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Index
Accelerance, 96 linear, 260
Accelerometer, 152 of rotating machinery signals, 276
base strain sensitivity, 156 peak hold, 261
calibration of, 159 stable, 260
mass calibration, description of, 160 time domain, 260
mass calibration, illustration, 161
mass calibration, results, 164 Bandwidth
mass loading, 155 of signal, 36
mounted resonance frequency, 154 resonance, 94
mounting of, 155 Bandwidthtime product, 69, 178
temperature sensitivity, 156 discussion for order tracking, 264, 279
transverse sensitivity, 156 Bartlett window, 196
Acoustic A-weighting Beating
frequency domain, 2367 on SDOF system, 95
time domain, 50 principle, 11
Acoustic C-weighting Bias error
frequency domain, 2367 definition of, 65
time domain, 50 normalized, 65
Aliasing, 37 of average estimate, 69
by circular convolution, 200 of frequency response estimate, 2923
preventing, 38, 250 of smoothed periodogram estimator, 223
Analytic signal, 380 of Welch estimator, 21217
Angle domain, see Order domain Blocksize
Angular frequency, 9 choosing for impact testing, 303, 306
Anti-alias filter, 250 choosing for linear spectrum, 231
Antiresonance, 140 choosing for shaker excitation, 312, 314, 320
Autocorrelation, see Correlation function choosing for spectral density estimation, 233
Average definition of, 180
ensemble, 64 Burst random, see Shaker excitation
time, 64
Averaging Central moment, 70
exponential, 261 Cepstrum, 3848
frequency domain, 260 complex cepstrum, 387
interrupted, 261 inverse, 388

Noise and Vibration Analysis: Signal Analysis and Experimental Procedures Anders Brandt
2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN: 978-0-470-74644-8
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430 Index

Cepstrum (cont.) effect on frequency response, 92

liftering, 385 hysteretic, 106
power cepstrum modal, 129
definition of, 385 models of, 106
example of, 386 nonproportional, 1303
features, 385 eigenvalue problem, 131
quefrency, 385 proportional, 1289
Charge amplifier, 148 relative, of SDOF system, 89
cable for, 149 structural, 106
Circular convolution, 199200 viscous, 88
Coherence function Data quality assessment, 84
estimator, 291 Data quality assessment, 81
multiple, 329 Decibel, 411
estimator, 328 Degree-of-freedom, 121
random error, 296 DFT, see Discrete Fourier transform
Coherent output power, 295 Differentiation
virtual, see Virtual signals in frequency domain, 96, 238
Complex of time signals, 558
number, 403 Dirac unit impulse, 22
sine wave, 10 Discrete Fourier transform, 180
Condenser microphone, see Microphone comparison with continuous, 181
Conditioned signals, 3316 definition of, 180
L-systems, 331 inverse, 180
partial coherence, 333 leakage, see Leakage
partial coherent output spectra, 334 periodicity of, 183
rules for ordering inputs, 334 periodogram, 209
Confidence interval, 66 picket-fence effect, 189
Consistent estimator, 66 principle of, 183
Convolution properties of, 186
as aliasing, 200 relation with continuous, 186
by time window, 189, 194, 198 scaling of, 181
circular, 199200 smearing, 269
description of, 225 symmetry properties, 186
integral, 21 table of pairs, 186
Correlation function time windows, see Time windows
auto- zoom, 201
definition of, 71 DOF, see Degree-of-freedom
estimator, 225 Driving point, see Frequency response
cross- Dynamic flexibility, 95
definition of, 71
estimator, 225 Eigenvalue
properties of, 72 from characteristic equation, 123
Cosine, see Sine wave problem, example of, 1245
Crest factor, 71 problem, for nonproportional damping, 131
Cross-correlation, see Correlation function relation to pole, 1223
CSD, see Spectral density, cross- theory of, 41718
Cyclic frequency, 9 Eigenvector
of nonproportionally damped MDOF system,
Damping 130
determining, 1034, 398 of undamped MDOF system, 123
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Index 431

