AE-11 Spring Design Manual Prepared under the auspices of the SAE Spring Committee Published by: Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc. < 400 Commonwealth Drive Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 sanPreface It was in 1678 that an English scientist, Robert Hooke, stated that, within certain limits, deflection is proportional to oad. His work on flexible members is stil the basis for spring design today. The wide use of, Springs o store and release energy can easily be observed by looking al the tools, appliances, and vehicles that we use in our daily lives. While there are several basic types of spring forms, the variations within each ‘category are endiess. The processes which are used to manufacture these items may also vary, further ‘compounding and enlarging the subject. In 1943, at the behest of the U.S. Ordi title “Manual on Design and Applics -manval “Design and Application of Leaf Springs” was published with revised editions being issued in 1962, 1970, and 1982. The manual “Design and Manufacture of Torsion Bar Springs” was first published in 1947 and revisions were made in 1966 and 1981. The manual “Design and Manufacture of Coned Disk Springs and Spring Washers” was first published in 1950 with revisions in 1955 and 1989. The newest manual “Incorporating Pneumatic Springs in Vehicle Suspension Designs” was published in 1989, The publication ‘of this manual on pneumatic springs, along with all the recent revisions to the other manuals, reflect the addition of new technologies and industry practices for automotive applications, ‘The incorporation ofthese five manvals into one volume represents the most comprehensive reference work available today. The Spring Committee wishes to note that these manuals should not be cegarded as a compilation of design or manufacturing specifications, instead they shoud be considered a5 reference which contain essential information which may be helpful to the engineer and designer on a broad range of topics — material selection, tolerances, end configurations, fatigue life, load and stress calculations, and processing information, All of the manuals employ SI Units in accordance with SAE 916, "Rules For Use of SI (Metric) Units.” ‘The Spring Committee recognizes the generous measure of time, effort, and dedication which the respective ‘Subcommittees put forth in the preparation of these manuals for publication, EH. JuddTable of Contents Pant ‘Design and Application of Leaf Springs 'SAE HS 788 Part? Design and Application of Helical and Spiral Springs, SAE HS 795. Part 3 Design and Manufacture of Torsion Bar Springs SAE HS 796 Pan Incorporating Pneumatic Springs in Vehicle Suspension Designs SAE HS 1576 Part 5 ‘Design and Manufacture of Coned Disk Springs (Bellevitle Springs) and Spring Washers ‘SAE HS 1582™ Part 1 Design and Application of Leaf Springs SAE HS 788TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1 GENERAL DATA| 1. Tatroduction 3. Leaf Springs for Vehicle Suspension Chapter 2 NOMENCLATURE AND SPECIFICATIONS |.. 1, Nomenclature ..... 2. Specification Requirement 3. Spring Eye Tolerances .. Chapter 3 DESIGN ELEMENTS |. 1. Leaf Sections ...... Leaf Ends oo. eee esse Spring Eyes and Spring Ends eee . Spring Eye Bearings . . Shackles... 4 5 : 6 Center Bolt and Cup Center » T. Center Clamp ..2e.eseseeee 8. Alignment Clips ..... 9, Rebound Leaves ..... 10, Variable Rate Springs Chapter 4 ~ 2. General Characteristics of Leaf Springs <0... i 1 GEOMETRY |....... 1, Deflection Theory. 2. Cantilever Spring .... 3, Semi-Eiliptic Spring «+2... 4 Center Link Extension Method 5. Two-Point Deflection Method . 6. Layouts and Nomenclature . Chapter $ DESIGN CALCULATIONS| Rate, Load and Stress . Stiffening Factor ......2..... Preliminary Calculations Stress Distribution Sample Calculation : Variable or Progressive Rate Springs - Strength of Spring Eyes . Chapter 6 INSTALLATION EFFECTS| 1. Characteristics of Shackles»... 2. Windup of Springs costes 3. Twist of Springs Chapter 7 INTERLEAF FRICTION].....-....-0----- 1, Characteristics 2. Measurement . 3. Controt Chapter 8 OPERATING STRESS AND FATIGUE LIFE}....... 1, Operating Stress 2. Fatigue Life ........ 3. Evaluation of Fatigue Test Results.Chapter 9 MATERIAL AND PROCESSING) . 1, Steel 2.52. 2. Mechanical Properties 3. Surface Decarburization . 4, Mechanical Prestressing - 5. Surface Finishes and Protecting Coatings Chapter 10 DESIGN DATA FOR SINGLE LEAF SPRINGS |... Single Leaf Types . Rate Calculations .. Rate Factors ...-.. ‘Stress Calculations . Practical Details ... amber of Single Leaf Springs - Sarmple Calculations ...... sopbene Appendix A Conversion Table| ‘Appendix B Derivation of Formulae for the Tabulated Values in Tables 5.2 and 5.3 12Chapter 1 1, Introduction ‘This Manual is written asa guide for the designer of leaf spring installations. It contains information which will make it possible to calculate the space required for a leaf spring, to provide suitable attachments, and to determine the elastic and geometric properties of the assembly The detail design of the spring itself also is described, ‘but it was not the intention of the Committee to lay down fixed rules for this. The choice of leaf lengths, leaf nesses, and leaf curvatures depends upon the type of in- stallation and upon the kind of service. Only an ex- perienced spring engineer can make the best choice of these factors, It is therefore recommended that the de- signer of a leaf spring installation consult a spring maker before the design is finalized, For standards and practices not covered inthis Manual, see the current SAE Handbook. 'No attempt has been made to investigate of consider ppatents which may apply to subject matter presented in ‘this Manual. Those who intend to use any of the construc- tions deseribed herein should make their owa investiga- (tions and arrangements in order to avoid liability for in- fringements ‘The term multiceaf has generally been applied tc ‘springs of constant width and with stepped leaves, each of ‘constant thickness, except where leaf ends may be tapered in thickness. More recently, the term has been extended to include an assembly of stacked “single” leaves, each of | ‘which is characterized by tapering either in width or in thickness or by a combination of both, Chapter 10 includes design data for single leaf springs «which may be of variable width and constant thickness, constant width and variable thickness, or a combination of variable width and variable thickness. 2, General Characteristics of Leaf Springs The leaf spring, like all other springs, serves to absorb and store energy and then to release it. During this cycle the stress in the spring must not exceed a certain maxi- ‘mum in order to avoid settling or premature failure. This consideration limits the amount of energy which can be ‘stored in any spring. Fos leaf springs based on a maximum stress of 1100 MPa, the energy listed in Table 1.1 may be stored in the Active part of the spring. If consideration of the inactive (> part of the spring required for axle anchorage, spring eyes, 1 General Data TABLE 1.1-ENERGY STORAGE OF STEEL SPRINGS AT 1100 MP Ener dye spi Onion cng fa ‘Sag et Fat ves a ength 8 Fa Propo sappad mast mih “ e Segoe ” ‘Sryeion a nm ‘Seg teat toe R Sega at ree, = 008 198 "For sscrton of Type ee Ose 10 tc, is included, the energy per kg ofthe (otal spring mass will be less than shown. For comparison, the stored energy in the active material of a helical spring of round bar section is 510 J/kg at 1100 MPa, and for a torsion bar of sound section is 390 J/kg at 965 MPa. This comparison shows that a leaf spring is heavier in mass than other types of springs. Balancing this disadvantage of mass, the leaf spring possesses the advantage that it can also be used as an attaching linkage or structural member. In order to be economically competitive, the leaf spring must therefore bbe so designed that this advantage is fully utilized. Also, a leaf spring made entirely of full length leaves of constant thickness (see type F-1) is very much heavier and less effcient than a leaf spring made of properly stepped leaves (see type F-2) or single leaf springs (see types F-4, P.2, T-l, and T-2), The maximam permissible leaf thickness for a given deflection is proportional to the square of the spring Fength. By choosing too short a length, the designer often ‘makes it impractical for the spring maker to build a satis- factory spring, although the requirements for normal load, deflection, and stress can be fulfilled. For example: A cube of steel, weighing 44 kg and mea- suring about 178 mm on each side, can be made int spring carrying a load of 16 000 N at 125 mm deflection ‘with a stress of 480 MPa. If 1500 mm is allowed for the length, the spring witl look like Fig. 1.1. Tt will consist of 10 leaves, each 75.0 mm ‘wide and 10.00 mm thick. ‘only 750 mm is allowed for the length, the spring will look tike Fig. 1.2. It will consist of 80 leaves, each 75.0 mm ‘wide and only 2.50 mm thick, ‘When springs are made with stepped leaf Tengths of type is desirable to choose alengih so thatthe spring will zo less than three leaves. Springs with many leaves |& 2.60 mm 80 Leaves ‘We sometimes used for heavy loads, but they are economic ‘al only where the shortening of the spring leads to def nite savings in the supporting structure. In addition, a owance will bave to be made for increased spring rate and Bareater eye stress, assuming the same load and width are sed In most installations the spring is also subject to windup loads. A typical example is that of the suspension spring (ina vehicle with Hotchkiss drive) which must withstand both driving and braking torque. The stresses under such loads are inversely proportional to the spring length; and ‘the windup stiffness is proportional to the square of the length for the spring of given load rate (see Chapter 6), This is another reason why it is important (o make the spring long enough and to check the resulting stresses and defections. ‘When a leaf spring is used as an attaching linkage, it will tend to guide the supported members in a certain geomet- ‘ical path (see Chapter 4). Ifno other guiding members are used, the desited geometry must be obtained by properly placing the supporting parts on the structure which car. ties the spring. If other guiding members are used, their ‘geometry must fit that of the spring, or forces may be set Up that will cause failore \w- Leaf Springs for Vehicle Suspension Leaf springs are most frequently used in suspensions, ‘This Manual, therefore, contains information which is 12 ‘most useful in the design of suspension springs, but itis ‘so applicable to leaf springs for other installations. The characteristics of a spring suspension are affected chiefly by the spring rate and the static deflection of the spring. ‘The rate oRa spring is the change of load per unit of defection (N/mm). This is not the same amount at all positions of the spring, and is different for the spring as installed. Static deflection of a spring equals the static load divided by the rate at static load; it determines the stiffness of the suspension and the ride frequency of the vehicle. In most cases the static deflection differs from the actual ‘deflection of the spring between zero load and static load, due to influences of spring camber and shackle effect, A soft ride generally requires a large static deflection of the suspension, There are, however, other considerations and limits, among them the following: 1. A more flexible spring will have a larger total deflection and will be heavier. 2. in most applications a more exible spring will cause more severe striking through or wll require a larger “tide clearance” (the spring travel on the vehicle from the design load position to the metal-to-metal contact posi- tion), disregarding rubber bumpers. 3. The change of standing height of the vehicle due 10, variation of load is larger with a more flexible spring, The static deflection to be used also depends upon the svailable ride clearance. Further, the permissible static deflection depends upon the size of the vehicle because of ‘considerations of stability in braking, accelerating, corner- ing, ete. Table 1.2 shows typical static defletions and ride clear- ances for various types of vehicles. These values are ap- Proximate and are meant to be used only as a general indication of current practice in suspension system design. ‘The mass of a spring subject toa given maximum stress is determined by the energy which is to be stored (see Table 1.1). This energy is represented by the area under ‘the load-deflection diagram, which therefore is aio a mea- ‘sure of the required spring mass. The following considera. tion will indicate what effect some changes in either rate ‘or clearance will have on the required spring mass and therefore on the load-deflection diagram,smu 12-vewoLe stAnc DEFLECTIONS AND HOE CLEARANCES WITH AnIOUS TVPES OF STEEL LEAF SPRINGS. ‘ite ise Detection, coerce, serge avorobies ‘e000 reas (arewngn ‘sarcomere 193-200 sos [at ras oa) Tals ont Far gow corn ra reas Fara oa opeaion Bs Sos Concerning changes in rate Fig. 1.3 shows a theoretical ‘cad-deflection diagram of a stiff (high rate) spring, and Fig. 1.4 that of a very flexible (low rate) spring, both for zhe same design load and clearance, The energy stored in cach, when fully deflected, is the same (1125 J), and the «wo springs will have almost the same massif made of the same kind of material. 