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The book begins with a general background and description of metal-forming processes. Also present the theory of plasticity and methods of analysis as applied to metal forming, FEM formulation and the applications of the method to the analysis of various forming processes
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
646 views198 pagesMetal Forming and Finite Element Method
The book begins with a general background and description of metal-forming processes. Also present the theory of plasticity and methods of analysis as applied to metal forming, FEM formulation and the applications of the method to the analysis of various forming processes
Uploaded by
Wilmer E Cumbicus JiménezCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
/ 198
OXFORD SERIES ON ADVANCED MANUFACTURING
Metal Forming and.
the Finite-Element
Method OXFORD SERIES ON ADVANCED MANUFACTURING METAL FORMING AND THE
FINITE-ELEMENT METHOD
SERIES EDITORS
J. R. CROOKALL
MILTON C. SHAW
SHIRO KOBAYASHI
1, William T. Harris, Chemical Milling: the Technology of Ct SOOIK OH
liam T. Harris, Chemical Milling: the Technology of Cuttin
Materials by Etching (1976) “e a 8 TAYLAN ALTAN
2. Bernard Crossland. Explosive Welding of Metals and its Applications
(1982)
3. Milton C. Shaw. Metal Cutting Principles (1984)
4. Shiro Kobayashi, Soo-Ik Oh, Taylan Altan. Metal Forming and the
Finite-Element Method (1989)
New York Oxford
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
1989 Oxford University Press
Oxford New York “Toronto
Delhi Bombay Calta Madias Kacch
Petaling Jaya Singapore Hong Kong Takso
[Nao Darr Salaam Cape Town
Melboure Auckland
nd ssocited companies in
Beta Toad
Copyright © 1989 by Oxford University Press, Inc
Published by Oxford Universiy Press, in
200 Madson Avenue, New York, New York i016
(Oxford in repstered trademark of Oxo University Press
All sights reseed. No pat ofthis publication maybe reproduce,
‘ore ina ttrival stem. o tasted, ina for oe By soy aa
lectroni mechani, photocopying, recording, or ethers,
‘without the prior prison of Oxord Univesity Press
Library of Congress C3
ging i Pabiation Data
Kotayah, Shiv,
Metal forming andthe ite lemont method /
‘Shiro Kobayas, Soo-k Oh, Taylan Alam
cin. ~ (Oxford seis on tance manufotring:
4) Bibogaphy: Inches inde
ISBN O19 sea
1. Meta woek—Matematieal mele
Fine clement thos
1 Ob, Sook. Ahan. Tay. ML Te WV Sei,
"TS2i3.K56 1m)
ora de9e.4109s
ce
135794642
Printed inthe United States of America
fon sire paper
PREFACE
The application of computer-aided engineering, design, and manufactur-
ing, CAE/CAD/CAM, is essential in modern metal-forming technology.
Thus, process modeling for the investigation and understanding of
deformation mechanics has become a major concern in research, and the
finite-element method (FEM) has assumed increased importance, particu-
larly in the modeling of forming processes.
‘There are many excellent textbooks on the principles and fundamentals
‘of metal forming, but only a few describe the application of FEM to the
analysis and simulation of metal-forming processes.
‘The main purpose of this book is to present the fundamentals and
applications of FEM in metal-forming analysis and technology. The book
is primarily written for graduate students and researchers. However, it
should also be useful to practicing engineers who have a good background
in FEM and who are interested in applying this technique to the analysis of
metal-deformation processes.
In the application of FEM to metal forming, there are two formulations,
namely, flow formulation and solid formulation. Flow formulation assumes
that the deforming material has a negligible elastic response, while solid
formulation includes elasticity. Despite recent advances, the application of
solid formulation to the analysis of metal-forming problems remains
limited. On the other hand, flow formulation has found applications in a
wide variety of important forming problems. This book, therefore, is
mainly devoted to the applications that are based on flow formulation
(purely plastic and viscoplastic). However, recent advances achieved in
Solid formulation have made it applicable to the analysis of some forming
Problems. In crder not to neglect these investigations, comparisons of
solutions ‘based on both formulations, solid and flow, are presented in
Chapter 16.
The book begins with a general background on the subject in Chapter 1
The description of metal-forming processes is given in Chapter 2, and
Chapter 3 details important technological aspects of these processes,
Chapters 4 and 5 present the theory of plasticity and methods of analysis as
applied to metal forming. The FEM formulations are described in
Chapters 6 and 7, and the applications of the method to the analyses of
Various forming processes are presented in Chapters 8 through 11. Chapter vi Preface
12 presents a thermo-viscoplastic analysis and Chapters 13, 14, and 15
include developments in the areas of deformation of porous materials,
three-dimensional problems, and preform design. The book concludes with
Chapter 16, in which further developments are discussed, along with the
outline of solid formulation and comparison of the results by both solid
and flow formulations.
Although this book primarily deals with metals, some of the principles
and solution techniques should be applicable to deformation analyses of
other materials, such as polymers and composites.
Sincere thanks are due to a number of individuals. First of all, we wish
to express our appreciation to Professor E. G. Thomsen, Professor
Emeritus, University of California at Berkeley, who helped us to devote
our careers to research in metal forming. We also thank Professor M. C.
Shaw, Arizona State University, for his encouragement and support in
writing this book, and Professor W. Johnson, Emeritus Professor, Univer-
sity of Cambridge, for his critical comments during the preparation of the
manuscript.
‘The senior author wishes to thank his former graduate students in the
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California at
Berkeley, who have contributed to the advances in the application of FEM
to metal forming.
‘The contents of this book are largely the results of research supported
by the Air Force Wright Aeronautical Laboratory, the National Science
Foundation, and the Army Research Office, and their support is
acknowledged.
We also thank Mr. and Mrs. Joe Bavonese for typing the manuscript.
Berkeley s.
Columbus s.0.
May 1988 A
CONTENTS
Symbols, xii
1, Introduction, 1
1.1 Process Medeling, 1
1.2 The Finite-Element Method, 3
1.3 Solid Formulation and Flow Formulation, 4
1.4 Metal Forming and the Finite-Element Method, 5
References, 6
2, Metal-Forming Processes, 8
2.1 Introduction, 8
2.2 A Metal-Forming Operation as a System, 8
2.3. Classification and Description of Metal-Forming Processes, 11
References, 24
3. Analysis and Technology in Metal Forming, 26
3.1 Introduction, 26
3.2 Flow Stress of Metals, 28
3.3 Friction in Metal Forming, 30
3.4 Temperatures in Metal Forming, 33,
3.5 Impression and Closed-Die Forging, 35
3.6 Hot Extrusion of Rods and Shapes, 36
3.7 Cold Forging and Extrusion, 39
3.8 Rolling of Strip, Plate, and Shapes, 41
3.9 Drawing of Rod, Wire, Shapes, and Tubes, 45
3.10 Sheet-Metal Forming, 47
References, 52
4, Plasticity and Viscoplasticity, 54
4.1. Introduction, 54
4.2 Stress, Strain, and Strain-Rate, 54
4.3 The Yield Criteria, 58
4.4 Equilibrium and Virtual Work-Rate Principle, 61 vit Contents
4.5 Plastic Potential and Flow Rule, 63
4.6 Strain-Hardening, Effective Stress, and Effective Strain, 66
4.7 Extremum Principles, 68
4.8 Viscoplasticity, 70
References, 72
5. Methods of Analysis, 73
5.1 Introduction, 73,
5.2 Upper-Bound Method, 74
5.3 Hill's General Method, 78
5.4 The Finite-Element Method, 83
5.5 Concluding Remarks, 88
References, 88
6. The Finite-Element Method—Part 1, 90
6.1 Introduction, 90
6.2 Finite-Element Procedures, 90
6.3 Elements and Shape Function, 94
6.4 Element Strain-Rate Matrix, 101
6.5 Elemental Stifiness Equation, 108
References, 110
7. The Finite-Element Method—Part II, 111
7.1 Numerical Integrations, 111
7.2 Assemblage and Linear Matrix Solver, 115
7.3 Boundary Conditions, 117
7.4 Direct Iteration Method, 121
7.5 Time-Increment and Geometry Updating, 123
7.6 Rezoning, 126
7.7 Concluding Remarks, 129
References, 129
8. Plane-Strain Problems, 131
8.1 Introduction, 131
8.2 Finite-Element Formulation, 131
8.3 Closed-Die Forging with Flash, 133,
8.4 Sheet Rolling, 137
8.5 Plate Bending, 141
8.6 Side Pressing, 148,
References, 149
9. Axisymmetric Isothermal Forging, 151
9.1 Introduction, 151
