. CLOSURE This chapter began by emphasizing the importance of approaching the problem with a positive “can do” attitude and striving to develop the traits of expert problem solvers. Next, we discussed the importance of taking risks as you formulate atruly innovative solution. We presented a heuristic which will be our guide or road map through the process of problem solving. The reader may wish to use the heuristic as presented or use it asa basis to develop his orher own heuristic or strategy. Finally, ways of fostering the creativity that can generate these innovative solutions and develop a positive atmosphere were presented, as were ideas for successfully interacting with colleagues as you develop your solution. Meeting Agenda for 89°96 1. Oyen Mesias 2. Approve Minutes 5. Comment from the Chair 4. Commie Reports 5-04 Busines 6 New Basins 7 Set Nex Meeting 8. Adjoun24 Gertinc Startep = Cuap. 2 SUMMARY Practice The characteristics of expert problem solvers. The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People. Don’t be afraid to take the risks necessary to obtain the very best solution. Welcome change and paradigm shifts as opportunities to make inroads and advancements. Look for voids in your organization and try to provide a vision to fill those voids to move the organization forward. Look for ways to use the road map of the five building blocks of the problem-solving heuristic. Develop an atmosphere that encourages and fosters creativity in those you work with. Listen to your customers and work with them as a unit to develop creative solutions, REFERENCES 1. Whimbey, A., and J, Lochhead, Problem Solving and Comprehension; A Short Course in Analytical Reasoning, Franklin Press, Philadelphia, 1980. Wankat, P.C., and FS. Oreoviez, Teaching Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1993. Matsen, J., How to Fail Successfully, Dynamo Publishing Co., Houston, TX, 1990. The Three Little Pigs, Anonymous. Barker, J.A., Discovering the Future, 2nd ed., ILI Press, St, Paul, MN, 1985. Woods, D.R., AIChE Symposium Series, 79 (228), 1983. Sculley, John, Odyssey, Pepsi to Apple...A Journey of Advertising Ideas and the Future, Harper & Row, New York, 1987, Weldon, Joel, Chemtech, 13, p, 517, 1983. 9. Scholtes, Peter R., The Team Handbook, Joiner Associates, Inc., Madison, WI, 1988. 10. Bouton, C., and Y. C. Garth (eds.), Learning in Groups, New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 14, Jossey-Bass Inc., San Francisco, 1983. 11. Millis, B. “Helping Faculty Build Learning Communities through Cooperative Groups,” To Improve the Academy: Resources for Student, Faculty, and Institutional Devleopment, 10, p.43-58, 1990. 12. Berquist, W. H., and S. R. Phillips (eds.), A Handbook for Faculty Development, p. 118-121 Council of Independent Colleges, Washington, DC, 1975, 13. Patton, Robert R., Solving Group Interaction, Harper & Row, New York, 1973. 14, Shaw, Marvin E., Group Dynamics, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1976. roy aen FURTHER READING Gunneson, Alvin, *Communicating Up and Down the Parks,” Chemical Engineering, 98, p. 135, June 1991. Useful tips on how to improve your interactions with those employees above, at the same level, and below you in your organization.Cuap.2 EXERCISES 25 Raudsepp, Eugene, “Profits of the Effective Manager,” Chemical Engineering, 85, p. 141, March 27, 1978. Although it was written 15 years ago, these traits still apply to effective leadership. Phillips, Denise A., and A.E, Ladin Moore, “12 Commandments,” Chemteck, 21, p. 138, March 1991. Rules to help improve your communication skills. Strunk, W., and E. B. White, The Elements of Style, 3rd ed., Macmillan Publishing Co., New York, 1979. A concise treatise on grammar rules and writing style with many examples. Whimbey, A., and J. Lockhead, Problem Solving and Comprehension, A Short Course in Analytical Reasoning, 2nd ed., The Franklin Institute Press, Philadelphia, 1980. VanGundy Jr., Arthur B., Techniques of Structured Problem Solving, 2nd ed., Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1988. Lumsdaine, E., and M. Lumsdaine, Creative Problem Solving, An Introductory Course for Engineering Students, McGraw-Hill Publishing Co., New York, 1990. EXERCISES 1. Make a list of the characteristics of expert problem solvers you would like to improve upon. A. 2. Choose three of the habits of highly effective people and explain how you will practice them during the coming weeks. A. Cc 3. Describe three risks you can take during the coming months that will help to make you more comfortable with risk taking. A26 Gettinc Startep Cuap. 2 Havinga Vision. Look around an organization of which you are a member for things that could be improved upon. Make a list of what is needed to make the organization aneven better and more effective one. A mone Which of the above changes would really alter the way the organization functions? What would need to be accomplished to produce a paradigm shift? How can you be aparadigm pioneer? Identify a group of people with which you frequently interact. Make alist of things you can do to become a better team member and to establish a creative environment, A mon» Write a paragraph discussing your thoughts of Matsen’s Failure 101 Class. Why is it important to learn how to contend with failure?Cuap.2 EXERCISES 27 8. Collect one or more anecdotes (along with appropriate documentation/references) of initial failures that turned into major success stories (e.g., Domino’ s Pizza). 9. You are in a group of four working as a team to define and solve a problem. Describe how you would handle each of the following situations: a. Someone starts to dominate the group discussion and directions. b. Two of the group members are good friends and seem to form a clique. c. One of the group is not carrying their load. 4d. One of the group continually makes mistakes in their part of the project. 10. Prepare a list of specific ideas that would establish a creative environment in your group. AL mon w 11, Develop an agenda for the first meeting of a, your colleagues to write a report for an undergraduate laboratory course. b. the floor of yourresidence hall to inform the new students of the rules, traditions, and other operations of the residence hall ¢. alocal interest group you are to lead. 12. Working in Teams. An instructor requested that students in the class form six-person teams, attempting to maximize diversity and selecting people to work with who were new to them, A team was formed that was composed of two white men, two white women, one African American man, and one Asian-American man. ‘They selected one of the white men as their team leader. During the first and second meetings of this tam, which took place during class time and in the classroom, the instructor noted that the African American man and the white man who was not the team leader sat almost outside the circle formed by the other team participants. Moreover, the white man who was the team leader, and one of the white women, appeared to do all the talking and to make all the suggestions about how to proceed. The other four people on the team looked uninvolved, at least as far as the instructor could observe. Questions: 1. What might be going on in this team? 2. Should the instructor intervene? Why? How? What would you do? 3. How might your own race/ethnicity and gender affect your options and choices about intervention? 4, What preparation, training, or instruction for teamwork might have helped this team? What training or instruction might be helpful to itnow? 5. What preparation or instruction in teamwork dynamics, supervision, or intervention might be helpful to you in this and similar situations? (Adapted from the FAIRTEACH Workshop with the University of Michigan's School of Engineering Faculty, M. L. King, Jr., Day, 1994)28 GertinG StarteD —CHap. 2 13, Match the icon to the proper habit of highly effective people.3 PROBLEM DEFINITION The mere formulation of a problem is far more often essential than its solution, which may be merely a matter of mathematical or experimental skill. To raise new questions, new possibilities, t0 regard old problems from a new angle requires creative imagination and marks real advances in science. - Albert Einstein Often, the most difficult aspect of problem solving is understanding and defining the real problem (sometimes also referred to as the underlying or root problem). In Chapter 1, we presented a number of true examples of incorrectly defined problem statements that demonstrate how competent, conscientious people can define the wrong problem and waste considerable time looking in the wrong direction for a solution. In this chapter we address the first part of the heuristic, problem definition. A study that we conducted of experienced problem solvers in industry revealed some common threads that run through their problem definition techniques. We have classified these common threads into.a number of steps that can help you understand and define the real problem. 3.1 THE FIRST FOUR STEPS The first four steps used by experienced problem solvers to understand and define the real problem are given in Table 3-1. You will observe that the first four steps focus on gathering information. TABLE 3-1: What Experienced Problem Solvers Say 1. Collect and analyze information and data. 2. Talk with people familiar with the problem. 3. Ifat all possible, view the problem first hand. 4. Confirm all findings. Step 1. Collect and analyze information and data, Learn as much as you can about the problem. Write down or list everything you can think of to describe the problem. Until the problem is well defined, anything might be important. Determine what information is missing and what information is extraneous. The information should be properly organized, analyzed and presented. It will then serve as the basis for subsequent decision making. Make a simple sketch or drawing of the situation. Drawings, sketches, graphs of data, ete. can all be excellent communication tools when used correctly, Analyze the data to show trends, errors, and other meaningful information. Display numerical or quantitative 29 Generate = = a =< “Start with an open mind.” Decide Implement Evaluate “Don't jump to conclusions.” “Look at the big picture.” “Review the obvious.”30 Prostem Derinition Cap. 3 data graphically rather than in tabular form. Tables can be difficult to interpret and sometimes misleading. Graphing, on the other hand, is an excellent way to organize and analyze large amounts of data. Methods for plotting data to reveal trends are given in Appendix 2. The Case of the Dead Fish provides an interesting example of the use of graphical data to solve problems. The Case of the Dead Fish Research and information gathering are great tools in problem solving. We consider the case of a chemical plant that discharges waste into a stream that flows into a relatively wide river. Biologists monitored the river as an ecosystem and reported the following data of the number of dead fish in the river and the river level: NUMBER OF DEAD FISH EACH DAY 50 RIVER LEVEL EACH DAY. Upper Limt (Food Stage) 40 River Level 10 Lower Limit 615 71 715 81 BNE Seq ene 7A nN tS Date Date Graphs of the type shown above are called time plots and control charts. A. time plot shows trends over a period of time (e.g., the level of a river over several days or weeks). A control chartis a time plot that also shows the acceptable limits of the quantity being displayed. For example, in the control chart of the river level, the upper and lower acceptable water levels would also be shown. If one of the acceptable limits is exceeded, this occurrence may yield some information about the timing of the problem and possible causes of it. We can then examine time plots of other pertinent quantities and look for additional clues about the problem, From the graphs we see that the acceptable level of dead fish was exceeded on August 1 and 15. We look for anything that might have occurred on or between July 15th and August 1. We discover that on July 29 there was a large amount of chemical waste discharged into the river. Discharges of this size had not caused any problems in the past. Upon checking other factors, we see that there has been little rain and that the water level in the river, measured on August 1, had fallen so Jowit might not have been able to dilute the plant's chemical waste. Consequently, the low water level, coupled with the high volume of waste, could be suggested as a possible cause for the unusually large number of dead fish. However, to verify this, we would have to carry the analysis further. Specifically, we shall soon use ‘one or more of the problem definition techniques discussed later in this chapter.Sec. 3.1 THE First Four Steps 31 Step 2. Talk with people familiar with the problem. Find out who knows about the problem. Ask penetrating questions by * Looking past the obvious * Challenging the basic premise + Asking for clarification when you do not understand something Ask Insightful Our experience shows that seemingly naive questions (often perceived as “dumb” |" Questions questions) can produce profound results by challenging established thinking patterns. This act of challenging must be an ongoing process. ‘You should also talk to other people about the problem. Verbalizing the problem to someone else helps clarify in your own mind just what itis you are trying todo, Try to find out who the experts in the field are and talk to them. Nonexperts are also a rich source of creative solutions, as evidenced by the following example. Seeking Advice Joel Weldon, in his tape “Jet Pilots Don’t Use Rearview Mirrors,” described a problem encountered by a major hotel a number of years ago. Since the hotel had become very popular, the elevators were very busy, and frequently caused backups in the lobby area. The manager and assistant manager were lamenting ‘the problem in the lobby one day and were brainstorming about how to increase the elevator capacity. Adding additional elevator shafts would require removal of a number of rooms and a significant loss of income. The doorman, overhearing their conversation, casually mentioned that it was too bad they couldn't just add an elevator on the outside of the building, so as not to disturb things inside. A great idea! tt occurred to the doorman because he was outside the building much of the time, and that was his frame of reference. Notice, however, that the doorman’s creativity alone was not enough to solve the problem. Knowledge of design techniques was necessary to implement his original idea. A new outside elevator ‘was born, and the rest {s history. External elevators have since become quite popular in major hotels. Information, good ideas, and different perspectives on the problem can come from all levels of the organization. (Chemtech., 13, 9, p..517, 1983) When equipment matfunctions, itis a must to talk to the operators because they know the “personality” of the equipment better than anyone. Most organizations have employees who have “been around a long time” and have a great deal of experience, as illustrated in the following example.32 ProsLem Derinirion = Cuap. 3 GoTalkto George Remember the leaking flowmeter discussed in Chapter 1? The solution that the company adopted was to replace the flowmeter at regular intervals. Let’s consider similar situation in which, immediately upon replacement, the flowmeter began to leak. List in order four people you would talk to. * the person who installed the meter * the technician who monitors the flowmeter the manufacturer's representative who sold you the flowmeter * George Who's George? Every organization has a George. George |s that individual who has years of experience to draw upon and also has street smarts. George is an excellent problem solver who always seems to approach the problem from a different viewpoint~ one that hasn't been thought of by anyone else. Be sure to tap this rich source of knowledge, when you are faced with a problem. Individuals such as George can often provide a unique perspective on the situation. Mor eanney] Step 3. View the problem first hand, Tot just by While it is important to talk to people as a way to understand the problem, looking.” __] you should not rely solely on their interpretations of the situation and problem. If at ~Yogi Berra | 311 possible, go inspect the problem yourself. Viewing the Problem Firsthand In the mid 1970s.a company in the United Kingdom completed a plant to produce a plastic product (PVC). The main piece of equipment was a large reactor with a cooling jacket through which water passed to keep the reactor cool. When the plant was started up, the plastiowas dark, nonuniform, and way off design specifications. The engineers in charge reviewed their design, They reworked and refined their model and calculations. They analyzed the procedure from every point of view on paper. They had the raw material fed to the reactor analyzed. However, they all came up with the same results- that the product should definitely meet the design specifications. Unfortunately, nobody examined the reactor firsthand. Finally after many days, one of the engineers decided to look into the reactor. He found that a valve had been carelessly switched to the wrong position, thereby diverting cooling water away from the reactor so that virtually no cooling took place. As a result the reactor overheated, producing a poor quality product. Once the valves were adjusted properly, a high quality plastic was produced. ~ continued -Sec. 3.1 Te First Four Steps 33 Step 4. Confirm all key findings. Verify that the information that you collected is correct. Cross check and cross reference data, facts, and figures. Search for biases or misrepresentation of facts. Confirm all important pieces of information and spotcheck others. Distinguish between fact and opinion. Challenge assumptions and assertions. Confirm All Allegations The authors of this book were involved in a consulting project for a pulp and paper company_we will call Boxright. Several years ago, Boxright had installed a new process for recovering and recycling their “cooking” chemicals used in the papermaking process. Two years after the installation, the process had yet to operate correctly. Tempers flared and accusations flew back and forth between Boxright and Courtland Construction, the supplier of the recycling equipment. Courtland claimed the problem was that Boxright did not know how to operate the process correctly, while the company contended that the equioment was improperly designed. Boxright finally decided to sue Courtland for breach of equipment performance. Much data and information were presented by both sides to support their arguments. ‘Courtland presented data and information from an article in the engineering fiterature that they claimed proved Boxright was not operating the process correctly. At this point it looked like Courtland had cooked our goose by presenting such data. However, before conceding the case we needed to confirm this claim. We analyzed this key information in detail, and to our glee found in the last few pages of the article it was stated that the data would not be expected to apply to industrial-size equipment or processes. When this information was presented, the lawsuit was settled in favor of the pulp and paper company, Boxright.34 PRroBLeM DerINitioN CHAP. 3 3.2 DEFINING THE REAL PROBLEM The four steps just discussed are all related to gathering information about the problem. This information lays the groundwork that will help us use the problem definition techniques discussed in this chapter. PROBLEM DEFINITION TECHMRUES These techniques are used to help understand the problem so that we may define the real problem as opposed to the perceived problem. The K.T. Problem Analysis will be discussed in Chapter 5 as part of the Kepner-Tregoe Approach. ! 