Relay protection of distribution networks
Eugeniusz Rosoowski
Protection and Control
of Distributed Energy Resources
Chapter 2
[email protected]
2. Instrument Transformers 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
1. Voltage (Potential) Transformers (VTs, PTs) are much like small
power transformers, differing only in details of design.
2. Current Transformers (CTs) have their primary windings
connected in series with the power circuit.
2. Instrument Transformers 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
MAIN TASKS OF INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
1. To transform currents or voltages from a usually high value to a
value easy to collect and process for relays and instruments.
2. To insulate the metering circuit from the primary high voltage
system.
3. To provide possibilities of standardizing the instruments and
relays to a few rated currents and voltages.
2. Instrument Transformers 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
In both cases the transformer can be represented by the equivalent
circuit of below figure.
np V pN np I sN
= - for VT = - for CT
ns VsN ns I pN
2. Instrument Transformers 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS
Main source of error: magnetizing current.
t2
For VTs: 0 V 1.2VN
= K v m dt
t1 For CTs: 0 I 150IN
2. Instrument Transformers 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
a) b)
VT for phase phase voltage (a) and for
Typical VT for use
zero-sequence voltage measurement (b);
on MV system
v0 = (va+vb+vc)/3
2. Instrument Transformers 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
1. Typical secondary voltage: 120V (phase-to-phase) or 69.3V
(phase-to-neutral).
2. For electromagnetic VT error is negligible for all practical
purposes in its entire operating range from 0 to about 120%
of its normal rating.
3. Electromagnetic transformers are frequently sources of
ferromagnetic phenomena in primary circuit.
2. Instrument Transformers 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
The Capacitor Voltage Transformers (CVTs) are often more
economic for voltage V 220kV
C1, C2 stack capacitors,
CR compensating reactor,
IVT inducting step-down
transformer,
A-FSC anti-ferroresonance
suppressing circuit.
2. Instrument Transformers 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Typical CT for use Typical CT for use Typical connections
on MV system, on LV system,
wound type of CTs
bushing type
2. Instrument Transformers 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
CT bushing type, 110kV
2. Instrument Transformers 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
CT transient errors
ip equivalent primary current;
idc decaying dc component;
CT equivalent schemes
is secondary current;
2. Instrument Transformers 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Mechanizm of CT saturation
Magnetizing characteristic
2. Instrument Transformers 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
CT transient errors
i1 primary current; i2 secondary current; i magnetizing current;
2. Instrument Transformers 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
CTs accuracy class
IEC60044-1 commonly define protection current transformers in
terms of composite error at an accuracy limit factor.
The classification of protection current transformers follows the
following simple formula:
10 P 10, e.g.: 600/1, 10VA, 10P10
Number before letter indicates Number after letter indicates factor
composite error achieved in of primary current up to which
percentage terms composite error will be achieved
P for Protection
Example:
5P10 - current transformer will have a ratio error of 1% and
phase error not exceeding 60 minutes; this will achieved for
current 10 times greater than nominal value.
2. Instrument Transformers 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Typical application of the flux summation current transformer for
ground-fault protection with metallic sheath conductors,
Ferranti type
2. Instrument Transformers 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
CTs installed over shielded cables
2. Instrument Transformers 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Typical application of the CT for cable network
2. Instrument Transformers 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
Rogowski coil for current sensing
2. Instrument Transformers 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Rogowski coil
dI 1
E=H
dt
Vout =
RC E dt
H coil sensitivity, Vs/A; Vout is proportional to I
2. Line Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Line Protection
Objects Technique
Phase fault protection Overcurrent Protection
Earth fault protection Directional Protection
Auto-Reclosing Negative-sequence Protection
Distribution Network Protection Unit Protection of Feeders
ungrounded system Distance Protection
resonant grounded system
high-resistance grounded system
effectively grounded
2. Line Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Overcurrent (OC) line protection
Fault F1 should be switched-off by Relay B.
Buck-up protection for Relay B is realized by Relay A.
