Shockley diodes are curious devices, but rather limited in application.

Their
usefulness may be expanded, however, by equipping them with another means of
latching. In doing so, each becomes true amplifying devices (if only in an on/off
mode), and we refer to these as silicon-controlled rectifiers, or SCRs.

The progression from Shockley diode to SCR is achieved with one small addition,
actually nothing more than a third wire connection to the existing PNPN structure:
(Figure below)

The Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (SCR)

If an SCRs gate is left floating (disconnected), it behaves exactly as a Shockley

diode. It may be latched by breakover voltage or by exceeding the critical rate of
voltage rise between anode and cathode, just as with the Shockley diode. Dropout
is accomplished by reducing current until one or both internal transistors fall into
cutoff mode, also like the Shockley diode. However, because the gate terminal
connects directly to the base of the lower transistor, it may be used as an
alternative means to latch the SCR. By applying a small voltage between gate and
cathode, the lower transistor will be forced on by the resulting base current, which
will cause the upper transistor to conduct, which then supplies the lower
transistors base with current so that it no longer needs to be activated by a gate
voltage. The necessary gate current to initiate latch-up, of course, will be much
lower than the current through the SCR from cathode to anode, so the SCR does
achieve a measure of amplification.
This method of securing SCR conduction is called triggering, and it is by far the
most common way that SCRs are latched in actual practice. In fact, SCRs are
usually chosen so that their breakover voltage is far beyond the greatest voltage
expected to be experienced from the power source, so that it can be turned
on only by an intentional voltage pulse applied to the gate.
It should be mentioned that SCRs may sometimes be turned off by directly
shorting their gate and cathode terminals together, or by reverse-triggering the
gate with a negative voltage (in reference to the cathode), so that the lower
transistor is forced into cutoff. I say this is sometimes possible because it
involves shunting all of the upper transistors collector current past the lower
transistors base. This current may be substantial, making triggered shut-off of an
SCR difficult at best. A variation of the SCR, called a Gate-Turn-Off thyristor,
or GTO, makes this task easier. But even with a GTO, the gate current required to
turn it off may be as much as 20% of the anode (load) current! The schematic
symbol for a GTO is shown in the following illustration: (Figure below)

The Gate Turn-Off thyristor (GTO)

SCRs and GTOs share the same equivalent schematics (two transistors
connected in a positive-feedback fashion), the only differences being details of
construction designed to grant the NPN transistor a greater than the PNP. This
allows a smaller gate current (forward or reverse) to exert a greater degree of
control over conduction from cathode to anode, with the PNP transistors latched
state being more dependent upon the NPNs than vice versa. The Gate-Turn-Off
thyristor is also known by the name of Gate-Controlled Switch, or GCS.
A rudimentary test of SCR function, or at least terminal identification, may be
performed with an ohmmeter. Because the internal connection between gate and
cathode is a single PN junction, a meter should indicate continuity between these
terminals with the red test lead on the gate and the black test lead on the cathode
like this: (Figure below)

Rudimentary test of SCR

All other continuity measurements performed on an SCR will show open (OL on
some digital multimeter displays). It must be understood that this test is very crude
and does not constitute a comprehensive assessment of the SCR. It is possible for
an SCR to give good ohmmeter indications and still be defective. Ultimately, the
only way to test an SCR is to subject it to a load current.
If you are using a multimeter with a diode check function, the gate-to-cathode
junction voltage indication you get may or may not correspond to whats expected
of a silicon PN junction (approximately 0.7 volts). In some cases, you will read a
much lower junction voltage: mere hundredths of a volt. This is due to an internal
resistor connected between the gate and cathode incorporated within some SCRs.
This resistor is added to make the SCR less susceptible to false triggering by
spurious voltage spikes, from circuit noise or from static electric discharge. In
other words, having a resistor connected across the gate-cathode junction requires
that a strong triggering signal (substantial current) be applied to latch the SCR.
This feature is often found in larger SCRs, not on small SCRs. Bear in mind that
an SCR with an internal resistor connected between gate and cathode will indicate
continuity in both directions between those two terminals: (Figure below)

Larger SCRs have gate to cathode resistor.