3.2A Finding Out Where the Problem Came From Many times you will be given a problem by someone else rather than discovering it yourself. Under these circumstances, it is very important that you make sure that the problem you were given reflects the true situation. This technique focuses on finding out who initiated the problem and ascertaining the validity of the reasoning used to arrive at the problem statement.Sec. 3.2 DEFINING THE REAL PROBLEM. 35 Find out where the problem statement came from. + Where did the problem originate? * Who posed the problem statement in the first place, your supervisor, his/her supervisor, a colleague in your project group, or someone else? Can that person explain the reasoning as to how they arrived at that particular problem statement? Are the reasoning and assumptions valid? Has that person considered the situation fromanumber of different viewpoints before arriving at the final problem statement? Have you used the first four steps to gather information about the problem? Try to detect any errors in logic as you trace the problem back to its origins. Distinguish opinion from fact and conclusions from evidence. Never assume that the problem statement you were given is correctly worded or has been thoroughly investigated Always check to be sure that the problem statement directs the solution to the truecause and does not seek merely to treat the symptoms. For example, it would certainly be better to find the cause of the off-taste in the hamburgers at a fast food chain rather than treating the symptoms by adding more spices to cover the off-taste. Make certain that time and energy are not wasted merely dealing with the symptoms. Remember The Case of the Dead Fish in the river on p.30? The dead fish example is a case where giving directions to treat the symptoms rather than discovering the real cause of the problem could have lead to a costly, unnecessary solution. Trace the problem back to its origin,Keep digging to learn the motiva- tion (who, why) for issuing the instructions to solve the per- ceived problem. 36 ProsLeM DeriNiTION = CHap. 3 Finding Out Where the Problem Came From The Case of the Dead Fish The Situation: Stan Wilson is an engineer with six bo of Se One ie he The ‘Design anew waste Teaimentplert to ae the toxic waste ton re chemical plant.” Stan and his team are requested to design treatment facilites to reduce the toxic chemical concentrations by a factor of 10. A quick back-of-the- envelope calculation shows that the plant could cost well over a milliondollars. Stan is puzzled because the concentrations of toxic chemicals have always been significantly below governmental regulations and company health specifications. Who posed the problem? Stan approaches his supervisorto lear more about the reasons forthe order. ‘The supervisor informs Stan that it was not his decision, but upper management's. Can reasons for arriving at the problem statement be explained? The supervisor tells Stan it has something to do with the summer drought and ‘anumber of recent articles in the local newspaper about the unusually high number of dead fish that have turned up in the river in the last few weeks. He said that it was his understanding that the drought has brought the river to an extremely low level and that the discharge was no longer sufficiently dilute to be safe to the fish and ‘other aquatic life. Consequently, to deflect the negative press and avoid possible lawsuits, the company has announced the planning of a new waste treatment facility. Are the assumptions and reasoning valid? Thus, Stan realizes that the decision to design and build a waste treatment plant is based on an unusually large number of dead fish in the river, and not Necessarily on the presence of high concentrations of toxic chemicals. The company had decided to try to treat the symptoms (many dead fish) by removing toxic chemicals, thus solving the perceived problem, but not necessarily the true problem (how to prevent the fish from dying). Has sufficient data/intormation been collected? In the Explore Phase, we'll see how Stan initiated his own investigation into ‘the case of the dead fish and eventually found the true cause of the problem.Sec. 3.2. Derininc THE REAL PROBLEM 37 Finding Out Where the Problem Came From SweetandSour The Situation: (which has nothing to do with Chinese food): Natural gas (methane), which contains significant levels of hydrogen sulfide, is called a sour gas, while natural gas that does not contain hydrogen sulfide is called a sweet gas. Sour gas is particularly troublesome because itis extremely corrosive to the pipes. and equipment used to transport it. Tom Anderson was the sour gas piping expert at a major oil company that was drilling an off-shore well in a gas field in the North Sea. Regions near the well being drilled were non to produce sour gas. Tom received a call from the head office. jive problem: “Fly to Copenhagen to begin the tea and installation of a piping system that would transport sour gas from the new well to the platform facility.” Laboratory tests were believed to have been carried out on gas samples from this well and it was assumed that the head office had reviewed these tests. An expensive piping system that would be resistant to corrosion by sour gas was designed and installed. When the gas well was brought on-line, it was found that the gas was sweet gas which did not require the corrosion resistant piping system that had cost several million dollars extra. Whowas responsible forthis blunder? Could this waste have been eliminated if Tom had found out where the problem had come from? Did the problem come from the lab or from the head office? What would have been the course of action regarding the type of piping installed, 1. If Tom, who was the piping expert, had asked the head office to explain why they wanted to install piping resistant to sour gas for this well, or, 2. IfTom had challenged their reasoning by asking what evidence they had that this well produced sour gas, or 3. If Tom had gathered more information by tracking down the laboratory results to learn how much sour gas was in the natural gas? If Tom had traced back the original source of the product to find out where the problem came from, this waste could have been eliminated. Challenge Assumptions and Reasoning38 Prosem Derinition —Cuar. 3 A good rule of thumb is to treat the symptoms only if it is impossible or impractical to solve the real problem. For example, in the case of the leaking flowmeter discussed in Chapter 1, it was impractical to solve the real problem of finding an inexpensive corrosion resistant material. As a result, the symptoms were treated by periodically replacing the flowmeter. 3.2B Exploring the Problem This technique works well both for situations of analyzing incorrectly defined problems assigned to you and for formulating problem statements for new problems you uncover yourself. Once presented with a problem, we want to explore all aspects of the problem and its surroundings. This technique, which has its origins in the McMaster Five-Point Strategy given in Appendix 1, is a procedure that guides us to understand and define the real problem. Gathering information is also the key to the success of the exploration, and the first four steps (p. 29) are very helpful in this process. TABLE3-2: Exploring the Problem? Identify All Available Information. 2. Recall or Learn Pertinent Theories and Fundamentals. 3. Collect Missing Information. 4. Solve a Simplified Version of the Problem to Obtain a “Ballpark” Answer. . Hypothesize and Visualize What Could Be Wrong with the Current Situation. Brainstorm to Guess the Answer. 7. Recall Past or Related Problems and Experiences. 8. Describe or Sketch the Solution in a Qualitative Manner or Sketch Out a Pathway That Will Lead to the Solution. . Collect More Data and Information. After Using Some or All of the Activities Above, Write a Concise Statement Defining the Real Problem. “Exploring the Problem” can also be used to build upon the results of the previous technique “Finding Out Where the Problem Came From.”Sec. 3.2. Derininc THE Reat ProsLem 39 Exploring the Problem The Case of the Dead Fish Stan decides to initiate his own investigation into the dead fish problem over the weekend. 1. Identify Available Information: There is a toxic discharge from the plant, the river level is low, and there are a large number of dead fish in the river. . Learn Fundamentals: Stan calls a friend in the biology department at the local university and asks her about the problem of what could be causing the fish to die. She tells Stan that the extremely low water levels lead to significantly warmer water temperatures, and hence lower levels of dissolved ‘oxygen in the water. These conditions make the fish susceptible to disease. . Missing Information: Secondly, she says that a fungus has been found in two nearby lakes that could be responsible for the death of the fish. Upon checking the recent daily temperatures, Stan learns that the day before the fish began dying was one of the hottest of the decade. Stan starts making phone calls to people upstream and downstream from the plant and learns thatdead fish are appearing at the same unusually high rate everywhere, not just downstream of the plant. .. Hypothesis: The fish were dying all over the area as a result of the fungus, and not from the plant discharge. . More Information: Upon examination of the dead fish, it was discovered that the fungus was indeed the cause of death, and that toxic chemicals played no role in the problem. Stan was glad that he had found out where the problem had come from and had explored the situation rather than blindly proceeding to design the treatment plant. |. Define the Real Problem: Identity ways to cure the infected fish and prevent healthy fish from being infected. We note from the above example that it is not always necessary to address all ten steps in Table 3-2 to fully explore the problem. However, as seen in the next example, each of the steps has a purpose and contributes to revealing the true problem.40 Propiem Derinition Crap. 3 De-bottlenecking a Process Even though the following examples taken from an actual case history, don'tworry if you don't know much about heat exchangers: just follow the reasoning. Its too good an example to pass up. The situation: A valuable product was being sold as. fast as it could be manufactured in a chemical plant. Management tried to increase production but was unable to do so. Analysis of each step in the production line showed that the bottleneck was the refrigeration unit. This unit was a simple heat exchanger in which the hot liquid stream was cooled by passing it through a pipe which contacted a cold liquid stream. Heat flowed from the hot stream through the pipe wall into the cold stream. Unfortunately the refrigeration unit (j.e., heat exchanger) was not cooling the hot liquid stream to a sufficiently iow temperature for it to be treated effectively in the next processing step. solve the perceived problem: “Design and install a larger refrigeration unit” The design of a larger refrigeration unit was started. Warm Product Hot Product Stream Refrigerator (Heat Exchanger) os aua Swoam Explore Phase ._ Identify inputs/outputs: Cold liquid stream not coolinghot product stream. . Recallrelated theories and fundamentals: The rate of coolingbetween the two streams is related to the temperature difference between the two ‘streams, their flow rates, and the materials and condition of the unit. . Collect missing information: Whatis the size of the current refrigeration unit? What are the entering and exiting temperatures of the liquid streams? |. Carry outan order of magnitude calculation: AHHAI Thenewunitneed be no larger than the old one. Hypothesize and visualize whatcould be wrong withthe currentsystem: Inefficientoperation of currentsystem? Could something be increasing the resistance to heat transfer (.e., insulating)? . Guess the result: Could scale (minerals deposited from the liquid) have built up on the inside of the unit acting as an insulating blanket? = continued -Sec. 3.2 Derininc THE Rear Proptem 41 De-bottlenecking a Process —continued The buildup of scale on the pipe walls of the exchanger reduces the amount of heat that will transfer from the hot fluid to the cold fluid which severely degrades the ability of the exchanger to perform its intended task. The thicker the Scale, the greater the resistance to heat transfer andthe poorer the performance of the unit, 7. Recall past problems, theories, or related experiences: Scale greatly reduces the efficiency of the unit. 8. Sketch solution or solution pathway: Examine the unit for evidence of ‘scale or fouling that may be reducing the heat transfer efficiency. 9, Collect more data: An examination of the heat exchanger showed it was indeed badly fouled. 10, Define the real problem: The scale on the pipe wall must be removed in order to cool the product stream effectively. 3.2C Using the Present State/Desired State Technique How many times have you heard the statement “You can’t get there from here?” The Present State/Desired State technique helps us verbalize where we are and where we want to go, so that an appropriate path can be found and we can indeed get there from here. The Present State/Desired State technique also helps us learn whether the solution goals (Desired State) are consistent with our needs (Present State).3 When writing the Desired State statement, avoid using ambiguous and vague words or phrases like “best,” “minimal,” “cheapest,” “within a reasonable time,” “most efficient,” etc. because these words mean different things to different people. Be quantitative where possible. For example, “The children’s playground needs to be completed by July 1, 1994 ata cost under $100,000” as opposed to “The playground should be completed in a reasonable time at minimal cost.” It is important that the Present State statement match the Desired State statement. In order for the Present State and Desired State to match, every concern in the Present State should be addressed in the Desired State. In addition, the Desired State should not contain solutions to problems that are not in the Present State. Sometimes a match exists, but it really doesn’t get to the heart of the problem or allow many solution alternatives. Reworking the Present State and Desired State statements until they match is a technique that increases the probability of arriving at the true problem statement. Let us consider the following example of the Present State/Desired State Technique. Cleaning up the Problem Statement42 Prosiem DEFINITION CHapP. 3 3.2D The Duncker Diagram The Duncker Diagram helps obtain solutions that satisfy the criteria set up by the Present State/Desired State statements.’ The unique feature of the Duncker Diagram is that it points out ways to solve the problem by making it OK nor to reach the desired solution. Duncker Diagram solutions can be classified as General Solutions, Functional Solutions, and Specific Solutions (see Figure 3-1). There are two types of General Solutions: 1) Solutions on the left side of the diagram that move from the present state to the desired state (i.e., we have to do something) and 2) solutions on the right side that show how to modify the desired state until it corresponds with the present state (make it OK not to do that sameSec. 