BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING (HONS) CIVIL

EC220

Course : Construction Technology (ECM 576)

List of Members in Group:

No. Name Student ID

1 NUR ANISHA BINTI MOHD ISA 2014601394

2 NUR MAHIZAN BINTI AMMINUDIN 2014882972

3 NURUL AFIFAH BINTI FAUZI 2014645202

4 RUQAYYAH BINTI RASHID 2014441846

No. Content Page

1.1 The Purpose of Formwork 1-2

1.2 General Design of Formwork 3

1.3 General Formwork Requirement 4

1.4 Material for Formwork 5 - 12

1.5 Surface treatment 13 - 15

1.6 Defect 16

1.7 Common Failure of Formwork 17

1.8 Causes of Failure 18

1.9 Types of Formwork 19 - 24

1.10 Case Study 26 - 28

1.1 THE PURPOSE OF FORMWORK

Formwork is a mould or box into which wet concrete can be poured and

compacted so that it will flow and finally set to the inner profile of the box or

mould. The purpose of this formwork is to contain freshly placed and

compacted concrete until it has gained enough strength to be self-supporting.

Formwork should be designed to withstand all expected loads include the self-

weight, weight of reinforcement, weight of wet concrete and wind loads. It is

must be sufficient to prevent deflection under loading otherwise it will

undergo deformation. Furthermore, the formwork uses to produce a concrete

member of the required shape and size. If the formwork design are not proper

or does not follow the requirements, then it will break when the concrete is

placed. There also various formwork shape that design based on horizontal

system and vertical system. Formworks for horizontal system are beams and

slabs and also formwork for vertical system are walls and column. Horizontal

formwork is subjects to vertical loads which are to be carried off to solid

subsoils through formwork bearers and main bearers as well as columns. The

example of vertical loads are produced by persons and working tools. The

vertical formwork system exerts lateral pressure of the concrete mix. This

depends on the factors of concrete placing technology and also composition

and properties of concrete mix. The formworks also use to produce the desired

finish to the concrete. The appearance of the concrete is very importance so

care is taken with the surface of the form. It is necessary that all steel particles

are removed as they will rust and spoil the final appearance of the concrete. To

reduce the incidence of blowholes from striking of the formwork, the surface

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of the form must be coated with release agent prior to concreting which

applied with a very light film.

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1.2 GENERAL DESIGN OF FORMWORK

The formwork design must be sufficiently rigid to prevent undue deflection

during the placing of the concrete. If the formwork is not rigid then the shape

of concrete form when it is harden are not as original design. This will reduce

its strength and the structure prone to collapse. It also must have adequate

strength to carry the working load and the weight or pressure of the wet

concrete and to withstand incidental loading and vibration of the concrete. For

example, when using plywood as a formwork it is important to recognize that

stiffness parallel to the face grain is less than the stiffness at right-angle to it.

Furthermore, formwork must set to line and level within the specified

tolerance and include any camber or bend which may be required. The joints

between the formwork panels should be sufficiently tight to prevent loss of

mortar from concrete. Particular care is needed to provide sufficient number of

form ties used to link together the opposite panel of a wall form. When there is

mistake in formwork design, these may lead to large deflections or leakage of

mortar. This failure can cause a dangerous collapse and gives serious impact

on the appearance of the structural such as honeycomb.

The size and design of the panel should permit easy handling and

simple method of erection and striking to reduce the incidence of blowholes.

Arrangement of panels also should be such that they are not trapped during

striking and it should be possible to strike side from beams without disturbing

the soffit formwork.

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1.3 GENERAL REQUIREMENT OF FORMWORK

Each formwork design should be strong enough to support the load of wet

concrete which is generally considered to be approximately 2400 kg/m3. Thus,

the time of striking should be related to the strength of the concrete and soffit

forms to beams and slabs must be left in place longer than is necessary for the

side forms. It must not be able to deflect under load which would include the

loading of wet concrete, self weight and any superimposed loads such as

operatives and barrow runs over the formwork. The formwork must be

accurately set out before the process of removing the formwork. Concrete

being a fluid when placed, it will take up the shape of the formwork which it

must be the correct shape, size and in the right position. Furthermore, to

prevent grout leakage, the formwork must have grout-tight joint. So that there

is no honeycomb or fin produced. This can be prevented by using sheet

material or special self adhesive tape.

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1.4 MATERIAL FOR FORMWORK

1.4.1 Main Requirements

In choosing the material for formwork, the requirement that need to be

considered is hardness, permeability and surface texture. Hardness is defined

as the high resistance to various kinds of shape change when force is applied.

