Fiber Joints and Couplers;

Cable Design

Dr. Mohammad Faisal

Dept. of EEE, BUET
 Fiber Joints and Couplers
For fiber-fiber connection we need joints which are of
two major types
Fiber splices: these are semipermanent or permanent joint
(like electrical soldered joints)
Demountable fiber connector or simple connector: these are
removable joints, easy and fast coupling and uncoupling of
fibers (like electrical plugs and sockets)

Purpose: fiber to fiber joints are designed to couple ideally all

the light in one fiber to adjoining fiber
 Why Fiber Joints and Couplers are necessary?

Optical fiber links require connection in order to make

long fiber
or for fiber coupling to sources or amplifier or
termination to receiver
The number of intermediate fiber connections or joints
depends on link length between repeaters
 The Main Concern of Joints
Optical power loss at the joint is the main concern
The major categories of loss: Intrinsic joint loss:
1) Loss due to Fresnel reflection
Fresnel reflection loss is related to step changes in
refractive index at the jointed interface.
even when two jointed fiber ends are smooth and perpendicular to
fiber axis and two fiber axes are perfectly aligned, A small portion
of light reflects back into the transmitting fiber.

The amount of this partial reflection can be estimated by using

classical Fresnel formula:

2
n1 n r is the fraction of light reflected at a single interface
r n1 is the core refractive index
n1 n n is refractive index of the medium between two
Jointed fibers, say for air n=1
 The loss due to Fresnel reflection at a single interface
LossFres 10 log10 1 r dB
The effect of Fresnel reflection at a fiber-fiber connection can
be reduced by using an index-matching fluid between the gaps.

2. Loss due to deviations in the geometrical and optical

parameters of the two jointed fibers. The problems may
occur for
(i) Different core and/or cladding diameters;
(ii) Different NA and/or relative refractive index differences;
(iii) Different refractive index profiles;
(iv) Fiber faults: core ellipticity, core concentricity etc
Use same fibers to keep this loss minimum

Loss due to misalignment

A major source of loss at a fiber-fiber connection is caused by
misalignment of two jointed fibers
a) Longitudinal misalignment
b) Lateral misalignment
c) Angular misalignment
 Lateral
Index-matched gap
4.0 NA = 0.22

Air gap
NA = 0.22
3.0

Insertion Air gap

loss (dB) 2.0 NA = 0.22

Longitudinal 1.0

) 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Displacement (J.lm) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 9 10
(a) Misalignment angle (degrees)
(b)

Figure 5.2 Insertion loss characteristics for jointed optical fibers with various types
of misalignment: (a) insertion loss due to lateral and longitudinal misalignment for a
graded index fiber of 50 m core diameter. Reproduced with permission from
P. Mossman,Radio Electron. Eng., 51, p.333. 1981;(b) insertion loss due to
angular misalignment for joints in two multimode step index fibers with numerical
apertures of 0.22 and 0.3. From C. P. Sandback (Ed.),Optical Fiber Communication
 Fiber Splices
Permanent and semi permanent joint between two optical fibers:
(1) Fusion Splicing (Permanent)
(2) Mechanical splicing (semi permanent)

(1) Fusion splicing is accomplished by applying localized heat (by

flame or electric arc) at the interface between two butted,
prealigned fiber end causing them to soften and fuse.
Fibers are positioned and clamped with the help of inspection
microscope.

(2) In mechanical splicing fibers are held aligned by some

mechanical means, like, using tubes around fiber ends or V-
grooves into which butted fibers are placed.
 Fiber
alignment
x z groove
Push
y
lever

(a)
Spring

(1) Initial setting 0 Electrode ( 3) Pressed together 0 Electrode

Fiber / \ Fiber I Move

I )o
.,... @} Fiber I
0 Electrode Electric arc Q
(2) Arrangement of smooth Electrode (4) Accomplishment O Electrode
surface by prefus of splice
! Fiber

Electric arc 0 0
(b)

Figure 5.5 Electric arc fusion splicing: (a) an example of fusion splicing apparatus
[Refs 34, 38J;(b) schematic illustration of the prefusion method for accurately
(1) splice loss: 0.1 dB-0.2dB
weak in the vicinity of splice, tensile strength reduces
Mechanical Splices: (i) tube splice and (ii) groove splices

(i) tube splice: Snug tube splice; Transparent adhesive is

Injected through a transverse bore in the capillary to give
mechanical sealing and index matching of splice
Insertion loss: 0.1 dB 0.5 dB

(ii) groove splices

In V-groove two fibers are jointed
V-groove splices are formed by sandwiching the
butted fiber ends.
Insertion loss: 0.1 dB
 (i) tube splice and

Epoxy

Flat glass plate

Fibers butted together

V-groove substrate

(a)