3.2. Derininc THE REAL ProsLem 43 something). For example, suppose your present state was your current job and the desired state is anew job. The left hand side of the diagram would show the steps to reach the desired state of obtaining a new job (e.g., update resume, interview trips). The right side of the diagram show the steps that would make it OK to stay in your current job (e.g., greater participation in the decision making, salary increase). In addition, there could be a compromise solution in which both the Present State and Desired State are moved toward each other until there is a correspondence. Functional Solutions ate possible paths to the desired state (or modified desired state) that do not take into account the feasibility of the solution. We could solve the problem only if.. we had more time, more personnel, ... we won the lottery... After arriving at each functional solution, one has to suggest feasible Specific Solutions to implement the functional solutions. For example in the job change situation, a functional solution on the right side of the diagram might be feeling more appreciated and a specific solution to feeling appreciated could be a salary increase or bonus, more verbal praise on a job well done, or a letter of commendation in your company personnel file. Representing the problem on a Duncker Diagram is a creative activity, and as such, there is no right way or wrong way to do it. There are only more and less useful ways to represent the problem. Typically, the most difficult activity is choosing the appropriate desired state. This skill improves with practice. Duncker Diagram ‘General Soktion ‘Achieve Desired ‘Stat Possible Paths to the Desired Stato Possible Paths to Make Present Stato OK et Solutions to Implement Paths ‘eo Make Present State OK Figure 3-1. The Duncker Diagram44 Prosiem Derinition Cnap. 3 KindergartenCop* Linda Chen, who has been teaching elementary school for 25 years, has just finished a six-month leave of absence and is scheduled to return to teaching in February. She is dreading returning to teaching because the last few years have been extremely stressful and difficult, and she feels bumed out teaching kindergarten. Students seem harder to control, Linda doesn't like the materials she is required to use in the classroom, and the parents don't seem to take much interest in their children's education. She also enjoyed the time she had to herself during her six- month leave and strongly feels she must continue to have more time to herself as she nears retirement which will be in five years if she is to receive full benefits. Consequently, Linda’s present state is returning to teaching, and her desired state is not to return to teaching. Prepare a Duncker Diagram to analyze this situation. Teaching is becoming increasingly more difficult General Solution) Quit Teaching Make it OK NOT to quit Functional Solutions fo \ New Job Time Level Specific Solutions | y y Office Substitute Teach Teach Teacha Change Stronger manager teach every half different schools say in other term days grade choosing (job share) material Recap: Upon analyzing her situation using a Duncker Diagram, Linda discovered the real problem was the high stress level brought on by the unruly classes she had the year before her six-month leave. Consequently, with the ald of a Duncker Diagram, she arrived at the conclusion that the rea/ problem was she should find ways to lower her stress level at her workplace. ‘Based on an actual case history. Let us consider the application of the Duncker Diagram to the following To Market, To Market example.Sec. 3.2 Derininc THE REAL PROBLEM 45 ToMarket, ToMarket The Situation: Toasty O's was one of the hottest selling cereals when it first came ‘on the market. However, after several months, sales dropped. The consumer survey departmentwas able to! Heer viet customer aeeetistacton was eure in terms of a stale taste. The ins “Streamline the production process to get the Crea eo the Hore anes alee thus ensuring a fresher product.” However, there wasn't much slack time that could be removed from the process to accomplish the goal. Of the steps required to get ‘the product on the shelves (production, packaging, storage, and shipping), production was one of the fastest. Thus, plans forbuilding plants closer to the major markets were considered, as were plans for adding more trucks in order to get the cereal to market faster. The addition of new plants and trucks was going to require a major capital investment to solve the problem. Cereal not getting to market fast ‘enough to maintain freshness Make it OK for cereal NOT faster to get to market faster Functional Solutions, oe Ale Build More improve Stop Make Cereal Convinos Pane Geos epee Making Stay Fresher Customers Cereal Longer That Slightly aus Stale Cereal Is | Good For You Specific Solutions) poy Hirefaster Donot Charterjets Adda Make boxes trucks and worry todeliver_chemical__tighter and formerrace about productto_toslow down more imper- car drivers moisture The.real problem was that the cereal was not staying fresh long enough, not that it wasn't getting to market fast enough. Keeping the cereal fresher longer was achieved by improved packaging and the use of additives to slow the rate of staling.46 PropsieM DerinirioN = CHap. 3 3.2E Using the Statement-Restatement Technique Apron wale This technique is similar to the Present State/Desired State technique in that stated is a itrequires us to rephrase the problem statement. The Statement-Restatementtechnique problem half proble was developed by Parnes,‘ a researcher in problem solving and creativity. Here, one Charles F.] looks at the fuzzy or unclear problem situation and writes a statement regarding a Kettering | challenge to be addressed. The problem is then restated in different forms a number of times. Each time the problem is restated, one tries to generalize it further in order to arrive at the broadest form of the problem statement (see Figure 3-2). | Fistax Constraintiy, | Perceived Problem 2 8 sagan i 4 statement 5 Restatement 2 5 v & Restatement v Final Problem Statement Figure 3-2. Stating the Real Problem In restating the problem it is important to inject new ideas, rather than changing only the word order in the restated sentence. The following problem restatement triggers should prove helpful in arriving at a definitive problem statement. TABLE 3-3: Problem Statement Triggers Vary the stress pattern—try placing emphasis on different words and phrases. Choose a term that has an explicit definition and substitute the explicit definition in each place that the term appears. Make an opposite statement, change positives to negatives, and vice versa "“s sometimes” to “never,” Change “every” to “some, and vice versa. Replace “persuasive words” in the problem statement such as “obviously,” “clearly,” and “certainly” with the argument it is supposed to be replacing, . Express words in the form of an equation or picture, and vice versa. always” to “sometimes,Sec. 3.2 Derinin THE Rat Prose 47 Using the Triggers Original Problem Statement: Cereal not getting to market fast enough to maintain * Cereal not getting to market fast enough to maintain freshness. (Do other products we have get there faster?) + Cereal not getting to market fast enough to maintain freshness. (Can we make the distance/time shorter?) + Cereal not getting to market fast enough to maintain freshness. (Can we distribute from a centralized location?) + Cereal not getting to market fast enough to maintain freshness. (How can we keep cereal fresher, longer?) Breakfast food that comes in a box is not getting to the place where itis sold fast enough to keep it from : (Makes us think about the box and staleness. . . what changes might we make to the box to prevent staleness?) How can we find a way to get the cereal to market so slowly that it will never be fresh? (Makes us think about how long we have to maintain freshness and what controls it?) Cereal is not getting to market fast enough to always maintain freshness. (This change opens new avenues of thought, Why isn't our cereal always fresh?) The problem statement implies that we obviously want to get the cereal to market faster to maintain freshness. Thus, ifwe could speed up delivery freshness would be maintained. Maybe not! Maybe the store holds it too long. Maybe it's stale before it gets to the store. (This trigger helps us challenge implicit assumptions made in the problem statement.) Freshness is inversely proportional to the time since the cereal was. baked, |. : (Freshness) = Makes us think of other ways to attack the freshness problem. For example, what does the proportionality constant, k, depend upon?. The storage conditions, packaging, type of cereal, etc. are logical variables to examine. How can we change the value of k? The total time may be shortened by reducing the time at the factory, the delivery time, or the time to sell the cereal (i.e., shelf time). So, again, this trigger provides us with several alternative approaches to examine to solve the problem: Reduce the time or change {increase) k.48 Prosiem Derinition = Cuap. 3 As an illustration of the use of these triggers, consider trigger 3 above. Instead of asking “How can my company make the biggest profit?” ask “How can my company lose the most money?” In finding the key activities or pieces of equipment which, when operated inefficiently, will give the biggest loss, we will have found those pieces that need to be carefully monitored and controlled. This trigger helps us find the sensitivity of the system and to focus on those variables that dominate. It is often helpful to relax constraints on the problem, modify the criteria, andidealize the problem when writing the restatement sentence (see trigger 4). Also, does the problem statement change when different time scales are imposed (i.e., are the long-term implications different from the short-term implications)? As one continues to restate and perhaps combine previous restatements, one should also focus on tightening up the problem statement, eliminating ambiguous words, and moving away from a fuzzy, loose, ill-defined statement. Making an Opposite Statement The Situation: To many people, taking aspirin tablets is a fout-tasting experience. Atew ea el of elite making aspirin decided to do something tn m "Find a way to es pleasant-tasting coating. on ‘agpinn ‘tablets [Spraying the coating on the tablets had been tried, with very little success. The resulting coating was very nonuniform and this led to an unacceptable product. Let's apply the triggers to this problem. tL Trigger 1 Emphasize different parts of statement 1. Put coating on tabiet. | Trigger 3 Make an opposite statement 2. Take coating off tablet. This idea led to one of the newer techniques for coating pills. The pills are immersed in a liquid which is passed onto a spinning disk. The centrifugal force [on the fluid and the pills causes the two to separate, leaving a nice, even coating around the pill.Sec. 3.2 DEFINING THE REAL PROBLEM 49 An example from reliable, although undocumented, sources that elucidates the need to find the real problem is one related to the early research on the reentry of space capsules to the earth's atmosphere. It was evident that available materials would not withstand the temperatures from frictional heating by the atmosphere. Consequently, adirective went out to finda material able to withstand the temperatures encountered on reentry. Application of the Statement-Restatement technique to this problem is shown in the following gray box. The real problem here was to protect the astronauts (restatement 3) rather than find a material that would withstand high temperatures. Once the real problem was found, an appropriate solution to the capsule reentry problem soon followed. Wanted: Exotic Materials, or...? The Situation; In the 1960s scientists recognized that there was no available material that would survive the high temperatures generated on the capsule’s surface during reentry to the earth's atmosphere. Consequently, a government directive went outto “finda material able to withstand the temperatures encountered on reentry.” By the early 1970s no one had produced a suitable material that satisfied the directive, yet we had sent astronauts to the moon and back. How had this achievement been possible? The real problem was to protect the astronauts upon reentry, rather than to find a material that would withstand such high temperatures. Once the real problem was determined, a solution soon followed. ‘One of the scientists working on the project asked a related question: How do meteors eventually reach the earth's surface without disintegrating completely? Upon investigation of this problem, he found that although the surface of the meteor vaporized while passing through the atmosphere, the inside of the meteor was not damaged. This analogy led to the idea of using materials on the outside of the capsule that would vaporize when exposed to the high temperatures encountered during reentry. Consequently, the heat generated by friction with the earth's atmosphere during reentry would be dissipated by the vaporization of a material that coated the outside of the space capsule. By sacrificing this material, the temperatures of the capsule’s underlying structural material remained ata tolerable level to protect the astronauts. Once the real problem was uncovered, the scientists solved the problem by using analogies and transferring ideas from one situation to another. -Restatement The statement-restatement technique might have been used as follows: Statement 1: Find a material that will withstand the high surface temperature of the capsule resulting from frictional heating upon reentry into the earth's atmosphere. Restatement 1: Find a way to slow the reentry into the earth's atmosphere or to redesign 1@ capsule so that the capsule surface temperature will 1e lower. Restatement 2: Find a way to cool the capsule or absorb the frictional energy during reentry so that the surface temperature will be lower. Restatement 3. Find a way to protect the astronauts on their reentry into the earth's atmosphere. Restatement 4: Find a disposable material that could surround the capsule and could be sacrificed to absorb the frictional heating. Sacrificial50 Prostem Derinition Cuar. 3 3.2F Evaluating the Problem Definition Now that we have used one or more of the preceding techniques to define the problem, we need to check to make sure we are going in the right direction. Consequently, we need to evaluate the problem definition before proceeding further. The following checklist could help us in this evaluation, * Have all the pieces of the problem been identified? problem apart...] _ * Have all the constraints been identified? ‘be sure to put it * What is missing from the problem definition? back together © What is extraneous to the problem definition? * Have you challenged the assumptions and information you were given to formulate the problem? Have you distinguished fact from opinion? If you break the 3.3 THE NEXT FOUR STEPS We now extend the first steps experienced problem solvers recommend and continue Table 3-1 in Table 3-4. TABLE 3-4: What Experienced Problem Solvers Say ‘The First Four Steps of Experienced Problem Solvers 1. Collect and analyze information and data. 2. Talk with people familiar with the problem. 3. Ifatalll possible, view the problem firsthand. 4. Confirm all findings. The Next Four Steps 5. Determine if the problem should be solved 6. Continue to gather information and search the literature. 7. Form simple hypotheses and quickly test them. 8. Brainstorm potential causes and solution alternatives. Step 5. Determine if the problem should be solved. Having defined the real problem, we now need to develop criteria by which to judge the solution to the real problem. One of the first questions experienced engineers ask is: Should the problem be solved? Figure 3-3 shows how to proceed to answer this question. The first step is to determine if a solution to an identical or similar problem is available. A literature search may determine if a solution exists. How do experienced problem solvers go about deciding if the problem is worth solving? Perhaps it is just mildly irritating and consequently may be ignored altogether. (For instance, suppose the garage door at your plant's warehouse facility is too narrow for easy access by some of the delivery vehicles, They can pass through, but the clearance is very tight. This is an annoying problem, but if the fix Establish criteria to Judge the Solution.Sec.3.3 Tue Next Four Steps 51 is quite costly, you could probably “live with it.”) Questions you should ask early inthe process are: Whatare the resources available to solve the problem? How many people can you allocate to the problem, and for how long a time? How soon do you need asolution? Today? Tomorrow? Next year? These are key questions to keep in mind as you take your first steps along the way toa problem solution. The quality of your solution is often, but not always, related to the time and money you have to generate it and carry it through. In some instances it may be necessary to extend deadlines in order to obtain a quality solution. Tt may not be possible to completely address the cost issue until we are further along in the solution process. The cost will depend on whether or not the solution will be a permanent one or if it will be a temporary or patchwork solution. Sometimes hwo solutions are required: One to treat short-term symptoms to keep the process operating and one to solve the real problem for the long term, Be aware of these two mindsets in the problem-solving process. In some cases the No’s in the figure on deciding if the problem should be solved can be changed to Yes’sby selling the project to management. This change can be achieved by showing that the problem is an important one and is relevant to the operation of the company. Real Problem Defined Isthe problem worth solving? Figure 3-3. Deciding If the Problem Should Be Solved52 Prosiem Derinion = Cuap. 3 Step 6. Continue to gather information and search the literature. Gather as much information as possible by reading texts and literature related to the problem to learn the underlying fundamental principles and peripheral concepts. Literature searches are particularly helpful. Perhaps a closely related problem has already