Fault F2 should be switched-off by Relay A.
2. Line Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Defined Time Overcurrent Relay
Ip-u pick-up setting current;
tds defined setting time delay.
Condition for relay switching-off:
I > Ip-u for time t > tds
Instantaneous OC relay when: tds 40 ms
I Lmax < Ip-u < IF1min
2. Line Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Inverse Defined Minimum Time Overcurrent Relay
Values of Ip-u and tds depend on fault
current I.
STI Selective Time Interval
2. Line Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Tripping time characteristics
a b c R
a
t=k b
+c t=k
R
k = 0.01K10.00 I I
b
1 1
I ref I ref
2. Line Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
time
Tripping time characteristics -
example
a
t=k b
+c
I
1
I ref
k = 0.01K10.00
current
2. Line Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay
Adding instantaneous trip units to time-overcurrent relays provides
high-speed relay operation for close-in faults and may also permit
faster settings on the relays in the adjacent section. It may be
applied under the following condition:
IF2max > (1.1 .. 1.3) IF1max
2. Line Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Limitations of Traditional Overcurrent Relay
1. Phase overcurrent relay must be set (pick-up current) above the
maximum load current:
Ip-u > ILoadMax
Therefore, max. load expectations limit the sensitivity and speed
of the protection.
2. Protection settings must be checked against load levels
frequently and seasonally.
3. Ground overcurrent relays must be set above the max. load
unbalance expected on the feeder.
2. Line Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Directional Overcurrent Relay
When there is a source at more than one of the line terminals, fault
and load current can flow in either direction. Relays protecting the
line are therefore subject to fault power and reactive flowing in
both directions.
Since directional relays operate only when fault current flows in
the specified tripping direction, they avoid a coordination problem:
relay RB1 protects only Line 1 while RB2 Line 2.
2. Line Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Directional Overcurrent Relay
The directional measurement is performed with voltage
polarization. The polarizing voltage is taken entirely from phase-
ground voltages (phase-ground fault loops), or phase-phase
voltages (phase-phase fault loops). The polarizing voltage VAM (for
all fault loops) is memorized voltage from the period before fault.
A fault direction is determined from the angle of fault-loop
impedance:
V AM
AngDir < angle < AngNegRes
IA
where: the setting of AngDir and AngNegRs can be set to -15 and
115 degrees respectively.
2. Line Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Negative-Sequence Overcurrent Protection
1. Greater sensitivity and speed for
phase faults lower pick-up level.
2. Buckup for ground faults.
3. Easy to realize in microprocessor-
based relays.
4. Easy understand, coordinate and
set.
3. Network earthing issues 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Network System Grounding
System grounding is related to a method of system neutrals
connection to ground. The following categories can be selected:
Effectively (solidely) grounded system;
Resistance-grounded system;
Reactance grounded system;
Ungrounded (isolated) system.
3. Network earthing issues 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Network System Grounding
The principal purposes of grounding are to minimize potential
transient overvoltages to comply with local, state, and national
codes for personnel safety requirements; and to assist in the rapid
detection and isolation of the trouble or fault areas.
HV system is usually solidely
grounded to prevent overvoltages
during phase-to-ground faults.
3. Network earthing issues 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Ungrounded System
In ungrounded systems there are no intentionally applied
grounding. However, they are grounded by the natural capacitance
of the system to ground. They are frequently applied in industrial
supplying networks (e.g. in mine networks).
DN (MV) ungrounded network (a) and shunt capacitances (b)
3. Network earthing issues 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Ungrounded System ph-G protection issue
Voltage provides the best indication of a ground fault because the
current is very low and, basically, does not change with the fault
location. Problem with selection of a faulty feeder at the busbar.
3. Network earthing issues 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
High-impedance grounding system
There are two types of high impedance - grounding system: high-
resistance and resonant grounding. High-resistance grounding is
widely used in generator MV networks while resonant grounding is
applied in OH, especially rural MV networks.