V-groove glass
substrate
Butt-jointed fibers
(b)

JUre 5.9 V-groove splices [Ref. 52]

 Fiber Connectors
Demountable fiber connectors are more difficult to achieve
than fiber splices:
Because:
In order to maintain similar tolerance requirements to splices and
it is difficult to maintain in removable fashion
Require repeated connection and disconnection without problem of
alignment
To maintain optimum performance, fiber ends require to be
protected from damage due to frequent handling
To make insensitive to environmental factors (e.g. moisture and
dust)
Therefore THREE MAJOR CONSIDERATIONS:
(i) The fiber termination which protects and locates the fiber
ends
(ii) End alignment to provide optimum optical coupling
(iii) Outer shell maintains the connection and fiber alignment,
protects the ends from environments and stress
Cylindrical Ferrule Connector: Basic Ferrule
Connector (The simplest fiber connector)
Cable terminated Retaining
here or here Ferrule spring

--

Optical
Cable sheath
Cylindrical Connector fiber
alignment shell
sleeve
(a)

Bare f iber Stainless 1eel ferru le Adhesive

Adhesiv ,... ---.1- . -- ----.--u-n_z_"'"'"'""'"'"'""'"'""'v

'- - - __rr
Watch jewel Plastic coating of fiber
(b)

Figure 5.16 Ferrule connectors: (a) structure of a basic ferrule connector [Ref.
(b) structure of a watch jewel connector ferruiP. f R Pf 1 n1
 Two fibers are permanently bonded (with epoxy resin) in
metal plugs known as ferrules (two ferrules) which have an
accurately drilled central hole in their end faces where
stripped fiber is located
The two ferrules are placed in alignment sleeve which allows
fiber ends to be butt jointed
The ferrules are held in place via a retaining spring
Some ferrule connectors have incorporated a watch jewel in
the ferrule end face in order to have fiber alignment accuracy
In this case the fiber is centered with respect to the ferrule
through the watch jewel hole.
The use of watch jewel allows close diameter and tolerance
requirements of the ferrule end face hole to be obtained
more easily than simply through drilling of metallic ferrule
end face alone.
Insertion Loss: 1 ~ 2 dB
 Fiber Couplers
Fiber Couplers are branching devices that split all the light from a
main fiber into two or more fibers
Or Alternately couple a proportion of light propagating in the
main fiber into a branch fiber
they can combine light from two or more branch fibers into a
main fiber
Optical fiber couplers are passive devices in which power
transfer takes place in two ways:
(i) Core-interaction type: through fiber core cross-section by
butt jointing the fibers
(ii) Surface-interaction type: through fiber surface and normal
to its axis by converting the guided core modes to both
cladding and refracted modes
 Power Transfer in Couplers

((l Fiber l -:--

I=
-
:
F-iber_2 0 J
(a)

Fiber l

Fiber 2

(b)

Figure 5.26 Classification of optical fiber couplers: (a) core interaction type;
(b) surface interaction type
Optical Fiber Coupler Types
Splitter

Combiner

Coupler

(b)

MorN N Star coupler

(c)

Wavelength
multiplexer

-t1 /
Wavelength
---------------<
demultiplexer
;.
(d)

Figure 5.27 Optical fiber coupler types and functions: (a) three-port couplers;
(b) four-port coupler; (c) star coupler; (d) wavelength division multiplexing and
demultiplexing couplers
 Functions of Multiport Couplers
(1) Three and four-port couplers: For signal splitting,
distribution and combining
(2) Star Couplers: for distributing a single input signal
to multiple outputs
(3) WDM devices: are specialized couplers designed to
permit a number of different wavelength channels
to be transmitted in parallel in a single fiber
WDM MUX: combine/multiplex different
wavelength channels onto a fiber
WDM DeMux: separate different wavelength
channels output from a fiber
 Three and Four-Port Couplers
(a) Lateral Offset Method:
-Fiber end faces are overlapped, Light from
input fiber is coupled to output fibers
according to degree of overlap.
-Input power can be distributed in a well-
defined proportion by appropriate control
of lateral offset between fibers.
-Suitable for multimode fibers but with high
excess loss.
(b) Semitransparent Mirror Method:
-A beam splitter element between the fibers; A
partially reflecting surface is placed to the
end face cut at an angle 45o to form a thin
beam splitter
-The input power may be split in any desired
ratio between the reflected and
transmitted beams
- Typical excess loss: 1~2 dB, suitable for both
MMF and SMF
 3-Port Coupler Based on Micro-optic Components
These couplers utilize the beam
expansion and collimation properties of
graded index (GRIN) rod lens combined
with spherical retro-reflecting mirrors
(which reflects light back to its source)
It consists of two quarter pitch lenses
with a semitransparent mirror in between
Light rays from input fiber F1,
collimate in the first lens before incident
on mirror. A portion of incident beam is
reflected back and is coupled to fiber F2.
The transmitted light is focused in 2nd
lens and then coupled to F3.
Parallel surface type is more attractive
because of ease of fabrication,
compactness, simplicity and relatively
low insertion loss
For both, insertion loss <1dB
 Fused Biconical Taper (FBT) Method
Most common method of manufacturing couplers
Fibers are twisted together and then spot fused under tension
such that the fused section is elongated to form a biconical taper
structure
A three port coupler is formed by removing one of the input
fibers
 Optical power launched into the input fiber propagates in the
form of guided core modes. The higher order modes leave the
fiber core because of its reduced size in the tapered-down
region and therefore guided as cladding modes. These modes
transfer back to guided core modes in the tapered-up region
of the output fiber with approximately even distribution the
two fibers
Various Loss Parameters Associated with Four-Port Coupler
Excess Loss (Scattering loss): ratio of power input to power output
P1
Excess Loss 10 log10 dB
P3 P4
Insertion Loss (optical loss through connection): loss obtained for a
particular port-to-port optical path
Insertion Loss (port 1 to 4) 10 log10 1 dB
P
P4