been solved. George Quarderer of Dow Chemical Company appropriately describes the idea of reinventing the wheel by his statement, “Four to six weeks in the laboratory can save you an hour in the library.” The message is clear: Doinga bit of research into the background of the problem may save you hours of time and effort. Search out colleagues who may have useful information and pertinentideas. Have them play “Whatif... ?” with you; that is, “What if you did this?” or “What if I applied this concept?” Also have them play the devil’s advocate and deliberately challenge your ideas. This technique stimulates creative interactions. Step 7. Form simple hypotheses and quickly test them. Returning to the Dead Fish example, an experienced problem solver could hypothesize that there was something else present in the water that was killing the fish. This hypothesis could be tested in the laboratory by analyzing samples of river water or by performing post-mortem examinations on the dead fish. These tests may have uncovered the presence of the fungus, thereby quickly defining the problem. Step 8. Brainstorm potential causes and solution alternatives. This last “first step” brings us to the close of the first phase of the creative problem-solving process and is really the first step of the second phase of the process: Generating Solutions to Problems. ‘Techniques to generate solutions will be discussed in the next chapter. Which Techniques to Choose We do not expect the reader to apply every technique to every situation, In fact, when 400 problem solvers were surveyed as to which two techniques presented in this chapter were the most useful, the choices were virtually equally divided among those presented in this chapter. In other words, different techniques work better for different individuals and different situations, and it is a personal choice. The main point is to be organized as well as creative in your approach to problem definition.Cuap. 3 SUMMARY fi) SUMMARY In this chapter we have discussed the necessity for defining the real problem. We have presented the eight steps that experienced problem solvers first use to attack problems. They are * Collect and analyze information and data. * Talk with people familiar with the problem. + If at all possible, view the problem firsthand. * Confirm all findings. * Determine if the problem should be solved. Continue to gather information and search the literature. Form simple hypotheses and quickly test them. Brainstorm potential causes and solution alternatives. Five problem definition techniques were presented to help you zero in on the true problem definition. They are * Find Out Where the Problem Came From * Use the first four steps to gather information. * Learn who defined the problem initially. * Challenge reasoning and assumptions made to arrive at the problem statement given to you. * Explore the Problem * Recall or learn the fundamental principles related to the problem. * Carry out an order-of-magnitude calculation. + Hypothesize what could be wrong. * Guess the result * Present State/Desired State * Write a statement of where you are and a statement of what you want to achieve and make sure they match. * Duncker Diagram * Devise apathway that makes it OK notto solve the problem posed to you. Statement-Restatement * Use the six triggers to restate the problem ina number of different ways.54 PRoBLEM DeriNiTION ~CHap. 3 REFERENCES 1, Kepner, C.H., and B. B. Tregoe, The New Rational Manager. Princeton Research Press, Princeton, NJ, 1981. Woods, D.R.., A Strategy for Problem Solving, 3rd ed., Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, 1985; Chem. Eng. Educ., p. 132, Summer 1979; AIChE Symposium Series, 79 (228), 1983. 3. Higgins, J.S.,et al,, “Identifying and Solving Problems in Engineering Design,” Studies in Higher Education, 14, No. 2, p. 169, 1989. 4. Pames, 8. Creative Behavior Workbook, Scribner, New York, 1967. FURTHER READING Copulsky, William, “Vision + Innovation,” Chemtech, 19, p. 279. May 1989. Interesting anecdotes on problem definition and vision related to a number of popular products. DeBono, Edward, “Serious Creativity,” Harper Business, a division of Harper Collins Publishers, New York, 1993. Summary of 20 years of creativity researched by deBono, Many useful additional problem definition techniques are presented. EXERCISES 1, Make a list of the most important things you learned from this chapter. Identify at least three techniques that you believe will change the ways you think about defining and solving problems. Which problem definition techniques do you find most useful? Prepare a matrix table listing all the problem definition techniques discussed in this chapter. Identify those attributes that some of the techniques have in common and also those attributes that are unique to a given technique, Attrbute 2 x< Technique A Technique B Pad >< Tectriqve o[ SX |X 2. Write a sentence describing a problem you have. Apply the triggers in the Statement- Restatement Technique to your problem. Perceived Problem Statement Restatement ICiap.3 EXERCISES 55 Restatement 2 Final Problem Statement Nextapply the Duncker Diagram to this same problem. (Use the Duncker Diagram work sheet on page 59.) 3. Carry out a Present State/Desired State analysis on “I want a summer internship but no one is hiring” and then prepare a Duncker Diagram to solve the problem. 4, You have had a very hectic morning, so you leave work a little early to relax abit before you meet your supervisor, who is flying into a nearby airport. You have not seen your supervisor from the home office for about a year now. He has written to you saying that he wants to meet with you personally to discuss the last project. Through no fault of yours, everything went wrong: The oil embargo delayed shipment of all the key parts, Your project manager met with a skiing accident, and your secretary enclosed the key files in a parcel that was sent, by mistake, to Japan via sea mail. Your supervisor thinks that you have been so careless on this project that you would lock yourself out of your own car. As you are driving through the pleasant countryside on this chilly late fall aftermoon, you realize that you will be an hour early. You spot a rather secluded roadside park about 200 m away. A quiet stream bubbles through the park, containing trees in all their autumn colors. Such an ideal place to just get out and relax. You pull off into the park, absentmindedly get out and lock the car, and stroll by the stream, When you return, you find the keys are locked in the car. The road to the airport is not the usual route; there are cars about every 10to 15 minutes. The airport is 9 km away; the nearest house (with telephone) is | km away. The plane is due to arrive in 20 minutes. Your car, which is. not a convertible, is such that you cannot get under the hood or into the trunk from the56 Prosiem DeriNiTION Cuap. 3 outside. All the windows are up and secured. Apply the Duncker Diagram and one other problem-solving technique to help decide what todo. (D.R. Woods, McMaster University) Make it OK Not to Pick Up Boss Pick Up Boss What to Do How to doit S 5. You are driving from Cambridge to London on the MI motorway (expressway). You are scheduled to give a very important slide presentation at 1 PM. The drive normally takes | hr and 30 minutes but this morning you left at 10:30 AM to insure you had sufficient time. Suddenly your car stalls on the motorway halfway between Cambridge and London. What do you do? Apply two or more problem definition techniques to help answer this problem. (From J. Higgins and S. Richardson, Imperial College, London) NI y A propellant used in an air bag system is the chemical sodium azide. It is mixed with an oxidizing agent and pressed into pellets which are hermetically sealed into a steel or aluminum can. Upon impact, ignition of the pelletized sodium azide generates nitrogen gas that inflates the air bag. Unfortunately, if it contacts acids or heavy metal (e.g., lead, copper, mercury and their alloys), it forms toxic and sensitive explosives. Consequently, at the end of an automobile’ life, a serious problem surfaces when an automobile with an undetonated airbag is sent to the junk yard for compacting and shredding, whereby it could contact heavy metals. The potential for an explosion during processing represents a serious danger for those operating the scrap recycling plant. Apply wo or three problem definition techniques to this situation. (Chemtech, 23, p. 54, 1993) 7. Pillsbury, a leader in the manufacture of high-quality baking products, had its origins in the manufacture of flour for the baking industry. However, at the time Charles Pillsbury purchased his first mill in Minneapolis, the wheat from Minnesota was considered to be substandard when compared to the wheat used in the St. Louis mills, then the hub of the milling industry. Part of the problem was that winter wheat, commonly used in high- grade flour, could not be grown in Minnesota because of the long and cold winters. Consequently, the Minnesota mills were forced to use spring wheat which had a harder shell. At the time, the most commonly used milling machines used a “low grinding” process to separate the wheat from the chaff. The low grinding process refers to using stone wheels. A stone wheel rests directly on the bottom wheel, with the wheat to beCuap. 3 EXERCISES 57 10. A. ground placed between them. With harder wheats, a large amount of heat was generated, discoloring and degrading the product quality. Thus, the flour produced from the Minnesota mills was discolored, inferior, and had less nutritional value and a shorter shelf life. The directions given could have been “Order more river barges to ship winter wheat up the Mississippi from St. Louis to Minneapolis.” Apply two or more problem definition techniques to the situation. (Adapted from “When in Rome” by Jane Ammeson, Northwestern Airlines World Traveler, 25, No. 3, p. 20, 1993.) ce Late Baggage. Anairline atthe Houston Airport tried to please the passengers by always | docking the plane at a gate within a one to two minute walk to the airport entrance and] greg baggage claim and by having all the bags at baggage claim within eight to ten minutes. However, many complaints were received by the airline about the time it took to get the | bags to the claim area. The airline researched the situation and found that there was} gm@ virtually no way they could unload the bags to the transporttrucks, drive to the unloading| zone, and unload the bags any faster. However, the airline didn’t change the baggage| unloading procedure, but did change another component of the arrival process and the complaints disappeared. The airline did not use mirrors to solve the problem as was the case for the slow elevators. (a) What was the real problem? (b) Suggest a number of things that you think the airline mighthave done to eliminate the complaints. Apply two or more problem-solving techniques. (The Washington Post, p. A3. Dec. 14, 1992) Re _ In 1991, 64% of all commercial radio stations in the country lost money. In order fora "<7, 22 radio station to remain solvent it must have significant revenue from advertisers. Advertisers, in turn, target the market they consider desirable (i.e., income, spending, interest), and for the past several years this target has been the age group from 25 to 54. Along with the revenue loss, the number of radio stations playing the Top 40 songs (i.e. the 40 most popular songs of that week) has decreased by a factor of 2 in the past three years, as did the audience for the Top 40 songs. Many stations tried playing a blend of current hits with hits of 10 and 20 years ago: however, this blend irritated the younger listeners and also did not seem to solve the economic problem. Apply two or more problem definition techniques to this situation, (Adapted from The International Herald Tribune, p. 7, March 24, 1993.) The situation: Sarais a freshman away at college preparing for her first final exams. She is homesick, stressed out, and would like to go home for the weekend to visit her parents, but her car is not working pair a Sara's car is not working. At home with her parents. Discussion: These states do not match and this mismatch confuses the problem. Which problem should she be attacking? The malfunctioning car? The visit? Continue in this manner until] the states match. First Revision. Cleaning up the Problem Statement The situation: FireKing is asmall manufacturer of rich looking fireproof filing cabinets and wanted to increase its market share of 3%. While the designs were elegant, the cabinets were also the heaviest ones on the market and in people’s minds, this meant the highest quality. However, higher weight meant higher shipping and transportation costs which made them very expensive. FireKing asked the following question, “How can we make our product lighter so as to have a competitive price?” However, some executives58 12, 13, 14, 15. Prosiem Derintion = Cuap. 3 believed a lighter product might hurt the image of quality. Apply one or more problem definition techniques to this situation. (David Turczyn) The situation: A new method for killing roaches was developed by Bug-B-Gone Company which was more effective than any of the other leading products. In fact, no spraying was necessary because the active ingredient was in a container that is placed on the floor or in corners and the roach problem would disappear. This method has the advantage that product does all the work. The user does not need to search out and spray the live roaches. The product was test marketed to housewives in some southern states. Everyone who saw the effectiveness test results agreed the new product was superior in killing roaches. However despite a massive ad campaign, the standard roach sprays were still far outselling the new product. Apply one or more problem definition techniques to this situation, (David Turczyn) The situation: A pneumatic conveyor is a device that transports powdered solids using air in the same manner that money is transported from your car ata bank's drive-through window. In the figure below, the solids are “sucked” out of the storage hopper and conveyed by air int the discharge hopper to roblem: “Find an easier way to clean a pneumatic conveying system when it plugs and interrupts operation. Storage hopper. air k solids ‘an or feedi blower ‘device => : Za Discharge air air+solids hopper First Revision. in Conveying system plugs, interrupting The system is easily and rapidly operation, cleaned. Continue in this manner until the states match. The situation: A major American soap company carried out a massive advertising campaign to expand its market into Poland. The T.V. commercials featured a beautiful woman using the company’s soap during her morning shower. Thousands of sample cakes were distributed door to door throughout the country. Despite these massive promotional efforts, the campaign was entirely unsuccessful. Polish television had been used primarily for communist party politics, and commericals were relatively rare. What is aired is usually party line politics. Apply one or more problem definition techniques to this situation. (Christina Nusbaum) The situation: Employees are allowed to take merchandise out of the department store on approval, The original procedure required the employee to write an approval slip stating the merchandise taken, However, some employees were abusing the system by taking the clothing and destroying the slip, thereby leaving no record of the removed merchandise. Apply one or more problem definition techniques to this situation. (Maggie Michael)59 EXERCISES Cap. 3 SE65 06083 Wop 0) MOH 0p 01 UM, wea|qolg 01100 O11 EW, LagaHSAAOM WVAOVId WAHONNG4 GENERATING SOLUTIONS Nothing is more dangerous than an idea, when it is the only one you have. - Emile Chartier Once you have defined the problem you want to make sure you generate the best solution. Sometimes problems may seem unsolvable or they may appeartohave |. only one solution, which as Emile Chartier points out is quite dangerous, This is a situation where you can use the idea generation techniques in this chapter to lead you to find the best solutions. Perseverance is perhaps the most notable characteristic of successful problem solvers, so you shouldn't become discouraged when solutions aren’ t immediately evident. Many times mental blocks hinder your progress toward a solution. The first step to overcoming these blocks is to recognize them, and then use blockbusting techniques to move forward toward the best solution. What is the nature of these mental blocks and what causes them? Some common causes of blocks have been summarized by Higgins et al.:! Common Causes Of Mental Blocks « Defining the problem too narrowly. * Attacking the symptoms and not the real problem. + Assuming there is only one right answer. * Getting “hooked” on the first solution that comes to mind. * Getting “hooked” on a solution that almost works (but really doesn’t). + Being distracted by irrelevant information, called “mental dazzle.” * Getting frustrated by lack of success. * Being too anxious to finish. * Defining the problem ambiguously. There is a direct correlation between the time people spend “playing” witha problem and the diversity of the solutions generated. Don’t be afraid to “play” with the problem. Let’s look at how easy it is to have a conceptual block to a problem. Try this exercise before reading the several solutions provided on the following page. Draw four or fewer Straight lines (without lifting the pencil from the paper) that will cross through all nine dois. (Adams,” pp. 16-20) Decide T Implement Evaluate i62 GeNERATING SoLutiONS —CHap. 4 This puzzle is very difficult to solve if the imaginary boundary created by the eight outer dots is not crossed. Another common assumption that is not part of the problem statement is that the lines must go through the centers of the dots. Two possible solutions are provided below. Two Solutions to the Nine Dot Problem Several other creative solutions to the nine dot problem exist. These include rolling up the piece of paper such that itis cylindrical in shape and then drawing one line around the cylinder that passes through all nine dots, or photoreducing the nine dots and then using a thick felt pen to connect them with a single line. Another suggestion is to crumple up the piece of paper and stab it with a pencil (this is a statistical approach that may require more than one attempt to hit all the dots) The purpose of this exercise is to show that putting too many constraints (either consciously or unconsciously) on the problem statement narrows the range of possible solutions. Normally, novice problem solvers will not cross a perceived imaginary limit—a constraint that is formed unconsciously in the mind of the problem solver—even though it is not part of the problem statement. Whenever you are faced with a problem, recall the nine dots to remind yourself to challenge the constraints. 