15 000|N LOAD. -100mm —60mm 0 50mm 100mm PETE coanant of Fig. 1.3—-Theoretical losd-detlection diagram of a high’ rate spring Jn the case of the stiff spring, energy and mass will be decreased by making the spring more flexible. In the case of the very flexible spring, energy and mass will be de- creased by making the spring stiffer. The dividing point between these two cases is defined by “static deflection clearance”, The loed-deflection diagram of this “mini- ‘mum energy” or “'minimum mass” spring is shown by a dashed fine in both figures; it indicaces a stored energy of 1000 J. Concerning changes in clearance, Figs. 1.3 and 4 bring out the fact that a change in clearance by a given distance will affect the stored energy and therefore the required mass of the stiff spring, much more than that of the very flexible spring. 10 000|N LOAD 200mm 160mm 100mm -smm 8 [STATIC DEFLECTION -~{CLEARANCE} Fig. 14—Theoretical Joud-deflection diagram of 2 low rate spring 13Chapter 2 Nomenclature And Specifications - 1, Nomenclature The following terms are recommended for use on draw- ings and in specifications to avoid misunderstandings, The terms apply mainly to semielliptic springs. Datum Line—Most of the dimensions defined here refer to a datum line, In Figs. 2.1 and 22 (where the springs are shown inverted as in a machine for load and rate checking) itis shown as the line X-X. On springs with eyes, the datum line passes through the centers of the eyes. ‘On other springs it passes through the points where the load is applied near the ends of the spring. These points ‘must be indicated on the drawing. Seat Angle Base Line—(see Figs. 2.1 and 2.2.) Refer ‘ence line drawn through the terminal points of the active spring length at each eye, taken along the tension surface ‘of the main leaf. For a Berlin type eye (see Fig. 3.3 E, F, G in Chapter 3), the terminal point is the interscetion of ‘an extension to the contour of the tension surface with a Perpendicular line through the center of the eye. On ‘springs without eyes, the seat angle base line is coincident ‘with the datum fine Loaded Length~(see Figs. 2.4-2.8,) Distance between ‘wtthe spring eye centers when the spring is deflected to the specified load position. On springs without eyes, itis the distance between the lines where load is applied under the specified conditions. Tolerance, + 3.0 mm, Loaded Fixed End Length—(see Figs. 242.8.) Dis- tance from the center ofthe fixed end eye tothe projection ‘on the datum line of the point where the centerline of the ‘center bolt intersects the spring surface in contact with the spring seal. Toterance, + 1.5 mm. Straight Length—Distance between spring eye centers ” when the tension surface of the main leaf at the center bolt centerline is in the plane of the seat angle base line. The distance is measured parallel to the seat angle base tine. Tolerance, + 3.0 mm. ‘Seat Lengrh—Length of spring that isin actual engage- ment with the spring seat when installed on a vehicle at design height. [tis always greater than the inactive length. Inactive Lengih—Lengih of the spring tendered inac- tive by the action of the U-bolts or clamping bolts. For ‘metal-to-metal type spring seats, this length is usually assumed to be equal to the distance between the insides of the U-bolts, except for some curved seats where it is apt to be slightly shorter. For soft seas (using rubber type ‘isolation, as in many passenger car installations) the inac- tive length may approach zero. Ne Sear Angle—(see Figs. 2.1 and 2.2.) Angle between the tangent (o the center of the spring seat and the seat angle 15 base line. When the spring is viewed with the fixed end of the spring to the left as shown, and the load is applied to the shortest leaf from above, the seat angle may be spe- Cified as either positive (counterclockwise) or negative clockwise), depending upon the angular direction in which the tangent to the center of the spring seat is dis- posed from the scat angle base line ‘Consequently, with the spring in normal vehicle posi tion so that the load is applied to the shortest leaf from below as shown in Figs. 2.4, 2.6, 2.7, 2.8, and 2.9, and again with the fixed end of the spring to the left of the drawing, the seat angle is defined as positive when that tangent is disposed clockwise, and as negative when the tangent is disposed counterclockwise. For suspension layout purposes, te seat angle is usually established with themainleaf straight (see Siright Lengih). In this positon (in which the center ofthe spring seat les 6m the seat angle base line), the suspension layout specifies the contour of the main leaf. namely either: + flat, 90 that the seat angle is ze70; or else + with front and rear segments being approximately circular arcs tangent to each other at the spring seat ("S shaped” main leaf) This. then the tangent ofa seat angle defined as other-than-zero. Tolerance is usually held within + 0.5 deg, or as re quired for a particular application. For production checking purposes it is sometimes con- venient (o deflect the spring to the position specified for load checking, and there measure the angle between the tangent to the spring seat and the datum line (instead of the seat angle baseline). For correct angle evaluation, the following relations between this “checked angle” and the seat angle in the straight-main-leaf (or any other) postion must be considered: " . 1. the two angles differ according to the distance by which the spring is deflected between any two positions, and according to the spring contro} (®, see Chapter 4). 12. The angles also differ according to the distance at each end between the seat angle base line and the datum line. With the spring inverted as shown in Fig. 2-1, the terminal point of the seat angle base line i: a) Higher by ID/2 than the datum fine of the up- turned eye. 'b) Lower by 1/2 than the datum fine of the Berlin eye, ©) Lower by (t + 1D/2) than the datum line of the downturned eye. 4) Identical with the datum line when there are no eyes. Finished Width—Width to which the spring leaves are ‘ground or milled to give the edges a flat bearing surface.c S 3 & ' wos ‘SHACKLED END N03 ‘SEAT ANGLE posinive (Positive AS SHOWN) OVERALL HEIGHT REBOUND LEAF HO. 1 DATUM LINE SEAT ANGLE BASE LINE OVERSLUNG SPRING WITH POSITIVE CAMBER LoaD 002 ‘SEAT ANGLE No.1 (POSITIVE AS SHOWN) POSITIVE OPENING SEAT ANGLE BASE LINE : DATUM LINE : UNDERSLUNG SPRING WITH POSITIVE CAMBER (ED END . rx SHACKLED END NEGATIVE LOAD QVERALL HEIGHT SEAT ANGLE BASE LINE SEAT ANGLE (NEGATIVE AS SHOWN) OVERSLUNG SPRING WITH NEGATIVE CAMBER FIXED END LOAD SHACKLED END DATUM LINE t SEAT ANGLE BASE LINE SEAT ANGLE (NEGATIVE AS SHOWN) momar? UNDERSLUNG SPRING WITH NEGATIVE CAMBER Fig. 2.1—Measurement of opening, overall height, and seat angie 16w | t i 1 GERIGION SURFACE OF MAIN LEAF SEAT ANGLE BASE LINE ‘ALSO DATUM LINE WITH NO EVES DATUM LINE FOR SERLIN EYE CENTER OF MAIN LEAF IN LEAF RFAGE OF MAT SEAT ANGLE BASE LINE TENSION SUI LEAF THICKNESS 9 CENTER OF EYE TERMINAL POINT FOR SEAT ANGLE BASE LINE DATUM LINE FOR DOWNTURNED EVE AGE OF MAIN LEAF TENSION SURF ‘SEAT ANGLE BASE LINE Fig. 22--Datum tne and seat angle bate line for upturned, Bar- lie, downturned, and no eyes WwLOADING HEAD OF aon TesTMACMINE ‘ScRIBE LINE ‘ABOUT 080 OEP (OW EACH SIDE Soom, xis 15 THREADED BOLT ‘OPTIONAL FOR ‘Lockane ausiine tw PLace SPRING WIDTH! OR MORE —af ox Y FIXED END IACKLE END 1 LOADED LENGTH +3.0- i — 215 r WIDTH I aE — q t SEAT LENGTH — t- OPENING ‘CENTER BOLT SIZE NI STACK THICKNESS EYE 1.0. EVE SPRING SHOWN UNDER t NLOAD MATERIAL CLEARANCE mm HARONESS RANGE RATE + N/mm LEAVES SHOT PEENED NS Fig. 24—tNcimum specification cequieements for understung “eprings with positive opening 18OVERALL FLAT LENGTH 23.2, ——. LOADED LENGTH #3. Nur BOLT Size Lo SEAT LENGTH STACK THICKNESS OPENING SPRING SHOWN UNDER = + ~=NLOAD MATERIAL” CLEARANCE = mm HARDNESS RANGE RATE + N/mm LEAVES SHOT PEENED Fig. 2.5~-atinimum specitication coquirements for springs with plain ends If the spring ends have a finished width, the required ‘Stack Thickness—Aggregate of the nominal thick- length of the finished edge must also be indicated (See nesses of all leaves of the spring including any liners and distance A, Fig, 2.6. The usual tolerances for finished spacer plates which are part of the spring at the seat. width are: Leaf Numbers— (see Fig. 2.1.) Leaves are designated by 1 _ numbers, starting with the msin leaf which is No. 1. The kes Witth Raleranes from adjoining leaf is No. 2, and so on. If rebound leaves are Over incbsng al used, the rebound leaf adjoining the main leaf is rebound Ikaf No. 1, the next one is rebound leaf No. 2, and so on. © 50 ~035 (Rebound leaves are assembled adjacent to the main leaf 2 2 “38 on the side opposite the load Bearing leaves) Helper sptings are considered as separate units. Opening And Onerall Height—(see Fig, 2.1.) Distance from the datum line 10 the point where the center bolt Assembled Spring Wideh—Where more than one leaf centerline intersects the surface of the spring that is in constitutes a spring assembly, the overall width tolerance contact with the spring seat. of the assembly within the spring seat length shall be as ‘I? the surface in contact with the seat is on the main leaf ‘ora rebound leaf (as on underslung springs), this distance follows: _ is called “opening.” wie Tomrance hom Ifthe surface in contact with the seat is on the shortest Ber Toand Nominal Width Jeaf(as on overslung springs), this distance is called “over- retuding 00) all height.” ° o 228 “Opening” and “overall height” may be positive or neg- fs 100 30 ative (see Fig, 21.) They are specified dimensions not r 125 35 a " . 10 12 +38 subj toa tolerance (se paragraph on Load inthis chap 19FINISH WIDTH DISTANCE (IF REQUIRED) { _-STOCK WIDTH LESS work | ' ALLOWANCE ir CLEARANCE =" 8 H ——---_—+— LOADED LENGTH #3.0 ——J 0.0. BUSHING i +4-1.D. BUSHING FINISHED / CENTER BOLT SIZE $e SSE Ty A : e enost LOVERALL SEAT aI\ Ustack | [evewusana oo. HEIGHT © LENGTH ——-——h | THICKNESS) [FOR TEST PURPOSES iw 260+. 60 —1 . be 26.0 ——— - 26.0 _-~“L NEGATIVE OF ee = [mcrae : 26.0 ~ 2600 --— kb £60 - t 26.0 --——— SPRING SHOWN UNDER + ~=NLOAD MATERIAL CLEARANCE mm HARDNESS RANGE RATE + Nérom LEAVES SHOT PEENED INTERLINERS BETWEEN = LEAVES Fig. 2.7—Minimum specification cequicemente for underaling springs with negative opening 1.10FIXED END. 218: LOADED LENGTH CENTER TO CENTER OF CONTACT PADS. SHACKLE END 130 WIDTH VERTICAL DISTANCE FROM CENTER OF FIXED SPRING EVE |__ age Toconesrvoin weLren sens maarrncxl Spconragy pans aoe eeees cen ha SSS mL ro.eve ro.eve seacen as : neauine centenleo.1 size -staca vncnness I b- |} seatiteneri ovenate neiGut (OF MAIN SPRING “ f 6.0 MAIN SPRING st 1 “ SPRING SHOW UNDER «| —~N LOAD neeen TOCONTACT AT Wy Load oN waIN SPRING CLEARANCE mm arena RATEOEMASPRING = Nin vanoness nance RATEOFHELPESERING = Nim Leaves sHOTPEENED Fig. 28—-Minimum specitication requirements for overstung ‘commercial vehicle rings Clearance—Difference in opening. or overall height, ‘between the design load position and the extreme position (of maximum stress) to which the spring can be deflected ‘on the vehicle. Comber—Camber is not stricily defined and should therefore not be used in specifications, but itis sometimes ‘convenient as @ descriptive term. It is usually defined as the arc height of the main leaf. Camber is positive or negative analogous to opening, but this should aot be confused with the fact that zero camber may be equivalent to either positive or negative opening, depending upon whether the spring has upturned or downturned eyes. Curvature—Curvature (1/R) is the reciprocal of radius (R). The curvature of a flat leaf is zero, Curvature is considered positive in the direction in which it increases with added load. Positive curvature corresponds with neg- ative camber. Load and Rate—Terms which are usually employed to describe the basic characteristics of a leaf spring, AS spe- ‘fed on the spring drawing, they refer to quantities mea- sured on the spring without center clamp and without shackles. They are not the same as those of the installed spting. If it is necessary to specify load and rate as, clamped, this should be clearly shown on the drawing with full particulars of the clamp. Load is the force in newtons (N) exerted by the spring ‘at the specified opening or overall height, This force is ‘eater ducing loading ofthe spring (“compression load”) than during unloading of the spring (“release load”). The specified foad shall be the average of the compression load and the relcase load, For practical reasons, load as well as, rate shall be mcasured in terms of compression loads only, but the compression load in any position stall be read only after the spring has been thoroughly rapped in that posi- tion with a plastic or soft metal hammer. The tolerance on load at the specified overall height or ‘opening is usually expressed as a load range (N) which is equivalent to a deflection (mmm) at the nominal rate (N/m). This deflection may'be as small as 6.0 mm for 4 passenger car spring and as large as 13.0 min for a heavy truck spring. Rate is the change of load per unit of spring deflection(N/mm). For leaf springs it is'determined as one fiftieth 2%) ofthe difference between the loads measured 25 mm above and 25 mm below the specified position, unless otherwise specified (see Fig. 2.9.) The tolerance is usually hheld within -+ $9 on low rate springs and within ++ 7% ‘on high rate springs: Measuring Methods—Instead of measuring loads at the ‘specified position and 25 mm above and below, some users ‘measure loads at more than three positions during com- pression and release and plot a complete losd-deflection diagram with a friction loop, similar to Fig. 7.1. This method requires more time but provides additional infor- ration. Such 2 diagram is preferably obtained by loading and unloading continuously and recording the data with an X-Y plotter. Load and rate are then obtained from the diagram. ‘When the load is measured, the spring ends shall be free to move in the direction of the datum line. The ends are usually mounted on carriages with rollers. The spring shall be supported on its ends, and the Joed shall be ap- plied from above to the shortest leaf it shall be transmitted from the testing machine head through a standard SAE loading block shown in Fig. 2.3: ‘The loading block shall be centered over the center bolt with the legs of the V resting on the spring. 