The hardness of the formwork is significant to ensure that the formwork is

strong enough to cater the concrete that is going to be place into it.

Permeability on the other hand is the property where the material allows water

to pass through its pores. This requirement need to be considered to ensure

that the formwork do not absorb too much of the concrete moisture.

Surface texture is the physical condition of the formwork surface

which is going result the appearance of the concrete. Having good surface

texture of formwork is the in order to get the best look of concrete once the

formwork is removed.

1.4.2 Formwork Linings

Formwork lining is functioning to give the smooth pattern or texture for the

surfaces. This process will be done by lining the inside art of the formwork

with various materials such as oil-tempered hardboard, moulded rubber,

moulded PVC and glass fibre reinforced polyester.

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1.4.3 Timber Formwork

Timber formwork is made up of timber. This kind of formwork can be easily

produced manually with the desired shapes and sizes hence it is easily

workable by hand or machine and can be nailed easily. In order to use timber

as formwork, the timber must ensure to have smooth and even surface. It is

also should be well-seasoned which is stable enough when it is exposed to the

sun and rain. Comparing with other type of formwork, timber formwork has

the most reasonable price. Figure 1.1 shows the traditional timber formwork

and Figure 1.2 shows the column stump formwork made up of timber.

Figure 1.1

Figure 1.2

Plywood forms (in combination with timber)

Plywood is an artificially manufactured wooden material available in different

thickness and size used in formwork for concrete member. It is strong enough,

durable and light weight. Plywood is one of the mostly used materials for

sheathing, decking and form linings in shuttering.

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Advantages of Timber Formwork

The main reason for the timber formwork widely used in construction is

because it is economical for small projects as the price for timber is much

cheaper as compared to other type of formwork material. Timber formwork

also is easy to be constructed for any shape, size and height. The construction

of formwork can be done even by unskilled labours with the proper apparatus

and materials. This kind of formwork can be constructed by using the locally

available timber which means the cost of production is very low. The weight

of timber formwork is lighter as compared to steel or aluminium. Therefore,

with the light weight, timber formwork can be handled easily.

Disadvantages of Timber Formwork

However, timber formwork is not really suitable for the large construction as

the strength is not enough as compared to the metal formwork. It could not be

able to cater too much of loadings. Timber formwork can only be used up to 3

times in maximum which is not economical for the large construction where

the formwork is required to be used many times. Timber also has the excessive

shrinkage due to the temperature changes which is going to affect the size of

the formwork and result to poor shape of the concrete. The leakage through

joints of timber will affect the efficiency of the formwork itself. Timber

formwork has the disadvantage of easily damage during fixing and

dismantling of formwork. It can break easily with improper handling. The

pattern of grain, knots, and bad flaws will leave imprint to the face of concrete.

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1.4.4 Metal Formwork (Steel)

Steel formwork is made up of steel and has long life time and can be used

multiple times as compared to the timber. It also produce smooth finishes to

the concrete surface as the formwork provide the smooth surface for the

concrete. It is manufactured in the desired shapes and size and cannot be

altered.

This consists of panels fabricated out of thin steel plates stiffened along the

edges by small steel angles. The panel units can be held together through the

use of suitable clamps or bolts and nuts. The panels can be fabricated in large

number in any desired modular shape or size. Steel forms are largely used in

large projects or in situation where large number reuses of the shuttering is

possible. This type of shuttering is considered most suitable for circular or

curved structures.

Figure 1.3 and 1.4 shows how the steel formwork looks like.

Figure 1.3

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Figure 1.4
Advantages of Steel Formwork

As we know that steel has high strength and also durable. Therefore, steel formwork

is stronger to cater high load of the concrete. It has longer life as it can be used up

to more than 100 times, hence it is economic for the big construction that requires

multiple of formwork re-uses. Steel formwork not only gives very smooth finish to

surface of member, it is also can be installed and dismantled easily. There will be no

shrinkage in steel formwork due to the temperature changes as it will maintain its

shape and size. The fixing of steel formwork also can be easily done with the bolts

and nuts.

Disadvantages of Steel Formwork

Basically, steel formwork is higher in cost as compared to the timber. The production

of steel formwork is done in manufacture industry and it is limited to the shape and

structure which cannot be adjusted once it reaches the construction site. Steel

formwork is too heavy and make the handling process is difficult.