3. Network earthing issues 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Zig-zag grounding transformer
Winding connection and voltage vectors for Z/d 0 transformer
3. Network earthing issues 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
What is a grounding transformer?
It is used to provide a ground path on either
an ungrounded Wye or a Delta connected
system
The relatively low impedance path to ground
maintains the system neutral at ground potential
On Ungrounded systems you can have
overvoltages of 6 to 8 times normal with
arcing faults
3. Network earthing issues 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Arcing Ground Faults Intermittent or Re-strike
Intermittent ground fault: A re-striking ground fault can
create a high frequency oscillator (RLC circuit), independent
480V Delta Source
of L and C R fe 3 Load
values,
causing high
V V
transient over-
voltages.
Cb Cb
S fa
3. Network earthing issues 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
High-impedance grounding system
A substantial problem in ground-fault detection results from
intermittent faults which occur because of aging wiring and
connections. Intermittent faults are a growing problem in high-
impedance grounding networks.
For increasing the protection
selectivity an additional
resistance /inductance in
grounding circuit may be
switched-on for short time.
3. Network earthing issues 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Intermittent fault
3. Network earthing issues 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Low-impedance grounding system
The low-impedance-grounding limits line-to-ground fault currents to
approximately 50 to 600 A primary. It is used to limit the fault
current, yet permit selective protective relaying by magnitude
differences in fault current by the power system impedances.
4. Line differential protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Differential protection principle
The best protection technique is that known as differential
protection (Unit Protection). That is the unit protection.
For faults outside the zone the differential current is close to zero.
During inside faults differential current is equall to the sum of both
side currents.
Differential current:
id = is1 is 2
4. Line differential protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Line differential protection
Line differential protection needs transmission of fast end
measurements to the local end.
I OP = | I s1 I s 2 | - operating current
I RT = | I s1 + I s 2 | - restraint current
I OP
= const - percentage diff. protection
I RT
4. Line differential protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Line differential protection
Alpha Plane increases sensitivity
R
k=
L
R remote current phasor
L local current phasor
5. Distance protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Line distance protection
Ideal distance characteristics is related to the fault-loop complex
impedance:
Z FL =
VA
IA
(
= RFL + jX FL d RL' + jX L' )
RL, XL - line parameters, /km
5. Distance protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Distance protection: phase-to-phase fault
Ideal distance characteristics is related to the fault-loop complex
impedance:
V A V B V AB
Z FL = = = dZ1L
'
IA IB IA IB
5. Distance protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Distance protection: phase-to-ground fault
Distance to fault is calculated as follows:
VA VA
Z FL = = = dZ '
1L
Z 0' L Z1' L I A k0 I0
I A + I0
Z1' L
5. Distance protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Distance protection: operation principle
The basic principle of distance protection operation is as follows:
whenever the measured impedance vector ZFL falls inside a defined
relay characteristic on R-X plane, the distance unit operates.
Distance relay characteristics originate from MHO characteristic.
MHO distance characteristic
F fault place,
ZL line characteristic.
5. Distance protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Distance protection infeed (reactance) effect
Voltage drop on an unknown fault resistance RF influences the
correct distance to fault determination.
Fault resistance may result in
overreach or underreach decision.
5. Distance protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Distance protection zones
Traditionally three zones of protection have been used to protect a
line section and provide backup for the remote section. Each of the
three zones uses instantaneous operating distance relays.
Zone Z1 is set to 75 90 % of Line1 impedance (instantaneous),
Zone Z2 100% of Line1 + 50% of Line2 (with delay T2 = 0.2 0.3 s);
Zone Z3 100% (Line1 + Line2) + 25% of Line3 (with delay T3= 0.5 3 s).