1 is under- stood that the load specified on the spring drawing does rot include the force of gravity (usually called “weight” and equalling: mass times acceleration of gravity) on either the spring or the loading block. ust before the spring is checked for load or rate, it shall undergo a preloading operation. During the inital pre- loading by the spring maker, the spring shall be deflected at least to the position defined under the paragraph on Clearance. During any subsequent preloading, the spring shall be deflected only to and not beyond this “clearance position” in order to remove any temporary recovery from the set incurred during the initial preloading. After the spring has been preloaded, it shall be released to the free pesition before the load is applied for load and rate check- ing 2, Specification Requirements Minimum specification requirements are given in Figs 24-29, They illustrate what information should be given to the spring maker for working out the detail design of ‘mounting, Therefore, the center bolt head is on the main leaf side and the height is dimensioned by specifying the ‘opening. On an overslung spring, the center bolt head ‘would be on the opposite side and the overall height would be specified. ‘The type of spring shown in Fig. 2.5 is often used on truck rear suspensions mounted in the position shown and ‘with the center bolt head located as shown. In this case the ‘opening should be specified. Fig. 2.6 shows a spring which has a main leaf con- structed with an eye at one end and the other end plain; ‘construction frequently used for truck suspensions. Fig. 2.7 shows the details of an undershung rear spring. designed with considerable negative opening. ‘The combination of main spring and belper spring shown in Fig. 2.8 is frequently used for truck rear suspen- sions and is mounted as an overslung spring. Fig. 2.9 shows an overshung variable rate spring of the multistage type. The graph indicates the method of mes- * suring rates of such springs, where rate (1) is usvally measured at “curb load” (that is, atthe load on the spring ‘which is due to the mass of the vehicle without any pay- load), while rate 2) is measured at “design load” (that is, at the load on the spring which is due to the mass of the vehicle plus the payload). 3, Spring Eye Tolerances Spring Eyes and Bushings For round eyes with specified inside diameter, the size and roundness of the eye should be checked by means of 1 round plug gage from which two opposite seginents of 60 deg have been removed. The gage shall be tapered by ‘0.05 mm in diameter per 25.0 mm of length (ste Fig. 2.10.) ‘The gage shall be inserted into the eye three times from cach side at angular positions differing by about 60 deg. The eve is acceptable oily if the gage reading on the side of the eye from which the gage is inserted is within the specified dismetral limits at each of the six checks. ‘Also, the round eye should be checked with a round plug, GO/NO-GO gage, to determine if the eye is cone shaped or tapered. The GO diameter must pass. com- pletely through the eye, and the NO-GO diameter must not enter the eye from either side. ‘The total tolerance shall be 1% of the nominal diameter of the eye, except for large diameter eyes (40 mm or more), ‘where bushing retention may require a smaller tolerance of 0.75% of the nominal eye diameter. For eye diameters of less than 25 mm, the minimum tolerance is 0.25 mm. Where the ID of a bushing may have been affected by pressing into the spring eye, it shoukd be checked with a round plug gage. Total tolerance isto be 0.13 mim unless otherwise specified. ‘Oval eyes (see Fig. 3.3H) consist of two half circle ends joined by flat sections. One method of checking thei sizes . is by using » GO/NO-GO plug gage system. This consists of: 1. An oblong GO gage to the minimum inside dimen- sions. 2. An- oblong NO-GO gage to the maximum inside ‘dimensions for the half circle ends only, with the flat sides of the gage undercut. 3. rectangular NO-GO gage for the inside dimensions between the fat sides only. 1.12LOAD AT METAL, TOMETAL POSITION MATERIAL ~ HARONESS RANGE 3] Leaves sor reenep a 2 2 3 3 MEASURE RATE 8 3 ‘OVER 25 mn 8 3 DEFLECTION CLEARANCE BEYOND DESIGN LOAD (2) mm CLEARANCE TOAD TT 3] cunetoaowy 2 Wt OAM. S| DEsIGNLoAD(2) + ON st OAH. DEFLECTION FROM 3 . cunB LoAD (To | einststaGERATE N/mm | SeCONDSTAGERATE «$= Nimm ‘OVERALL HEIGHT {mm Pe FIXED END SHACKLE END as [-_———_ tonne tenet | —-pp.eve AT DESIGN LOAD (2) OVERALL : HEIGHT First $1 i Lo SECOND STAGE LEAVES ; CENTER BOLT SIZE (SHOWN HERE AT A LOAD : i SEAT BEFORE REACHING | LENGTH INITIAL CONTACT WITH FIRST STAGE LEAVES) a Fg. 29—Minimum apectication cequicerents for variable rate ‘Or progressive rate‘THESE LINES TO BE 0.25 DEEP AND 0.25 WIDE AFTER FINISH GRIND OTHER LINES TO BE 0.13 DEEP AND 0.13 WIDE AFTER FINISH GRIND 0 0.05 PER 25.0 IT TAPER FOR THIS DIST. 300. ~~ ~ = = 12.0 TYPICAL | Fi \ x x x x{ 60° FLAT = tt TECH EEE EEEEEGE é L i [ l { 6.0 WALL 0.0 + 60.0 + 60.0 60.0 sows CONST, 1.0 400. X-STAMP GAGE DIAMETERS AT THESE STATIONS MATERIAL: STEEL - G40270 (SAE 4027) OR EQUIVALENT PROCESS: CARBURIZED AND HARDENED; CASE DEPTH 0.50 MIN. ‘ SURFACE HARDNESS: R, 58 MIN. | Fig, 2.10—Gage—deat soring eye plug Parallelism and Squareness of Spring Eyes [Eyes of the main leaf in the assembled spring, measured in the unloaded condition, shall be parallel to the surface atthe spring seat, and square with a tangent to-cther edge of the main Icaf at the spring seat, within + 1 deg.Chapter 3 Design Elements 1. Leaf Sections! For automotive springs, round edge flat steel was adopted as the SAE standard in 1938. The bars shall be of flat rolled steel having two Mat surfaces and two rounded (convex) edges. The cross section tolerances per- mit the two flat surfaces to be slightly concave. When that ‘occurs, the radii of the arcs of the two concave surfaces shall be of approximately equal length. The rounding of the convex edges shall be an arc with ‘radius of curvature that may vary from 65-859 of the thickness of the bar. Bars shall be substantially straight and free from physi- cal characteristies known as “kinks” or “twists” which render them unsatisfactory for spring manufacturing pur- poses. Distortions due to a bar being bent about either major axis of section shall be measured with the bar against a flat checking surface so as to make contact with this surface ‘ear both bar ends. Gaps between the bar and the check- ing surface shail not exceed 4.0 mm/1 m of bar length ovt of contact with the checking surface when this bar length is greater than | m. Also, a gap between the bar and & straight edge I m long applied along any portion of the surface or edge of the bat shall not exceed 4.0 mm, It is recommended that all leaf spring bars which have been cold straightened be identified by the steel mill so that the spring manufacturer can use them selectively. ‘The bar sections, which are generally provided in alloy steel, shall be specified and rolled in the widths and thick- nesses shown in Table 3.1. These sections are subject tothe tolerances given in Table 3.2. agus 34 (na) "st be note a ane wma ae esnacen ae Planes Nas reercaroe win Anca Nason! Sard 217 ‘Tables showing the mass per meter length and the ae- tual moment of inertia for each size of these bars are provided in Chapter 5. Ret SAE 11123, ‘TABLE 32-CROSS SECTION TOLERANCES (mn) ‘wie “Toveranee ‘asim ovweren wan | totwance | un moeaneas (et te Tekneae And Fates Tey Tac Ta sane PSOE RE HER oe Pee | 80 | rite | ars | oso | 20% | srs wo | sos [ou] os oes | 008 wo | tor fon] os 0s | 00s wo | tom |o| ors bos | 0s geo | tor [or | ass | = | ons | eos | = ea | tor [ors | cis | = | cos | cos | = rsa | s11s [oss | 020 | 020 | oo | oro | ais wooo | tats [ess | o20 | om | aoe | ato | ors aso} 16s | or cas | ow | ov | oa | 020 woo | 20 | - | om | om | — jor | ov ‘ress meuavereets sal be kan ate ce ce ber wee he suees claves ord ade “Tstotancevepreserts re meeum arcu wich no eens al cot te baray ow ae tar te vcanen athe aope, Tacos oe cota ay ove encode chess a ogee ‘Mteamam aitwores io neirer bywoen eto 39s of eh Bar It is well known that fatigue feilures in spring leaves usually start on the tension side of the leaf. Taking advan- tage of this fact, special sections shown in Fig 3.1. have ‘been developed which place the neutral axis nearer to the FLAT SECTION (SEE SAE STANDARD) = TENSION SURFACE GROOVED SECTION = TENSION SURFACE PARABOLIC EDGE SECTION Fig. 3.1—Sections of spring steet 145tension surfaces. Springs made of such sections are $-10% lower in mass than those made of conventional section. When grooved sections are used, special precautions should be taken to prevent corrosion caused by the mois- ture which tends to become trapped within the grooves. It is suggested that spring users interested in these special sections contact the manufacturers who produce such springs. 2, Leaf Ends ‘Square End (Blunt End) (Fig. 3.24 ) ‘This is the cheapest end to produce but is often unsatis- factory. It causes concentration of interleaf pressure, re- sulting in more friction and galling than tapered ends. It is.a very poor approximation of the theoretical triangular Jeaf uniforni stress spring, and is therefore heavier thant necessary, Diamond Point (Spear End) (Fig. 3.2B) This end makes a better approximation of the uniform stress spring by omitting excess material. The pressure jistribution between leaves is slightly improved. ‘Tapered End (Fig. 3.2C) - ~ This end can be formed to approximate very closely the ideal uniform stress shape. The plan view. contour is con- A. END SQUARE AS SHEARED trolled by trimming or edge squeezing as part of the taper~ ing operation. Due to the flexibility of the leaf end, the pressure distribution in the bearing area is improved and interleaf friction is generally reduced. ‘Tapered And Trimmed End (Fig. 32D) ‘This end is similar to Fig 32, except that the plan view contour is controlled by trimming after the tapering oper- ation, and thus has the added advantage of the maximum obtainable area of contact, 3. Spring Eyes and Spring Ends Upturned Eye (Fig. 3.34) This construction is most commonly used. If required, the second leaf can be extended to give support to the eve. Military Wrapper (Fig. 3.3B) In this design no attempt is made to use the second leaf ‘wrapper as an eye under design loads; but it may come into action on rebound and thus assist the main leaf. It also provides an emergency support if the main leaf breaks. The design has beer: widely used on military vehi- cles and trucks where the service is severe. C. END TAPERED —> B, END TRIMMED WITH DIAMOND POINT D. END TAPERED, THEN TRIMMED BURRS AWAY FROM BEARING SURFACE Fig. S.2—Leat ends 116A. UPTURNED EYE ‘This construction can be built as a lat Ieaf on a curved spring pad, or as a curved leaf on either a lat oa curved spring pad. The leaf ends used with the rubber insulators. ‘shown in Fig. 3.11 are similar, but are sometimes provided with a T end or a circular hole for the transmission of lengthwise forces Downturned Eye (Fig, 3.3D ) This is sometimes used because it produces a desired spring geometry (or suspension motion) which may im- Prove steering or axle control. If support to the eye by the second leaf is required, this construction is not recom- mended, Berlin Eye (Fig. 3.3E) Longitudinal loads are applied centrally to the main leaf, thereby reducing the tendency of the eye to unwrap. Berlin Eye With Military Wrapper (Fig, 3.3F) This construction is a variation of Figure 3.3B. - @ @_ B. MILITARY WRAPPER, = C= a= PLAIN END MOUNTING mS) GO = Q_, o. wetoeo eve H. ovac eve (i 39-Spng ee ins Plain End Mounting (Fig. 3.3C ) Welded Eye (Fig. 3.3G ) This construction is used predominantly in applications such as torque rods where the horizontal force is high. The welding must be performed before heat treatment, using appropriate tecbnique ‘Oval Fye (Fig. 33H) This eve construction’ permits the use of rubber bush- ings which have different rates in he vertical and horizon- fal directions. This eye was developed specifically 10 re- duce the magnitude of the horizontal force inputs in suspension appl 4, Spring Eye Bearings ‘Threaded Bushings (Figs. 3.4, 3.5, and 3.6) This type of construction has the following advantages: It takes side thrust as well as vertical load, retains lubri- ‘cant, and excludes dirt better than a plain bushing, thus ‘requiring less frequent lubrication. Spring eyes need not be finished in width. 