Eigenvectors linear-phase
of proportionally damped MDOF system, 128 for recording transients, 257
Energy spectral density importance of, 51
definition of, 173 producing, 46
estimator, 226 octave center frequencies, 47
Enhanced frequency response, 358 octave time constant, 179
Ensemble phase distortion of, 46
average of spectra, 205 smoothing, 46
statistical, 64 time delay of, 45
Envelope Flattop window, 195, 269, 276
by Hilbert transform, 380 Folding, see Aliasing
spectrum, see Spectrum Force transducer, 157
Equivalent noise bandwidth, 194 Force window, see Time windows
Equivalent number of averages, 219 Forced response
Equivalent sound pressure, 49 of SDOF system, 95
Ergodic random process, 64 relation with ODS, 391
Error function, erf, 73 time domain simulation of, 1413
ESD, see Energy spectral density Fourier series
Excitation signal, see Shaker excitation complex, 168
Expected value definition of, 168
definition of, 65 with amplitude and phase, 168
estimate of, 68 Fourier Transform
of general function, 68 properties of, 27
Experimental modal analysis, see Modal analysis Fourier transform
Exponential window definition of, 26
compensating effect of, 3035 description, 259
for impact excitation, 300 discrete, see Discrete Fourier Transform
for transient, 227 inverse, 26
properties of, 29
Fast Fourier transform, 181 table of, 26
FFT, see Fast Fourier transform Frequency
FFT Analyzer, see Measurement system analysis
Filters nonparametric, 177
1/1-octave, 47 nonparametric principle, 178
1/3-octave, 47 parametric, 177
1/3-octave, example, 48 principle of, 177
1/n-octave, 48 angular, 9
acoustic weighting, 49 cyclic, 9
analog, 43 damped natural, of SDOF, 90
anti-aliasing, 250 damped resonance, 93
Butterworth, 43 Nyquist, 36
differentiation, 558 undamped, see Natural frequency
digital, 45 Frequency resolution, 198
first-order HP, 43 Frequency response
first-order LP, 434 bias error, 2923, 295
for analog integration, 49 definition of, 29
for frequency weighting, 49 driving point properties, 141
fractional octave, 48 enhanced, 358
ideal characteristics, 42 from poles and residues, 1356
integration, 515 from transfer function, 30
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432 Index

Frequency response (cont.) computation of, 379

H1 estimator definition of, 378
of MIMO system, 326 for computing envelope, 380
of SISO system, 287 to clean up FRF estimates, 383
H2 estimator to compute imaginary part of FRF, 382
of MIMO system, 329, 349 to compute real part of FRF, 382
of SISO system, 288 Histogram, 67
Hc estimator, 290 Hypothesis test
Hv estimator, 32930 for normality, 77
imaginary part of, 100 for stationarity, 7981
impact excitation, see Impact excitation theory of, 74
[M], [C], [K ], 134
[M], [K ], and r , 138 IEPE transducers
magnitude of, 97 current supply, 149
multiple-input electrical model, 149
optimizing measurements, 33948 TEDS, 152
names of, 97 time constants of, 151
Nyquist plot of, 100 Impact excitation, 297306
of SDOF system, 92 alternative processing, 306
phase of, 97 compensating effect of exponential window,
plot formats, 97103 3035
random error, 293 default settings, 302
real part of, 100 double impact, 305
shaker excitation, see Shaker excitation exponential window, 300
single-input force signal, 2989
optimizing measurements, 31218 force window, 299
using modal damping, 138 optimizing settings for, 3003
setting blocksize, 303
Gaussian, see Probability distribution triggering, 301
GNU Octave when appropriate, 298
arranging spectra, 239 Impact hammer, see Impulse hammer
using, 5 Impedance head, 158
Impulse hammer, 159, 297
H1 estimator Impulse response
of MIMO system, 326 definition of, 21
of SISO system, 287 from poles and residues, 141
H2 estimator of SDOF system, 90
of MIMO system, 329, 349 Input cross-spectral matrix
of SISO system, 288 definition of, 239
Hc estimator, 290 inversion of, 325
Hv estimator, 32930 Input/output cross-spectral matrix, 239
Half sine window, 196 Integration
Half-power bandwidth, 94 in frequency domain, 238
Hanning window, 195 of time signals, 515
Harmonic removal, 223 Interpolation
Hermitian for synchronous resampling, 274
matrix, 417 of time signal, 40
transpose, 325, 414 Inverse DFT, see Discrete Fourier transform
Hilbert transform, 37884 Inverse Fourier transform, see Fourier transform
analytic signal, 380 Inverse Laplace transform, see Laplace transform
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Index 433