Normal SCRs, lacking this internal resistor, are sometimes referred to

as sensitive gate SCRs due to their ability to be triggered by the slightest positive
gate signal.
The test circuit for an SCR is both practical as a diagnostic tool for checking
suspected SCRs and also an excellent aid to understanding basic SCR operation.
A DC voltage source is used for powering the circuit, and two pushbutton switches
are used to latch and unlatch the SCR, respectively: (Figure below)
 SCR testing circuit

Actuating the normally-open on pushbutton switch connects the gate to the

anode, allowing current from the negative terminal of the battery, through the
cathode-gate PN junction, through the switch, through the load resistor, and back
to the battery. This gate current should force the SCR to latch on, allowing current
to go directly from cathode to anode without further triggering through the gate.
When the on pushbutton is released, the load should remain energized.
Pushing the normally-closed off pushbutton switch breaks the circuit, forcing
current through the SCR to halt, thus forcing it to turn off (low-current dropout).
If the SCR fails to latch, the problem may be with the load and not the SCR. A
certain minimum amount of load current is required to hold the SCR latched in the
on state. This minimum current level is called the holding current. A load with too
great a resistance value may not draw enough current to keep an SCR latched
when gate current ceases, thus giving the false impression of a bad (unlatchable)
SCR in the test circuit. Holding current values for different SCRs should be
available from the manufacturers. Typical holding current values range from 1
milliamp to 50 milliamps or more for larger units.
For the test to be fully comprehensive, more than the triggering action needs to be
tested. The forward breakover voltage limit of the SCR could be tested by
increasing the DC voltage supply (with no pushbuttons actuated) until the SCR
latches all on its own. Beware that a breakover test may require very high voltage:
many power SCRs have breakover voltage ratings of 600 volts or more! Also, if a
pulse voltage generator is available, the critical rate of voltage rise for the SCR
could be tested in the same way: subject it to pulsing supply voltages of different
V/time rates with no pushbutton switches actuated and see when it latches.
In this simple form, the SCR test circuit could suffice as a start/stop control circuit
for a DC motor, lamp, or other practical load: (Figure below)
 DC motor start/stop control circuit

Another practical use for the SCR in a DC circuit is as a crowbar device for
overvoltage protection. A crowbar circuit consists of an SCR placed in parallel
with the output of a DC power supply, for placing a direct short-circuit on the output
of that supply to prevent excessive voltage from reaching the load. Damage to the
SCR and power supply is prevented by the judicious placement of a fuse or
substantial series resistance ahead of the SCR to limit short-circuit current:
(Figure below)

Crowbar circuit used in DC power supply

Some device or circuit sensing the output voltage will be connected to the gate of
the SCR, so that when an overvoltage condition occurs, voltage will be applied
between the gate and cathode, triggering the SCR and forcing the fuse to blow.
The effect will be approximately the same as dropping a solid steel crowbar
directly across the output terminals of the power supply, hence the name of the
circuit.
Most applications of the SCR are for AC power control, despite the fact that SCRs
are inherently DC (unidirectional) devices. If bidirectional circuit current is required,
multiple SCRs may be used, with one or more facing each direction to handle
current through both half-cycles of the AC wave. The primary reason SCRs are
used at all for AC power control applications is the unique response of a thyristor
to an alternating current. As we saw, the thyratron tube (the electron tube version
of the SCR) and the DIAC, a hysteretic device triggered on during a portion of an
AC half-cycle will latch and remain on throughout the remainder of the half-cycle
until the AC current decreases to zero, as it must to begin the next half-cycle. Just
prior to the zero-crossover point of the current waveform, the thyristor will turn off
due to insufficient current (this behavior is also known as natural commutation)
and must be fired again during the next cycle. The result is a circuit current
equivalent to a chopped up sine wave. For review, here is the graph of a DIACs
response to an AC voltage whose peak exceeds the breakover voltage of the
DIAC: (Figure below)