9.2 Finite-Element Formulation, 151
Contents ix
9.3 Compression of Solid Cylinders and Heading of Cylindrical Bars,
153
9.4 Ring Compression, 159
9.5. Evaluation of Friction at Tool-Workpiece Interface, 163
9.6 Forging and Cabbaging, 165
References, 172
10, Steady-State Processes of Extrusion and Drawing, 174
10.1 Introduction, 174
10.2 Method of Analysis, 174
10.3 Bar Extrusion, 176
10.4 Bar Drawing, 178
10.5 Multipass Bar Drawing and Extrusion, 183
10.6 Applications to Process Design, 186
References, 187
11. Sheet-Metal Forming, 189
11.1 Introduction, 189
11.2 Plastic Anisotropy, 190
11.3 In-plane Deformation Processes, 192
11.4 Axisymmetric Outof-plane Deformation, 195
11.5 Axisymmetric Punch-Stretching and Deep-Drawing Processes,
201
11.6 Sheet-Metal Forming of General Shapes, 206
11.7 Square-Cup Drawing Process, 210
118 Nonquadratic Yield Criterion, 217
References, 220
12, Thermo-Viscoplastic Analysis, 222
12.1 Introduction, 222
12.2 Viscoplastic Analysis of Compression of a Solid Cylinder, 223
12.3 Heat Transfer Analysis, 225
12.4 Computational Procedures for Thermo- Viscoplastic Analysis,
27
12.5 Applications, 229
12.6 Concluding Remarks, 240
Keterences, 242
13, Compaction and Forging of Porous Metals, 244
13.1 Introduction, 244
13.2 Yield Criterion and Flow Rules, 245
133 Finite-Element Modeling and Numerical Procedures, 246
13.4 Simple Compression, 249
13.5 Axisymmetric Forging of Flange-Hub Shapes, 253, x Contents
13.6 Axisymmetric Forging of Pulley Blank, 256
13,7 Heat Transfer in Porous Materials, 259
13.8 Hot Pressing Under the Plane-Strain Condition, 262
13.9 Compaction, 266
References, 272
14, Three-Dimensional Problems, 275
14,1 Introduction, 275
14.2 Finite-Element Formulation, 276
14.3 Block Compressions, 278
14.4 Square-Ring Compression, 284
14.5 Simplified Three-Dimensional Elements, 287
14.6 Analysis of Spread in Rolling and Flat-Tool Forging, 289
14.7 Concluding Remarks, 295
References, 296
Preform Design in Metal Forming, 298
15.1 Introduction, 298
15.2 Method for Design, 298
15.3 Shell Nosing at Room Temperature, 301
15.4 Plane-Strain Rolling, 305
15.5 Axially Symmetric Forging, 309
15.6 Hot Forming, 315
15.7 Concluding Remarks, 318
References, 320
16. Solid Formulation, Comparison of Two Formulations, and
Concluding Remarks, 321
16.1 Introduction, 321
16.2 Small-Strain Solid Formulation, 321
16.3 Large Deformation: Rate Form, 323
16.4 Large Deformation: Incremental Form, 326
16.5 Comparison with Rigid-Plastic (Flow) Solutions, 327
16.6 Concluding Remarks, 33
References, 335
Appendix. The FEM Code, SPID (Simple Plastic Incremental
Deformation), 338
A.1 Introduction, 338
A2 Program Structure, 339
Contents xi
A3 Input and Output Files, 340
‘A4 Input Preparations, 340
‘AS Description of the Major Variables, 342
6 Program Listing, 343
A7 Example Solution, 364
Index, 371 °
ese
Ele)
F(o,)
om
zo
SYMBOLS
Cross-sectional area
Function of relative
density for porous
materials
Initial cross-sectional
area contribution of the
jth element to node N
Function of relative
density for porous
materials
Breadth
Initial breadth
Strain-rate matrix
Constant
(Class of functions with
continuous derivatives of
all orders up to and
including r|
Volumetric strain-rate
vector
Heat capacity matrix
Diameter
Initial diameter
Effective strain-rate
coefficient matrix
Young's modulus
Work function
Energy rate
Lagrangian strain
Coefficient of anisotropy
Function of stresses
Traction
Shear modulus
Coefficient of anisotropy
Coerficient of anisotropy
H
He
A
H®
H
AH
4
k
4
A
J
OAR
Ly Labs
Laas
Fou
wy ze
Height
Initial height
Final height
Work-hardening function
‘Time derivative of height
Increment of height
Linear invariant of stress
tensor
Quadratic invariant of
stress tensor
Cubic invariant of stress
tensor
Linear invariant of
deviatoric stress tensor
Quadratic invariant of
deviatoric stress tensor
Cubic invariant of
deviatoric stress tensor
Jacobian of coordinate
transformation
Penalty constant
Stiffness matrix
Heat conduction matrix
Coefficient of anistropy
Area coordinate
‘Small-strain moduli
Constitutive moduli
Coefficient of anisotropy
Gradient matrix of shape
function vector N
Coefficient of anisotropy
Shape function matrix
Load
Effective strain-rate
matrix aang
ao
Te
te
‘Symbols
Element of strain-rate t
matrix B f
Heat flux vector
Roll radius T
Relative density of
porous materials Us
‘Average relative density Uy
of porous materials
Initial relative density of | U;
porous materials u
Initial radius v
Internal radius of ings yy,
and tubes ve
Radius of extruded or
drawn bars
Radius of neutral point in
ring compression
Die comer radius
Punch radius
Microstructure
Surface
Surface of tool~
workpiece contact
Surface of discontinuity
Surface where traction
prescribed
Internal surface
Surface where velocity is
prescribed
Surface where heat flux is
prescribed
‘Thickness
‘Temperature
‘Nodal-point temperature
‘Temperature of base
‘metal in porous materials
Die temperature
Environmental
temperature
Apparent temperature of
‘porous materials
Surface temperature
%
%
Workpiece temperature
‘Time derivative of
temperature
Coordinate
transformation matrix
Die or roll velocity
Entrance velocity in
rolling
Exit velocity in rolling
Punch velocity
Volume
Initial volume
Volume of base metal in
porous materials
‘Volume of void in porous
‘materials
Volume change
width
Initial width
‘Average width
‘Time derivative of width
‘Total plastic work per
unit volume
Plastic work-rate per unit
volume
Work-rate per unit
volume in reference state
Element of strain-rate
matrix B
Yield stress in uniaxial
tension
Initial yield stress
‘Yield stress of base metal
{in porous materials
Apparent yield stress of
porous materials
Element of strain-rate
matrix B
Element of strain-rate
matrix B
Height-to-diameter ratio
Specific heat
‘Symbols
Specific heat of die
‘material
Specific heat of base
‘metal in porous materials
Specific heat of void in
porous materials
“Apparent specific heat of
porous materials
Punch depth in sheet-
‘metal forming
Engineering strain
Engineering strain-rate
Coefficient of anisotropy
Frictional stress
Nodal-point force vector
Yield function
Coefficient of anisotropy
Scalar function of stress
invariants
Heat transfer coefficient
Heat transfer coefficient
at tool-workpiece
‘contact surface
Heat transfer coefficient
of lubricant
Coefficient of anisotropy
Scalar function of stress
invariants
Shear yield stress
Apparent shear yield
stress of porous materials
‘Thermal conductivity
Apparent thermal
conductivity of porous
rmeterials
‘Thermal conductivity of
‘base metal in porous
‘materials
Gage length in tensile
test
Coefficient of anisotropy
Initial gage length in
tensile test
sae
cm
Au
Unit tangent vector
Frict
factor
Strain-rate exponent
Coefficient of anisotropy
Strain-hardening
‘exponent
Coefficient of anisotropy
Unit normal to the
surface
Pressure
Average pressure
Die pressure in drawing
First Piola-Kirchhoff
stress
Heat generated through
friction
Heat flux across surface
S
Shape functions
-Value in sheet forming
+-Values in the rolling,
45°, and transverse
directions, respectively
Heat generation-rate
Second Piola-Kirchhoff
stress
Time
‘Time-increment
‘Velocity component
Velocity component at
the ath node
Initial velocity
Relative sliding velocity
Velocity component
normal toa surface
‘Velocity component
tangent to a surface
Velocity discontinuity
Relative sliding velocity
at nodal point
‘Velocity vector at nodal
point by
de,
af
a
be
&
‘Symbols
Initial velocity vector at
nodal point te
Velocity corrections of
nodal values
Virtual velocity
Weight factors
x, ys z-Coordinates of a
ath node A
Die semi-angle
Deceleration coefficient dh
‘Coupling coefficient in
‘temperature calculation
‘Viscosity coefficients #
Radial displacement in ¥
bore expanding 5
Radial displacementin
ange drawing
Kronecker delta «
Emissivity
Effective strain *
Effective strain of base =O
metal in porous materials,
Effective strain value at 7p
node N
Strain-rate bap
Infinitesimal strain bm,
Volumetric strain-rate
Plastic strain-rate on,
Elastic strain-rate
Effective strain-rate
br,
Effective strain-rate of *
‘base metal in porous
‘materials °
Apparent effective strain- °"
rate of porous materials Pe
Limiting strain-rate
* Pa
Natural coordinate bn
E-Coordinate of ath
node be
Function of relative
density in porous °
materials
[Natural coordinate
Coordi
node
‘Angle
‘Heat generation
efficiency factor
Lagrangian multiplier
Proportionalty factor
(ate) in flow rules
Proportionality factor
(infinitesimal) in flow
rales
te of ath
Coefficient of friction
Poisson’s ratio
Natural coordinate
E-Coordinate of ath
node
Plane of zero mean stress
in stress space
Functional
‘Variation of functional 2.