41a7eackle r Sian, rin Ye Fig. 3.5—Spring eye bearing: Threaded bushings and pins in fone piece ¥ shackle The bushing has a 60 deg V thread on the inside which fits the pin loosely. The outside i either plain or provided with a very flat angle thread. It is forced into the spring eye or bracket. ‘The bushings and gins are made of carbon or alloy steel, carburized and hardened. Thread sizes generally used are M142 to M36X4. Load pressures up to 7.00 MPa on the projected area at ‘normal load are used. Figs. 3.4 and 3.6 show seals. Self-Lubricated Bushings (Fig. 3.7) Various designs and materials have been introduced on passenger cars and light trucks. They do not require 1u- fen Nauti Fig, 3.6—Spring.eye bearing: Threaded bushings In taper i shackle ig. 3.7—Sering eye bearing: Sell-ubricated bushings in double Dotted shackle brication and are noiseless. The design shown in Fig. 3.7 takes side thrust on rounded circular grooves and ridges. Spring eyes are not finished in width. Some types will ‘stand pressures up to 8.40 MPa on the projected area at normal load, Plain Bushings (Fig, 3.8) This type bearing, usually bronze, is used on heavy trucks, It is simple to manufacture and service, and will sive satisfactory life fit is regularly lubricated. Side thrust is taken on the finished faces of the spring eyes. The wall thickness is usually 3.0 mm. Load pressures used are be- tween 3.50-7.00 MPa on the projected area at normal load, 148Fig. 3.8Sering eye bearing: Plain Bushings, periodical SECTION AA pricated, in double boited sheckle Rubber Bushings (Figs. 3.9 and 3.10) ‘Various types are used successfully. Their exibility is an added insulation against noise, but the effect of the flexibility on road holding ability, steering control, and increase in spring rate must be considered. Rubber Cushion (“Shock Insulator”) (Fig, 3.11) This bearing is used on heavy vehicles. The design per- ‘mits a limited amount of longitudinal motion ofthe spring ends. It is, therefore, successful only with fairly long. springs which are approximately at at design load. 5. Shackles ‘One Piece C-Shackle (Fig. 3.4) Used on passenger cars and light trucks. Fig. 8.8-Spring eye bearing: Rubber bushing in fixed eye pivot 1g ‘One Piece Y-Shackle (Fig. 3.5) ‘Taper Pin Shackle (Fig.-3.6 ) ‘Double Botted Shackle (Figs, 3.7 and 3.8) These constructions have been used where they must resist forces transverse to the spring (that is, in the diree- tion of the spring eye axis). Careful design with close fits ‘must be used to avoid locsening in service. Fig. 2.10—Spring eye bearing: Rubber bushings in ehackleFig. .11-—Spring end bearing: Rubber cushion ("Shock insular tor) Riveted Bolted Shackle (Fig. 3.10) Well suited to rubber bushings, and therefore, ia gen- ‘eral use on passenger cars and light trucks. 6, Center Bolt And Cup Center ‘The center bolt is requited to hold the spring leaves together, and the center bolt head is used as a locating dowel during installation to the vehicle, For underslung springs, the head should be adjacent to the main leaf, and for overslung springs, the head should be adjacent to the short leaf. In most cases, center bolts are highly stressed in the handling of the spring and in service. Therefore, itis nec~ ‘essary t0 use bolts and nuts of high mechanical properties. The diameter of the center bolt hole in the spring leaves should be atleast equal to the thickness of the heaviest leaf in order to permit cold punching. If the diameter of the center bolt hole should be less than the thickness of the leaf, it may require heating the leaf in the area to be punched. However, it is not recommended to cold punch leaves which are thicker than 14 mm. (See Table 3.3 for sizes.) Generally, the spring leaf material at the center bolt area is inoperative when assembled to the vehicle. How- ‘ever, the diameter ofthe center bolt hole should nat be too large in relation to the width of the leaf ‘When itis not desirable to use a center bolt and hole in the spring leaves, a nib or cup, for nesting the adjacent leaves, is forged from the leaf material itself by forming @ depression on one side and a corresponding projection on TABLE 24-RECOMMENDED CENTER BOLT AN NUT DIMENSIONS (rr) _ camer en] i eo just eft & [us| % bps the other side, The leaves are then held together with clamps. ‘Cup centers are often used in heavy duty springs which may not safely depend on clamps and center bolts (0 prevent shifting of the spring on the axle seat due to driving and braking forces (See Fig. 3.14.) When the main leaf is assembled adjacent to the axle seat asin underslung springs, the cup is hot forged in the main leaf only (away from the No. 2 leaf). When the shortest leaf is mounted above the axle scat asin overslung, ‘springs, all the leaves must be cupped toward the shortest leaf This method of cupping locks the main leaf to the axle seat. The horizontal forces which are applied to the main leaf will be resisted by the cup rather than the clamp and the center bolt. 4 ‘There are many types of cup centers in general use, one of which is shown in Fig. 3.12. The cup dimensions are listed according to center bolt diameter; however, the cup diameter should not exceed one-half the leaf width and the cup depth should not exceed one-half the leaf thickness. 45056 ‘s00ee Fig. 8.12—Dimensloning of typical cup center For Us Wi mension Tote cuba Durer on waa er 6 fnare & sos aa ae arate Tas ae ae Beat cas 38 of coon cas as ene) a3, 25 Ey 7. Center Clamp ‘The center clamp provides the permanent tie between the leaves, and between the spring and the spring seat. Figs. 3.13, 3.14, and 3.15 show some typical designs, 1.20Fig. 3.13-Typical center clamping ‘of oversiung seeing A tr fee i} 121Fig. 2.15—Center clamping of underelung spring with rubber pads The functions of the clamp are to attach the spring firmly to its seat to prevent leaf breakage through the ‘center bolt section, and to prevent center bolt breakage due to horizontal forces. It therefore must remain tight in service ‘Excessive clamp length reduces the active length af the spring and wastes metal. The clamp length is usually be- tween 8-15% of the spring length. The ends of steel clamps should be well rounded to avoid sharp edges in contact with the spring leaves. ‘Clamps with rubber pads (Fig. 3.15) are frequently used ‘on passenger car rear axles because of their important influence on reduction of noise transmission, Similar to the rubber shackle bushings mentioned in Section 4 of this chapter, considerations of road holding, axle control, and steering control seta limit to the amount of softness which it is permissible to use at the center clamp. The center clamp has an effect on load rate and on. loaded height of the spring. This is discussed in Chapter § Section 2. 8, Alignment Clips Alignment clips are used fo limit sidewise spread and vertical separation of the individual leaves in the spring. Bolt Clip (Fig, 3.164) ‘This lip is used for most heavy springs. The clearance between the bolt and the main leaf must be sufficient (0 permit the main leaf to twist Jongitudinelly so that this twist will not be concentrated in the free ends near the ‘eyes. A spacer tube is recommended to prevent the sides 122 of the clip from binding the main leaf. For heavy duty applications, a double rivet construction may be used in gs 100 mm wide and over. Material is hot rolled steel strip of the following sizes: 4.5% 20, 6.0%25, 6030, 8.0 x35, 10x40. Clinch Clip (Fig, 3.268) ‘This is used on springs where the clearances are limited. ‘The material is usually hot rolled steel strip 4.5%20 and 60X25 size. Single Piece Box Clip (Fig. 3.16C) ‘This clip is manufactured from hot rolled steel strip 2.$ X25. ILis used with and without a rubber liner. Bolt sizes are M8X 1.25 and MIOX 1.5. ‘Two Piece Box Clip (Fig. 3.16D) This clip is also made from 2X25 hot rolled steel strip. Note that the sides ofthis clip, as in Fig 3.16C, are straight and provide a clearance for all feaves. Bolt sizes are M8X 1.25 and MIOX 1.5. ‘Tab Lock Clip (Fig. 346E) This clip is also made of 2.5%25 hot rolled steel strip. tis used with and without a rubber liner cn the main leaf only. ‘Tab Lock Clip With Locating Tang (Fig, 3.16F) ‘This clipis similar to Fig. 3.16E except that it has a tang. for retaining it on the spring lef.4119 G3LY3ANI “H HB ‘sda wewUBIY—o1'E ‘Bis Corn) perl kk SSS CL22LZ22245 _ dD dVULS “D — =i ES ew | ! 4119 HONITO “8 aA ers) 4 )Strap Clip (Fig. 3.166) ‘This clip has @ rubber liner on all four sides of the spring. The strap is 0.5 X 16 stainless steel. The ends are ‘overlapped and secured by means of a fastener which is crimped at assembly. Inverted Clip (Fig. 3.16H) This clip is used on heavy springs where there is a clearance problem. It is usually made from 30 or 35 x 8.0 stock. 9, Rebound Leaves Figure 2.1 shows an example of a spring with rebound leaf. There are two principal objectives for the application ‘of one or several rebound leaves. One of these concerns the spring subject 10 very high and frequent windup loads which tend to distort the main leaf by separating it from the shorter leaves. The rebound Teaf of leaves serving to prevent these excessive windup stresses in the main leaf act substantially like the other eaves and should be treated in the same manner as to length, free curvature, ete. They are loaded through the ignment clips, which must be properly placed and de- signed s0 as to maintain tip contact between rebound leaves and stain leaf. “The other case is that of the truck spring which in ‘extreme cebound will have to support the weight of the ‘axle and of other unsprung components, thereby becom- ing subject to detrimental reverse bending stresses, partic= ularly in the main leaf. tn this case the rebound leaves are usually formed with less free curvature than the other Jeaves. When the leaves are bolted together in the spring, assembly operation, assembly stresses are set up in the various leaves including rebound leaves, as described in Chapter 5, Section 4. The rebound leaf will protect the ‘main leaf in the region between the eye and the nearest alignment clip from distortion in extreme rebound, ‘As long as rebound leaves are under load, they contri ute to the load rate in the same manner as other leaves, regardless of the free camber in the rebound leaves. 10, Variable Rate Springs Variable rate springs are used primarily on vehicles which operate with large variations in Joad, such as trucks and buses. Variable spring rates are generally required to provide desirable ride and handling characteristics under ‘these conditions. There are several ways to obtain variable rates, some of which may be combined with others. The helper spring is one method of obtaining increased rate with deflection. As shown in Fig. 2.8, the helper is mounted above the main spring and has its own bearing pads. The helper spring does not support any load until ‘contact is made with the bearing pads. The change in rate at contact is necessarily abrupt. ‘Shackles may be used to obtain some var as described in Chapter 6, Section Curved bearing pads or cams which shorten the effec- tive length of the spring as itis deflected will provide @ variable rate. Such a configuration is shown in Fig. 3.174. ‘Another method to obtain variable rate is by means of B, MULTI-STAGE SPRING Fig. 2.47 —Variable rate springs. 1.24the multi-stage spring, shown in Fig. 2.9, and Fig. 3.17B. ‘This spring has one or more leaves called “second stage” leaves, mounted adjacent to the shortest leaf of the mi ‘of “fist stage” portion ofthe spring, This spring gradually increases in rate with deflection as the contact between the stages increases. Load and rate for each stage are usually specified as shown in Fig. 2.9. They are generally checked in the same manner as single stage multi-leaf springs. Combinations, such as the use of curved bearing pads in conjunction with a multi-stage spring, are sometimes used to provide a greater change of spring rate.Chapter 4 Geometry 1, Deflection Theory As a spring with leaves of constant cross section prop- erly stepped to approsch the condition of uniform strength is deflected, it will assume the shape of a circular are at all loads between zero and maximum, provided it has a cireular are shape or is flat at no load or at any given food. ‘Most springs approximate these conditions closety ‘enough so that the circular are shape can be used to ealeu- late their geometric properties. The following relations have been derived analytically and found to agree closely ¢ 0.756. with a number of actual springs checked. (However, see Chapter 10, Section 6 concerning the contour of single lea springs in the free camber.) 2. Cantilever Spring For a spring of this type the center of the eye of the Berlin type moves in a path with a radius of 0.75 central to the main leaf, as shown in Fig. 4.1A. If the eye center is offset the distance “e™ from the center of the main leaf, the center of arc will be offset by 0.5e in the opposite direction, as shown in Figs. 4.1B and 4.1C. This construc- \ = A. BERLIN EYE ARC HEIGHT B. UPTURNED EYE c. DOWNTURNED EYE Fig. 4.1 Equivalent linkage of cantilever spring 1.27tion reproduces the change of arc height with an accuracy ‘of 1% up to defections f=0.62. 