Kurtosis undamped natural frequency of, 122

definition of, 70 Measurement system
excess, 71 absolute accuracy, 255
for data quality assessment, 82 analog-to-digital conversion, 247
sigma-delta ADC, 252
Laplace transform, 1721 anti-alias filter, 250
definition, 17 anti-alias protection, 255
inverse, 17 averaging options, 260
of derivative, 18 block processing, 258
table of, 18 cross-channel match, 256
transfer function, 20 cross-channel talk, 257
Leakage, 18791 data scaling, 259
explanation of, 187, 194 dynamic range, 247, 251, 256
illustration of, 187 FFT parameters, 261
in spectrum of periodic signal, 188 optimizing input range, 248
in spectrum of random signal, 199 overload, 250, 253
Liftering, see Cepstrum overview, 246
Linear spectrum, see Spectrum quantization, 247
Linear system real-time bandwidth, 258
coherent output power, 295 recording signals, 258
definition, 16 recording transients, 257
noise on in- and output, 287 sample-and-hold, 255
Hc estimator, 290 sampling requirements, 250
noise on input, 288 signal conditioning, 247
H2 estimator, 288 triggering, 259
noise on output, 287 Microphone
H1 estimator, 287 calibration of, 162
theory of, 1625 types, 161
Lumped parameter model, 121 MIF, see Mode indicator function
MIMO system
MAC matrix, 3978 bias error discussion, 336
definition, 397 computation considerations, 329
Mass calibration, 160 H1 estimator, 326
Mass loading, 155 H2 estimator, 329, 349
MATLAB Hv estimator, 32930
arranging spectra, 239 illustration of, 326
using, 5 noise on input and output
Maxwells reciprocity, 136 unbiased estimation, 342
MDOF system noise on output, 326
eigenvalues of, 123 principle of, 323
eigenvectors of, 123 random error discussion, 336
frequency response, 1345 Mobility, 96
impulse response, 141 Modal A
matrix equations for, 121 definition of, 131
nonproportional damping relation with modal mass, 139
natural frequency, 131 Modal analysis
poles, 131 analytical, 139, 393
normal modes of, 123 experimental, 3939
poles of, 1223, 128 data checks, 3945
state-space equations of, 130 driving point FRF check, 346
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434 Index

Modal analysis (cont.) Newtons

mode indicator function, see Mode equation, state-space form, 130
indicator function equations for MDOF system, 121
overview, 394 Newtons
parameter extraction, 3989 laws, 87
reciprocity check, 346 equation for SDOF system, 88
reference DOFs, 394 Node line, 139
response DOFs, 394 Noise source identification, 367
Modal assurance criterion, see MAC Nonproportional damping, see Damping
matrix Normal distribution, see Probability distribution
Modal B, 131 Normal mode, 123
Modal coordinates Nyquist
for undamped system, 127 frequency, 36
of proportionally damped system, 128 plot format, 100
Modal damping, see Damping
Modal mass Octave (software), see GNU Octave
of proportionally damped system, 128 Octave filter, see Filters
of undamped system, 126 ODS, 3913
relation with Modal A, 139 definition of, 391
Modal scale constant, 136 multiple reference, 392
Modal stiffness procedure, 392
of proportionally damped system, 128 recommended measurement function,
of undamped system, 126 392
Modal superposition, 135, 141 One-sided spectral density, see Spectral density,
Mode from wave equation, 120 single-sided
Mode indicator function, 395 Operating deflection shape, see ODS
modified real, 397 Order, see Rotating machinery analysis
multivariate, 395 Order domain, 273
normal, 395 Order track
Mode shape fixed sampling frequency, 272
determining experiementally, 398 synchronous sampling frequency,
scaling of, 126, 1389 276
scaling to unity modal A, 139 Ordinary coherence, see Coherence function
scaling to unity modal mass, 139 Orthogonality
weighted mass orthogonality, 125 between input signals, 351
weighted orthogonality of, 1256 between sines, 13
weighted stiffness orthogonality, 125 Overlap processing
Multi-channel data effect, 21820
spectrum of, see Spectrum illustration of, 206
Multiple coherence, see Coherence function Oversampling
Multiple-input/multiple-output system, see definition of, 38
MIMO system for shock response, 377