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1.4.5 Metal Formwork (Aluminium)

Aluminium formwork is made up of aluminium. Generally, aluminium

formwork has not much different in term of characteristic with the steel

formwork. However, it is lighter than steel due to the lower density. It has

long life time and can be used multiple times as compared to the timber. It also

produce smooth finishes to the concrete surface as the formwork provide the

smooth surface for the concrete.

Figure 1.5 and 1.6 shows how the steel formwork looks like.

Figure 1.5

Figure 1.6

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Advantages

Similar with steel formwork, aluminium formwork has high strength and also

durable. Therefore, steel formwork is stronger to cater high load of the

concrete. It has longer life as it can be used up to more than 100 times with the

proper maintenance and refurbishment, hence it is economic for the big

construction that requires multiple of formwork re-uses. Aluminium formwork

has high labour productivity as it is very light weight which makes it easy for

manual handling.

Disadvantages

Due to the fix shape manufactured, there will be no alteration is possible once

the formwork is constructed. Aluminum formworks become not cost effective

if numbers of repetitions are less. It is compatible only for residential

apartments with repetitive layouts and restricted loads.

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1.4.6 Plastic Formwork

Plastic form work is a lightweight modular, interlocking system and can be

used more than 100 times. It can be used for simple concrete structures. This

type of shuttering is becoming popular for similar shape and large housing

scheme.

Advantages

Plastic formwork is light weight shuttering hence requires less handling cost.

It can be used for large section. If the formwork is carefully transported and

used, multiple reuses are possible making it highly economical.

Disadvantages

Due to the low load carrying capacity of plastic, the formwork can only cater

for low loading of concrete. Hence, it is not suitable for high construction.

Furthermore, plastic formwork can be easily damage by heat.

1.4.7 Glass Fibre Reinforce Plastic

This type of formwork is strong and light in weight. It is use to produce a high

quality surface finish (eg. Sculpture profile and repetition). Glass fibre

reinforce plastic comprises of polyester resin reinforced with glass fibre. The

thickness of the formwork varies from 5 to 16 mm and can be used more than

100 times if handle with care. The disadvantages of glass fibre reinforce

plastic is similar with plastic formwork.

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1.5. SURFACE TREATMENT

Formwork surface treatments are now many and varied, from applied coatings

to form liner systems. The face contact materials each have individual texture

and absorbency characteristics which require differing treatments to ensure the

best possible results. Surface damage, poor / inconsistent surface finish and

shorter life expectancy of the face contact material are all more likely upon

omission of this vital area.

Surface treatment is important for long life span of formwork. It is the process

that involves releasing agent that is coated on the formwork space prior

concreting to facilitate easy removal of formwork. Its appearance is not

significance as we only applied for thin layer only.

1.5.1 Neat oil with or without surfactant

Neat oils are usually mineral oils and are suitable for all types of shuttering

including steel formworks. They tend to produce blowholes and are not

recommended for use for the production of high quality concrete surfaces.

They are used in the storage of formwork and for concrete which will be

hidden below ground. While, neat oils with the addition of a small amount of

surface activating or wetting agent minimize blowholes and have good form

penetration and resistance to climatic conditions. If over application of this

releasing agent, it can cause staining of concrete as it is not water resistant.

Thus after application of this agent, it will produce an oily film on the surface

that seem blemish. Furthermore, repeated or progressive use this neat oil will

reduces the finish and leaves colour changes on finished surface

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 1.5.2 Mould cream emulsion

Emulsions of water in oil tend to be removed by rain, but minimize blowholes

and are good general purpose release agents. It is recommended for absorbent

surfaces such as timber form not very suitable on steel formwork. It is also not

water resistant that tends to be removed by rain if it is constructed under

exposed area. It provides high quality finishes and facilitates the work as it can

be applied by spray only. Unlike chemical releasing agents, this agent cannot

be used for concreting under freezing so it cannot be used in the countries that

have four season climate.

1.5.3 Chemical release agent

It can be used for all types of formwork which are steel and timber formwork.

For all high quality work, they should be applied lightly by spray to avoid

retardation. Increased cost is compensated for by better coverage compared

with the oil-based materials. They generally have good weathering resistance

and water resistant that can maintain the coating under possible rainy area.

Thus, they are particularly suited to use in dusty, dry climates, on soffit

formwork, and in pre-stressed concrete applications. It doesnt leave any oily

film after it is dry, giving a safer surface to walk on unlike an oily film.

Chemical release agent more rate of coverage than conventional oils that can

give a good quality finish surface. Even though, it is expensive for a given

volume but can be economical based on the application method as we only

apply it for a thin layer.