Insertion Loss (port 1 to 3) 10 log10 1 dB

P
P3
 Cross talk: the ratio of back scattered power received at the 2nd input
port to input power
P
Crosstalk 10 log10 2 dB
P1
Splitting or Coupling ratio: it indicates the percentage division of
optical power between the output ports
P3
Split Ratio 100%
P3 P4

P4
1 100%
P3 P4

Star Coupler
It distributes an optical signal from a single input fiber to multiple
output fibers
Two main techniques:
Mixer rod method
FBT method
 A thin platelet of glass (mixer rod) is used which efficiently mixes the
light from one fiber, dividing it among outgoing fibers

 FBT method: The fibers which constitute the star coupler

are bundled, twisted, heated and pulled to form the coupler.
Highly mode dependent which results in a relatively wide
port-to-port output variation
In an ideal star coupler, the optical power from any input
fiber is evenly distributed among output fibers
Ladder Coupler:
-This is an alternative
technique to construct a
star coupler.
- The ladder coupler
comprises a number of
cascaded stages, each
incorporating three or
four-port FBT couplers

- 88 coupler consists of three stages which gives 8 output

ports
- If three port FBT coupler, then 1N coupler
- If four port FBT coupler, then NN coupler
- It has relatively low insertion loss
- Widely used for single-mode fiber star coupler
Wavelength Division Multiplexing Couplers
WDM Couplers: are specialized devices which enable light
from two or more optical sources of differing nominal peak
optical wavelength to be launched into a single optical fiber
The spectral performance characteristic for a typical five-channel
WDM device is shown below
 The important parameters associated with WDM coupler:
Attenuation of light over a particular wavelength band: should be low
The interband isolation to minimize crosstalk: should be high but
channel separation be as small as may be permitted
Wavelength band (channel BW)
Diffraction grating type WDM Coupler
Diffraction grating is an angularly dispersive element which reflects light in a
particular direction according to

spacing of the grating

The angle at which light is
incident on the grating
optical wavelength
In Littrow type grating, the blaze
angle is such that incident and
reflected light beams follow
virtually the same path.
 A blazed grating is a special type of diffraction grating.
Blazed gratings produce maximum efficiency at a specified
wavelength; that is, a diffraction grating that is "blazed at
250nm" will operate most efficiently when light with a
wavelength of 250 nm passes through the grating.
Like standard diffraction gratings, blazed gratings diffract
incoming light using a series of grooves. However, in blazed
gratings the grooves have been manufactured such that they
form right angles with a specified "blaze angle," which is the
angular distance from the surface normal of the diffraction
plate. The magnitude of the blaze angle determines the
wavelength at which the grating will be most efficient.
 A diffraction grating consists of a series of equally spaced
parallel grooves formed in a reflective coating deposited on a
suitable substrate. The distance between adjacent grooves
and the angle the grooves form with respect to the substrate
influence both the dispersion and efficiency of a grating. If the
wavelength of the incident radiation is much larger than the
groove spacing, diffraction will not occur. If the wavelength is
much smaller than the groove spacing, the facets of the
groove will act as mirrors and, again, no diffraction will take
place.
d is the grating constant (the
distance between successive
grooves), i is the angle of
incidence measured from the
normal and i' is the angle of
diffraction measured from the
normal.
Two main structural type:
(i) Littrow device employing lens and a separate plane grating
(ii) Concave grating
Littrow type grating demux (a) using a conventional lens
(b) using a GRIN-rod lens
Single input fiber and multiple output fibers are arranged on
the focal plane of the lens
Lens is used to collimate the optical beam. The input light is
collimated by lens and hence transmitted to the diffraction
grating which is offset at the blaze angle so that the
incoming light is incident virtually normal to the groove
faces.
On reflection from the grating the diffraction process causes
the light o be angularly dispersed according to wavelength
Finally the diffracted s pass through the lens and are
focused onto different output collecting fibers.
 Grating
150 J..tm