3. Semi-Elliptic Spring This type of spring can be considered as two cantilever springs, and the resulting spring action can be determined by considering the spring a5 a three-link mechanism, as shown in Figs. 4.2 and 4.3, These layouts can be drawn ‘even if the spring is unsymmetrical and if the eye offsets are opposed. The three-link equivalent layouts are useful in determining the geometty of spring action, including the path of the axle attached to the spring seat, and the axle control which is defined as the seat angle change in “ degree per millimeter of deflection. They also permit es- fablishing the axle path and control corrected for the shackle effects, as explained later ‘Two different methods for determining the spring ge- ‘ometry are described, and their constructions are shown in Figs. 4.2 and 4.3, These methods may be used whether the spring is a conventional or unconventional design. A ‘conventional design has the same number of leaves and leaf spacing of uniform strength in both cantilevers, and their rates are inversely proportional to their lengths ‘cubed. If the leaf spacing of either cantilever is not of uniform strength of if the number of leaves of the two ‘cantilevers differ, or both, the design is called unconven tional, and the cantilever deflections no longer bear a sim- jonship to the cantilever lengths (see formuta B in 1), The unconventional design has certain advan- tages in geometry, particularly when specific axle conteol requirements are to be met with the predetermined front and rear cantilever lengths. However, the unconventional design may engender a loss in efficiency. 4, Center Link Extension Method (Fig, 4.2) ‘The basic principle used in this construction is that ‘every extension of the center link for any position of link- age will intersect at a common point. The center link tilts in such a manner that its extension always passes through ‘the common point O, although the center link does not rotate about this point. In further explanation, it might be said that the foregoing extension to the center link would reciprocate back and forth through an imaginary slot located at point © as the center link travels from its posi- tions of compression to rebound. In making a layout by the Center Link Extension Method, the position of the center link DE for different values of spring defection establishes the axle control. A. succession of triangles DEH cstablishes the axle path. The three-link equivalent layout is most conveniently made by starting from the position of the spring where the main Jeaf is lat, In this position the three links do not le in a straight line except when both eyes are of the Berlin type. 1.28 The linkage is dependent upon the eye offset and the spring unsymmetry. The motion of the center link for different deflections of point M depends upon: 1. Path of point D at radius R,. 2. Path of point M at radius Ru 3. Position of center link DE so that its extension intersects point O. 4, Correction for shackle effects, if required. Procedure 1. Start layout with main leaf in fat postion with lengths 8, b, and L measured along the main Teaf and axle center H at distance h from center of main leaf. Axle ‘center is above main leaf in an underslung spring, below main leaf in an overslung spring. 2. Establish lengths m and n, which represent the inactive material. These are considered equal for most springs. They can be neglected in relatively long flexible springs without serious error 3. Draw are R, and at the intersection with 0.5e, locate point D. 4, Draw arc.Ry and at the intersection with 0.5 locate point E. 5. Construct the three links AD, DE, and BB. 6. Locate point M at the intersection of centertine of center boit and link DE. 7. Locate point O on extension of center link DE at ‘computed distance Q from point M (see formulae in Table 40. 8. Draw are Ry where Ry = A- L.Its center is located on extension of line OA. 9. For a given deflection into rebound or compres- sion, new position of center link DE is established by locating point M, or Mand then drawing a line through point M, or M, and point ©. ‘Note: An alternate, and frequently a more convenient method is to work with an overlay drawing to determine the new position of center link DE by locating points D,/D, or M,/M, for given deflections in rebound and in compression so that extension of center link DE intersects at point , . 10. For each position of the center link DE, the axte position can be located by constructing the triangle DEH. ‘When three or more such positions have been located, the approximate radius Ry of the axle can be established by ‘geometric construction, I, The “control” or “tilt” of the center link, and thus of the spring seat, is the change which the angle @ tundecgoes during a displacement x. It is known as both “spring control” and “axle control” and is labeled & = @/x (deg/mm)., 12. In the symmetrical spring the control is zero, with the center link moving parallel to itself throughout the compression and rebound range. Actually, however, the center link undergoes a small angular change due to the vertical displacement of the shackled spring eye.wep ypew UH ‘san Buren poyreu uopeuorxe yop JarU4s hq noke—2'7 ‘Chs a | 44 131N39 TT neewunaae | Garvaana. ir aMovM = S303MH69 2 = SAB GF INOVHS 30 ANTTURLNID AS GKa 30 BNTTE! ted = \—vantos aaxta eumios —~// 24 aNIO8 — ‘44mioa————/rue yoou ‘yun 22219 Buen powous vopseyen wod om Aa nokey—CP Eid a a — . A 10g waanaa 40 ‘SNITH3LNID anuowni “| IAB GIXId JO ANTTUBINID 1.30‘TABLE 4.1—GEOMETRY FORMULAE FOR SEMLELLIPTIC SPRINGS ‘A For conventional sping where W = Z/¥9 equals one cay g -2lOree tae + 2064 = oo 2 x at “wD 0673 + ob 479 -o8) 7.9 _ 57.3 o 28 a Ly geuevetyt ont. vet STAY Wee sav + OL 7908 = 1) 8 For unconventional spring where W = Z/¥® does not equal one aaa ras a= Same asin A he aa 4 vi Ws ope + Fa viv (See Fig 44) Z = Same asin A 873 _57.9Z+a - bb oe WEN 2 ze oY Retest ues Zane wre) (See Fig. 45) Zev. “wee S72 = YY +) Oo 7 aatee Lee 13, Depending upon the accuracy demanded of the 5, Two-Point Deflection Method (Fig. 4.3) layout, a correction for the effect of the shackle may be necessary, particularly when the shackle angle is excep- tionally small (B less than 60 deg in the flat main leaf position) and the shackle is exceptionally long. The cor- rection may be made in the following manner: Locate point P at intersection of datum line and Rey where R, is equal to distance OA. ‘After determining linkage layout fora given deflection, such as for rebound, point B, is located. Lozate point P, on extension of line B,A. p_Laint int ©, where chordal distance PO squls 0, ‘Draw line O,M, to give corrected tilt to center link DE in rebound. Th like manner, establish line O,M, to give corrected tilt to center link DE in compression. " ‘These corrected positions of center link DE determine the corrected control in degrees per millimeter (equal 1x) and can be used to establish the approximate radius Ry for the corrected axle path ‘This method has the advantage that all of the layout ‘work can be done within the overall length of the spring. In cases where the unsymmetry factor is smal] and the 0 point is far from the axle center, it is the only known procedure which permits constrection within the confines of the standard layout board and straight edge, ‘The principle of this method is based upon the use of the two cantilever deflections corresponding to & given eflection at the center of the spring seat. These defections ‘may be computed for two vertical positions of the spring. seat, for example maximum compression (metal-to-metal) ‘and maximum rebound. When they arc applied to the three-link equivalent of the spring with the main Jeaf'in the flat position, the path of the axle and the angles of the spring seat can be determined entirely by construction. Procedure 1. Start layout with main leaf in flat position with rTpace on ses4s {UY 3u}04 40 eG ouHULINOP Ob x sOVeWIEINE 10) HEED —>'P “id a (a+ eT v= Wy {OlLVY ALY) DyPy = Z (Olle HLON31) e/4 = A eAZ=M (2le + A)ZA + zlzA +2) E1 (+A) BZA + ZVE =YY = b/a (LENGTH RATIO) w= zy3 (y+ (Z-¥) (Z+ 2) L «ay = 973. (1/9) 573 L/a= a- Z = ka/kp (RATE RATION Q L Fig. 4.5 Chart for parameter L/Q to determine distance O and control & In three link mechantemlengths a, b, and L measured along the main leaf and axle ‘center Hat distance h from center of main leat. 2. Establish lengths m and n, which represent the inac- tive material 3. Draw are R, and at the intersection with 0.5e, locate point D, 4. Draw are Ry and atthe intersection with 0.5¢y locate point E. 5. Construct the three links AD, DE, and EB. 6. Locate point M at intersection of centerline of center bolt and tink DE 7. Draw reference lines AF and BG through the eye centers and perpendicular 10 the extension of the center link DE. &. For any given deflections such as x, and x,, compute f, and f, from the following formulae (see also Table 4.1) and draw ares about point F. For a conventional spring: For an unconventionat spring: yo +0 z+¥ 9. Similarly, for given deflections x, and x., compute g, and & from the following formulae (see also Table 4.1) and draw arcs sbout point G. For a conventional spring: v=(2) For an unconventional spring: 10. Tengent tine to-arcsf, and g, establishes the position of center fink DE in rebound, and tangent line to arcs and ge establishes the position of center link DE in compression 11. For each position of the center link DE the axle position can be located by the triangle DEH. When three ‘or more such positions have been located, the approximate radius Ry for the anle path can be established by geomet- ric construction. 12. The control in degrees per millimeter is equal to the angular change in the position of the center link divided by the deflection x: = @/x (deg/mm). 13. In the symmetrical spring the contol is zero, with the center link moving parallel to itself throughout the compression and rebound range. Actually, however, the center link undergoes a small angular change due 0 the vertical displacement of the shackled spring eye. 14. Depending upon the accuracy demanded of the lay- ‘out, a correction for the effect of the shackle may be necessary, particularly when the shackle angle is excep- Conally small (B less than 60 deg in the flat main leaf 1.94 position) and the shackle is exceptionally tong. The cor- rection may be made in the following manner. ‘After determining linkage layout for a given deflec- tion, such as for rebound, point B, is located. Draw are d, where d, = (8 — u). Draw tangent line to arcs f; and d, to-establish cor- rected position of center link DE in rebound, (Note that the layout deflection x, is changed to x’, in applying this correction ) ‘Similarly, after locating point B., draw are d, where @ +0) ‘Draw tangent line to ares f. and d, to establish cor- rected position of center link DE in compression. (Note that the layout deflection 4, is changed to x’, in applying this correction.) These corrected positions of center link DE deter- rine the corrected control in degrees per millimeter and ‘can be used to establish the approximate radius R’'y for the correct axle path. The difference between deflections X., X and x’, respectively is so small in a full size spring layout that it usually cen be neglected. However, when required, an overlay of triangle DEH positioned with point M lying on horizontal line through deflection points M, and M, and ‘with points D and H lying on ares R, and R’y respectively, will determine exactly the angle of seat at the original deflections, x, and x. 6, Layouts and Nomenclature Figures 4.2 and 4.3 were constructed with exaggerated ‘eye diameters in order to illustrate the mechanics of con- struction. Also, the relatively small shackle angle and long shackle used in these layouts results in a large vertical displacement tothe shackled spring eye. This was done to better illustrate the effect of the shackle correction. Under these conditions the compression shackle (Fig, 4.2.) re- sults in a control increase during rebound and a control decrease during compression, while the reverse is true for the tension shackle (Fig. 43.) Nomenclature for Figs. 4.2 and 4.3 and for related for- mulae in Table 4.1. 8 & Fixed cantlover length (including inactive angth mm) called “ont” length 1b = Shackled cantlever length (including inactive length a) called "ear" length ‘= Subscit for compression (ounce) posiion of tinkage = Tangent arc radus at B where d = (g + u) © = Eeconticiy = 0.5 (eye 1D, + ) Yor Berinaye,e equals 2070) = Detection of point F Dotecton of point @ ‘= Axle dstance from contr of main eat = Spring rate, N/mm (clamped). See Chapter 5 = Front eantiever rate, N/mm (clamped) = Rear cantiever rate, Nimm (clamped) ‘= Tota sping lenath—measured along fat main leat reerze>_= Front inacve length = Rae inactve length ‘= Distance of pont 0 below datum tne = Distance between points O and M (see Figs. 42 and 45) the “equivalent orque atm” for vertical cad—se0 Chapter 8. 1. = Subsorgt for retound positon of inkage Fy = 075 (om) By = 075 (ba) Br = Ra ofa pa = pa of pir apy Ay, = Radius of path of point M (approx. Fy Ro = Radus of points P and 0 + Uo 2 Thickness of main iat e223 Cistance between points 8 and G Froat cantilever sate proportion (kk) Rabo 2/7? (609 Fig. 4.8 for A and Fig. 45 for L/Q) = Detection of pine M = Length rato (e/a) = antler rate ratio (yg) = Shackle angle with main leat tal deg ' Angulas displacement of cenor lnk, og Parametec to determing Ry, (S08 Fig. 43) "= Sontol of centor ink (67% deg/mrm, known as both “spring conto” and “asta canto” = Primes denote shackle effect cocrectionsChapter 5 Design Calculations 1. Rate, Load and Stress A leaf spring may be considered as a beam of uniform strength composed of leaves of equal thickness where the fiber stress is the same throughout the length of the beam, ‘This approximation is justified for most springs within the accuracy necessary for layout work and-—with certain correction Factors—for estimates of the necessary length, thickness, width, and number of leaves. It also Serves as 1 base for more detailed calculati Figure 5.1 shows a cantilever of six leaves and the same cantilever rearranged with the leaves split and laid side by side for comparison with the triangular beam of uniform strength which is shown in broken lines. It must be ap- preciated that the straight tine contour shown in Fig. 5.1 applies only when all the leaves are of the same thickness. See the remarks under the “Stepping” paragraphs in Sec- tion 4 of this chapter, SIDE VIEW PLAN VIEW __—* | Nw =r = CONTOUR OF UNIFORM STRENGTH SEAM LEAVES SPLIT AND LAID SIDE BY SIDE Fig. 5.1—Deectiption of mutiHeat epring 1.37 ‘The formulae in Fig, 5.2 are given for leaf springs which approximate bearas of uniform strength (except for the last column) and are derived from the following funda- ‘mental facts: 1. Stress is proportional to leaf thickness multiptied by change of curvature. 