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1.5.4 Paints and waxes

These are not strictly release agents but are sealers which prevent release

agents being absorbed into the form face. Wax treatments also come into this

category. They are all particularly useful where it is necessary to avoid uneven

porosity with consequent colour variations in the concrete surface and to give

increased usage of the formwork.

1.5.5 Water phased emulsion

Emulsions of oil in water produce a dark porous skin on the concrete which is

not durable. Presence of water on formworks surface can cause uneven finish

as the water can seep through the formworks materials during hydration

process of concrete occur. They are not recommended for good class work and

are seldom used.

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1.6. DEFECT

1.6.1. Blow holes

Blow holes are individual, generally rounded, cavities on vertical surfaces of

concrete, generally less than 15 mm across. They are caused by air in the

concrete being trapped against the form face, sometimes due to insufficient

vibration. Some blow holes are almost inevitable unless a permeable

formwork material is used. The occurrence of blow holes can be minimised by

the use of a suitable release agent on the surface of the formwork and the use

of adequate vibration. In addition the concrete should have adequate

workability. Blow holes are a cosmetic problem only and will not affect the

long-term performance of the concrete structure.

1.6.2. Uneven surface colour

Discoloration problems may be caused by inconsistency in the mix design or

by the quality of the aggregates (porous aggregate emerging the surface can

absorb moisture and so the surrounding paste could be darker). Also, the

addition of calcium chloride to accelerate the setting time of concrete or the

coexistence of poor mixing makes the concrete colour blotchy. Sometimes

contractors, to have a better workability concerning the finishing operation,

adjust batches on the jobsite by adding water. Usually small variation of

moisture in concrete is acceptable but a different coloration can be easily

perceptible when you compare the edge of two different concrete placements.

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1.7. COMMON FAILURES OF FORMWORK

1.7.1 Dimensional inaccuracy

Possible design deficiency is excessive deflection. Metal locking devices not

right enough in column or beam clamps. Forms filled too rapidly.

1.7.2 Inadequate of props

Insufficient ties and props due to dirty forms with concrete from previous pour

left on (ill-fitting joint).

1.7.3 Loss of material ties or props incorrectly spaced

Ties or props incorrectly spaced, no enough to existing concrete that can cause

pies, props or wedges not tight enough.

1.7.4 Surface blemishes

It can cause:

Scabbing due to incorrect release agent dirty forms, lack of release

agent

Staining due to incorrect release agent incorrect release agent, over

or under application, incorrect mixing of release agent.

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1.8CAUSES OF FAILURE

1.8.1 Premature removal of shores and reshores

Movement of shores or reshores re removed too soon, the concrete affected

may be over stresses and cracked. In extreme case there may be major failure

to the building. For example, the collapse of a floor resulted to the impact

loading of the floor directly below it which also failed and collapsed to the

lower floor.

1.8.2 Insufficient concrete strength

Formwork failures results from insufficient concrete strength to sustain

applied load after construction. This is also due to the structure cannot sustain

its own self weight and deflection.

1.8.3 No preconstruction plans of concrete casting, formwork plans, removal of

formwork schedules, or reshoring program

When every stage do not have proper schedule, they can contribute to the

failure of the structure. This is because we have standard that must be follow

for concrete casting and formwork removal then we know when the concrete

are strong enough to cater the imposed loads. Plus, different types of

formworks have different estimated time for formwork removal or reshoring

process.

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1.9 TYPES OF FORMWORK

Formworks that have been used in construction sites came in several types.

Among them are:

i. Foundation

ii. Column

iii. Beam

iv. Slab

v. Wall

Foundation formwork

Foundation formworks can be designed in various ways. Basically there is a

difference between formwork for individual foundations, normally designed as

socket foundations, and formwork for strip foundations. The type of design is

dictated by the size, mainly by the height of the foundation formwork. The

formwork for individual foundations is similar to column formwork and the

formwork for strip foundations is similar to the formwork.

Foundation formwork

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Column formwork

Reinforced concrete column forms are subjected to lateral pressure because of

their small cross section, large heights and relatively high rates of concrete

placement. Thus It is necessary to provide tight joints and strong tie support to

the formwork.

As the sizes of concrete column increases, the stiffness of the formwork must

be increased by either increasing thickness of sheathing or vertical stiffeners

must be added to prevent sheathing deflection.

Column formwork

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Beam formwork

Beam formwork has prefabricated formwork sheeting parts (sheeting bottom

and side sheeting panels). Such individual parts are manufactured based on the beam

dimensions specified in the project. For prefabrication of the formwork sheeting parts,

a special preparation table must be manufactured on site.