Output
f ibers

Transmission
fibers
(a)

Glass wedge

\
A3 . ------ -- -- -- -- ----- - -
A2 . ------------- -- -- -- - - -- - ----
------ - v---- Ref lective
grating
Al . ----- ----------------------

G RN
l -rod lens
(b)

Figure 5.38 Littrow-type grating demultiplexers: (a) using a conventional lens.

Reprinted with permission from Ref . 100 IEEE 1980; (b) using a GRIN-rod
lens LRPf 1nl
 WDM Devices
Arrayed Waveguide
Grating (AWG):
passive optical MUX,
DeMUX coupler using
diffraction grating
mechanism.
Can perform MUXing
and DeMUXing operation
in DWDM network with
narrow channel spacing
An AWG comprises of a
number of waveguides
with different lengths
converging at the same
point(s)
 optical signal passing through each of these waveguides
interfere with the signals passing through their neighboring
waveguides at the convergence points
depending upon the phase difference of interfering signals
(constructive or destructive) an optical signal at a desired
wavelength can be obtained at device out put
AWG: Five elements:
Input/output waveguides (WG)
Arrayed waveguides of different lengths
Two focusing slab waveguides
The basic operation is carried out in the two focusing slabs:
each of them acts as a multimode interference coupler or a
free space propagation region
When a WDM signal is coupled to input WG, this signal
propagates through input WG slab region where it illuminates
the grating by splitting the optical signal into each arrayed WG
with Gaussian distribution.
 Curved arrayed waveguides are preferred to produce waveguide
channels over a suitable distance
Optical signals travel down the WG array to the other WG slab
Since each arrayed WG exhibits a different path length then the
optical wavefronts reach the input ports of 2nd slab out-of-
phase with one another
2nd slab (output slab) performs as a combiner the overall AWG
becomes a WMD demultiplexer
Each input signal from arrayed WG interferes with all others within
the output slab WG. As a consequence of constructive
interference each single wavelength signal present in the
original WDM signal will be coupled into exactly one of the
output waveguides.
AWG is a passive device which can be operated as a
multiplexer when operating in opposite direction
Optical Isolator
It is essentially a passive device which allows the flow of optical
signal power (for a particular wavelength or a wavelength band)
in only one direction preventing reflection in backward
direction.
Optical isolators can be implemented by using FBGs (FBGs are
wavelength dependent which can be designed to allow or block
the optical signal at a particular or a range of wavelength/s)
or by using Magneto optic devices
FBG: Fiber Bragg Grating is an optical fiber component
having a periodic variation in the refractive index of its core
along the fiber length.
An FBG acts as a highly wavelength selective reflector, with a
high reflectivity at a given central wavelength.
The central wavelength, the peak value of reflectivity and the
bandwidth of reflection spectrum depends on the period of
refractive index modulation, on strength of index modulation
grating and length of grating
 Circulator
An optical circulator is a multiport device with non-
reciprocal transmission characteristics.
When light enters port 1 of
circulator, it exits through port 2. If
light enters port 2, instead of
emerging from port 1, it emerges
from port 3.
Isolators can be connected to
form circulator
P2
Insertion loss, IL 10 log ; (dB)

P1
P3

Cross talk, CT 10 log ; (dB)

P2
Isolators are interconnected to form a 3-port device which does
not discard backward reflections but directs them to another
isolator.
No connection is usually permitted between port 3 and port 1.
Commercially available circulators have 1dB insertion loss and high
isolation in the range of 40 to 50 dB centered at 1.3 and 1.5 m
 Optical Add/Drop Multiplexer (OADM)
OADM is used for adding and dropping of optical channels in a
fiber link while preserving the integrity of other channels

1 2 3

3 1

An FBG is placed with a central wavelength 1 at port 2, if light at 1 and 2 are

incident on port 1 of circulator, then out of 2 wavelengths exiting from port
2, FBG reflects back 1. this wavelength propagates back towards port 2 of
circulator and exits from port 3 while the wavelength 2 continue to
propagate along port 2. Thus it acts as a drop filter. In the right side, it is
adding 1 to the network.
1 is dropped in circulator 1, then another optical signal at this
wavelength can be added at circulator 2.
Multiple channels can be dropped and/or added by using a
combination of an FBG and optical circulators.