2. Change of curvature is proportionat to change of bending moment divided by moment of inertia 3. Stress is proportional to leaf thickness multiplied by bending moment divided by moment of inertia. For comparison, the formulae for the cantilever spring ‘of one leaf or of several full ength leaves (so-called ““uni- form section beam") are also given in Fig. 5.2. In this spring the stress is highest at the clamping area, and the stress formulae refer to this highest value. It will be noted that with the same load, length, thickness, and stress, the ‘uniform section spring produces only two-thirds of the deflection and weighs twice as much as the uniform strength spring, or in other words, the uniform strength spring is three times as efficient as the uniform section spring. ‘As shown by the diferent formulae in Fig. 5.2, the stress can be calculated from strain, defection, or load, depending on what information is known. tis evident from the “stress from strain” formula that for the same change in curvature (1/R—1/R,), the stress ‘will vary directly with the leaf thickness. ‘Again, it will be seen from the "stress from deflection” formula that the stress will vary directly with the leat thickness and inversely with the square of the effective spring length. : ‘The “stress from load” formula is the standard beam formula for stress where, for a given load, the stress will vary directly with effective length and inversely with the ‘square of the lea thickness. This may appear paradoxical ‘when comparing the “stress from load” formula with the “steess from deflection” formula. However, in the “stress from load” formula the deflection is not considered, Ifthe expression for load (P) is replaced by the product of rate (&) and defiection (), the “steess from load” formula will reduce to the “stress from deflection” formula. ‘Although the foregoing substitution marks the two for- rmolae as merely two different ways of expressing stress, the “stress from deflection” formula is particularly signif- cant for this reason. Tt shows that for a given stress and deflection the leaf thickness varies as the square of the ‘effective spring length, and since thin leaves witl not sup- ply sufficient strength for the spring eyes, the formula ‘emphasizes the desirability of long springs. Another im- portant consideration for the use of long springs isthe fact‘Unymmetrcal Semislliptic Ry AT CLAMP CLAMP —RADIR, AND R VARY ALONG THE LENGTH OF ‘THE SPRING. Uniform Section Cantilorer Cananrer —_— [Untorm Suction Carever i alf lf speak = € Fig. 5.2—Design formulae for leat springs: Unlosded springs have ® rachis of curvature Rl, wtich is considered negative when camber la positive 1.98emnccsaresnonll, 1 windup stiffness also varies as the square of the ath. Gee Chapter 6, Section 2.) {an considering the toad (P) and the cate (k), it must be ot in mind that the test load and rate are not the same the desired installed load and rate. The effect of the tallation (shackles, ete.) is discussed in Chapter 6, ‘Stiffening Factor ‘Actual leaf springs are not truly beams of uniform ength. How closely they approach such a beam depends iefly on the following factors 1, Length of Leaves—Two or more full length leaves sometimes used. The shorter leaves may be longer than sy would be for uniform strength. This is to reduce the tin leaf stresses in the area of the eyes. The spring will srefore be stiffer, and it will be intermediate between a iform strength spring and a uniform section spring. 2. Leaf Ends—Fig. 5.1 shows how the ends of the wes exceed the outline of the triangular beam. This 1kes the spring stiffer. The various leaf ends and their sets are discussed in Chapter 3, Section 2. 3. Center Clamp—Standard procedure demands that ni-elliptic springs be tested without center clamp, and ‘formulae are given for this condition. Since the springs + used with the clamp, the leaf lengths are designed for clamped springs. Theoretically, this requires subtract- 4 the length of the clamped part from the total length, signing two cantilevers for this reduced length, und add- {pa uniform section in the middle between the two can- ers. Actually, the effect of the clamp can be allowed c by using an “active length” in the formulae instead of 2 full length. The amount of active length within the seat area de- nds on the design of the clamping parts and also°on any er or insulator material which may be used between the umping plates and the spring itself. In semi-elliptic and itilever springs, the active length exsends into the seat a and is therefore longer than the distance from the ge of the clamp to the point of applied load. For springs thout any liner material, the active length generally tends to the inside edge of the clamp bolt. Spring seat vers will increase the active length farther into the imped area, the amount depending on the compressibil- + of the liner, when the clamping bolts have been tight- ed. ‘At one particular defection the addition of the clamp ‘es not change the load carried at that height. This is the ‘sition at which the curvature of the spring without amp fits the spring seat. ‘The influences of the lengths of leaves and the types of Xf ends are taken into consideration by a “stiffening factor” which is designated as “SF” in Fig, 5.2 and Table 5.1. Note thatthe stress from deflection and the load rate fornvulae are multiplied by SF, except for the uniform section cantilever for which SF always equals 1.5. ‘The value of SF is exactly 1.00 when the leaf lengths and leaf thicknesses are selected to produce @ uniform strength beam (spring), and the resultant curvature of the spring in bending is a circular arc with radius R. ‘The farther the design deviates from uniform strength, the farther will the elastic curve deviate from a circular arc. “R” will be only an approximate parameter for the clastic curve, and SF will have to be a higher value. SF will have its maximum value of 1.50 when all the leaves of a multisleaf spring are full ength, or when there is a single leaf of constant thickness and width. A spring ‘of this type is known as a uniform section spring (column 4, Fig, 5.2, where "R” is the smallest radius for the elastic ‘curve, namely at the line of clamp of encasement, and “S" is the highest stress (at that line), as explained in Section 1 of this chapter. Selection of the correct SF value in the Gnal spring design is predicated on factors gained from experience, since the value may vary from less than 1.10 to 1.50, depending on the design specifications. For the preliminary design calculation, the following ‘SF values may be applied in formula I of Table 5.1 to provide a moment of inertia (SI) for a selection of the approximate number of leaves and gages. For passenger car and light truck springs with tap- ‘ered leaf ends and more of less “uniform” stress design: SF = 110 For passenger car and light truck springs with tap- ered leaf ends and extended leaf lengths: SF = 115 For truck springs with untapered leaf ends and more cof less “uniform” stress design: SF = LIS For truck springs with untapered leaf ends and two full Tength leaves: SF = 1.20 For truck springs with untapered leaf ends and three fol length Teaves: F = 1.25 For the first stage of variable or progressive rate springs, before contact with the second stage: SF = 140 For the second stage of variable or progressive rate springs, when all leaves are operable: SF = 1.10 with tapered leaf ends, SF = 1.15 with untapered leaf ends For springs with all leaves full length: SF=1.50 139 i‘Table 5.1 FORMULAE FOR CALCULATIONS ON LEAF SPRINGS. Formula ‘Unsymmetrical SembEMptle " svessmin [S=2t e a s-2e cg |S = 5S pa? Wa aH tot Wes | Aporox aes of (Te murder of eaves of he sme gape) LAS FOR TRUS Sena of sng agin SF ‘Spring Steel — 1000 49 ‘Where the grading of the spring has several gages, the several products are additive bslore multiplying by (one hall of soxng length) ‘and ($F), The denominator of 1000 reduces the unit mass valves to NOMENCLATURE FOR FIG. 5.2 AND TABLE 5.1 kg per mm. nl engin of semivetipte spring = mm 2 engin of cantlever sexing Sam 2 = front length of sem-otiptc spring = rom = rear length of semiatipte spring = nm Y= _eantlevor lengih rato in somi-eliptc spring ( =b/a) P= toad on spring -N ' sph0g datiction = mm load rate (chango in load / change in detection) = Neteen 31 = total moment of inertia (summation forall the laaves in he spring) = amt 3, = summation of the moments of inenia of those taaves comprising the section for which the stess is to be = ment caleuated on = maximum leat Wickness for maximum sess = mm 1" = thickness ofthe loa! selected from standard gages (t < ty) for which the atoss isto be caletated: ucually = mim Ini i the main teal and/or the fet ofthe greatest iickness inthe spring Sous = maximum spaciiog stress (N/mm? = N/m? =) = MPa S™” = suese with selected standard gage = MPa E ‘edulis of elasticity (for steak 200 - 10%) ~ MPa R, = radius of curvature in the unloaded soring (shown in dash ines), considered negative = mm SF = Siflenin Factor 3. Preliminary Calculations Table 5.1 lists the formulae (1, 11, I for the three ‘essential steps in calculating the spring design. Formula T is used to establish the total moment of inertia for the specified rate and length. Formula II is used to establish the maximum permissi- ble leaf thickness within the specified maximum stress limit ata corresponding load. The grading of the leaves in the spring is established by selecting the number of leaves, the leaf width, and the combination of leaf gages to pro- Vide the calculated total moment of inertia obtained with formula I. The moments of inertia for the individual leaf seotions are shown in Table 5.2 Formula HII is used to ealeulate the spring stress. For preliminary calculations of unsymmetrical springs in which the fength ratio Y does not exceed 1.30, the symmetrical formulae in Table 5.1 may be used with as- surance that the results will be within 3% of those obtain- able by use of the more complicated unsymmetrical for- milla, Formula IV is used to estimate an approximate mass of | steel for comparing optional designs from preliminary cal- culations The exact mass of spring stee! is calculated after the eye diameters and the leaf end constructions have been estab- lished. Generally, the exact mass is heavier than the ap- proximate mass from formula V. 1.40TABLE $2—MOMENTS OF INERTIA (mm) FOR LEAF SPRING BAR CROSS SECTIONS OF MEAN DIMENSIONS PER TABLE 3.1 IM CHAPTER 3 (TABLE 1 IN SAE STANDARD J1122) Trek Moments Of inertia For Width Of ness__[ 0] SO] SOU aso | 760 | oD] 1050 | se] teow 300 | aug] —aa96 | S003] ~ser2 | —sa23 590 | avg | sasa | seco | base | 7599 560 | 5609 | 6315 | 7ox0 | 7eas | oass oo | 633 | 7764 | s6a5 | 701 | 1094 | 1904 | 1507 630 | 70a | aoax | 1000 | 1123 | 1266 | sto | 1815 a7 | 9568 | roar | s203 | 1980 | ase | reir | 2tee zi | na7a | sear | sao | 1608 | ei | ise | 2600 | 2092 750 | sana | sstx6 | toae | 1692 | aise | sea ] 3085 | 3410 00 | sw2z0 | vagr9 | zoe2 | zee | 2580 | 202 | a720 | a1a9 aso | 142 | aioe | 205 | 278 } 31or | vor | ase | ase | sare 300 | 2001 | 2600 | 2a00 | 3250 | sere | 2399 | 5205 | sae } 7376 950 | 2700 | 2052 | a40s | 2820 | 2321 | sivo | 6228 | 6028 | 9677 roo | 3196 | ase7 | 3057 | aeso | soos | 5996 | 7222 | g038 | 10080 | 12050 soe0 | 9726 | 425 | a70e | 521 | ser | 7137 | sas | 9572 | 11960 | 14360 s120 | 4369 | ager | 9508 | azar | 7og0 | sar2 | sors? | 11287 | 1430 | 16080 wea | sir | srr | eta | zara | g2z1 | ges | rveaa | 12195 | te520 | 19840 vaso | ose | 6860 | res: | 9629 | 9755 | 11670 vsers | 19640 | 23500 3.20 oor | trae | 11460 | 13730 yeeso | aaig0 | 27700 4.00 sorio | 12060 | 19850 | 16350 | 10730 | 21900 | 27580 | aatso 35.00 sar20 | 14790 | ve7a0 | 20070 | 24220 | 27010 | 93900 | 40770 16.00 sas | 17860 | 20250 | 2«300 | 20060 | 52730 | 41120 | 0470 17.00 ais70 | zee | 20080 | astso | asz00 | 4s270 | 59020 18.00 25280 | 20650 | sao | s1e50 | acsco | e490 | 70000 19.00 20620 | 33590 | «oso | 4ses0 | sass | 8650 | 22720 20.00 2aai0 | 30050 | «7010 | s5910 | 63810 | 80000 | 96410 2120 sseio | 7ei0 | 75470 | 95110 | 114700 2240 ess40 | 79210 | 9450 | 111000 | 194000 2.60 76190 | zero | 103220 | 120000 | 156600 25.00 90230 | 109530 | 122409 | 154900 | 186000 26.50 145400 | 183400 | 221900 2800 171000 | 215900 | 260700 30.00 zogs00 j 264900 | 320100 31.50 06000} 370000 3350 367000 | 44at00 35.50 ‘827900 27.50 20100 For derivation of formulae for these tabulatod valves, see Appendix 8 First Example Design a symmetrical semi-ltiptic passenger car