DIAC bidirectional response

With the DIAC, that breakover voltage limit was a fixed quantity. With the SCR, we
have control over exactly when the device becomes latched by triggering the gate
at any point in time along the waveform. By connecting a suitable control circuit to
the gate of an SCR, we can chop the sine wave at any point to allow for time-
proportioned power control to a load.
Take the circuit in Figure below as an example. Here, an SCR is positioned in a
circuit to control power to a load from an AC source.

SCR control of AC power

Being a unidirectional (one-way) device, at most we can only deliver half-wave

power to the load, in the half-cycle of AC where the supply voltage polarity is
positive on the top and negative on the bottom. However, for demonstrating the
basic concept of time-proportional control, this simple circuit is better than one
controlling full-wave power (which would require two SCRs).
With no triggering to the gate, and the AC source voltage well below the SCRs
breakover voltage rating, the SCR will never turn on. Connecting the SCR gate to
the anode through a standard rectifying diode (to prevent reverse current through
the gate in the event of the SCR containing a built-in gate-cathode resistor), will
allow the SCR to be triggered almost immediately at the beginning of every
positive half-cycle: (Figurebelow)

Gate connected directly to anode through a diode; nearly complete half-wave

current through load.

We can delay the triggering of the SCR, however, by inserting some resistance
into the gate circuit, thus increasing the amount of voltage drop required before
enough gate current triggers the SCR. In other words, if we make it harder for
electrons to flow through the gate by adding a resistance, the AC voltage will have
to reach a higher point in its cycle before there will be enough gate current to turn
the SCR on. The result is in Figure below.

Resistance inserted in gate circuit; less than half-wave current through load.

With the half-sine wave chopped up to a greater degree by delayed triggering of

the SCR, the load receives less average power (power is delivered for less time
throughout a cycle). By making the series gate resistor variable, we can make
adjustments to the time-proportioned power: (Figure below)

Increasing the resistance raises the threshold level, causing less power to be
delivered to the load. Decreasing the resistance lowers the threshold level,
causing more power to be delivered to the load.

Unfortunately, this control scheme has a significant limitation. In using the AC

source waveform for our SCR triggering signal, we limit control to the first half of
the waveforms half-cycle. In other words, it is not possible for us to wait
until after the waves peak to trigger the SCR. This means we can turn down the
power only to the point where the SCR turns on at the very peak of the wave:
(Figure below)

Circuit at minimum power setting

Raising the trigger threshold any more will cause the circuit to not trigger at all,
since not even the peak of the AC power voltage will be enough to trigger the
SCR. The result will be no power to the load.
An ingenious solution to this control dilemma is found in the addition of a phase-
shifting capacitor to the circuit: (Figure below)

Addition of a phase-shifting capacitor to the circuit

The smaller waveform shown on the graph is voltage across the capacitor. For the
sake of illustrating the phase shift, Im assuming a condition of maximum control
resistance where the SCR is not triggering at all with no load current, save for what
little current goes through the control resistor and capacitor. This capacitor voltage
will be phase-shifted anywhere from 0o to 90o lagging behind the power source AC
waveform. When this phase-shifted voltage reaches a high enough level, the SCR
will trigger.
With enough voltage across the capacitor to periodically trigger the SCR, the
resulting load current waveform will look something like Figure below)

Phase-shifted signal triggers SCR into conduction.