‘Sarvalue at jth element
Term due to deformation
energy-rate in dat
Penalty term in 5:
‘Term due to traction in
ox
‘Term that includes
Lagrangian multiplier in
ox
‘Term due to friction in
ox
Density
Initial density
Density of base metal in
porous materials
Density of die material
‘Apparent density of
porous materials
Density of void in porous
materials
‘Stephan-Bolteman
constant
‘Cauchy stress 92)
Deviatoric stress
Effective stress, ow oF)
stress
Mean stress
Kirchhoff stress
Shear traction in Hill's
method
‘Bulge function in simple
compression
Strain-rate sensitivity
fanetion
Rate of rotation 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Process Modeling
In the late 1970s and early 1980s the use of computer-aided techniques
(computer-aided engineering, design, and manufacturing) in the metal-
forming industry increased considerably. ‘The trend seems to be toward
ever wider application of this technology for process simulation and
process design
A goal in manufacturing research and development is to determine the
optimum means of producing sound products. The optimization criteria
may vary, depending on product requirements, but establishing an
appropriate criterion requires thorough understanding of manufacturing
processes. In metal-forming technology, proper design and control re-
quires, among other things, the determination of deformation mechanics
involved in the processes. Without the knowledge of the influences of
variables such as friction conditions, material properties, and workpiece
geometry on the process mechanics, it would not be possible to design the
dies and the equipment adequately, or to predict and prevent the
occurrence of defects. Thus, process modeling for computer simulation has
been a major concern in modern metal-forming tecinology. Figure 1.1
indicates the role of process modeling in some detail
In the past a number of approximate methods of analysis have been
developed and applied to various forming processes. ‘The methods most
well known are the slab method, the slip-line field method, the visioplas-
ticity method, upper- (and lower-) bound techniques, Hill's general
method, and, more recently, the finite-element method (FEM).
In the slab method, the workpiece being deformed is decomposed in
several slabs. For each slab, simplilying assumptions are made mainly with
respect to stress distributions. The resulting approximate equilibrium
equations are solved with imposition of stress compatibility between slabs
and boundary tractions. The final result is a reasonable load prediction
‘with an approximate stress distribution.
The slip-line field method is used in plane strain for perfectly plastic
materials (constant yield stress) and uses the hyperbolic properties that the
stress equations have in such cases. The construction of slip-line fields,
although producing an “exact” stress distribution, is still quite limited in
1 Introduction 3
predicting results that give good correlations with experimental work.
From the stress distributions, velocity fields can be calculated through
plasticity equations.
‘The visioplasticity method originated by Thomsen et al. [1] combines
experiment and analysis. Ater the velocity vectors have been determined
from an actual test, strain-rates are calculated and the stress distributions
are obtained from plasticity equations. The method has helped to obtain
reliable solutions in detail for processes in which the experimental
determination of the velocity vectors was possible.
‘The upper-bound method requires the guessing of admissible velocity
fields, among which the best one is chosen by minimizing total potential
energy. Information leading to a good selection of velocity fields comes
from experimental evidence and experience. This method, with ex-
Equipment
(ourPuT
€
&
perience, can deliver a fast and relatively accurate prediction of loads and
velocity distributions.
Hill [2] has given a general method of analysis for metal-working
processes when the plastic flow is unconstrained. The method is based on a
criterion of approximation derived from the interpretation of the virtual
Determination
of process
condition
‘Secondary product
‘requirements
Toleronce, surface
‘CONSTRAINTS
work-rate principle. The method was applied to the analysis of compres-
ion with barreling, spread in bar drawing, and thickness change in tube
sinking,
‘The upper-bound method and Hill's general method are outlined in
forming,
energi
PROCESS MODELING
more detail, with illustrative examples in relation to the finite-clement
method, in Chap. 5. For further reference, the books that provide a wealth
of solutions to many metal-iorming problems using the above methods are
listed in the References [3-21]
flow (geomettical
temperature, metol
change
Process Analysis,
stresses, strains,
é
8
3
Loads
Primary product
requremements
“These methods have been useful in predicting forming loads, overall
geometry changes of deforming workpieces, and qualitative modes of
metal flow, and in determining approximate optimum process condition.
However, accurate determination of the effects of vatious process para-
meters on the detailed metal flow became possible only recently, when the
finite-element method was developed for the analyses. Since then, the
finite-element method has assumed steadily increased importance in
| simulation of metal-forming processes. Among the books cited, however,
only a few discuss the application of the finite-element method to
metal-forming processes.
brewer
peewee fb --- --nnnfne
porometers >
Too! geometry
tion
1.2. The Finite-Element Method
The finite-element technique, whose engineering birth and boom in the
1960s was due to the application of digital computers to structural analysis,
has spread to a variety of engineering and physical science disciplines in
the last decade.
‘The basic concept of the finite-element method is one of discretization.
‘The finite-element model is constructed in the following manner (22). A.
number of finite points are identified in the domain of the function, and the
Process Parameters
Die and too! motion
Moterio! Porometers
Strain rote sensitivity
Temperature
Workpiece geometry
Labs
Moteriol
Worthardening
Anisotropy
Temperature
{
i
i
i
|
t
t
FIG. 1.1 Block diagram for process design and control in met 4 Metal Forming and the Finite-Element Method
values of the function and its derivatives, when appropriate, are specified
at these points. The points are called nodal points. The domain of the
function is represented approximately by a finite collection of subdomains
called finite elements, The domain is then an assemblage of elements
connected together appropriately on their boundaries. The function is,
approximated locally within each element by continuous functions that are
uniquely described in terms of the nodal-point values associated with the
particular element. The path to the solution of a finite-element problem
consists of five specific steps: (a) identification of the problem; (b)
definition of the element; (c) establishment of the element equation; (d)
the assemblage of element equations; and (¢) the numerical solution of the
global equations. ‘The formation of element equations is accomplished
from one of four directions: (1) direct approach; (2) variational method;
(3) method of weighted residuals; and (4) energy balance approach.
‘The basis of finite-element metal-flow modeling, for example, using the
variational approach is to formulate proper functionals, depending upon
specific constitutive relations. The solution of the original boundary value
problem is obtained by the solution of the dual variational problem in
which the first-order variation of the functional vanishes. Choosing an
approximate interpolation function (or shape function) for the field
variable in the elements, the functional is expressed locally within each
‘element in terms of the nodal-point values. The local equations are then
assembled into the overall problem. Thus, the functional is approximated
by a function of global nodal-point values. The condition for this function
to be stationary results in the stiffness equations. These
are then solved under appropriate boundary conditions. The basic mathe-
matical description of the methods, as well as the solution techniques, are
given in several books (for example, References [23, 24, 25}).
‘The main advantages of the finite-element mzthod are: (1) the capability
of obtaining detailed solutions of the mechanics in a deforming body,
namely, velocities, shapes, strains, stresses, temperatures, or contact
pressure distributions; and (2) the fact that a computer code, once written,
can be used for a large variety of problems by simply changing the input
data,
1.3 Solid Formulation and Flow Formulation
In the analysis of metal forming, plastic strains usually outweigh clastic
strains and the idealization of rigid-plastic or rigid-viscoplastic material
behavior is acceptable. The resulting analysis based on this assumption is,
known as the flow formulation [26]. In other applications, phenomena
associated with elasticity cannot be neglected. In the so-called solid
{formulation {27}, the material is considered to behave as an elastic-plastic
or elastic-viscoplastic solid.