4.1 RECOGNIZING MENTAL BLOCKS Conceptual Blockbusting by James L. Adams* focuses on the cultivation of idea-generating and problem-solving abilities. The first step to becoming a better problem solver is to understand what conceptual blocks are and how they interfere with problem solving. A conceptual block is a mental wall that prevents the problem. solver from correctly perceiving a problem or conceiving its solution. The most frequently occurring conceptual blocks are perceptual blocks, emotional blocks, cultural blocks, environmental blocks, intellectual blocks, and expressive blocks. A. Perceptual Blocks are obstacles that prevent the problem solver from early perceiving either the problem itself or the information needed to solve it. A “few types of perceptual blocks are * Stereotyping Survival training teaches individuals to make full use of all the resources at their disposal when they are faced with a life-threatening situation. For example, if you were stranded in the desert after the crash of your small airplane, you would have to make creative use of your available resources to survive and be rescued. Consider the flashlight that was in your tool kit. The stereotypical use for it would be for signaling, finding things in the dark,Sec. 4.1 REcoGNizinG MENTAL BLocks: 63 ete, But how about using the batteries to start a fire, the casing for a drinking vessel for water that you find in the desert cacti, or the reflectoras asignaling mirror in the daylight, etc. * Limiting the problem unnecessarily The nine dot problem above is an example of limiting the problem unnecessarily. The boundaries of the problem must be explored and challenged. * Saturation or information overload Too much information can be nearly as big a problem as not enough information. You can become overloaded with minute details and be unable to sort out the critical aspects of the problem, Air traffic controllers have learned to overcome this block. They face information overload regularly in the course of their jobs, particularly during bad weather. They are skilled in sorting out the essential information to ensure safe landings and takeoffs for thousands of aircraft daily. B. Emotional Blocks interfere with your ability to solve problems in many ways. They decrease the amount of freedom with which you explore and manipulate ideas, and they interfere with your ability to conceptualize fluently and flexibly. Emotional blocks also prevent you from communicating your ideas to others in a ‘manner that will gain their approval. Some types of emotional blocks include: * Fear of risk taking This block usually stems from childhood, Most people grow up being rewarded for solving problems correctly and punished for solving problems incorrectly. Implementing a creative idea is like taking a risk. You take the risk of making a mistake, looking foolish, losing your job, or in a student’s case, getting an unacceptable grade. In Chapter 2, some ideas for overcoming the fear of risk taking were discussed. * Lack of appetite for chaos Problem solvers must learn to live with confusion. For example, the criteria for the best solution may seem contradictory. What may be best for the individual may not be best for the organization or group. * Judging rather than generating ideas Failure is not failure, butan This block can stem from approaching the problem with a negative attitude. | opportunity Judging ideas too quickly can discourage even the most creative problem | t bein solvers. Wild ideas can sometimes trigger feasible ideas which lead to | jRamere innovative solutions. This block can be avoided by approaching the problem with a positive attitude. * Lack of challenge Sometimes, problem solvers don’t want to get started because they perceive the problem is too trivial and can be easily solved. They feel that the problem is not worthy of their efforts. * Inability t0 incubate Rushing to solve the problem just to get it off your mind can create blocks. -Henry Ford, C. Cultural Blocks are acquired by exposure to a given set of cultural patterns, and environmental blocks are imposed by our immediate social and SEQ’ pera physical environment. One type of cultural block is the failure to consider an act that Af causes displeasure or disgust to certain members of society. To illustrate this type of \ qua] block, Adams uses the following problem:”64 GeNERATING SoLutions —Cuap, 4 Rescuing aPing Pong Ball Two pipes, which serve as pole mounts for a volleyball net, are embedded in the floor of a gymnasium. During a game of ping pong, the ball accidentally rolis into one of the pipes because the pipe cover was not replaced (see below). The inside pipe diameter is 0.06" larger than the diameter of a ping-pong ball (1. 50") which is resting gently at the bottom of the pipe. You are one of a group of six people in the gym, along with the following objects: A.15' extension cord x . A file Awire coat hanger A monkey wrench. A flash light LEE. | ano emia , List as many ways as you can think of (in five minutes) to get the balll out of Conceptual || the pipe without leaving the gym, or damaging the ball, pipe, or floor. blocks is the Comment: A common solution to the problem is to smash the handle of the first step to_| | hammer with the monkey wrench and to use the splinters to obtain the ball. Another overcoming |] less obvious solution is to urinate in the pipe. Many people do not think of this oon ‘solution because of a cultural block, since urination is considered a “private” activity in many countries. Other types of mental blocks are D. Environmental Blocks: Distractions (phones, easy intrusions) are <——*" blocks that inhibit deep prolonged concentration. Working in an atmosphere that is (NWRNMENTAL/ pleasant and supportive most often increases the productivity of the problem solver. On the other hand, working under conditions where there is a lack of emotional, physical, economical, or organizational support to bring ideas into action usually has anegative effect on the problem solver and decreases the level of productivity. Ideas for establishing a working environment that enhance creativity were presented in Chapter 2 fe E. Intellectual Blocks: This block can occur as a result of inflexible or (rmizcra) inadequate uses of problem-solving strategies. Lacking the necessary intellectual skills to solve a problem can certainly be a block as can lack of the information necessary to solve the problem. For example, attempting to solve complicated satellite communications problems without sufficient background in the area would soon result in blocked progress. Additional background, training, or resources may be necessary to solve a problem. Don’t be afraid to ask for help. F. Expressive Blocks: The inability to communicate your ideas to others, @ in either verbal or written form, can also block your progress. Anyone who has (Fee) played a game of charades or Pictionary™ can certainly relate to the difficulties that A this type of block can cause. Make sketches, drawings, and don’t be afraid to take time to explain your problem to others.Sec. 4.2. BLocksustiInG 65 As we have just seen, there are many types and causes of mental blocks. If you find your problem-solving efforts afflicted by one of them, what can youdo? Try one of the blockbusting techniques that we present next! 4.2 BLOCKBUSTING A number of structured techniques are available for breaking through mental roadblocks. Collectively, they are referred to as blockbusting techniques. Goman identifies a number of blocks to creativity and offers some suggestions on how to overcome these blocks. The following table summarizes these blocks and blockbusters. Goman’s Blockbusters Block Blockbuster LNEt VE. IDE L.ATTITUDE ADJUSTMENT Focusing attention on negative aspects List the positive aspects and outcomes of of the problem and possible the problem. Realize that with every unsatisfactory outcomes hampers problem there is not only a danger of creativity. failure but an opportunity for success. 2. FEAR OF FAILURE 2. RISK TAKING One of the greatest inhibitors to Outline what the risk is, why it is creativity is the fear of failure and the important, what is the worst possible inability to take a risk. outcome, what your options are with the worst possible outcome, and how you would deal with this failure, LLOWING TI LES 3. BREAKING THE RULES Some rules are necessary, such as Practice trying new things. Take a stopping at a red light, while other rules different route to work, try a new food, hinder innovation. 0 somewhere you've never gone. 4, OVERRELL IN 4, N, ATIVE CLIMA‘ Relegate imagination to the background Turn the situation over to your because of a need to proceed in astep-by- | imagination, your feelings, your sense of step fashion. humor. Play with insights and possibilities 5, YOU AREN'T CREATIVE 5. CREATIVE BELIEFS Believing that you are not creative can Encourage your creativity, by asking bea serious hindrance to generating “what if” questions; daydream; make up creative solutions. Believing that you metaphors and analogies. Try different can’t do something is a self-fulfilling ways of expressing your creativity. prophesy .66 GENERATING SoLuTIONS CHAP. 4 Inregard to Goman 's fifth Blockbuster, Raudelsepp has presented definitive ways you can increase your creativity by learning new attitudes, values, and ways of approaching and solving problems by heeding the following principles.> Improving Your Creative Abilities + Keep track of your ideas at all times. Many times ideas come at unexpected times. If an idea is not written down within 24 hours it will usually be forgotten. * Pose new questions to yourself every day. An inquiring mind is a creatively active one that enlarges its area of awareness. * Keep abreast of your field. Read the magazines, trade journals, and other literature in your field to make sure you are not using yesterday's technology to solve today’s problems. + Learn about things outside your specialty. Use cross-fertilization to bring ideas and concepts from one field or specialty to another. + Avoid rigid, set patterns of doing things. Overcome biases and preconceived notions by looking at the problem from a fresh view point, always developing at least two or more alternative solutions to your problem. + Be open and receptive to ideas (yours and others). Rarely does an innovative solution or idea arrive complete with all its parts ready to be implemented. New ideas are fragile; keep them from breaking by seizing on the tentative, half-formed concepts and possibilities and developing them. * Be alert in your observations. This principle is a key to successfully applying the Kepner-Tregoe strategies discussed in the next chapter. Be alert by looking for similarities, differences, as well as unique and distinguishing features in situations and problems, The larger the number of relationships you can identify, the better your chances will be of generating original combinations and creative solutions. * Adopt a risk taking attitude, Fear of failure is the major impediment to generating solutions which are risky (ie, small chance of succeeding) but would have a major impact if they are successful. Outlining the ways you could fail and how you would deal with these failures will reduce this obstacle to creativity. * Keep your sense of humor. You are more creative when you are relaxed. Humor aids in putting your problems (and yourself) in perspective. Many times it relieves tension and makes you more relaxed. * Engage in creative hobbies. Hobbies can also help you relax. Working puzzles, playing games help keep your mind active. An active mind is necessary for creative growth, + Have courage and self-confidence. Be a paradigm pioneer. Assume that you can and will indeed solve the problem. Persist and have the tenacity to overcome obstacles that, block the solution pathway. + Lea to know and understand yourself. Deepen your self-knowledge by learning your real strengths, skills, weaknesses, dislikes, biases, expectations, fears, and prejudices.Sec. 4.2 BLocKBustiNG 67 Dr. Edward de Bono, the international creativity authority, is serious about the need for creative thinking.° In his book Serious Creativity, deBono, the father of lateral thinking, takes the opportunity to summarize 25 years of research into creative thinking techniques. Remember, one of the first steps in the problem solving process recommended by experienced problem solvers was the gathering of information. deBono cautions problem solvers in this regard. For example, when one begins working on a new problem or research topic, it is normal to read all the information available on the problem. To fail to do this may mean “reinventing the wheel” and wasting much time. However, during the course of information gathering, you may destroy your chances of obtaining an original and creative solution if you are not careful. As you read, you will be exposed to all the existing assumptions and prejudices that have been developed by previous workers or researchers. Try as you may to remain objective and original, your innocence will have been been lost. deBonorecommends reading enough to familiarize yourself with the problem and get a “feel” forit. Atthis point you may wish to stop and organize some of your own ideas before proceeding with an exhaustive review of the literature. In this way you can best preserve your ‘opportunities for creativity and innovation, Have you ever heard the old saying: “If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it.” deBono claims the attitude reflected by this statement was largely responsible for the decline of American industry. American managers operated in a strictly reactive mode, merely responding to problems as they arose. Meanwhile, the Japanese were fixing and improving things that weren't problems. Soon, the American “problem fixers” were left behind. To survive in today’s business culture, proactive thinking, as opposed to reactive thinking, is required. This shift in thinking patterns requires creativity. deBono summarizes a number of lateral thinking techniques that he popularized to improve creative thinking. These include random stimulation and the Six Thinking Hats. We will discuss random stimulation in this chapter. The Six Thinking Hats is an application of creative thinking that de Bono advocates for many situations. The hats are a device that help you look ata situation from many different viewpoints, As you imagine yourself wearing each different hat, you should assume the characteristics associated with that particular hat. There are a variety of techniques that can be used to generate creative ideas. We will now begin to explore some of them. oe Y DG ofp‘What one man is capable of conceiving, other men will be able to. achieve. ~ Jules Verne 68 GENERATING SOLUTIONS CHAP. 4 4.3 BRAINSTORMING Brainstorming, one of the oldest techniques to stimulate creativity, is a familiar and effective technique for generating solutions. It provides an excellent means of getting the creative juices flowing. Recent surveys of people working in industry show that brainstorming is routinely used as an effective tool not only for one or tWo individuals discussing a problem in an informal setting but also in more formal large-group problem-solving sessions. Typically, the initial stages of idea generation begin with an unstructured free association of ideas to solve the problem (brainstorming). During this activity, lists of all possible solutions are generated either in group discussions or individually. The lists should include wild solutions or unusual solutions without regard to their feasibility. When brainstorming in groups, people can build upon each other’s ideas or suggestions. This triggering of ideas in others is key to successful group brainstorming. Another critical component of group brainstorming is to maintain a positive group attitude. No negative comments or judgments are allowed during this stage of the solution process. Reserve evaluation and judgment until later. The more ideas that are generated, the better chance there is for an innovative, workable solution to the problem at hand. Nothing will kill a brainstorming session faster than negative comments. These comments must be kept in check by the group leader or the session will usually reduce to one of “braindrizzling.” Comments That Reduce Brainstorming to Braindrizzling That won't work. It's against our policy That's too radical. We haven't done it that way before. It's not our job. That's too expensive. We don't have enough time. That's not practical. That's too much hassle. We can’t solve this problem. We conducted some brainstorming exercises with a number of groups of students. Some of the exercises were free-format in nature, totally unstructured, where the only guideline used was to generate as many ideas as possible. An example of an unstructured session is shown on the next page.Sec. 4.3. BRAINSTORMING 69 Problem Statement: How could the rules of basketball be changed so that players under 5'9" tall might be more competitive? Ideas Generated: - Lower the height of the basket. - Taller players are not allowed outside the key. ~ Two separate baskets. ~ S-point shat line closer for shorter players. ~ Platform tennis shoes. - Tall players can guard only fall players, +Tallplayers can'tblock - Tall players have to wear weighted shoes. ~ Tall players can't rebound. - Short players can use trampolines. + Tall players can't dribble, ~ Tall players must use a heavier ball Tall players can't jump. - Make tall players run (winded) before game. No fouls on short players. - Tall players wear uniforms with itching powder. ~ Tall players can't look at the basket. -_- Allow players to pick other players up. - Tal players can’t use the backboard. _- Short players wear spikes. Play in zero gravity. - Tall players must carry a small child on their backs. ~ Some players on each team under 5'9". - Tall players wear glasses restricting peripheral vision, ~ Short players’ baskets count more. - Short and tall teams: Short teams have more player Usually the ideas flow quickly at first and then slow abruptly after several minutes. The process has hit a “roadblock.” These roadblocks hinder our progress toward a solution. Now let’s use some other blockbusting techniques to help overcome some mental blocks and generate additional alternatives. 