5. Distance protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Protection characteristics
a) Circle characteristic
b) MHO characteristic
c) Quadrilateral
characteristic
d) Lenticular
characteristic
5. Distance protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Sources of errors
Distance elements should measure the positive-sequence
impedance of the line section between the relay and fault. A
number of the problems cause distance relay measuring errors, e.g.:
a) Fault resistance and infeed effect;
b) Switch-onto-fault;
c) Mutual coupling in parallel lines;
d) Load and system unbalance;
e) Power swing due to electromechanical oscillations
(in transmission lines);
f) Current transformer saturation;
g) CVT transients (in EHV lines);
h) Intercircuit faults;
i)
6. Autoreclosing 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Automatic reclosing
Automatic reclosing (autoreclosing) is a control scheme for quickly
reclosing breaker after clearing a temporary fault in order to restore
the system to normal state as quickly as possible.
It is considered here that the fault is temporary and, once reclosed,
the system will be restored to its normal condition. Adequate
outage time must be allowed for the fault path to deionize if the
scheme is to succeed.
6. Autoreclosing 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Automatic reclosing
However, there is no way to guarantee that reclosing will
be successfully, even though statistic show that a high
percentage of faults are temporary and are successfully
cleared by opening the line and then reclosing after a time
delay for deionization of the arcing fault.
6. Autoreclosing 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Autoreclosing
Reclosing to a permanent fault is called an unsuccessful reclosing.
Important lines, especially tie lines that connect important
generating stations, often require autoreclosing in order to maintain
system stability for a given desired operating condition.
Autoreclosing at distribution networks is useful in order to limit the
outage time of the consumers.
If reclosing is used in the network with distributed generation it may
have to be dalayed to give the small generating units time to switch
off prior to reclosing.
Autoreclosing scheme should detect a fault type to introduce
reclosing only faulty phases.
6. Autoreclosing 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Transient fault
6. Autoreclosing 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Autoreclosing cycles
successful reclosing
Single-shot Reclosing
cycle
unsuccessful reclosing
7. Transformer Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Transformer Protection
Transformers are a critical and
expensive component of the
power system.
7. Transformer Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Transformer Protection
Due to the long lead time for
repair of and replacement of
transformers, a major goal of
transformer protection is
limiting the damage to
a faulted transformer.
7. Transformer Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Introduction
Transformer failures are expensive and also may be dengerous for
personnel. The cost of energy not delivered because of transformer
unavailability and additional costs may be very high.
Transformer protection scheme should disconnect the transformer
before extensive damage occurs in the transformer and the system.
Main transformer abnormal conditions are as follows:
internal faults (interturn, phase-to-phase, phase-to-ground),
overload,
overexcitation causing saturation the transformer core,
sudden gas pressure,
tap changer failures (if a tap changing mechanism is installed)
and others.
7. Transformer Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Classification of protection means
The methods of protection of a power transformer depend on its
kVA rating and its importance for the power system operation. It is
obvious that large units would be protected by relays that utilize
more reliable operating principles with more redundancy in back-up
relays. Main types of transformer protection are as follows:
1. Internal fault protection (usually differential current protection);
2. Overcurrent protection;
3. Ground fault protection;
4. Overexcitation (overfluxing) (V/Hz) protection;
5. Overheating (thermal) protection;
6. Overpressure.
7. Transformer Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Transformer abnormal conditions
Main transformer abnormal conditions are as follows:
internal faults (interturn, phase-to-phase, phase-to-ground),
overload,
overexcitation causing saturation the transformer core,
sudden gas pressure,
tap changer failures (if a tap changing mechanism is installed).
Transformer internal faults
7. Transformer Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Transformer differential protection
Main idea:
I OP = | I s1 I s 2 | | IW 1 IW 2 | - operating current
I RT = | I s1 + I s 2 | | IW 1 + IW 2 | - restraint current
IW 1 , IW 2 - compensated phasor currents measured by the relay.
7. Transformer Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Windings and CTs connection
CTR1 ,CTR2 - CTs rated current.
7. Transformer Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Windings and CTs connection
- operating current
CTR1 ,CTR2 - CTs rated current.