‘The original problem associated with the deformation process of
materials is a boundary-value problem. For the deformation process of
Introduction s
rigid-viscoplastic materials the boundary-value problem is stated as
follows: at a certain stage in the process of quasistatic distortion, the shape
of the body, the internal distribution of temperature, the state of
inhomogeneity, and the current values of material parameters are sup-
posed to be given or to have been determined already. The velocity vector
is prescribed on a part of surface J, together with traction F on the
remainder of the surface, Sp. Solutions to this problem are the stress and
velocity distributions that satisfy the governing equations and the boundary
conditions.
in the solid approach, the boundary value problem is stated such that, in
addition to the current states of the body, the internal distribution of the
stress also is supposed to be known and the boundary conditions are
prescribed in terms of velocity and traction-rate. Distributions of velocity
And stress-rate (or displacement and stress-inerement) are the solutions to
the problem.
‘The solid formulations of the finite-element method for metal-forming
problems have been based on the use of the PrandtlReuss equations for
elasticcplastic materials. The formulation is given in the rate form and
assumes the infinitesimal theory of deformation. In analyzing metal-
forming processes, however, the elastic-plastic finite-element method
infinitesimal formulation has severe drawbacks. The large amount of
rotation involved in metal forming rules out infinitesimal analysis, and
large-deformation analyses also have some difficulties in reproducing
observed phenomena, such as folding in compression of solid cylinders
Gee Chap. 9). Furthermore, the nature of elastic-plastic constitutive
equations requires short time steps in nonsteady-state analysis, a require-
ment that is severe when the body goes from clastic to plastic
deformations.
‘A simplified solution to this problem is to neglect the elastic portion of
deformation and treat all plastic deformation as a flow problem. In
general, this makes an infinitesimal analysis feasible and large steps
possible
1.4 Metal Forming and the Finite-Element Method
‘The application of the finite-element method to metal-forming problems
began as an extension of structural analysis technique to the plastic
deformation regime. Thus, early applications of the finite-element method
to metal-forming problems were based on the plastic stress-strain matrix
developed from the Prandtl-Reuss equations. Hydrostatic extrusion,
compression, and indentations were analyzed using this matrix and the
infinitesimal variational formulations.
‘An analysis method in the area of metal-forming application, in many
cases, can be justified only by its solution reliability and computational
efficiency. This realization has led to the development of numerical
procedures based on the flow formulation. Initial applications of the 6 Metal Forming and the Finite-Element Method
rigid-plastc finite-element method to metal-forming processes were mainly
in the analysis of compression and other simple processes. Since those
early days, many developments of the numerical techniques have occurred,
fs well as the continuous growth in the field of applications. Although
‘advances have been made in recent years, the application of solid
formulation to metal-forming problems is limited. On the other hand, flow
formulation has found applications for a wide variety of important forming
roblems.
Pe) most important improvement was the inclusion of the effects of
strain-rate and temperature in material properties and of thermal coupling
in the solution. This development has extended the finite-element analysis,
into the warm and hot working range. A further important step in the
development of analysis procedures was the development of a user-
oriented general-purpose program. The natural course of development of
the technique has been in the analysis of two-dimensional and axially
symmetric problems, and most recent developments emphasize the ap-
plication of the finite-element method to three-dimensional problems. A.
further development is the unique application of the finite-element method
to preform design in metal forming. Extensive references on the use of the
finite-element method to metal-forming applications can be found in the
References [28, 29].
References
1, Thomsen, E. G., Yang, C. T., and Bierbower, J. B., (1954), “An Experime
tal Investigation of the Mechanics of Plastic Deformation of Metals,” Univ.
California Pub. Engg., Vol. 5.
2, Hill, R., (1963), “A General Method of Analysis of Metal-Working Proc-
esses," J. Mech. Phys. Solids, Vol. 11, p. 305.
3. Hill, R., (1980), “The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity,” Oxford University
Press, London.
4, Prager, W., and Hodge, P. G., Jr., (1951), “Theory of Perfectly Plastic
Solids,” Chapman and Hall, London.
5, Hoffman, O., and Sachs, G., (1953), “Introduction to the Theory of Plasticity
for Engineers,” McGraw-Hill, New York.
6. Unksov, E, P., (1961), “An Engineering Theory of Plasticity,” Butterworths,
London.
7. Johnson, W., and Mellor, P. B., (1973), “Engineering Plasticity,” Van
Nostrand and Reinhold, London.
8, Ford, H., and Alexander, J. M., (1963), "Advanced Mechanics of Materials,
Longmans Green, London
9. Alexander, J. M., and Brewer, R. C., (1963), "Manufacturing Properties of
Materials,” Van Nostrand, London.
10, Thomsen, E, G., Yang, C. T., and Kobayashi, S., (1963), “Mechanics of
Plastic Deformation in Metal Processing,” Macmillan, New York: Macmillan~
Collier, London.
11, Kalpakjian, S., (1967), "Mechanical Processing of Materials,” Van Nostrand,
Princeton, NJ
12, Avitzr, B. (1968), “Metal Forming and Process,” McGraw-Hil, New
ork.
»,
. Boer, C. R., Rebelo, N., Rystad, H., and Schroder, G., (1986),
Introduction 7
Johnson, W., and Kudo, H., (1962), “The Mechanics of Metal Extrusion,”
Manchester University Press, Manchester, UK.
Johnson, W., Sowerby, R., and Haddow, J. B., (1970), “Plane-Strain
Slip-Line Fields," American Elsevier, New York.
Johnson, W., Sowerby, R., and Venter, R. D., (1982), “Plane Strain Slip Line
Fields for Metal Deformation Processes,” Pergamon Press, Oxford
. Blazynski, T. Z., (1976), “Metal Forming,” Wiley, New York
Rowe, G. W., (1977), “Principles of Industrial Metalworking Processes,”
Edward Arnold, London.
Slater, R.A. C. (1977), “Engineering Plasticity.” Wiley, New York.
Hosford, W. F., and Caddell, R, M., (1983), “Metal Forming; Mechanics and
Metallurgy,” Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NI
Altan, T Oh, S. [, and Gegel, H., (1983), “Metal Forming; Fundamentals
‘and Applications,” American Sotiety for Metals, Metals Park, Ohio,
Process
Modelling of Metal Forming and ‘Thermomechanical Treatment,” Springer-
Verlag, Berlin
Mote, C. D., Jr., (1980), “Introduction to the Finite Element Method,”
Lecture Note, University of California at Berkeley.
Zenkiewice, 0. C, (1977) “The Finite Element Method,” 3rd Edition,
McGraw-Hill, New York
Strang, G., and Fix, G. J., (1973), “An Analysis of the Finite Element
Method,” Prentice-Hall, Englewood Clifs, NJ.
Huebner, K. H., (1975), “The Finite Element Method for Engineers,” Wiley,
New York.
Zienkiewicz, O. C., (1984), Flow Formulations for Numerical Solutions of
Forming Processes, “Numerical Analysis of Forming Processes,” edited by J.
F.T. Pittman et al., Wiley, New York, p. 1
Nagtegaal, J. C., and Veldpaus, F. E., (1984), On the Implementation of
Finite Strain Plasticity Equations in a Namerical Model, “Numerical Analysis
of Forming Processes,” edited by J. F, T, Pittman et al., Wiley, New York, p.
351
Kobayashi, S., (1982), “A Review on the Finite Element Method and Metal
Forming Process Modeling,” J. Appl. Metal Working, Vol. 2, p. 163.
Kobayashi, S., (1985), “Metal Forming and the Finite Element Method—Past
‘and Future,” Proceedings of the 25th Int. Conf. Mach Tool Des. Res.. Af
Birmingham, p. 17. 2
METAL-FORMING PROCESSES
2 Introduction
In metal forming, an initially simple part—a billet or sheet blank, for
example—is plastically deformed between tools (or dies) to obtain the
desired final configuration. Thus, a simple part geometry is transformed
into a complex one, in a process whereby the tocls “store” the desired
geometry and impart pressure on the deforming material through the
tool-material interface
‘The physical phenomena constituting a forming operation are difficult to
express with quantitative relationships. The metal fiow, the friction at the
tool-material interface, the heat generation and transfer during plastic
flow, and the relationships between microstructure properties and process
conditions are difficult to predict and analyze. Often, in producing diserete
parts, several forming operations (preforming) are required to transform
the initial “simple” geometry into a “complex” geometry, without causing
material failure or degrading material properties. Consequently, the most
significant objective of any method of analysis is to assist the forming
engineer in the design of forming and/or preforming sequences. For a
siven operation (preforming or finish-forming), such design essentially
consists of (1) establishing the kinematic relationships (shape, velocities,
strain-rates, strains) between the deformed and undeformed part,
predicting metal flow; (2) establishing the limits of formability or produci-
bility, i.e., determining whether it is possible to form the part without
surface or internal defects; and (3) predicting the forces and stresses
necessary to execute the forming operation so that tooling and equipment
can be designed or selected.