4.3A Osborn’s Checklist Osborn’s Checklist techniques are used to generate additional alternatives that are related to those previously obtained. It is useful to help a group build on one another's ideas (i.e. piggyback). The checklists shown in an abbreviated format in the following table. Osborn’s Checklist for Adding Newldeas other uses it could be adapted to? Modity?........ change the meaning, material, color, shape, odor, etc.? Magnity? ......Add new ingredient? Make longer, stronger, thicker, higher, etc.? 4 Minify?.........Split up? Take something out? Make lighter, lower, shorter, etc. ? Substitute?...Who else, where else, or what else? Other ingredient, material, |} Renan ‘or approach? ge Rearrange? ..Interchange parts? Other patterns, layouts? Transpose cause |] Com 5< pine and effect? Change positives to negatives? Reverse roles? Turn it backwards or upside down? Sort? Combine? .....Combine parts, units, ideas? Blend? Compromise? Combine from different categories? Adapt?........How can this (product, idea, plan, etc.) be used as is? What are se) ag pity MinifyUnstuck 7 GENERATING SoLuTIoNS — CHap. 4 Continuing with the basketball example... ‘Adapt? «+ SMaller players can foul as many times.as they want (rule a adaptation). Assists by smaller players count as points. Modify? .........Raise baskets for taller players (modify court). Tall players stay inside 3 point line. Magnify? .......Short player's baskets worth 4 points (magnify score). Minify? .......... Tall player’s shots worth 1 point (minify score). Rearrange? ...Separate leagues for taller and shorter players (rearrange grouping). 4.3B Random Stimulation Random Stimulation is a technique which is especially useful if we are stuck orinarut.® Itis.a way of generating totally differentideas than previously considered and can “jump start” the idea generation process and get it out of whatever current rut it may be in. The introduction of strange or “weird” ideas during brainstorming should not be shunned but instead should be encouraged. Random Stimulation makes use of a random piece of information (perhaps a word culled from the dictionary or a book (e.g., eighth word down on page 125), or a random finger placement on one of the words in the sample list below. This wordis used to actasa trigger or switch tochange the patterns of thought when a mental roadblock occurs, The random word can be used to generate other words that can stimulate the flow of ideas. Examples of Random Stimulation Words all, albatross, airplane, air, animals, bag, basketball, bean, bee, bear, bump, bed, car, cannon, cap, control, cape, custard pie, dawn, deer, defense, dig, dive, dump, dumpster, car, eavesdrop, evolution, eve, fawn, fix, find, fungus, food, ghost, graph, gulp, gum, hot, halo, hope, hammer, humbug, head, high, ice, icon, ill, jealous, jump, jig, jive. jinx, key, knife, kitchen, lump, lie, loan, live, Latvia, man, mop, market, make, maim, mane, notice, needle, new, next, nice, open, Oscar, opera, office, pen, powder, pump, Plato, pigeons, pocket, quick, quack, quiet, rage, rash, run, rigid, radar, Scrooge, stop, stove, save, saloon, sandwich, ski, simple, safe, sauce, sand, sphere, tea, time, ticket, treadmill, up, uneven, upside-down, vice, victor, vindicate, volume, violin, voice, wreak, witch, wide, wedge, x-ray, yearn, year, yazzle, zone, 200, zip, Zap For example, in the 5'9” basketball player brainstorming session, the word humbug was chosen at random from a book. Humbug brought to mind (i.e., led to (—)) the word scrooge which led to (>) mean which led to (>) rough, which resulted in the idea of more relaxed foul rules for short players. The goal of the pattern change allows the problem to be viewed from new perspectives not previously considered.Sec. 4.3. BRAINSTORMING 7m Exampleof Random Stimulation Problem: Continuing the basketball example Random word or concept: ‘Humbug - What ideas come to mind? Humbug paaos —> mean — rough — more relaxed foul rules for short players. Jealous — rage — short players may taunt tall players to distract them. Industrial Example of Random Stimulation Problem: Make toxic holding tank safe. Alarge tank to hold toxic waste from a certain process is to be built. The problem is that the tank must be safe. Choose a random word: Airplane Airplane. - An airplane flies over the toxic waste tank. What if a plane were to crash into this tank, causing it to rupture? Now use this idea to find a feasible concern. If a plane may crash into the tank, what about a forklift ora waste delivery truck? Thisis areal concern that we must deal with. Tomake along story short, it was decided to build a fence and dike around the tank to serve as a protection barrier. The benefit of random stimulation is that it allows the generation of a reasonable alternative that may not have been considered before. 4.3C Other People’s Views When approaching a problem that involves the thoughts and feelings of others, a useful thinking tool is Other People’s Views, or OPV.” The inability to see the problem from various viewpoints can be quite limiting. Imagining yourself in the role of the other person allows you to see complications of the problem not considered previously. For example, consider an argument between the new store manager and an employee. The issue is the employee’s desire to take two weeks vacation during the store’s busiest period, the Christmas season. The manager’s main concern is having enough help to handle the sales volume. The employee, however, has made reservations for an Antarctic cruise, one year in advance (with the former manager’s approval), and stands to lose a lot of money if he has to cancel them. The problem does not have a solution yet, but by using OPV each person can2 GENERATING SOLUTIONS CHa. 4 see what the other person stands to gain or lose from the vacation, and each has a better understanding of the types of compromises the other person might be willing to make. Automotive engineers must be aware of many viewpoints to design a successful vehicle. They must consider the views of the consumers, the marketing personnel, management, the safety department, the financial people, and the service personnel. Failure to consider any of these groups’ views could result in a failed product. Examples using this technique are shown below. Example of Other People’s Views. Problem: Continuing the basketball example Owners: They like to win and fill the arena with fans. Game must be exciting. It must have some advantages for the coaches to want to have shorter players. Maybe consider a maximum cumulative height forthe team, so that teams with very small players can have more very tall players, and a better chance of winning. Fans: They like fast, exciting games with good ball handling, shooting, and slam dunks. Maybe we do need to lower the basket. Short Players: Want big bucks and to play in the pros. Tall Players: Don't want the game changed. Another Example of Other People’s Views Problem: Space capsule burns upon entering the atmosphere. Project Manager: Complete the project on time. NASA Accountant: Solve problem but keep cost low. Engineer: New material should not interfere with capsule performance. Materials Scientist: Find a material that can handle the high temperature on re- entry. Astronaut; Doesn't care about the capsule, wants to return alive. Final solution: Allow the surface of the capsule to be destroyed, protecting the astronauts.73 Sec. 4.3 BRAINSTORMING The Case of the Putrid Pond Problem Statement: A very large (500,000 sq. ft. =10 football fields) sludge pond is part of a waste treatment plant. The liquid in the pond is very viscous and sticky. Fromtime to time, unwanted floating objects (dead animals, branches, etc.) appear on the pond and must be removed. Unfortunately, covering the pond is not an option. Devise ways to solve the problem. Brainstorming Use a crane. Use a hovercraft. Build rail system above sludge pond. Large net over the pond. Use a helicopter. Build a fence around the pond. Osborn’sChecklist Mooiey. Susstirure Change treatment process to eliminate Build in desertichange location. ‘Add chemical to est ton branches and Substitute many tanks for pond. dead animals. Change properties of pond, so things sink, Anaerobic digesters. then dredge. MAGNiFy-MiNiry REARRANGE ‘Shallow pond so people can wade. Grinder to cut everything up. Make narrow and deep, then cover. De-vegetate surrounding countryside. Bring in vultures and scarecrows. Other People’s Views Food around the side of the pond. Electric fence. ‘Add obrioxious odor to keep animals away. Scatecrow/predatory bird. Large fans around the side to blow birds In opposite direction. Change the law — It is OK to have dead animals in the pond. Mechanical arm that grabs stuff from the pond. RandomStimulation | Latvia Aun process in different country; remote location for plant, Custard Pie Food —> eat —> algae — inject bacteria that digest floating debris. Ski Ski chair It systom across the pond to reach down and fo pick © off dead animals.74 GeneraTING SoLuTIONS CHAP. 4 4.3D Futuring Futuring is a blockbusting technique that focuses on generating solutions which currently may not be technically feasible but could be in the future. In futuring we ask questions such as: What are the characteristics of an ideal solution? What currently existing problem would make our jobs easier when solved, or would solve many subsequent problems, or would make a major difference in the way we do business? One of futurist Joel Barker's key ideas is that you should be bold enough to suggest alternatives that promise major advances, yet may only have a small probability of success. The rules for futuring are relatively simple: Try to imagine the ideal solution without regard to whether or not it is technically feasible. Then begin by making statements such as... “If (this) happened, it would completely change the way I do business.” The University of Michigan’ s College of Engineering Commission ‘on Undergraduate Education used futuring exercises to help formulate the goals and directions of engineering education for the 1990s and into the twenty-first century. The members of the commission were asked, “What do you see the student doing in 1999?” Some answers included: “I see the students using interactive computing to learn all their lessons. There are animations of processes where the students can change operating parameters and get instant visual feedback on their effect.” “I see lecture halls where the lecturer is a hologram of the most authoritative and dynamic professor in the world on that particular topic.” In futuring, you visualize the idealized situation that you would like to have and then work on devising ways to attain it. Howto Use Futuring + Examine the problem carefully to make sure the real problem has been defined. + Now, imagine yourself at some point in the future after the problem has been solved. What are the benefits of having a solution? | *"Look around’ in the future. Try to imagine an ideal solution to the problem at hand without regard to technical feasibility. Remember, in the future, anything is possible. + Make statements such as: “If only (this)__ would happen, | could solve. + Dare to change the rules! The best solutions to some problems are contrary to | conventional wisdom.Sec, 4.3. BRraiNsToRMING eh) Futuring- Sludge PondProblem Revisited 't have sludge in the future. enginieering- dead plants and animals decay instantaneously. inthe future. + Change pond to gaseous or solid state. Use sludge as energy source. Ise ‘sludge as building material. *Grow on pond. _ + Heat source to boil.” * oo ‘Source that keeps animals away. Figaro roi teenand paris rota acidic andconsequently ‘cannot be discharged directly into lakes or rivers. This waste must be treated so Jed from the plant. ‘One suggestion is to build a waste 1 (food additives) or animal feed supplements (more likely). Could it be sold to someone as a raw material for another process? Sugars can be fermented, can'tthey? Perhaps we se euane tact for a profit. What's left after removing it in the ground for a profit? What about it could be used as afertiizer? Or a oe Mpa oiebualU fet How wo eet the waste but _- mofe generally what to do with it. Plant is peers and has no adverse environmental impact. 4 Success due ‘to no waste production. Ail byproducts orsold:76 GENERATING SOLUTIONS CHaP. 4 4.4 ORGANIZING BRAINSTORMING IDEAS: THE FISHBONE DIAGRAM Fishbone diagrams are a graphical way to organize and record brainstorming ideas. The diagrams look like a fish skeleton (hence their name). To construct a fishbone diagram the following procedure is used: 1. Write the real problem in a box (or circle) to the right of the diagram. Draw ahorizontal line (the backbone) extending from the problem to the left side: > Real Problem, 2. Brainstorm potential solutions to the problem. 3. Categorize the potential solutions into several major categories and listthem along the bottom or top of the diagram. Extend diagonal lines from the major categories to the backbone. These lines form the basic skeleton of the fishbone diagram. 4. Place the potential solutions related toeach of the major categories along the appropriate line (or bone) in the diagram. A fishbone diagram for organizing the ideas for the putrid pond problem is shown below. The most difficult task in constructing a fishbone diagram is deciding the major categories to use for organizing the options. In this example, we have selected “Retrieval Equipment,” “Process Changes/Redesign,” and “Prevention.” The ideas that were generated fall nicely into these categories. Other common categories used in fishbone diagrams are personnel, equipment, method, materials, and environment. This activity of sorting and organizing the information is a very valuable effort in the solution process. Retrieval Equipment Process Changes/Redesign] ite Liquic dy Objects Keep Pond Clear of Undesirable Object PreventionSec. 4.6 ANALOGY AND CRross-FERTILIZATION 77 From the fishbone diagram above, we can evaluate the solutions that have been generated. We have put. structure to the solutions, organizing them and allowing us to “attack” the problem from a number of different fronts if we choose. These diagrams can be very helpful in visualizing all the ideas that you have generated. 4.5 BRAINWRITING Two or more individuals are required in order to carry out an interactive brainstorming session. However, when there is no one to interact with, a technique being used by many companies is that of brainwriting. In brainwriting you follow the same procedure as brainstorming (e.., free association, Osborn’s checklist, random stimulation, futuring). Write down your ideas as fast as you generate them, never pausing or stopping to evaluate the idea. Also keep a notebook handy to write down ideas, because they often come at unusual times. After you have completed your list, organize your ideas (solutions) in a fishbone diagram. 