7. Transformer Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Earth fault protection
Restricted earth fault Tank earth fault
protection protection
7. Transformer Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Transformer differential protection
7. Transformer Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Transformer differential protection
Operating conditions for power transformer relays, do not make
differential protection task easy. A number of factors contribute to
this. The most critical include:
saturation of Current Transformers (CTs) during both internal
and external faults;
not perfect match between the ratios of the CTs and the
protected transformer, especially if an on-load tap changer is
installed;
magnetizing inrush currents and stationary overexcitation of the
transformer core;
extremely wide range of internal fault currents.
7. Transformer Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Magnetizing Inrush A Brief Analysis
Magnetizing inrush current in transformers results from any abrupt
change of the magnetizing voltage. Although usually considered a
result of energizing a transformer, the magnetizing inrush may be
also caused by:
occurrence of an external fault;
voltage recovery after clearing an external fault;
change of the character of a fault (for example when a
phase-to-ground fault evolves into a phase-to-phase-to-
ground fault);
out-of-phase synchronizing of a connected generator.
7. Transformer Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Magnetizing Inrush A Brief Analysis
(t ) = vm (t )dt + (0)
(0) remanent flux.
Under the most unfavorable
combination of the voltage phase and
the sign of the remanent flux shown in
Figure, higher remanent flux results in
higher inrush currents.
7. Transformer Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Differential protection magnetizing inrush
Harmonic restraint:
Blocking if:
Id2 > k2 Id1
with: k2 0.2
7. Transformer Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Differential protection
Typical bias characteristic Example: internal fault 5% inter-
turn fault at winding of phase C
7. Transformer Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Buchholz protection
conservator
tank
Buchholz relay is used to protect against faults involving severe
arcing causes a very rapid release of large volumes of gas and oil
vapour.
The Buchholz relay is contained in a cast housing which is
connected in the pipe to the conservator.
7. Transformer Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Typical scheme for medium size transformer
7. Transformer Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Typical scheme for large power transformer
8. Generator Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Introduction
Generation is the core of an electric power system. Generators
based on steam, gas, water or wind turbines and reciprocating
combustion engines are all in use. Majority of used generators are
synchronous generators. In the wind farms there are applied also
induction (asynchronous) generators.
Power plants represent approximately half of the investment in
an electric power system and that is why proper (secure)
generators protection is very important task.
8. Generator Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Introduction
Generator circuits
8. Generator Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Introduction
More important abnormal conditions that must be dealt with
are:
1. Winding Faults:
a) Stator phase and ground
b) Rotor
2. Overload
3. Overspeed
4. Abnormal voltage and frequency
5. Underexcitation and start-up
6. Loss-of field
7. Current unbalance
8. Generator Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Stator windings Differential Protection
a) Fault outside zone b) Fault in zone
8. Generator Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Stator Fault Protection
Protection scheme for high-resistance-grounded generator
with differential protection
8. Generator Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Stator Fault Protection
Differential Protection
scheme for split-phase
windings type of
generator:
two sets of differential
relays in each phase.
8. Generator Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Generator Split-Phase Protection
Turn-to-turn fault in a Simplified equivalent circuit
two-winding machine for a turn-to-turn fault in a
machine
8. Generator Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Generator Split-Phase Protection
Protection scheme with A single protection scheme
dedicated stator phase-winding combining stator phase-
differential and split-phase winding differential and split-
protection elements. phase protection.
8. Generator Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Problems with Differential Protection
Unequal saturation of the CTs
in a split-phase protection
scheme resulting in a fictitious
differential current.
8. Generator Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Generator Split-Phase Protection
N B
87Q
Negative-sequence protection scheme that can be applied
to detect turn-to-turn faults.
8. Generator Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Stator Ground Fault Protection
1. Single phase-to-ground fault is not hazardous (for isolated or
high-impedance grounded system).
2. A second ground fault at the machine terminal, however, causes
a line-to-ground fault that is not limited by any neutral
impedance.
3. This fault current magnitude will quite likely exceed the current
magnitude for which the machine is designed.
4. Machine destruction may result. Early detection, then, is
imperative.
5. Typical solution compares the third harmonic voltage present
between the machine neutral and ground with that at the line
terminals.