For the understanding and quantitative design and optimization of
etalforming operations it is useful (a) to consider a metal forming
Process as a system and (b) to classify these processes in a systematic way.
2.2 A Metal-Forming Operation as a System
A metal-orming system comprises all the input variables relating the billet
‘or blank (geometry and material), the tooling (geometry and material), the
‘conditions at the tool-material interface, the mecharies of plastic deforma
tion, the equipment used, the characteristics of the final product, and
8
Metal-Forming Processes 9
7
Billet (1) Process(2,3,4,5) Product (6)
FIG. 2.1 Ilstration of metal forming system using closed-die forging as an example: 1
billet; 2, dies; 3, interface; 4, deformation mechanics; 5, forming machine; 6, product; 7,
environment [2]
finally the plant environment in which the process is being conducted [1]
Such a system is illustrated in Fig. 2.1, using impression die forging as an
example [2].
‘The “systems approach” in metal forming allows study of the effects of
process variables on product quality and process economics. The key to a
successful metal-forming operation, i.e., to obtaining the desired shape
and properties, is the understanding and control of metal flow. The
direction of metal flow, the magnitude of deformation, and the tempera-
tures involved greatly influence the properties of the formed components.
Metal flow determines both the mechanical properties related to local
deformation and the formation of defects such as cracks or folds at or
below the surface. The local metal flow is in turn influenced by the process
variables, which are discussed below.
Material Variables
For a given material composition and deformation/heat-treatment history
(microstructure), the flow stress (or effective stress), and the workability
(or formability) in various directions (anisotropy), ate the most important
material variables in the analysis of a metal-forming process
For a given microstructure, the flow stress is expressed as a function of
strain, strain-rate, and temperature, To determine the actual functional
relationship, it is necessary to conduct torsion, plane-strain compression,
and uniform axisymmetric compression tests. Workability or formability is
the capability of a material to deform without failure; it depends on (1)
conditions existing during deformation processing (such as temperature,
rate of deformation, stresses, and strain history), and (2) material variables 10 Metal Forming and the Finite-Element Method
(such as composition, voids, inclusions, and initial microstructure). In hot
forming processes, temperature gradients in the deforming material (for
example, due to local die chilling) also influence metal flow and failure
phenomena,
Tooling and Equipment
‘The selection of a machine for a given process is influenced by the time,
accuracy, and load-energy characteristics of that machine. Optimum
‘equipment selection requires consideration of the entire forming system,
cluding lot size, conditions at the plant, environmental effects, and
maintenance requirements, as well as the requirements of the specific part
and process under consideration.
‘The tooling variables include (1) design and geometry, (2) surface finish,
G) stifiness, and (4) mechanical and thermal properties under conditions
of use.
Friction
‘The mechanisms of interface friction are very complex. One way of
expressing friction quantitatively is through a friction coefficient yz, or a
friction shear factor m There are various methods of evaluating friction,
ice., estimating the value of or m. Tests most commonly used are the
ring and spike tests for massive forming and the plane-strain-draw and
stretch-draw tests for sheet forming (2].
Deformation Mechanics
In forming, material is deformed plastically to generate the shape of the
desired product. Metal flow is influenced mainly by (1) tool geometry, (2)
friction conditions, (3) characteristics of the stock material, and (4)
thermal conditions existing in the deformation zone. The details of metal
flow influence the quality and properties of the formed product and the
force and energy requirements of the process. The mechanics of deforma-
tion, i.e., the metal flow, strains, strain-rates, and stresses, can be
investigated by process modeling. Some analysis methods for process
modeling ate outlined in Chap. 1 (see Section 1.1), and process modeling
by the finite-element method is the main subject of this book.
Product Properties
‘The macro- and microgeometry of the product, i.c., its dimensions and
surface finish, are influenced by process variables. The processing condi-
tions (temperature, strain, and strain-rate) determine the microstructural
variations taking place during deformation and often influence final
product properties. Consequently, a realistic systems approach must
include consideration of (1) the relationships between properties and
microstructure of the formed material and (2) the quantitative influences
‘of process conditions On metal flow and resulting microstructures.
‘Metal-Forming Processes Wn
‘TABLE 2.1 Classification of Massive Forming Processes [3]
Forging Rolling Extrusion Drawing
(Closed-te forging NNonlubricated hot Drawing
with ash Shape rolling ‘extrusion Drawing with
CClosed-die forging Tube roling Lubricated direet hot rolls.
without fash Ring roling ‘extesion lroning
oining Rotary tube Hydrostatic extrusion Tube sinking
Electro-upseting pierein
Gear rolling
Roll forging
Backward extrusion Cross rolling
forting Surface rolling
Hobbing Sheat forming
Isothermal forging (flow turning)
‘Nosing ‘Tube reducing
Open-ieforging
Orbital forging
IM forging
Racial forging
2.3 Classification and Description of Metal-Forming Processes [3]
‘The metal-forming processes may be classified into two broad categories:
1, Massive forming processes (Table 2.1)
2. Sheet-metal forming processes (Table 2.2)
In both cases, the surfaces of the deforming material and of the tools are
TABLE 22 Classification of Sheet metal Forming Processes [3]
Bending and Straight Fanging Deep Recessing and Flanging
Brake bending Spinning (and roller flanging)
Roll bending Deep drawing,
‘Surface Contouring of Sheet Rubber pad forming
‘Contour stretch for Marform process
‘uartch forming) Rubber diaphragm hydroforming
Andoforming ‘Shallow Recessing
‘Age forming Dimpling
(Creep torming Drop haramer tow
Die-quench forming Blectromagnetic forming
Bulging Explosive forming
‘Vacuum forming Jogsting
Linear Contouring
Linear stretch forming
(Gtreteh forming)
Linear roll forming
(oll forming) 2 ‘Metal Forming and the Finite-Element Method
in contact, and friction between them has a major influence on the process.
In massive forming, the input material isin billet, rod, or slab form, and a
considerable increase in the surface-to-volume ratio occurs in the formed
part. In sheet forming, a sheet blank is plastically deformed into a
three-dimensional object without any significant changes in sheet thickness
and surface characteristics,
Processes that fall under the category of massive forming processes
(Table 2.1), have the following distinguishing features:
+ The workpiece undergoes large plastic deformation, resulting in an
appreciable change in shape or cross section.
+ The portion of the workpiece undergoing permanent (plastic) defor-
mation is generally much larger than the portion undergoing elastic
deformation; therefore, elastic recovery after deformation is
negligible.
‘The characteristics of sheet-metal forming processes (Table 2.2) are:
+ The workpiece is a sheet or a part fabricated from a sheet
+ The deformation usually causes significant changes in shape, but not
in cross section, of the sheet.
+ In some cases, the magnitudes of permanent plastic and recoverable
elastic deformations are comparable; therefore, elastic recovery or
springback may be significant.
‘Most significant metal-forming processes are listed in Tables 2.1 and 2.2
[3]. Selected massive and sheet forming processes are described in Figs 2.2
through 2.29 [2-10]
Pwr —
T J sprit i Py
Wy ‘aie PX]
| ower Pod
roving RR}
FIG. 2.2 Closed-die forging without fash. A. tillet wth carefully controlled volume is
deformed (hot or cold) by @ punch in order to fll adie cavity without any loss of material
‘The punch and the die may be made of one or several pieces.
Flash tone
Flash
FIG, 2.3 Closed-ie forging with fash. A billet is formed (hot) in dies (usually with 1wo
halves) such that the flow of metal fom the die cavity is restricted. The excess material is
extruded through a restrictive narrow gap and appears 8s fash around the forging atthe die
parting ine.
Retaining ring
w
NS workgiece|
FIG, 2.4 Coining opeation. Coining is a closedde forming operation, usually performed
cold, in which all surfaces of the work are confined or restrained, resulting in a wel
imprint ofthe die on the workpiece. Iti also a restrking operation used to sharpen or change
fan existing radius oF profile
Th
BEARING:
AREA
oe——
EJECTOR PIN
FIG. 2.5 Forward extrusion forging. A punch compresses a billet (hot or old) confined in &
‘container so thatthe billet material low’ through a die in the same direction as the punch.