Natural frequency Parsevals theorem

damped, of SDOF system, 90 discrete, 186, 189
determining, 1034, 398 Parsevals theorem
of nonproportionally damped MDOF system, continuous, 27
131 Partial coherence, see Conditioned signals
undamped, of MDOF system, 122 Partial coherent output spectra, see Conditioned
undamped, of SDOF system, 89 signals
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Index 435

Partial fraction expansion Random error

definition of, 19 definition of, 66
of SDOF system, 90 normalized, 66
Period, 9 of frequency response, 2935
Periodic chirp, see Shaker excitation of smoothed periodogram estimator, 224
Periodic signal, see Signal of standard deviation, 69
Periodogram, 209 of variance, 69
Phase angle Welch estimator, 21721
definition of complex, 403 Random signal, see Signal
of sine wave, 9 Receptance, see Dynamic flexibility
Phase distortion, see Filters Reciprocity
Phase spectrum, see Spectrum, linear check for, 346
Picket-fence effect, 189 definition of, 136
Piezoelectric Recording signals, see Measurement system
accelerometers, principle of, 152 Rectangular window, 188
effect, 147 Relative damping, see Damping
sensor, electrical models of, 148 Resampling
Poles of time signal, 41
of nonproportionally damped MDOF system, synchronously with RPM, 2725
131 Residue
of proportionally damped MDOF system, definition of, 19
128 from mode shape coefficients, 136
of SDOF system, 89 Resonance bandwidth, see Bandwidth
of undamped MDOF system, 123 Resonance frequency, see Natural frequency
Polynomial multiplication Reverse arrangements test, 78
by convolution, 25 Rigid body mode, 123
of filter coefficients, 46 RMS level
Power cepstrum, see Cepstrum calculation of, 69
Principal components, see alsoVirtual signals, computing from spectrum, 2346
3519, 369 definition, 15
finding number of independent sources, random error of, 178
353 weighted spectrum, 236
Principal coordinates, see Modal coordinates Root mean square, see RMS level
Probability density Rotating machinery analysis
calculation of, 68 averaging, 276
definition of, 66 bandwidthtime product, 264, 279
Probability distribution color map, 268
definition of, 66 maximum order, 276
Gaussian, 72 nonparametric methods, 281
normal, 72 order, 263
test of normality, 77 order domain, 273
Proportional damping, see Damping order resolution, 276
PSD, see Spectral density, auto order track
Pseudo-random, see Shaker excitation fixed sampling frequency, 272
Pure random, see Shaker excitation synchronous sampling frequency, 276
RPM, 267
Q-factor RPM map, 267
definition of, 94 selecting time window, 271
for shock response, 376 smearing, 269
Quefrency, see Cepstrum synchronous sampling, 2725
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436 Index