spring ‘wth tapered leaf ends to mect the following specifications: Rate, as tested without center clamp Design load Metal-to-metal clearance Length Maximum stress Spas Step One—Find the required total moment of inertia from formuta I in Table S.1: gy = S120 8 5517 mm 32-20-10 1.10 Step Two—Find the maximum permissible leaf thick= ness from formula IT in Table 5.1: 144 3800°4 17.5 - 110 = 5425. fon = SST 1000 ms 1320 - $425) with Poy = 639 mm ‘Thinner leaves would give a lower stress, thicker leaves a higher stress. The nearest standard gage size is 6.30 mm, producing a 114% lower stress. Step Three—Find the Number of leaves and the leaf width (w) which will produce the required rate; using the moment of inertia values in Table 5.2: First option: assume w = 50 mm Number of leaves 4 leaves gage 6.30 1 = 4000 2 leaves gage 600 1 = 1729 31 = 5729 mm*en i7s 39 = 1954 N/mm cantilevers are calculated separately and combined by use . om of the following formulae: With this selection of leaf gages, the rate kis within less = Pky than 14% of the specified rate Bh ah ‘The stress at Pax (5429N) from formula 111 ~ ke Lave? ee 1320 - 6.30 ka? + kyb? 2+ YF 2 +b = 1320630 5499.2985 MPa a Sou = Hag” 829-98: ROR 4.2438 42-2322 Mass = 4.2458 + 22322 where: Approx. Mass a 3B ye P = Load on spring FTO = 1045 kg L = Total spring length 4 = Fixed ("front") cantilever length (including clamp Second option: assume w = 63 mm length) Number of leaves = 5 b = Shackled (“rear”) cantilever length (including clamp length) 2 eaves gage 630 I = 2532 {, = Deflection of front cantilever Sleaves gage 6.00 1 = 3280 fy = Deflection of rear cantilever 31 = S812 mm‘ ky = Front cantilever rate 5812 ky = Rear cantilever rate ka 17s FE = 1779.N/mm Y = b/ . a Za ky ‘With this selection of gages in the 63 mm width the rate ‘kis within 2% of the specified rate, ‘Second Example The stress at Pigs (5457 N) Redesign the second option (w= 63mm) of the fist = 1320-630 gg example with the additional provision to provide - Sou = “Tyan” 5457 = 976 MPa ©=0.030 deg/mm control. This will require an unsym- . metrical spring design where WeZ/Y? does not equal 23076 +3290 ‘one. (See Table 4.1B) 4000 Try front end Jength a = 580mm Rear end length b = 740 mm ‘Approx. Mass = 2 110 = 1085 te 40 _ Fp 7 176 Conctusions—Both options appear acceptable. The Length ratio Y = © choice may depend on some of the following considera- * tions: 1. Limited available space for the spring width will- » Cantilever rate ratio = favor the fist option (50 versus 63 mm width); gek cy. 23-40 + OLY 2. Restrictions on mass will favor the first option | 973-WS)- OL (10.45 versus 10.85 kg); 3. Mandate on low fabrication cost (6 versus Sleaves) —Z = 1,276 - SUSUL27641) + 003013201276 will favor the second option, 57.30.2764 1) — 0:0301320 4, Demand for the greater lateral stiffness will favor z= 2542 the second option (633 versus 50° in the lateral ” mmula—see Table 10.2) Qa HEY) ___ 1320024241276 (Z=Y) + (+1) (2.542-1.276) - (1.27641) Q=1910 ‘Unconventional Springs (See Table 4.1) Somme semi-elliptic springs may require that one can- tilever end is made of more leaves than the other, or that 5 573 its leaf lengths are extended substantially beyond the unie Control @==7> = 275, = 0.030 deg/mm as form strength beam requirements. In such casesiit is more required. =——‘1910 ‘~ convenient 10 consider the complete semi-elliptic spring as. ‘made of two cantilevers. The rates oF deflections of both —p 5425-740 _ soa mas = S57 2041 N 1.425425-580 Py man = = Py max = SS = 2384 N a MED 54241276) ws a6+ 1 ky = 1409N/mm, kL 14.09 he B= pgp 7 55mm Step One—From formula I for cantilever > ie * 2B SF 14,09. 580° i " F209 108 Tro ~ mm 740% 1 5102 mmt 2°200-10) 1.10 ‘Step Two—Under # given load the rear cantilever will have a higher stress than the front cantilever, because of its smaller EL. Therefore, tgmax will decide the selection of the standard gage to be used. From formula 1I for rear cantilever = 25102 | 1000 5.78 mm C 740” 2386 ‘Step Three—Due to eye strength requirements it is not advisable fo use a gage thinner than 6.90 mm in the rain leaf. The maximum stress will then slightly exceed 1000 MPa in the rear (shackled) cantilever. This should be acceptable as long as the stress in the more critical front (Gxed) cantilever will remain below 1000 MPa. Esiablish the number of leaves and their gages in the specified width of 63 mm Front Rear Cantilever Cantiever Lest Gage i 1 1 600 rose 1099.4 2 6.00 1083.4 1093.4 a 8.00 1093.4 1093.4 4 6.00 1093.47 1098.4 5 3.60 388.9 808.9 6 5.60 08.9 ‘none EP = 8151 aren BRR Se It Leaf =5 were of gage 6.00 the front cantilever SI = 6355.9 and the rear cantileverS1 = 5467.0 and since the required for both front cantileverS1, = 6268 and rear cantileverSi, = S102 is between these two’ selections of * gages, actual tests for spring rates will establish the “eifes to be used. For this analysis, it will be assumed that the checked rates with the 5.60 gage in No. 5 leaf will be satisfactorily close to the specified rates. 1.43 580 - 6.00 2. isa Sy man = 3041 = 860 MPa 740 - 6.00 2406.00. 9394 1006 MP: Tes * Sp max Estimate of approximate mass 42.930 + 2-2.736 | 7000 Front Cantilever 2 “110 = 5484 kg Rear Cantilever = 4 740 110 a 5.884 kg Total = 11.37 kg ‘A spring in which the specified control requires an unconventional design will have more mass than a spring in which Z/Y? equals or nearly equals 1. This is verified bby comparing the approximate mass of the Second Exam- ple (11.37 kg) with the mass of the First Example second ‘option (10.85 kg). Tt is always advisable to make sample springs in order to verify by test results the grading (gages) selected before issuing the spring design. Third Example Design a symmetrical semi-elliptic truck spring with 3 full Jength leaves and no tapered leaf ends. Rate as tested with an ‘SAE loading block k = 110. N/mm Design load P = 14700N ‘Stress at P (not to exceed)" S, = 540 MPa Length L = 1460 mm Width w= 75mm ‘Step One—From formula I calculate the required mo- sent of inectia'with the heavy truck SF value = 1.25 kL? 1 UAE SF - a 110-1460 42792 mm* * 325200: 1071.25 Step Two—Find the maximum permissible gage thick- ness from formula 1 _ S792 1460 540, SO og 14700 ‘61 mmStep Three—The nearest thinner standard gage is 8.50. Since 12 leaves gage 8.50 in the 75 mm width has ABI = 44484 which is too large, a combination of gages ~ 8550 and 8.00 will be selected. With this selection of gages the rate k should be very lose to the spevified rate ‘Stress at design load 14700N 1460 - 8.50 = MO-8:59 4709 = 53: § = Oey 12700 = 535 MPa Approx. Mass wx 24946 + 34657 M0 gos sa ky 1000 2 Fourth Example eis interesting to note the difference in calculated data which would result in, the Third Example, ifthe specifica- tions had not required the three full length leaves. The stiffening factor would be SF = 1.15 ‘Step One-— 10 - 1460 f= 10-1460" Be 70010 Step Two 8.46513 540 tae = Tago Tara = 236 mm ‘Step Three—The nearest thinner gage is 9.00 mm B leaves gage 9.00 I= 35192 3 leaves gage 850 1= 121 B= 46313 mm* With this selection of gages, the rate k should be very close to the specified rate. Stress at design load 14700 N = 1460 - 9.00 Sear er sTC) + 14700 = $21 MPa 144 ‘Approx. Mass B-5.235 + 34.946 1000 1460 1s = 47.6 ke In comparing the Third and Fourth Examples, it is evident that due (0 the more uniform stress distribution throughout the length of the spring in the Fourth Exaz- pile, the mass of the Fourth Example is less (47.6 kg versus, 53.4 kg). However, where safety requires lower stresses at the bearing ends (eyes} with more than one full length leaf, the greater mass and increased cast of manufacture (12 versus If leaves) must be accepted. ‘Summary ‘The four examples show that the formulae in Table 5.1 ‘are sufficient for preliminary calculation, The total mo- ment of inertia required for a specified rate (the most important characteristic of any suspension spring) at a specified spring length is determined in formula I. Tt may be satisfied by a variety of combinations of width, thick- ness, and number of leaves, provided the leaf thickness does not exceed the maximum calculated in formula Il for a specified maxinmum stress. This is checked in forrmuta ILE in which the total moment of inertia for the chosen stan- dard leaf size is incorporated. 4, Stress Distribution When the types of leaf sections, ends, clamp, ete. (Chapter 3) have been chosen and the approximate spring. dimensions have been determined as shown in preceding, sections of this chapter, further specifications are gencr~ ally developed in cooperation with the spring. manufac- turer. These specifications inctude thickness, length, free radius and peening of each leaf, and the amount of cold set (0 be given to the assembled spring, Spring manufacturers use various methods to arrive at these data, and their results may be different because they involve judgment in the compromise of contradictory re- quirements. In view of the compromises and assumptions involved in the detail design, service experience must remain the final test. Where suficent background is available, service experience can be represented by the results of suitably arranged life tests (see Chapter 8), and in turn, life test results may lead to definite design rules for a particular type of serviceThe basic considerations which are presented in this sr-ion will enable the user to follow the spring manvfac- KS analysis, They will also help the interpretation of service troubles in terms of spring design. Leaf Thickness JIn automotive practice, springs are usually “graded,” thal is, composed of leaves of two or three different gage thicknesses. The main leaf, often together with adjacent leaves, is made one gage thicker, and several short Ieaves are made one gage thinner than the intermediate leaves. “This is done for a number of reasons: to give the main leaf more strength to resist eye forces; to allow more toler- ance of quench radius on the short leaves; (o compensate for the difference in free leaf radii, and because desired rates can be approached more closely by combinations of standard gages than by using the same gage for all the leaves. Leaf Radi ‘The curvature is not the same for all the unassembted leaves of a spring. It becomes more and more negative or less and less positive from main leaf towards the shorter leaves. When the spring is assembled, the leaves are pulled up against each other and’a common curvature is estab- “d (which may, of course, vary along the spring). The {eaves of an assembled spring in the free position are there- fore under some stress. In the main leaf, this assembly sess i subtractive from load stress; in the short leaves, itis additive to boad stress. This is done to reduce the main leaf stress and to insure that the lea ends have bearing on adjacent leaves, ‘The quench radii or curvatures of the quenching forms are obtained from the desired curvatures ofthe individual leaves by allowing for springback, for the effet of shot ‘peening, and for cold setting ofthe spring (See paragraphs ‘on "Free Radi" in Section 5 of this Chapter). of a spring, together with the vidual leaf radii, determine the gay = 0.0618Pat 532,Smm and on the rear (long) end is 792.5mmm., ‘The stress at design load (3500N) and at metal to metal . Se of the leat position load ($425N) wil be Overhang = Cantilever length « —-S!2.0F the leat ane 1 lensth - $5 ofall the leaves Test] Gave | _Frant Cantiover Rear Ganiiover FESO. Pasa aT sree 3isPa 284 820 | Stamm ssouPe 5 | 600 | si7uea some 149ESF = 171600 teat | Gage | Front | Rear | Total | Mass | Mase var | Ba | Bar | kg/m | of Length | Length | Length ear om | mm | mm. kg 307 970 | “1680320 | 34am 2 | sa] a7 | ors | asa | a076 | asz0 3 | 690 | asr | sos | sez | s076 | 2652 # [sa | 2a | 995 | 577 | a076 | 1775, 5 | 600 | 133 | 167 | 300 | 2000 [oera The leaf lengths are obtained by adding the successive ‘overhangs and rounding off. For the shortest leaf 37.Smm. pper end must be added for the inactive length within the seat and at least 25mm for distance from bedding line to leaf end. If tip interliners are specified, the bedding line will be the Lof the tip interliner and the distance to leaf end will be measured from & of the interliner. In this, ‘example 25mm will be used. ‘Selected Lengthe Front fear ‘37omm™ Baden 05mm 725mm 390mm 555mm, 275mm 388mm 368mm __218mm “The Bedding Line of the Main Laat is the €of the Eye. Cateulate Mass of Steel in Spring. Spring manufacturers have established (based on their ‘processing equipment) amounts in bar lengths required to bbe added for making eyes and to be deducted for tapering. leaf ends. For this Example, Eye Requirement = 3 LD. of Eye + 3+ Gage Thk. or 3- 40mm + 3. 6.70 mm = 140 mm at each end of main leaf. Assume tapered leaf end thickness 1e=2mm and @ length of taper TL==100mm at front end and TL= 150mm at rear end, extension of leaf end (Ext) due to taperitig operation may be calculated by formula Ext.= 0.49 TL-0.51 TL te/t, The Ext. is deducted from the finished (specified) leaf length to obtain the bar length required before tapering. For leaves of gage 6.30 Ext.