2B ren_|
FIG. 2.6 Backward extrusion forging. A moving punch applies a steady pressure to slug
{tot or cold) confined in a closed die, and fores the metal to flow around the punch ins
‘irection opposite the direction of punch travel
PUNCH
|
— a —— A
Zoe toc
CONTAINER
“a
FIG. 2.7 Hobbing (A) in container
indenting or coining an impression in
and (B) without restriction. Hobbing is the process of
(94 cold oF hot die block by pressing with punch.
“4
}+— Top aie
|. pottom aie
FIG. 2.8 Nosing. Nosing isa hot or cold forming process in which the open end of a shel or
tubular component is closed by axial pressing with a shaped die
|. top sie
Forging
1. gottom aie +}
rocess in which metal is
FIG. 2.9 Opencie forging. Open-tie forging is a hot forming pt
shaped by hammering or pressing between flat or simple contoured dies. FIG. 2.10 Various stages in orbital forging processes, Orbital forging is the process of
forming shaped parts by ineementally forging (hot oF cold) a shag between an of
ie and a nonrotating ower die. The lower dic fra
fixed axially but whose axis makes orbital, spiral, planetary, or straight-line motions,
FIG. 2.11 Radial foring ofa shaft. Tis ot oF cold forming process utilizes two oF more
‘aially moving anvils, or dies, for producing solid or tubule components with constant oF
‘varying cross sections slong thie lengths.
16
—
ong ae —€ Heosing
‘ool
— -
Upsctting isthe proces of forming metal (hot ot
FIG. 2.12 Upseting wth fatcheading tool
tion, oF all, ofthe stock is increased
cold) 80 thatthe cross-sectional area ofa po
FIG. 2.13 Schematic of the rolling process for sheet and plates, Sheet and plate rolling is a
hot or cold forming process for reducing the cross-sectional area of the stock with the use of
‘otting eos. In general, the rolled material elongates and spreads simultaneously while the
‘cross-sectional arca is reduced,
FIG. 2.16 Roll pases for rolling an angle (L) shape. Shape rolling is cold or hot forming
Process for reducing s well as shaping the cross section of the metal stock by passing i
lhvough a series of rotating sets of rolls with appropriately shaped grooves
"7 Conicot aux. rol:
Ring
Trace roll for measurement
of dimensions.
Ring
Main rott Monare!
Initial Phase Final Phose
FIG, 2.15 Principles of ring rolling. Ring rollin is process whereby a hollow ci
(Cold oF hot) is formed into a ring. A main roll presses on the outside diameter ofthe blank,
Which is supported by a mandrel on the inside diameter. Shaped cross sections are obtained
by appropriate comourng of the mane and the rol. The eight of the ing i controlled by
auxiliary rolls
FIG. 2.16 Rotary tube piercing. a, Double-conical working rolls; b, guide roll; c, billets d
conical piercer point. A hollow i formed by peripherally rllnga eyindriesl hot billet over a
conical pierer point. The billet is driven by a pair of cone-shape rolls set askew to the
Jongitudinal axis of the billet. The fritional load between the rolls and the billet causes the
billet 0 rotate and forces it to advance longitudinally over the piercer point
18
f
CLL
Cc) i)
o ©
FIG. 2.17 Shear forming from a plate, (a) Start. (b) partially or completely formed part.
‘Shear forming is a process for hot or cold seamless shaping of dished pats by the combined
forces of rotation and pressure. This process differs from spinning. principally in that it
reduces the thickness of the formed part
BACKER
buMmy PLATE INGOT
BLOCK —INGoT DIE ‘\ DIE
BACKER EXTRUSION
HOLLOW
RAM 4 RAM
CONTAINER EXTRUSION CONTAINER
FLOW
DIRECT EXTRUSION INDIRECT EXTRUSION
FIG, 2.18 Foohng and metal low for ditect and indirect extrusion process. The product of
‘desired cross section is obtained by forcing a heated billet through a die without lubricating
the billet, the container, oF the die, Inthe direct extrusion process, the product is extruded in
the direction of ram movement. When the produc is exruded ina direction opposite that of
ram travel, the process i called indirect extrusion Ploten
Compactea gloss pod
lots woo! pads.
Container Die notder
Moiten Straightening
ols ude
Dummy.
block
Extrusion ram
Liner me
FIG, 2.19 Hot extrusion setup using glass lubrication, The heated billet is forced through 3
dic, using some form of lubrication, to obtain a product of desired cross section. Glass the
‘most widely used lubricant for extruding long lengths fom steels and high-temperaure alloys
(na production bas, ™ ”
po &
Lj tebe
Mandrel
@ o
FIG. 220. Drawing of (a) tod or wite and (b) tube. Drawing isthe process of reducing the
‘toss-sectional area and/or the shape of a rod, bat, tube or wire (cold or hot) b
oss ’ I. bar, tube (cold or hot) by pulling
{
1 Pane
Ky, — workpiece
Die
SS
FIG, 2.21 Schemati of ioning. Ironing isthe process of smoothing or thinning the wall of
‘hel or eup (Cold oF hot) by forcing the shel through a die with » punch
|-—Frome
‘.— pie
Se
‘owe
ter of
FIG. 2.2 Tube sinking proces. Tube sinking isthe process of sizing the outside di
tube by drawing the tube (cold or hot) through a dle without supporting the tube internally
‘with @ mandrel.
ate tte dah te
FIG. 2.28 Typical brake-bending operations. (A) Aie beading: (B) air rounding, (C) die
bending; (D) die rounding. Brake bending i a forming operation widely wsed for forming fat
sheets into linear sections, such as angles, channels and hats. There are two typical
brake-forming setups: air bending and die’ bencing. In air bending, the workpiece is
supported only atthe outer edges so thatthe length of the ram stroke determines the bend
Angle of the part. Indie bending, the sheet is forced into female die cavity ofthe required
part angle
a Workpiece
Bending roll
Driven rolls
Support rolls
FIG. 2.24 Roll bending (three-oll forming). Rell bending gives a curvature to a sheet, bar,
‘or shaped section by Bending it between two or three eylndrcal rll that ean be adjusted.
mote
ent
Female
(a) Roller profiles tor
fone pace Torming "HAT" section
FIG, 2.25 Roll forming. This proces is used to produce long components of vatious ross
sections. The sheet metals formed by passing it through a suceesion of progresvely shaped
power-driven contoured rolls. me proee snaps
2
Mondrel Holder
Workpiece fa) (b)
Roller fr Wornpiece
Mondrel (
{c) ‘)
FIG. 2.26 Various spinning operations. (a) Hollow shape forming: (b) bulging, c) reducing,
(@) theading. Spinning is the process of shaping seamless dished pats by the combined
forces of rotation and pressure. Spinning does not result in any change in thickness.
Rollers
Workpiece
FIG. 2.27 Deep drawing. (A) First draw; (B) redraw; (C) reverse draw. In deep drawing, a
sheet blank hot or cold), usualy subjected to a peripheral hold-down pressut, is forced by a
ppunch into and through die to form 2 deep recessed part having a wall thickness
Substantially the same as that of the blank. This proces is used 10 produce cylindrical or
prismatic caps with or without a flange on the open end. Cups or tubes can be sunk or
eaiawn to inerease thet length and (o reduce thei lateral dimensions
2B a ‘Metal Forming and the Finite-Element Method
Blankholaer Container
Punch Rubber pod
Punchhead Sheet
(rubber)
Sheet Blonknolser
Punch
(oy
FIG. 228 Rubber-pad forming. (a) With rubber punch; (b) with rubber pad. This is a
{forming operation for producing shallow parts. A rubber pad is attached to the press slide
and becomes the mating de for a punch, or group of punches, which has been placed on the
press bed or plate. The rubber pad is confined in a container (pad holder), and the entire
Slide with attached pad holder is forced against the tols, usually by hydraulic pressure, As
the side descends, the pliable but virtually incompressible rubber fils the space between the
slide and the dies and forces the metal to take the exact contours ofthe dies
. shawoen KC
MAY \\
() pe ourencn |
\ \ \
rnc
oe nonoen
le JOLSTER
ase
mresaune
3 CHAMBER:
SEGINNING OF FORMING COMPLETE FORMING
FIG, 2.29. Rubberdiphragm hydroforming. In this process the blank is held between a
‘iaphragm, which closes the ram pressure chamber, anda blank holder. A male punch works
'sgaint the diaphragm, and the metal i shaped by Balancing the pressure of the tam chamber
against the pressure ofthe press base chamber on which the punch is mounted,
References
1. Attan, T., Lahoti, G. D., und Nagpal, V., (1981), "Systems Approach in
“Massive Forming and Application to Modeling of Forging Processes. . Appl.