Because the capacitor waveform is still rising after the main AC power waveform
has reached its peak, it becomes possible to trigger the SCR at a threshold level
beyond that peak, thus chopping the load current wave further than it was possible
with the simpler circuit. In reality, the capacitor voltage waveform is a bit more
complex that what is shown here, its sinusoidal shape distorted every time the
SCR latches on. However, what Im trying to illustrate here is the delayed
triggering action gained with the phase-shifting RC network; thus, a simplified,
undistorted waveform serves the purpose well.
SCRs may also be triggered, or fired, by more complex circuits. While the circuit
previously shown is sufficient for a simple application like a lamp control, large
industrial motor controls often rely on more sophisticated triggering methods.
Sometimes, pulse transformers are used to couple a triggering circuit to the gate
and cathode of an SCR to provide electrical isolation between the triggering and
power circuits: (Figure below)

Transformer coupling of trigger signal provides isolation.

When multiple SCRs are used to control power, their cathodes are
often not electrically common, making it difficult to connect a single triggering
circuit to all SCRs equally. An example of this is the controlled bridge
rectifier shown in Figure below.

Controlled bridge rectifier

In any bridge rectifier circuit, the rectifying diodes (in this example, the rectifying
SCRs) must conduct in opposite pairs. SCR1 and SCR3 must be fired
simultaneously, and SCR2 and SCR4 must be fired together as a pair. As you will
notice, though, these pairs of SCRs do not share the same cathode connections,
meaning that it would not work to simply parallel their respective gate connections
and connect a single voltage source to trigger both: (Figure below)

This strategy will not work for triggering SCR2 and SCR4 as a pair.

Although the triggering voltage source shown will trigger SCR4, it will not trigger
SCR2 properly because the two thyristors do not share a common cathode
connection to reference that triggering voltage. Pulse transformers connecting the
two thyristor gates to a common triggering voltage source will work, however:
(Figure below)

Transformer coupling of the gates allows triggering of SCR2 and SCR4 .

Bear in mind that this circuit only shows the gate connections for two out of the
four SCRs. Pulse transformers and triggering sources for SCR1 and SCR3, as well
as the details of the pulse sources themselves, have been omitted for the sake of
simplicity.
Controlled bridge rectifiers are not limited to single-phase designs. In most
industrial control systems, AC power is available in three-phase form for maximum
efficiency, and solid-state control circuits are built to take advantage of that.
A three-phase controlled rectifier circuit built with SCRs, without pulse
transformers or triggering circuitry shown, would look like Figure below.

Three-phase bridge SCR control of load

REVIEW: A Silicon-Controlled Rectifier, or SCR, is essentially a Shockley
diode with an extra terminal added. This extra terminal is called the gate, and
it is used to trigger the device into conduction (latch it) by the application of a
small voltage. To trigger, or fire, an SCR, voltage must be applied between
the gate and cathode, positive to the gate and negative to the cathode. When
testing an SCR, a momentary connection between the gate and anode is
sufficient in polarity, intensity, and duration to trigger it. SCRs may be fired by
intentional triggering of the gate terminal, excessive voltage (breakdown)
between anode and cathode, or excessive rate of voltage rise between anode
and cathode. SCRs may be turned off by anode current falling below
the holding current value (low-current dropout), or by reverse-firing the gate
(applying a negative voltage to the gate). Reverse-firing is only sometimes
effective, and always involves high gate current. A variant of the SCR, called
a Gate-Turn-Off thyristor (GTO), is specifically designed to be turned off by
means of reverse triggering. Even then, reverse triggering requires fairly high
current: typically 20% of the anode current. SCR terminals may be identified
by a continuity meter: the only two terminals showing any continuity between
them at all should be the gate and cathode. Gate and cathode terminals
connect to a PN junction inside the SCR, so a continuity meter should obtain
a diode-like reading between these two terminals with the red (+) lead on the
gate and the black (-) lead on the cathode. Beware, though, that some large
SCRs have an internal resistor connected between gate and cathode, which
will affect any continuity readings taken by a meter. SCRs are true rectifiers:
they only allow current through them in one direction. This means they cannot
be used alone for full-wave AC power control. If the diodes in a rectifier circuit
are replaced by SCRs, you have the makings of a controlled rectifier circuit,
whereby DC power to a load may be time-proportioned by triggering the
SCRs at different points along the AC power waveform.