4.6 ANALOGY AND CROSS-FERTILIZATION It is well documented that a number of the most important advances in science, engineering, art, and business come from cross-fertilization and analogies with other disciplines. Here ideas, rules, laws, facts, and conventions from one discipline are transferred to another discipline. When we use analogies, we look for analogous situations/problems in other related and unrelated areas. Consequently. it is important that you read and learn about things outside your area of expertise. Generating ideas by analogy works quite well for many individuals. One recent example is that of Shockblockers™ Shoes developed by the U.S. Shoe Corporation (Washington Post, p. A47, December 18, 1992). The company wanted to develop shoes that absorb the shocks associated with walking. The company looked around to find out what other paraphernalia were used to protect the body from external contact. Ultimately they studied the materials inside a professional football helmet and eventually used the same shock absorbing foam in the soles in their new line of Shockblockers™ Shoes. Remember the reentry of the space capsule problem in Chapter 3? One of the scientists used an analogy with a meteor entering the earth’s atmosphere and asked why itdid not burn upasa result of frictional heating. The answer was that the surface of the meteor was in a molten state and was being vaporized upon entering the earth’s atmosphere. The frictional heat generated during reentry was dissipated into the heat of vaporization of the meteor surface. Consequently, the analogy between the space capsule and the meteor led to the use of a sacrificial material on the capsule surface that vaporized and thus dissipated the frictional heating.78 GENERATING SOLUTIONS CHAP. 4 In order to practice generating ideas by analogy and cross-fertilization, you mightask what each of the following pairs would learn from one another if they went to lunch or dinner together that would improve themselves, and/or the way they perform their job: A beautician and a college professor. A policeman and a software programmer. An automobile mechanic and an insurance salesman. A banker and a gardener. A choreographer and an air traffic controller. A maitre d’ and a pastor. Dinnerat Antoine's Let's consider a dinner meeting between a beautician and a college professor. The beautician could provide the professor with tips on the Importance of having and maintaining a good physical appearance. Beauticians, also typically good conversationalists and listeners, could share these skills to help the professor establish a more effective rapport with the students. The professor would be better able to understand and respond to student concerns and problems. The professor might also pick up some tips on managing a small business which would be helpful in organizing and managing a research group. College professors, on the other hand, are usually involved in research and are up on the latest developments in their field. The beautician could benefit from a discussion of these topics and be encouraged to obtain the newest beauty information and perhaps experiment with some new ideas. For example, new chemical/color treatments could be studied/explored using hair samples. The beautician could learn how to carry out an experiment by treating samples of hair with a new curling product for varying lengths of time to determine the optimum treatment procedure for different types of hair. Many other combinations of professions would also provide growth experiences for both participants. The cross-fertilization of ideas from one group to another is a powerful method for adapting ideas from one discipline or profession to solve problems in another. Many times managers will bring together a small group of people from diverse backgrounds (ethnic, cultural) to interact and look at a problem and solution from many vantage points, ‘There are four steps you can use to solve problems by analogy:* 1) State the problem, 2) generate analogies (this problem is like trying to. . .), 3) solve the analogy, and 4) transfer the solution to the problem. When generating analogies, apply the same rules you did in brainstorming. For example in the case of the staleSrc. 4.7 INcuBaTING IDEAS 79 cereal, one could say, “Keeping the cereal fresh is like preserving raw fish in the tropics without a refrigerator and without cooking.” How could one preserve fish? Add lemon/lime juice to make seviche (pickled fish). What could be added to the cereal to keep it fresh? AColdWinter’s Day The Situation: A large office building in the city was not as energy efficient as the building's owners would have liked. As a result, in order to keep their heating bills down, the building was kept colder than the occupants preferred, and many complaints were received. Step One: State Problem (What is the situation? ) Occupants of building are too cold. Utilities bills are too high. Too many complaints. Step Two: _ Generate Analogies (What else is like this situation?) Generate as many possibilities as you can, then choose one to work with: Being cold in the office is like. . . Being too cold at a football game. Being too cold on a camping trip. Being too cold in a car that hasn't warmed up in the winter. Being too cold in bed at night. Solve the Analogy ‘When you are too cold on a camping trip, you bulld a campfire which Serves as a source of both heat and light. Transfer the Solution to the Problem Instead of building a campfire in the office, rent or buy a portable ‘space heater. Use a readily available source of heat and light to solve the building’s energy problems. install a heat recovery system to recover waste heat from the fluorescent lights to warm the offices and improve the energy efficiency. (This is a practice that is used in modern energy-efficient office buildings.) 4.7 INCUBATING IDEAS The incubation period is very important in problem solving, Working on a solution to a problem to meet a deadline often causes you to pick the first solution that comes to mind and then “run with it,” instead of stopping to think of alternative solutions. Once the generation of ideas has halted (or you collapse from the effort), an incubation period may bein order. Littleis truly understood about mental incubation, but the basic process involves stopping active work on the problem and letting your80 GENERATING SoLuTIONS Crap. 4 subconscious continue the work. Everyone has, at one time or another, been told to “sleep on a problem,” and maybe the solution will be apparent in the morning. This incubation or subconscious work has been described as a mental scanning of the billions of neurons in the brain in search of a novel or innovative connection to lead to a possible solution.” A number of members of the National Academy of Engineering were asked, “What do you do when you get stuck on a problem?” Some of the responses were + “Communicate with other people. Read articles. Try new techniques after a period of digestion. Follow a lead if it looks promising. Keep pursuing.” + “Ask questions about all the circumstances. Go home and think. Go to your arsenal of past experiences. Identify factors related to the problem. Read, write and exchange ideas.” + “Lwrite down everything that I must know to have a solution and everything that I know about the problem so far. Then I usually /er it sit overnight, and think about it from time to time. While it is sitting I often review the recent literature on similar problems and often get an idea on how to proceed.” + “When I can afford the liberty of doing so, I will put the problem down and do something else for awhile. My mind keeps working on the problem, and often I will think of something while trying not to.” The common thread that runs through these responses is the notion of an incubation period. If the solution to the problem is not an emergency, incubation is a useful (inactivity to consider. CLOSURE The goal of this chapter was to present techniques to help you generate creative solutions. Mental blocks and techniques to remove them (blockbusting techniques) were presented. Blockbusting techniques help break preconceived notions about the problem situation. Many times it is advantageous to take a break when working on a problem to let your ideas incubate while your subconscious works on it. However, don’t turn the responsibility over to your subconscious completely by saying, “Well, my subconscious hasn’t solved the problem yet.”Cap. 4, REFERENCES 81 SUMMARY * Beable torecognize the different mental blocks when they appear (Perceptual, Emotional, Cultural, Environmental, Intellectual, and Expressive Blocks). + Use Goman’s Blockbusters: Attitude Adjustment, Risk Taking, Breaking the Rules, Internal Creative Climate, and Creative Beliefs. + Use Osbom’s Checklist to generate new ideas: Adapt, Modify, Magnify, Minify, Rearrange, Combine. Use Random Stimulation and Other People’s Views to generate new ideas when you are stuck in a rut. Telegraph — wire > electricity —> light bulb —> new ideas Remove all technical blocks to envision a solution in the future. Use a fishbone diagram to help organize the ideas/solutions you generate. Use analogy and cross-fertilization to bring ideas, phenomena, and knowledge from other disciplines to bear on your problem. Let the problem incubate so that your mind keeps working on it while you are doing other things. REFERENCES 1. Higgins, 1.S., et al, “Identifying and Solving Problems in Engineering Design,” Studies in Higher Education, 14, No. 2, p. 169, 1989. 2. Adams, James L., Conceptual Blockbusting: A Guide to Better Ideas, W. H, Freeman and Company, San Francisco, 1974. 3. Van Gundy, A.B., Techniques of Structured Problem Solving, 2nd ed., Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1988. 4. Goman, Carol K., Creativity in Business—A Practical Guide for Creative Thinking, Crisp Publications, Inc., 1200 Hamilton Ct., Menlo Park, CA 94025, 800-442-7477, 1989. 5. Raudelsepp, E., Chemical Engineering, 85, p. 95, July 2, 1979. 6. deBono, Edward, Serious Creativity, Harper Business, a division of Harper Collins Publishers, New York, 1993. 7, Felder, R.M., “Creativity in Engineering Education,” Chemical Engineering Education, 22(3), 1988. 8, deBono, E., Lateral Thinking, Harper & Row, New York, 1970. 9. Reid, R. C., “Creativity?,” Chemtech, 17, p. 14, January 1987.82 GENERATING SOLUTIONS CHAP, 4 FURTHER READING Adams, James L., Conceptual Blockbusting, A Guide to Better Ideas, 3rd ed., Addis Publishing Co., Inc., Stanford, CA, 1986. von Oech, Roger, A Whack on the Side of the Head, How You Can be More Creative, revised edition, Warmer Books, New York, 1990. n-Wesley EXERCISES . Keep a journal of all the good ideas you generate. AL B. c 2. a) Make a list of the worst business ideas you can think of (e.g., a maternity shop in a retirement village, a solar-powered night-light, reversible diapers). A B. Cc. b) Take the list you generated in part (a) and turn it around to make them viable concepts for entrepreneurial ventures, (e.g., reversible diapersblue on one side and pink on the other). A. B. c. 3. Apply Goman's four steps of generating solutions to problems by analogy to a problem you have, 1. State the Problem, 2. Create Analogies: This situation is like... . lL 2. 3. 3. Solve the Analogy. I 2. 3Cuap. 4. EXERcIsEs 83 4, Transfer the Solution, 1 2. 3. 4. Renta video. Watch half the movie with a friend(s), Stop the movie and each of you “create” your own ending. Watch the rest of the movie and discuss the results, Whose ending was better? Why? 5. Suggest 50 ways to increase spectator participation at a) professional basketball games. Examples: Have a drawing at each game and the people in the randomly selected seats get to play for two minutes. Give the fans one arrow each to shoot at the basketball in midair otry to block the shot. Suggest 50 ways for spectator participation in professional b) football, c) baseball, d) hockey. 6. Suggest or devise 50 different ways to cross a lake of molasses. 7. You are a passenger in a car without a speedometer. Describe 20 ways to determine the speed of the car. 8. An epidemic on a chicken farm created a thousand tons of dead chickens. The local landfill would not accept the dead chickens. Itis also against the law to bury the chickens and the local authorities are insisting the matter be dealt with immediately. Suggest ways to solve the farmer's problems. (Chemtech, 22, 3, p. 192, 1992) 9. A reforestation effort in Canada is running into trouble in a particular region. In one nursery alone, 10 million seedlings were eaten by voles. The voles even consumed the varieties of seedlings chosen for the unpalatable phenoV/condensed tannin secondary metabolite they contain, The voles overcame this unpalatability by cutting the branches, stripping the bark, and then leaving them for a few days before eating. This proce: caused the unpleasant components to decline to acceptable levels. Suggest 15 ways to solve the reforestation problem in this nursery. (Chemtech, 21, p. 324, 1991) 10. Kite flying is a growing hobby around the world. (They are very entertaining; itis not unusual to find kites that fly at altitudes of more than 2,000 feet.) Suggest 50 ways kites can be used for purposes other than entertainment. 11, a) Rearrange four pencils to make six equal triangles. b) Remove six pencils to leave two perfect squares and no odd pencils. AS | 4 Ho XP “O Cr} (ia) (11b)84 GENERATING SoLuTIONS ~— CHap. 4 12, a) Rearrange three balls so that the triangle points up instead of down. b) Moving one black poker chip only, make two rows of four. ee e 3 (12a) (2b) 13. Apply a variety of brainstorming techniques to one or more of the following situations. a) Suggest ways to measure the pressure over the top of the carbonated liquid in a2-liter bottle. This might be required to determine the necessary pressure rating for a bottle, How could you measure the pressure inside a balloon? b) A coin collector has a coin that she suspects is zinc. Suggest ways to determine nondestructively and precisely whether the coin is zinc. (Be specific.) c) Imagine yourself in the year 2020. What would an automobile look like? What would be some of the selling features? 4) Suggest some ways to prevent the problem of driving under the influence of alcohol in the future. ©) What features would be nice to have ona television, ten years from now? How about on a computer? Prepare a fishbone diagram of any one of the above brainstorming examples. 14. Choose two people from different professions (e.g., repairman, florist, dentist, accountant, policeman, hockey coach, car designer, custodian, bell hop, cruise ship activity director, Cub scout leader) and make a table similarto the one below of what they could learn from ‘one another that would enrich each others lives. (Matt Latham, Sue Stagg) Pastor gives to a Maitre d” Maitre d’ gives toa Pastor 1) ideas to rapidly assess people's needs. 1) knowledge to calm upset individuals/ 2) suggestions on how not to take every crowd control problem he hears personally (thick 2) understanding and dealing with people, skinned). approachability. 3) importance of good physical appearance. 3) memory techniques toremember frequent 4) suggestions on how far you can push customers. people (in terms of views and ideals). 4) an appreciation of having a boss and 5) ideas on offering suggestions and advice. someone watching what you do. 6) ideas on how to be more self-reliant 5) ideas on how to learn to be happy with (scheduling). ‘your job and yourself. 15, Make a list of several ways you can improve your creative abilities. Describe how you would implement some techniques from the table on page 66.Cuap. 4, EXercIses 85 A. c. 16. Fifty-seven sticks are laid out to form the equation. Remove eight sticks to make the answer correct. Do not disturb any sticks other than the eight to be removed. First list any perceived constraints that you initially thought could be blocks to solving this problem. (Source: Brain Busters by Phillip J. Carter and Ken A. Russel, Sterling Publishing, Inc., New York, 1992) 17. Carry out a futuring exercise to visualize a) A telephone call in the year 2010. b) Eating a meal with your family in the year 2050, ©) Ahomework assignment in the year 2025. 4d) A homework assignment in the year 2125.5 DECIDING THE COURSE OF ACTION Once the real problem(s) is defined and we have generated a number of possible solutions, it is time to make some decisions. Specifically, we must Define Generate * Decide which problem to work on first * Choose the best alternative solution * Decide how to successfully implement the solution An organized process for making these essential decisions is the Kepner- Tregoe (K.T.) Approach, which is described in The New Rational Manager.!2 Implement Situation Analysis (Where are we?) Evaluate Problem Decision Potential Analysis [| Analysis [| Problem Analysis Past Present Future What is How to correct How to prevent the fault? the fault? future faults? Figure 5-1. Components of the Kepner-Tregoe Approach K.T. Situation Analysis not only helps us decide which problem to work on first; italso guides us with respect to what is to be done. Do we need to learn the cause (Problem Analysis, PA), make a decision (Decision Analysis, DA), or plan for success (Potential Problem Analysis, PPA)? That is, in situation analysis we also classify the problem into one of these analysis groups. In Problem Analysis the cause of the problem or the fault is unknown and we have to find it. What is it that happened inthe past thatis causing the current trouble? While the K.T. Problem Analysis might have fit more appropriately into Chapter 3 on Problem Definition, we believe it is best to present the entire K.T. Approach intact. In Decision Analysis the cause of the pect present problem has been found and now we need to decide what to do about it. The decision at the present time is how to correct the fault. In Potential Problem Analysis we want toensure the success of the decision and anticipate and prevent future problems from occurring 8788 DECIDING THE CoursE OF ACTION CHap. 5 5.1 SITUATION ANALYSIS In many situations, a number of problems arise at the same time. In some Problem \_ Cases they are interconnected; in other cases, they are totally unrelated, and itis “just solvers \ one of those days.” When these situations occur, Kepner-Tregoe (K.T.) Situation must juggle | Analysis can prove useful in helping to decide which problem receives the highest priorities all the time. | PPO We first make a list of all of the problems and then try to decide which problem in this group should receive attention first. Each problem will be measured against three criteria: (1) timing, (2) trend, and (3) impact, each of which will be evaluated as being of a high (H), moderate (M), or low (L) degree of concern. We also decide what type K.T. analysis is to be carried out: PA, DA, or PPA. 5.1A Evaluation Criteria 1. Timing: How urgent is the problem? Is a deadline involved? What will happen if nothing is done for a while? For example, if one of the five ovens in a bakery is malfunctioning and the other four ovens could pick up the extra load, it may be possible to wait on this problem and address more urgent problems, so we would give the problem an L rating (low degree of concern). On the other hand, if the other four ovens are operating at maximum capacity and a major order must be filled by the evening, the rating for timing would be H (high degree of concern) because the problem must be solved now. Whaat is the problem’s potential for growth? In the bakery example, suppose the malfunctioning oven is overheating, getting hotter and hotter, and cannot be turned off. Consequently the trend is getting worse, and you have a high degree of concern (an H) about a fire starting. You also could havea high degree of concern if you are getting further and further behind on your customer's orders. On the other hand, if the oven is off and you can keep up with the orders with four ovens, the frend is a low degree of concern (L). 