Rotating machinery analysis (cont.) transient, 14

DFT parameters, 276 recording requirements, 257
tachometer processing, 2657 Sine wave, 8
timefrequency analysis, 264 complex, 10
waterfall plot, 268 multiplication of two, 12
sum of two, 11
Sampling Single degree-of-freedom, see SDOF system
frequency, 35 Single-input/single-output system, see SISO
synchronous, see Rotating machinery system, 286
analysis Singular value decomposition, 418
theorem, 36 Sinusoid, see Sine wave
SDOF system SISO system
forced response, 95 illustration of, 286
frequency response of, 92 noise on input, 288
illustration of, 88 noise on input and output, 289
impulse response of, 90 noise on output, 287
poles of, 89 Skewness
transfer function of, 89 definition of, 70
Shaker use for data quality assessment, 83
description, 162 Smearing, 269
Shaker excitation Smoothed periodogram PSD, see Spectral
checking shaker attachment, 318 density
multiple-input, 3379 Smoothing
burst random, 3389, 342 filter, 46
checking input correlation, 348, 355 of periodogram for PSD, 223
multiphase stepped sine, 338 Sound pressure level, 49, 412
optimizing measurements, 33948 Spectral density
periodic random, 338, 342 creating time signal with known PSD, 390
pure random, 337 double-sided auto
single-input, 30612 definition of, 171
burst random, 310, 312 double-sided cross-
optimizing measurements, 31218 definition of, 172
periodic chirp, 311, 314 guidelines for computing, 2313
pseudo-random, 310, 314 of mixed property signal, 233
pure random, 308, 312 single-sided auto-
stepped-sine, 311 definition of, 172
SNR of, 307 property of, 172
sources of error, 319 Welch estimator, 211
Shock response spectrum, 3757 single-sided cross-
maximax, 376 definition of, 172
oversampling rate for, 377 property of, 172
primary, 376 Welch estimator, 211
Q-factor, 376 smoothed periodogram, 2214
residual, 376 advantages, 223
Signal bias error, 223
classes, description of, 167 estimator, 223
period of, 9 for harmonic removal, 223
periodic, 8 random error, 224
random, 13 Welch
sine wave, 8 bias error, 21217
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Index 437

bias error for SDOF resonance, 215 Time Windows

normalized random error, 220 for Random Signals, 198
random error, 21721 Time windows
random error with Hanning and 50% amplitude correction, 193
overlap, 221 Bartlett, 196
scaling factor, 212 comparison of, 191
Spectral lines equivalent noise bandwidth, 194
usable, 199 normalized, 194
vs blocksize, 199 exponential, 300
Spectrum flattop, 195, 269, 276
autopower for periodic signals, 1916
estimator, 207 for random signals, 199
envelope, 388 for transient signals, 227
computation of, 388 force, 299
estimation of half sine, 196
guidelines, 22834 Hanning, 191, 195
interpretation of, 1734 rectangular, 188
linear resolution of, 198
definition of, 169 smearing, 269
estimator, 208 Timefrequency, see alsoBandwidthtime
guidelines, 22931 product
phase spectrum, 170, 208 analysis limitations, 277
of multi-channel data, 23840 analysis principle, 2645
of periodic signal, see Spectrum, illustration of, 170
linear Transfer function
of random signal, see Spectral density definition of, 20
of transient of SDOF system, 89
definition of, 173 Transient signal, see Signal
estimator, 226 Transient spectrum
Standard deviation definition of, 173
definition of, 69 estimator, 226
random error, 69 Triboelectric effect, 149
State-space, 130 True random, see Shaker excitation, pure random
Stationarity Tuned damper, 11314
of random process, 64 Two-sided spectral density, see Spectral density,
test for, 7880 double-sided
Steady-state response
definition of, 30 Undamped natural frequency, see Natural
Stepped-sine, see Shaker excitation frequency
Stinger Uniform window, see Rectangular window
checking, 318
for force sensor, 157 Variance
SVD, see Singular value decomposition definition of, 69
Synchronous sampling, 2725 estimate of, 69
DFT parameters, 276 random error, 69
Vibration isolation, 1079
2-input/1-output system, 324 Virtual signals, 3607
2DOF system cumulated virtual coherence, 362
introduction, 11012 cumulated virtual coherent output power, 365,
matrix equations for, 121 369
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438 Index

Virtual signals (cont.) VoldKalman filter, 281

cumulated virtual input/output coherence, 364,
369
Wave equation, 120
definition of, 352, 360
Welch estimator, see Spectral density
number of independent sources, 353
WienerKhinchine relations, 172
principal components, 351
Window, see Time windows
virtual coherence, 362
virtual coherent output power, 365
virtual input coherence, 362, 370 Zero padding, 2001
virtual input cross-spectrum, 362 Zoom FFT, 201