The sheeting bottom and the side panels consists of sheeting boards nailed

together by means of cover straps. Depending on the size of the beam, the width of

the sheeting bottom is dimensioned so as to accept, at both sides of the width of the

reinforced concrete column, the thickness of the sheeting and cover straps and the

width of a thrust-board.

Beam formwork

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Slab formwork

Formwork for reinforced concrete slabs depends on the type of slabs to be constructed.

The floor slabs can be structural slabs supported on a steel or concrete structural

frame, or slab-on-grade.

Structural slab formwork

Slab-on-Grade formwork

Slab-on-Grade Forms are forms for concrete slabs placed on grade. These slab

formworks are usually quite simple as concrete is placed on compacted earth or gravel

levelled base. Thus no support is required for concrete at the bottom.

Slab-on-grade formwork

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Wall formwork

Formworks for wall construction are subjected to relatively lower lateral pressure than

column forms due to their large cross-sectional area.

The components of wall forms are:

Panel sheathing It is used to shape the wall and retain the concrete until it

sets.

Studs to support the sheathing or Wales by forming a framework to keep the

forms aligned and support the studs.

Braces It is used to prevent deflection of forms under lateral pressure and

keep the formwork erect.

Ties and spreaders These are used to hold the sides of the forms at the

correct spacing.

Components of a wall formwork

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1.9.1 STRIKING OF FORMWORK

Striking is the process of formwork removal in the process of casting concrete.

Once the concrete has achieved the initial recommended strength, to support

the self-weight and any imposed loads, the formwork is removed for further

curing. Soffit forms are usually left in place for longer periods and removed

last in case of slab and beams.

Factors Affecting Period of Striking

i. Types of concrete used

Different type of concrete needs different period of time to harden.

For example, concrete containing blast furnace slag (GGBS) or

pulverized ash requires longer striking period than normal Portland

cement concrete.

ii. Weather of casting concrete

The surrounding weather of the site also influence the striking time.

Cold weather retards the rate of setting and stiffness, thus increasing

the striking time.

iii. Exposure conditions of the site

As the mean temperature increases, the time required for removal of

formwork reduces. This is because the concrete attain strength at an

increased rate.

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iv. Type and dimensions of structure

Structural members like beams require more time before striking due

to relatively bigger cross sections and being more critical element. Side

forms are removed much sooner for curing, as in walls and column

sides.

v. Admixtures or treatment to concrete

The striking time can be brought down to the required value by adding

admixtures to the concrete. Common examples for these admixtures

are accelerators which reduce the setting time of concrete.

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1.10 CASE STUDY

We have done site visit at Wangsa Maju for construction of high end

apartment. This apartment begins to construct at end of November 2016 and

assumed to be completed one and half year from now which means 40% of the

apartment have been constructed. This high end building consists of two

blocks; one of the blocks has 21 floors and the other block have 23 floors.

They provide for facilities from ground floor to 7th floor which include gym,

swimming pool, shop lots and parking lots. This apartment more to reinforce

concrete structure and do not use any steel structure. For formwork, they use

timber formwork from ground floor to 8 floors which take 3 weeks for

concrete to harden whereas the use aluminium formwork from 8 floors to the

top floor and the concrete only take 6 days to harden.

In the construction site, there are two types of formwork used. The first one is

timer formwork which is used for the 7 first floors. Timber formwork used for

those floors because of the uncertainty of the design of each floor as they

consist of different facilities. Figure shows the construction of timber

formwork by the labours and the installation of the formworks on the surface

of the building.

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Another type of formwork used in this construction site is aluminium formwork. This

kind of formwork is used for the floor 8 and above because those floors consist of the

same design of apartment houses in each floor. Since the floors are repetitive,

aluminium formwork is sufficient and economical to be used since it can be used

multiple times with the proper care and handling. Figure below shows the picture of

aluminium formwork taken on the construction site.

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 At the site, there are several defects that we can observe for example uneven surface

colour and honey comb defect. Uneven colour surface is occurred due to the use of timber

formwork. We know that timber formwork comes in various grains and surface. One of the

properties of timber formwork is absorbent. When concrete is poured in the formwork, it

tends to absorb the water in the concrete mix that later on will cause the hardened concrete

looks dry.

When concrete is poured into the foundation forms it does not just flow in like water

and fill up the forms to the top. If it is not vibrated properly it may leave voids called

honeycombing. The exposed aggregate leaves a honeycomb look and hence the name. This

first picture is of honeycombing in a footing.

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