3. Impact: How serious is the problem? What are the effects on the people, the product, the organization, and its policies? In the bakery example, ¢. Suppose you cannot get the oven repaired in time to fill the order of a Ge major client. If, as a result, you could subsequently lose the client's business, then the impact is a high degree of concern (H). On the other hand, if you can find a way to fill all the orders for the next few days, then the impact of one malfunctioning oven is a moderate degree of concern (M). der several examples and solutions to help illustrate the K.T. ing problems. First let's consider the problem of the man pictured on the next page.Sec. 5.1 Situation ANALYsIs 89 K.T. Situation Analysis of : Youknowit'sareally bad daywhen... aS Eroject . Get dog off leg . Repair car . Put out fire |. Ensure papers in briefcase will not be destroyed . Prepare for touchdown of tornado . tis necessary to get the dog off your leg now (High Priority). The trend is getting worse because there are more and more lacerations (High Priority) and the impacts that you can do nothing else until the dog is off your leg (High Priority). The process is to decide how to get the dog off your leg (DA). . Repairing the car can wait (Low Priority) and it is not getting worse (Low Priority), but if it is not repaired soon it could have impact on your job by your not being able to visit clients (Moderate Priority). The problem is to find out what is wrong with the car (PA). . Putting out the fire receives high priority in all three categories. The problem is to decide (DA) how to do it: Get the hose or fire extinguisher; call the fire department; and/or make sure everyone is out of the house. . If you rush off to handle the other projects in this list, you need to make sure your months of work, which includes signed documents in your briefcase, are Protected. The process is one of Potential Problem Analysis (PPA) and of making sure your signed papers (which your clients now wish they had not signed) are in a safe place. . While the tornado looks somewhat close in the picture, it may be used'to represent a tornado in the area, and thus may only bea tornado warning. So this hazard could merit Decision Analysis/Potential Problem Analysis.90 Decipine THE Course or Action Cuap. 5 ¢ First Day on'the Job. .. Trial by Fire ‘Sara Brown just became manager of Brennan's Office Supply Store, The Brennan Company owns ten such stores in the Midwest. Sara's store, whichis locatedin the | downtown area on a busy street, has an inventory of over one million dollars and ‘over 20,000 square feet of floor space. On her first day of work, Sara is inundated with problems. A very expensive custom-ordered desk that was deliverediast week ‘received a number of scratches during unpacking, and the stockroom manager | wants to know. what he : should do. She just discovered that the store has not yet ‘paid the utility bills that were ‘due at the end of last month, and she realizes that the ‘store has been habitually late paying its bills. The accounts receivable department ‘tells herthat it has had an abnormally high number of delinquent accounts over the } past few months, and itwants to know what action should be taken. There is alarge pile of boxes in the storeroom from last week that have yet to be opened and | inventoried. The impression. she has been getting all morning from the 30 | employees is that they are all unhappy and dislike working at the store. To top things off, shortly after lunch, a latge delivery truck pulls up to the front of the store and double-parks, blocking traffic. The driver comes into the store and announces that ‘he has a shipment of 20 new executive desks. Where does Sara want them | placed? The employees tell Sara that this shipment was not due until next week and there isn’t any place to put them right now. Outside she hears horns of the angry ‘drivers ast the: traffic Jam grows, What should Sara do? Situation Analysis S ss ned Boxes i i crete Desks Personnel Employee Morale Money Owed “Finances: sth i Money Due Quality , » Scratched Desk While boxes on the floor may be an eyesore and awkward to step around, itis not ‘necessary we do. anything about them immediately (Lin timing). The situation is not getting worse by | having them there (L in trend), and the impact of not having them opened and the contents shelved is low. The process to address this subconcern, is decision analysis~ we have to decide who is to open the boxes and when to do it; Whatto do about the 20 new desks has to be decided (DA) immediately and thus: is a high degree of concern. The impact of not accepting or accepting and storing ‘such alarge orderisa high: degrée of concern. A traffic jamis beginning to form and is ‘getting worse white Sara is deciding what to do so the trend is a high (H) degree | of concern. The einployee morale needs to be addressed in the very near future. itis believed that lack of care and sloppiness were factors in damaging the custom- ordered: desk, so its impact has a high degree of concern. The morale, while low, could get worse and therefore the trend is a moderate (M) degree of concern. We don’ meena: is low So we need to carry out a problem analysis (PA) = continued 5Sec. 5.1 Siuation ANALysiS bd First Day on the Job... Trial by Fire -continued to learn the problem. Sara needs to pay the utility bills fairly soon or the electrical power to the store could be shut off, which would cause a high degree of concern. inthe impact category. Sara needs to find out why the money due her has notbeen paid (Problem Analysis). Nothing needs to be done with the scratched desk immediately, but we do need to decide what to do in the not too distant future (DA). We also need to plan how to unpack the desks and other items more carefully (Potential Problem Analysis). ‘ 5.1B The Pareto Analysis and Diagram When it is evident that there is more than one problem to be dealt with, a Pareto Analysis is another helpful tool for deciding which problems to attack first. This tool is commonly used in industry for quickly deciding which problem to attack first. The Pareto Analysis shows the relative importance of each individual problem to the other problems in the situation. Pareto Analysis draws its name from the Pareto Principle which states that 80% of the trouble comes from 20% of the problems. Thus, it helps to highlight the viral few concerns as opposed to the trivial many. The defects to investigate first for corrective action are those that will make the largest impact. As an example, let’s consider the problems that the Toasty O's plant had with their product last year (See To Market, To Market example in Chapter 3). The problems were classified as follows: Number of Boxes A. Inferior printing on boxes (smeared/blurred) 10,000 B. Overfilling boxes (100 much weight) 30,000 C. Boxes damaged during shipping 2,000 D. Inner wrapper not sealed (stale) 25,000 E. No prize in box 50,000 ‘The data are shown graphically below:Shale a is a 92 DEcIDING THE Course OF AcTION —CHap. 5 When the bar graph has the frequencies arranged in a descending order, the resulting figure is called a Pareto Diagram. Based on the number of boxes affected, the Toasty O’s plant would probably attack the problem in the following order E-B- D-A-C. But, ifthey reexamine the data in terms of lost revenue instead of the number of boxes affected, a different picture of the problems emerges. $00,000 $80,000 $70,000 $60,000 $50,000 $40,000 $30,000 $20,000 $10,000 so Boxes Lost Revenue($. A. Inferior printing on boxes (smeared/blurred) —_ 10,000. $100 B. Overfilling boxes (too much weight) 30,000 $6,000 C. Boxes damaged during shipping 2,000 $7,000 D. Inner wrapper not sealed (stale) 25,000 $87,500 E. No prize in box 50,000 $17,500 From this graph it is clear that we can make the biggest impact on the problem situation by attacking the stale cereal problem (D) first, followed by E-C- B-A. Whena Pareto Diagram is made, care should be taken to “weight” the problems using the most relevant quantity to the particular situation. In this case (and in many others) the impact on plant revenue is the key parameter. Pareto Diagrams are merely auseful, convenient way to organize and visualize problem datato help decide which of multiple problems to attack first. 5.2 K.T. PROBLEM ANALYSIS AND TROUBLESHOOTING Our studies on problem-solving techniques in industry revealed that one of the major differences between experienced problem solvers and novice problem solvers was their ability to ask the right questions. Experienced problem solvers have Jearned to ask questions that will penetrate to the heart of the problem and to interview as many people as necessary who might have useful information about the problem. A technique that facilitates asking the proper questions is Kepner-Tregoe (K.T.) Problem Analysis. In this technique, distinctions are made betweenSec. 5.2 K.T. ProsEM ANALYSIS AND TROUBLESHOOTING 93 * What is the problem and what is not the problem? + Where did the problem occur? Where is everything OK? + When did the problem first occur? When was everything OK? + What is the magnitude (extent) of the problem? This analysis is most useful in troubleshooting operations where the cause of the problem or fault is not known. Problems that lend themselves to K.T. Problem Analysis are ones in which an undesirable level of performance can be observed and compared with the accepted standard performance. For example, consider the following case in which acompany ordered and received anew shipment of company stationery with the logo printed at the top. A few days later, it was noticed the logo was easily smeared. This smearing had never been observed before. In the K.T. analysis, Table 5-1, the deviation is that the printing quality was unacceptable and hence a problem must be precisely identified, described, and located. TABLE 5-1: The Four K.T. Dimensions of a Problem Is. Is NOT DISTINCTION __ CAUSE. Identify: |Whatis the | Whatis not the | Whats the distinc- | Whatis a problem? problem? tion between the is] possible and the is not? cause? Where is the | Whereisthe | What isdistinctive | Whatis the problem problemnot | about the differ- | possible found? found? ence in locations? _| cause? When does | When does the | What is distinctive | Whatis a the problem | problemnot —_| about thediffer- | possible occur? occur? ence in the timing? | cause? When wasit | When wasit | Whats the dis- What is a first observed? | last observed? | tinction between _| possible these observations? | cause? Magnitude: | How far does | How localized _} What is the ‘What is a the problem | isthe problem? | distinction? possible extend? cause? How many | How many What is the Whatis a units are unitsarenot | distinction? possible affected? affected? cause? How much of | How much of — | What is the What isa any one unit is } any one unitis | distinction? possible affected? not affected? cause? Copyright Kepner-Tregoe, Inc., 1994. Reprinted with permission.[A good problem |sratement often lincludes: \(2) What is known, \(b) What is unknown. l(c) Whar is sought 94 Decipine THE Course oF Action = Cuap. 5 The basic premise of K.T. Problem Analysis is that there is always something that distinguishes what the problem ZS from what it IS NOT. The cause of the problem is usually a change that has taken place to produce undesirable effects. Things were OK, now they’re not. Something has changed. (The printing company changed to a glossier paper.) The possible causes of the problem (deviation) are deduced by examining the differences found in the problem. (It is difficult to impregnate glossy paper with ink using the current printing process.) The most probable cause of the problem is the one which best explains all the observations and facts in the problem statement. (The ink is not penetrating the paper and thus it wipes off when used.) The real challenge is to identify the distinction between the IS and the IS NOT. Particular care should be taken when filling in the distinction column. ') Sometimes the distinction statement should be rewritten more than once in order to sharpen the statement to specify the distinction exactly. For example, in one problem analyzed by the K.T. method, the statement “two of the filaments were clear (OK) and two were black (not OK)” was sharpened to “two filaments were clear and two were covered with carbon soot.” This sharpening of the distinction was instrumental in determining the reason for the black filament. Think in terms of dissimilarities. What distinguishes this fact (or category) from that fact (or category)? By examining the distinctions, possible causes are generated. This step is the most critical in the process and usually requires careful analysis, insight, and practice to ferret out the differences between the IS and S NOT. From the possible causes, we try to ascertain the most probable cause. The most probable cause is the one that explains each dimension in the problem specification. The final step is to verify that the most probable cause is the true cause. This may be accomplished by making the appropriate change to see if the problem disappears. In addition to what, when, where, and to what extent, it can sometimes be beneficial to add who, why, and how. For example, Who was involved? Who was not involved? Why is it important? Why is it not important? How did you arrive at this conclusion?Sec. 5.2 K.T. PROBLEM ANALYSIS AND TROUBLESHOOTING 95 Troubleshooting is an important skill for problem solvers. Some guidelines for troubleshooting have been given by Woods.3 The problem solver should also separate people’s observations from their interpretations of what went wrong. A common mistake is to assume that the most obvious conclusion or the most common. is always the correct one. (This is, however, a good place to start, though not | “"Rtrast necessarily to stop.) A famous medical school proverb that relates to the diagnosis of disease is: “When you hear hoofbeats, don’t think zebras.” In other words, look for common explanations first. Finally, the problem solver should continually reexamine the assumptions and discard them when necessary.96 Decipine THE Course oF AcTION CHa. 5 ‘Oh, Nuts!t!* The Nuts'n’Bolts Auto Parts Company manufactures and distributes auto parts throughout the United States. Over a period of several months, they have been receiving a large number of complaints about corraded bolts from consumers. Virtually all of the complaints were received between June and August. There were afew complaints during some of the other months, but almost none in January and February, In addition to its manufacturing plant in Detroit, Nuts‘n’Bolts has four major distribution centers in Atlanta, Phoenix, Denver, and Houston, where shipments: from Detroit are stored in warehouses. There seems to be a strong geographical pattern to the compiaints with respect to where shipments originated. A majority of the complaints came from shipments from the regions in Houston and Atlanta. Virtually ho complaints came from the centers at Denver and Phoenix. Sampling indicates that not every part from any given shipment is corroded; only some of the parts, some of the time, from certain geographical locations. Also, due to excellent quality control, virtually no product leaves the plant with any signs of corrosion. The parts are packaged in cardboard boxes, with cardboard placed in between layers of bolts to act as a shock absorber. A few years ago paper was ‘supplied exclusively by Wolverine Paper, whose plant is located near Lake Superior in Michigan. The newly appointed manager in the Nuts'n’Bolts packaging department noted that Wolverine Paper was overcharging for their product and decided to look into other suppliers, The best price offered by far (almost 20% cheaper than the next lowest bid) was from Acadia Paper, located in Maine. Research into how Acadia was able to provide such a low bid yielded the following information, The plant was intended. ‘to produce high-grade paper, but the water intake for the mill is located in a tidal ‘basin, allowing seawater to enter the processing water supply. Because of this, -only low-grade paper can be produced atthe plant. In order to get rid of their excess low-grade paper, Acadia began offering packaging paper well below the “market price." : ‘The manager also set up a contract with Badger Paper, whose plantis located near Lake Michigan in’ Wisconsin. Badger had recently been fined by the Environmental Protection Agency for dumping excessive waste in Lake Michigan. As a result, several changes in Badger's production were made to stay within the EPA's waste limits. This resulted in a decrease in the overall paper quality. In addition to these two suppliers, Nuts'n'Bolts stil! purchased some of its paper from ‘Wolverine Paper Co. Current prices offered by the paper companies determine which company's paper ends up as packaging material for any batch of product. ~continued - “Based on a true industrial problem. Developed in collaboration with Michael Szachta and Professor Brymer Williams, University of Michigan, 1992.