‘Metal Working, ASM, Vol. 1, No. 2, p. 29.
2. American Society for Metals, (1961), “Metals Handbook”, Eighth Edition
Vol. 1 (Properties and Selection of Metals) and Vol. 4 (Forming). American
society for Metals, Metals Park, OH.
3. Altan, T., Oh, 8. 1. and Gegel, H., (1983), “Metal Forming: Fundamentals
and Applications,” ASM International, Metais Parks, OF.
4. International Institution for Production Engineering Research, (1962), Dic-
tionary of Production Engineering, Vol. 1 (Forming and Drop Forging). Vol. 3
10.
Metal-Forming Processes 25
(Sheet Metal Forming), and Vo. $ (Cold Extrusion and Upsting), Vs,
Warder, Esen
Tinot'G. Band Alton, (1976), “Design of Dis for Rail Forging of
Rou and Tiber" Teahical Paper’ M6500, Sockty” of Manufacturing
peers, Deartor, Ml
‘Aldmiiur, American Society for Mets, (967), Vol. 3 Fabrication and
Finhingy edited by KR: Van Hom, Atseean Soy for Mtl, Metals
Parts OF pt *
Gah A (6n, toge aupment Rolin Mil nl Ase
‘Akadema’ Kindo, Budapest .
Bevo (1950), “Rol Design and Mil Layout” Association of om and
al Engine, Prteburgh
Se ee iab. "Primes and Methods of Shest Metal Fabriaing
Reinhold, Now York.
Tee Klo7} Lehrbuch der, Umformtecik/Textbook of Forming
"Fxinology" (in Geman}, Springer Versa, Berin 3
ANALYSIS AND TECHNOLOGY
IN METAL FORMING
3.1 Introduction
‘The design, control, and optimization of forming processes require (1)
analytical knowledge regarding metal flow, stresses, and heat transfer, as
well as (2) technological information related to lubrication, heating and
cooling techniques, material handling, die design and manufacture, and
forming equipment.
‘The purpose of using analysis in metal forming is to investigate the
mechanics of plastic deformation processes, with the following major
objectives.
+ Establishing the kinematic relationships (shape, velocities, strain-
rates, and strains) between the undeformed part (billet, blank, or
preform) and the deformed part (product); i.e., predicting metal flow
‘during the forming operation. This objective includes the prediction of
temperatures and heat transfer, since these variables greatly influence
local metal-flow conditions.
Establishing the limits of formability or produciility; i.e., determi
ing whether it is possible to perform the forming operation without
causing any surface or internal defects (cracks or folds) in the
deforming material.
Predicting the stresses, the forces, and the energy necessary to carry
‘out the forming operation. This information is necessary for tool
design and for selecting the appropriate equipment, with adequate
force and energy capabilities, to perform the forming operation,
‘Thus, the mechanics of deformation provides the means for determining
how the metal flows, how the desired geometry can be obtained by plastic
deformation, and what the expected mechanical properties of the pro-
duced part are.
For understanding the variables of a metal-forming process, it is best to
consider the process as a system, as illustrated in Fig. 2.1 in Chap. 2. The
interaction of most significant variables in metal forming are shown, in a
simplified manner, in Fig. 3.1. It is seen that for a given billet or blank
material and part geometry, the speed of deformation influences strain-
rate and flow stress. Deformation speed, part geometry, and die temper:
ture influence the temperature distribution in the formed part. Finally,
26
Analysis and Technology in Metal Forming 2
Ht
=i
‘oom rene” |}
‘CONDITIONS AND
FORGING ENERGY
ables in metal
FIG. 3.1 Simplified illustration ofthe interactions between major process ¥
forming
flow stress, friction, and part geometry determine metal flow, forming
load, and forming energy.
In steady-state flow (kinematically), the velocity field remains un-
changed, as isthe case in the extrusion process (Fig. 3.2B); in nonsteady-
state flow, the velocity field changes continuously with time, as is the case
in upset forging (Fig. 3.2) [1].
HIG. 3.2 Metal low in certain formng processes. (A) Nomtendy state upset forging: (B)
steady-state extusion [1], 3B Metal Forming and the Finite-Element Method
‘The state of deformation in a plastically deforming metal is full
described by the displacements, velocities, sruins, and stran-ates. There
are several approximate methods for analyzing metal-forming problems.
‘They are briefly outlined in Section 1.1 of Chap. 1, and the upper-bound
method and Hill's general method are further illustrated in Chap. 5.
Details of some of these methods are given in the metal-forming books
listed in Chap. 1, and the forming processes, with emphasis on technologi-
cal aspects, are described in Reference [I]. It is to be noted that every
method of analysis requires as input (1) a description of the material
behavior under the process conditions, i.e., flow stress data, and (2) a
quantitative value to describe the friction, i.e, the friction factor m, or the
friction coefficient u. These two quantities themselves—fiow stress and
friction—must be determined by experiment and are difficult to obtain
accurately. Thus, in addition to simplifications and approximations as-
sumed in the methods, any errors in flow stress measurements or
uncertainties in the value of the friction factor are expected to influence
the reliability of the results of analysis. Johnson and Sowerby [2] reviewed
recent analytical researches into drawing, extrusion, rolling, forging, and
sheet-metal forming in the context of the limitations imposed by tech-
nological considerations.
3.2 Flow Stress of Metals
The yield stress of a metal under uniaxial conditions, as a function of
strain, strain-rate, and temperature, can also be considered as the flow
stress (or the effective stress). The definition of the effective stress as a
representative stress under combined loading is given in Chap. 4.
The flow stress 3 is important because in metal-forming processes the
forming loads and stresses depend on (1) part geometry, (2) friction, and
G3) the ow stress ofthe deforming mate. The flow stress ofa metal is
influenced by:
+ Factors unrelated to the deformation process, such as a chemical
compositon, metallurgical structure, phases, grain size, segregation,
and prior strain history
Factors explicitly related to the deformation process, such as tempera-
ture, degree of deformation, and rate of deformation. The degree of
deformation and rate of deformation under general loading are
measured by the eltective strain @ and the effective strain-rate &,
respectively, and their definitions are also given in Chap. 4
Thus, the flow stress & can be expressed as a function of temperature T,
strain é, strain-rate é, and microstructure 5:
o=f(T, 8, 8,5) Gl)
In hot forming of metals at temperatures above the recrystallization
temperature, the influence of strain on flow stress is insignificant, and the
Analysis and Technology in Metal Forming 29
influence of strain-rate (j.c., rate of deformation) becomes increasingly
important. Conversely, at room temperature (i.c., in cold forming), the
effect of strain-rate on flow stress is negligible, and the effect of strain on
flow stress (Le., strain hardening) is most important. The degree of
dependence of flow stress on temperature varies considerably among
different materials. Therefore, temperature variations in a forming opera
tion can have quite different effects on load requirements and on metal
flow for different materials. For instance, a drop of approximately 100°F in
the hot forming temperature (from 1700 to 1600°F) would result in a 40%
increase in flow stress for titanium alloy Ti-8AI-IMo-1V. The increase in
flow stress that would result from the same temperature drop, 100°F within
the hot working range (from 2200 to 2100°F), would be only about 15% for
AISI type 4340 stee! [3].
‘To be useful in metal-forming analyses, the flow stresses of metals must
be determined experimentally for the strain, strain-rate, and temperature
conditions that exist in metal-forming processes. The methods most
commonly used for obtaining flow stress data are tensile, uniform
compression, and torsion tests. The compression testis particularly simple,
fand therefore it is very widely used. In this test, the flat platens and the
cylindrical sample are maintained at the same temperature, so that die
chilling, with its influence on metal flow, is prevented. To be applicable
without errors or corrections, the cylindrical workpiece must be upset
without any barreling; i.c., the state cf uniform deformation in the
workpiece must be maintained. Barreling is prevented by using adequate
lubrication, e.g., Teflon or machine oil a: room temperature and, at hot
working temperatures, graphite in oil for aluminium alloys, and glass for
steel, titanium, and high-temperature alloys [4]. ‘The load and displace-
ment or specimen height are measured during the test. From this
information the flow stress is calculated at each stage of deformation, or,
for increasing strain, at a strain-rate given by the ratio of the instantancous
ram speed to specimen height.