8. Generator Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Stator Ground Fault Protection
Third harmonic voltage comparator for high-impedance grounded stator
8. Generator Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Stator Ground Fault Protection
Ground fault protection for low-impedance grounding system
REF Restricted Earth Fault (protection)
8. Generator Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Protection against unbalanced external faults
1
(
I 1 = I A + aI B + a2I C
3
)
1
(
I 2 = I A + a 2 I B + aI C
3
)
a = e j 2 / 3
Protection against unbalanced external faults criterion based on
increasing of negative sequence current
9. Bus bar Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
The Protection of Busbars
Busbars are vital elements of power systems because they link
incoming circuits connected to sources, to outgoing circuits
which feed loads.
When a bus fault occurs, all branches supplying current to that
node must be opened to clear the fault. Such disconnection
clearly causes considerable disruption and the greater of the
operating voltage and current levels of a busbar, the greater will
be the loss of supply resulting from a fault.
The most common protection schemes are based on Kirchhoffs
current low: all branch currents into a node sum to zero.
9. Bus Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
The Protection of Busbars
Busbar arrangement. Inside and outside faults shown.
9. Bus Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Percentage Differential Protection
I OP = I 1 + I 2 + L + I n I RT = k ( I 1 + I 2 + L + I n )
k scaling factor
Special problem with fault at F1 incorrectly opening of the section
9. Bus Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Problem with Unprotected Zone
a) Current transformers
mounted on both sides of
breaker - no unprotected
region.
b) Current transformers
mounted on circuit side
only of breaker - fault
shown not cleared by
circuit protection.
9. Bus Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Protected zones
Bus-section CB closed, Bus-couplers - opened
9. Bus Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Protected zones
Bus-section CB opened, Bus-couplers - closed
9. Bus Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Protected zones
10. Breaker Failure Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Local Backup and Breaker Failure Protection
There are various reasons for a circuit breaker to fail to interrupt
or trip but breakers are almost never redundant because of their
high cost.
Unlike remote line protection, local backup is applied at the local
station. If the local breaker fails, either the primary or backup
relays will initiate the breaker-failure protection to trip other
breakers adjacent to the failed breaker.
Breaker failure protection is a high speed protection scheme that
will trip surrounding breakers in the event that a circuit breaker
fails to clear a fault.
10. Breaker Failure Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Local Backup and Breaker Failure Protection
A breaker will be considered to have failed if, after the trip signal has
been generated, the breaker has:
not started opening within a preset time frame (determined by
switches internal to the breaker),
the breaker has not fully opened within a preset time frame
(determined by switches internal to the breaker), or
if the current has not been broken by the breaker within a preset
time (determined by current measurement devices).
10. Breaker Failure Protection 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Local Backup and Breaker Failure Protection
Distributed RF protection scheme
11. Motor Bus Transfer 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Bus Transfer Technique
A transfer switch is an electrical switch that reconnects
electric power source from its primary source to a standby
source.
Transfer switches transfer electrical power back and forth
between two or more power systems or buses such as a
utility power line and a backup generator. They are used in
applications that require a backup power source where
loss of power could cause problems.
Some transfer switches allow switching from a primary to
a secondary, or even a tertiary power source. Others are
used to switch from a regular power source to a
temporary generator.
11. Motor Bus Transfer 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Motor Bus Transfer Technique (MBT)
Required to maintain continuity of critical processes in
a generating or industrial plant during the following periods
Planned transfers
Maintenance or startup/shutdown
Emergency transfers
Loss of present source due to a fault
A poor transfer can result in a significant angle between
the new source and the motor bus at the instant of
closing.
This results in very high transient torque and current.
Damage can be immediate or cumulative.
11. Motor Bus Transfer 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Motor Bus Transfer Scheme
TB open, fault at F
11. Motor Bus Transfer 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Motor Bus Transfer Characteristic
11. Motor Bus Transfer 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
Motor Bus Transfer Characteristic:
Phase angle, [rad]
spin-down phase angle
11. Motor Bus Transfer 2. Relay protection of distribution networks