‘At room temperature the flow stresses of most metals (except that of
lead, for example) are only slightly strain-rate dependent. Therefore, any
testing machine or press can be used for the compression test, regardless of
its ram speed.
‘At hot working temperatures, i.e., above the recrystallization tempera-
ture, the flow stresses of nearly all metals ate very much strain-rate
dependent. Therefore, whenever possible, these temperature range com-
pression tests are conducted on a machine that provides a velocity~
displacement profile such that the constant-strain-rate condition can be
maintained throughout the test. Mechanical cam-activated presses called
plastometers or hydraulic programmable testing machines (MTS, for
example) [3] are used for this purpose. In order to maintain nearly
isothermal and uniform compression concitions, the test is conducted in a
furnace or a fixture. The specimens are lubricated with appropriate:
lubricants—for example, oil~graphite for temperatures up to 800°F and 0 ‘Metal Forming and the Finite-Element Method
g
5
5 aon hse
i
FG. 43 Fw sues. ri, nda stain, for ype 403 sink te
1950 and 2050 (tee mere conducted n'a mecha pss whee ws no conta
glass for temperatures up to 2300°F. The fixture and th
ture and the specimens are
heated to test temperature and then the test is initiated. Examples of
high-temperature uniaxial flow stress data are given in Figs. 3.3 and 3.4.
3.3 Friction in Metal Forming
Friction conditions at the die-material interface
crial interface greatly influence metal
flow, formation of surface and internal defects, stresses acting on the dies,
and load and energy requiremens, There ‘ate three basic types of
lubrication that govern the frictional conditions in metal forming [5, 6}.
1, Under dry conditions, no lubricant is present at the interface and
only the oxide layers present on the die and workpiece materials may
act as a “separating” layer. In this case friction is high, and such a
situation is desirable in only a few selected forming operations, such
as hot rolling of plates and slabs and nonlubricated extrusion of
aluminium alloys.
Analysis and Technology in Metal Forming 31
§ sao 425.000
3
§ sod -{ec00
son homeo §
FIG. 34 Flow stress sain, and saat wri, for Wapaloy at 1980, 2080 and
2100°F (ests were conducted in a mechanical press where & was not constant) [4
2. “Hydrodynamic” conditions exist when a thick layer of lubricant is
present between the dies and the workpiece. In this case the friction
conditions are governed by the viscosity of the lubricant and by the
relative velocity between the die and the workpiece. The viscosities
‘of most lubricants decrease rapidly with increasing temperature.
Consequently, in most practical high-speed forming operations, such
as strip rolling and wire drawing, the hydrodynamic conditions exist
only within a certain regime of velocities, where the interface
temperatures are relatively low [6]
3. “Boundary” lubrication is the most widely encountered situation in
metal forming. Increases in temperature at the interface and the
relatively high forming pressures do not usually allow the presence of
‘2 hydrodynamic lubrication regime. Boundary lubrication, on the
other hand, does not lend itself to reliable analysis.
Consequently, most of the knowledge on metal-forming lubrication
is empirical, with very little analysis-based information, 32 ‘Metal Forming and the Finite-Element Method
In most forming applications, the lubricity of a lubricant is the single
most significant factor, since it directly determines the interface friction. In
order to evaluate the performances of various lubricants and to be able to
Predict forming pressures, it is necessary to express the interface friction
quantitatively, in terms of a factor or a coefficient. The friction shear
stress, f, is most commonly expressed as
fp @2)
pp being a compressive normal stress to the interface, or as
f=mk 63)
‘being the shear strength of the deforming material, where 0m <1
Studies in forming mechanics indicate that eq. (3.3) adequately repre-
sents the friction condition in bulk forming processes while eq. (3.2) is
commonly used for representation of friction in sheet-metal forming. A.
reason for this is that the compressive normal stress at the interface in
sheet-metal forming is much smaller in magnitude, in comparison with that
in bulk deformation processes. For various forming conditions, the values
of m vary as follows:
+ m=0.05-0.15 in cold forming of steels, aluminium alloys, and
copper, using conventional phosphate-soap lubricants or oils
+ m=0.2-0.4 in hot forming of steels, copper, and aluminum alloys
with araphie-ased (graphite-water or graphite-o) lbrsnts
‘+ m=0.1-0.3 in hot forming of titanium and high-temperature allo
With las lubricants jeempentare ays
+ m=0.7-1.0 when no lubricant is used, e.g., in hot rolling of plates or
slabs and in nonlubricated extrusion of aluminium alloys
In determining the friction factor m for hot forming, in addition to
lubrication effects, the effects of die chilling or heat transfer from the hot
material to colder dies must be considered. Therefore, the lubrication tests
‘used for determining friction factors must include both lubrication and
ic-chilling effects. Consequently, in hot forming, a good test must satisfy
as well as possible the following requirements.
*+ The specimen and die temperatures must be approximately the same
as those encountered in the actual hot forming operation,
* The contact time between specimen and tools under pressure must be
approximately the same as in the forming operation of interest
* The ratio of the newly generated deformed surface area to original
surface area of the undeformed specimen must be approximately the
same as in the process investigated -
+ The relative velocity between deforming metal and dies should have
approximately the same magnitude and direction as in the forming
process,
Lubricity, as defined by the friction factor m, is most commonly
Analysis and Technology in Metal Forming. 3
measured by using the ring test. In the ring test, a flat ring-shaped
specimen is compressed to a known reduction. The change in internal and
external diameters of the forged ring is very much dependent on the
friction at the die-workpiece interface. If friction were zero, the ring
would deform in the same way as a solid disk, with each element flowing
radially outward at a rate proportional to its distance from the center.
With increasing deformation, the internal diameter of the ring is reduced if
friction is high, and is increased if friction is low. Thus, the change in the
internal diameter represents a simple method for evaluating interface
friction [5,6].
3.4 Temperatures in Metal Forming
In metal-forming processes, both plastic deformation and friction contrib-
tute to heat generation. Approximately 90-95% of the mechanical energy
involved in the process is transformed into heat. In some continuous
forming operations such as drawing and extrusion, performed at high
speeds, temperature increases of several hundred degrees may be in-
volved. A part of the generated heat remains in the deformed material,
another part flows into tooling, while still a further part may flow into the
undeformed portion of the material. The temperatures developed in the
process influence lubrication conditions, tool life, and the properties of the
final product, and, most significantly, determine the maximum deforma-
tion speed that can be used for producing sound products without
excessive tool damage. Thus, temperatures generated during plastic
deformation greatly influence the productivity of metal-forming processes
(5.
‘The magnitudes and distribution of temperatures depend mainly on:
+ The initial material and die temperatures
+ Heat generation due to plastic deformation and friction at the
ddie~material interface
+ Heat transfer between the deforming material and the dies and
between the material and the environment (air or coolant)
In actual forming operations there is temperature gradient in deforming
material and in the dies. The temperature distributions encountered in
forming operations for producing discrete parts, such as die forging,
upsetting, and deep drawing. are quite different from the temperature
increases found in quasicontinuous deformation processes such as. wire
drawing, rolling, and extrusion. In forming operations of the former type,
e-g., in cold forging, the metal flow is kinematically nonsteady state
Deformation takes place in a relatively short period of time, i.e., from
several milliseconds to a fraction of a second. The deforming material is in
contact with the dies during this short period. After the part has been
formed and removed from the die, the dies can cool off during a
considerable period of time, until the next part is loaded into them u Metal Forming and the Finits-Element Method
HoH INCH
oo. 4
r7s002_04 06 08 10
1.18: HYDRAULIC PRESS.
sof F) Mysarsee~
1 von m/sec)
|_|
ras} 16
SCREW PRESS.
wped90 SEC) z
roo} a9. sec) meg
7}—}— -+-~ t+ 225 5
DROP HAMMER,
FORGING LOAD, METRIC TONS.
wean. sec) — 7 ss
o-4m/sec)
2s 25
° °
o 5 10 ws 20 a5
DISPLACEMENT. H-H, MM.
FIG, 3.5 Load vs. displacement curves obtained in closed-die forging of an axisymmetric
steel part (dimensions in inches) at 2012 in three diferent machines with diferent initial
velocities, Ye, [5}
In continuous forming operations, e.g., wire drawing, the metal flow is
nearly steady state, The deforming material is continuously in contact with
the die and there is a cumulative temperature increase that significantly
influences die life, production rate, and the quality of drawn material.
‘The influence of temperatures in metal-forming operations is most