=0.49(100) —0.51(100)2/6.30=32.8 use 33mm Ext. =0.49(150)—0.51(180)2/6.30=49.2 use SOmm. For leaves of gage 6.00 Ext. =0.49(100)~0.51(100)-2/6.00= 32.0 use 32mm. Ext, =0:49(150) —0.51(150)2/6.00=48.0 use 48mm Mass of each leaf will be calculated based on mass per meter length from Table 5.3 (see page 52). Free Radii “Note: This section and the next section on, “Free Radi Including Shot Peening and Cold Setting,” are based on the premise that the free arcs of the individual leaves are 1.50 “Total mass of steel bare = 14.328 Wg formed to a circular shape. However, it should be pointed ‘out that in practical spring manufacturing this is rarely trae, because the overriding importance lies in the desire to secure an outline for the assembled spring which con- forms with the specified main leaf contour at “straight” main leaf (see “Seat Angle” paragraphs in Chapter 2, Section 1.) ‘The overhangs were developed so that the tip pressures at centerline of bedding are all equal at design load and the stresses in the Jeaves are the values calculated in the pres ‘ous section on “Stress Distribution Between The Leaves. The free radii can now be determined from the condition that the change in curvature from free (unassembled) to design load must produce these stresses. Then the as- sumed conditions will be fulfilled. The camber at design load is calculated from the given ‘opening at design load, which is ~20 mm., and the eye diameter, which is 40 mm). Camber = Opening — 4 eye diameter = 40 mm ‘Camber is converted to curvature according to the for- mul Curvature = — £% camber Tength? Curvature is called positive in the direction of increas- ing load; camber is conventionally called positive in the ‘opposite direction, therefore the minus sign. The curvature at design load is (with a negative camber of —40 mm). cw 14007 The change of curvature corresponding to a stress "S™ is 28/Et and with E = 200 000 MPa gives the following free curvatures: a= += +0.000163 28 Fr ture q, = q — ee curvature q, = 4 ~ F>esr Cantilever Leat Free haar we Radius | wpa | _2svet Radive T Teo] sat] 0080s | oats |e 2 sas: | $40 | 0.000057 | -oooceaa | 14a8 2 rao | 565 | 000897 | -oo007es | 1262 4 1387 | 79 | cos0a19 | —o.00075e | 1923 5 xq00_} 570} 0.000080 | —o.ogore7 | 1271 ‘Stress at design ioad 9500 N **wathout any shot peening or cold seting LUnsymmetical speings requ red of diferent values for the front and rear cuntlevers(s¢e above). however for cantilever langth ellos (of ess than 1.30, a uritorm radius may be used. Free Radii Including Shot Peening and Cold Setting, assuming the spring is to be set down 230 mm beyond metalsto-metal position, ‘The radii of the quenched leaves are obtained by includ- ing the changes produced by shot peening and cold set- g _ _ 8{ =230-110-40) _ noni 551 ting. 1400" Peening changes the curvature (in the direction of the change produced by load) equivalent to 445 = (refer to the previous section on “Free Radi eat yn 2.014 curvature change due to 1400 MPa (stress at e which cold setting begins) Cold setting also changes the curvature (inthe direction oof the change produced by load): 4 = quench curvature (or the inverse of quench fadins), when spring is to be shot peened and cold set erage curvature at maximum set-down position gy = q — G — (where “cambes” is the arc height at this | Position) Note: Both shot peening and cold setting add positive | 8 camber curvature, therefore the quench curvature (qy) must be a P= - Some larger negative value than the final free curvature Tength? os : e014 quench beat « t & & a s radu Front Caniiever Om SOOT OOO] TONITE] 2 oonrsst coors | cacao. | —ooc07ss | 1325 3 003551 00007 | coon | —ooo082s | 1108 A 4 ae0isst caooore | oooeees | —oooce7o | 1138 5 2001354 00 Zoaonese | 474 Roa Cantiever _ SOOTET] TOOTS] OORT TROT] ORO] a 2 oaoisst | ooozzee | —ooc0ses eons | —oooores | 1261 3 Saoisss | 002222 | —ooco7s anos | —oco0e73 | 1145 ‘ aeorss: | ooza22 | —o.007s6 aonooes | —aco0e17 | too: 8 aooisss | oooza | “0.00707 sooo00s | oco0e7s | 1143 ‘Yinen shot peering i not specie, replace a wi @, 4 = Quench cuvatire when spring i 0 be COW set only (Ils, when shot peering isnot speci) = @, ~ ‘The actual sping Calta, of cours, lakes. much ess me and paper than the s8ripe on ths page, which contans much text. This is periculary vei the eatin canlad out according to @ delat pan. 151‘TABLE 5.3—MASS OF LEAF SPRING BARS (kg per m length) OF MEAN DIMENSIONS PER TABLE 3.1 IN CHAPTER 3 (TABLE ‘TIN SAE STANDARD J1123) Thicke ‘Mass For Wath OF nes. a TT a 300 | 3sae aaa] aaa7[2irr | aan 590 | sea | tae7 | 2053 | 2a01 | 2500 60 | 1732 | 1950 | 2169 | 2430 | 2796 coo | 1055 | 2089 | 2322 | 2603 | 200 | 347 | 4198 630 | 196 | 2192 | 2438 | 2732 | 2ore | ae | 4407 s7o | 2068 | 2500 | 259 | 2904 | g270 | 3000 | aee7 rio | 2190 | 24e7 | 274e | a076 | Sane | anos | 4566 | 5520 750 | ait | 260¢ | za07 | azn | sesa | a308 | 520s | seo ooo | 2489 | 2775 | 3087 | a4e2 | aas0 | 4857 | sooo | e219 aso | 260 | 2905 | 3277 | 3575 | aio | aoce | soar | 605 | 8270 goo | arse | ais | 3467 | seo | a2s1 | 8205 | a2ao | 6001 | 2756 aso | 299 | 3205 | 3656 | «101 | aezr | 5523 | 983s | 7377 | azar 1000 | 3061 | a4sr | a2 | sar | 4as7 | sar | 971 | 7780 | 9703 | 1166 soeo | 3230 | 3554 | soos | 2565 | sta | ores | 728s | saz | 1028 | 1236 n20 | air | 3856 | 2263 | sae | sar | e490 | 7000 | ere | toe | 1306 sveo | a50s | 4056 | e5r7 | soo | 576 | e532 | az | 9135 | tras | 1375 seso | sect | 4260 | 4778 | sage | 8oss | 7232 | eve | 0672 | i212 | 1457 1320 soa | ses7 | 6360 | 7630 | 9176 | 102 | 1279 | 15a8 1400 saa | sos: | o757 | soa | 0725 | tose | tase | 1631 15.00 702 | 6406 | 7228 | soso | 10400 | 1158 | tas | azar 16.00 8089 | se20 | 7606 | 921s | i001 | sase | t548 | 1863 1700 7231 e777 | i177 | 1340 | 1644 | 1070 18.00 Test ross | 24s | 1386 | 1740 | 2008 13.00 8049 wooo | 11a | vast | 1835 | 2200 2000 248s sas | 1380 | 1598 | 1990 | Zaza 2120 sez | 161 | w27 | 2040 | esse 2240 sare | 1530 | wae | 215s | 2592 2360 1342 | 1619 | 1800 | 2266 | 2720 2500 vio | a2 | i908 | 2098 | 2500 2880 2019 | 2599 | 3060 2800 2190 | 2680, | 3220 30.00 parr | 2e6e | 3456 3150 aos | 3628 3350 sist | 3est 38.50 4075 37.50 4299 Note:—When using this table, bby 1000 10 reduce the length in meters to For derivation of formula for there tabulated values, see Appendix B. 1.826. Variable or Progressive Rate Springs A popular type of spring, particularly in the light truck “Nodels, is the variable or progeessive rate spring design, ‘This is where a relatively low rate is desirable when the vehicle is in operation with only the driver and perhaps a light payload, but a higher rate is required when the vehi- cle is at design load. Variable rate springs have the potential of improved ride quality over a wide load range, provided an adequate tojal deflection can be accommodated on the vehicle, and the design specifications assure manufacturing controls 10 obtain the desired spring rates ‘nthe light loae range, the second stage leaf or leaves are inoperative. As tie payload increases, the first stage, bby rolling contact gradually engages the second stage. When complete contact is made between the first and second stages. the spring is then operating in the high rate range. For a variable rate spring to produce the ride qualities desired, the specifications must clearly establish the type of load-deflection curve as shown in Fig. 2.9 with the initial contact between the two stages at a load greater than the curb load, and the complete contact ata load less than the design load. Where itis customary for constant rate springs to specify only a design load and height, itis necessary for variable rate springs to specify the curb load ‘nd height for the first stage and also the design load and \Cotiaht for the second stage. It is recommended that the desired curve be drawn, showing a gradual transition from the fist stage rate to the second stage rate, and that this curve be made an integral patt of the specification, Fig. 5.6 shows both the load-deflection diagram and the rate-defection diagram for the Sample Calculation which follows. It should be understood that the rate-deflection diagram cannot be considered (o be an exact depiction of the diagram obtained from an actual spring. IU has been drawn without considering such details as the change in moment arm length when the spring is deflected from positive camber 10 flat to negative camber. Sample Calculation Design a variable or progressive rate spring for these conditions: Width 63.0 mm Length between eye centers 1320 mm Load at curb height P= 2200N Load at design height Py = 6000N Rate at curb or light loads ky = 25 N/mm Rate at design or heavy loads: ky Metal to metal clearance % Deflection between P, and P; loads = 120 mm Length of inactive spring seat = 80 mm Note that the deflection between curb and design toads is the difference in heights between curb and design load positions. 43. N/mm 100 mm Fig. 5.5—-Leat lengths determined from moment of inertia di gram 153LOAD (NEWTONS) 10 000 6.000 4000 2000 8 88 8 RATE (N/mm) LOAD-DEFLECTION DIAGRAM LOAD AT M/m| INTERMEDIATE | LIGHT LOAD RANGE | LOAD RANGE| HEAVY LOAD RANGE kt =25.N/mm ‘6 000 (2) CONTACT 5 400 Xe= 100 —>| 1 i SPRING DEFLECTION (mm) ZERO AT DESIGN LOAD 1 1 I 1 ! — 150 B -100 — 50 ° +50 +100 t ' ' al I RATE-DEFLECTION DIAGRAM ' ' ' INTERMEDIATE LoaD HEAVY LOAD. RANGES) Rance | Fig. 56 Variable rate spring: Load-deflection and rate-deflec- tion diagrams 1.54 10 300All leaves except the main leaf are to have tapered leaf ends. his spring will be designed assuming thatthe front and ‘eaE tength ratio Y=b/a is 1.30 or less, With this condition the symmetrical formulae from Table 5.1 can be used Step One—For the first stage, consideration will be given 10 three or a four leaf design. Because of the ‘extended lengths of these leaves when operating without ‘contact with the second stage, an SF value of 1.40 will be used in the design calculations, as explained in Section 2 of this chapter. Caleulate the moment of inertia requirement for the first stage leaves. From Table 5.1 formula 1 = 25113207, 32200-10140 Selection Of Gages For The First Stage—Threc leaves, of 7.50 gage have EI = 6402 mm* or, considering a four leaf design, one leaf of 7.10 gage and three leaves of 6.70 gage have SI = 6377 mm*, Either the three or the four leaf design should produce a first stage rate close to 25 N/mm. The three leaf design of course would be more economical. Step Two—Calculate the moment of inertia require- vont for the second stage leaves. “Cansideration will be given to two leaves and when selecting the four leaf design for the first stage there will bea total of six leaves in the spring. Since all six leaves will be in active operation after the first stage makes complete contact with the second stage, the SF value will be 1.10. (Gee Section 2 in this chapter.) From Table 5.1 formula = 6417 mm* bbe _ 430320) __ 404s mmt I= °° ESF 32-200-10°1.10 ‘The moment of inertia requirement for the two second stage leaves will be the difference between 31, and 31, oF 14048 — 6377 = 7671 mmo. Selection Of Gages For The Second Stage—Two leaves of 9.00 gage have a moment of inertia of 7356 mm‘, Add- ing this moment of inertia to the four lea first stage as selected under the previous section, "Selection OF Gages For The First Stage,” the total moment of inertia will bbe 13733 mm. This is within 2% of the calculated 14088 mm‘, It is recommended that sample springs are made and tested to verify the selected gages. Length Of Leaves, “With the gages of all the leaves established, the moment ‘of inertia diagram can be drawn for the spring, see Fig, $5. The length of leaf No. 6 will be determined by its mo- ment of inertia relative to the total SI plus the inactive spring seat length (¥4 - 80 mm) plus the length at the ends for bedding (25 mm). Length of No. 6 leaf = 2- | 3678 20440425] 3733 2166 + 65) = 2-231 mm ‘The length of leaf No. 5 will be determined in the same manner, where the moment of inertia I will equal 2(3678) =7356 om. 2. 620. +65] th of No. 5 leat = Length of No. $ leaf=2| 2(3324-65)=2.397 mm For eye support the length of the No. 2 leaf will extend to the center line of load application with the bedding line between leaf No. 1 and No. 2 at 25mm from the end of the leaf, The length between No. 2 leaf and No. 5 leat is 660 — 397 = 263mm. The stepping between leaves No. 2, No. 3, and No. 4 will be established proportionate to their individual mo- ment of inertia values. Since the moment of inertia of all three leaves is the same, the stepping will be equal or 263 + 3 = 87.67 mm. The leaf lengths are as follows: Stresses ‘Stress calculdtions for variable rate springs are more involved than they are for niform cate springs where all the leaves are operative under all loadings. Stresses in the main leaf will be calculated at the follow- ing sections from which a stress diagram can be drawn. See Fig. 5.8. 155‘Section ‘Moment Arm T ‘Sires (MPa) In Main Leat at Load of mm 200 3000 WE SOON | RE a cura contact | __ oesicn Mom TED STET IS ST wena Ter Br 320 a 650404425 = 201 2055 162 220 at ist c 00297425 - 288 or 7 240 “31 226 o 00 — 40"= 620 err 380 518 = = ° 600 — 40 = 620 13728 = = er one For moment arm engine 200 Fig. 58 “A loads of 2200 N'2n6 S000 Noy leaves 1, 2,2 «ar opera (l= 6377) STRESS-LOAD DIAGRAM FOR MAIN LEAF AT LINE OF ENCASEMENT (SECTION Dj 1000 982 49 ATMIM 900 800 700 z z 637 ATDESIGNLOAD & = s0 8 2 JATCOMPLETE CONTACT & 2. < w 600 618 AT INITIAL CONTACT a = 5 7 3 400 7 y 380 AT CURB LOAD 2 2 & a S00 293 AT 1700.N z = 200 a 4 3 pf: 8 g 8 2 © LOAD (NEWTONS) Fig. :7—Varlable rate epring: Srest-toad diagram for main feat at line of encasement 7000 8.000 1.56 9.000 10.0001000 Ve Te 200). AT 10300N (ness (es) * INDICATES MOMENT ARM ‘Pig, 54 Variable rete sprog: Stress detrbution slong mata CS beat under ditorent once 157‘Sample stress catculations Par a 2200-113. 7.10 at 2 = ‘Safat 2200 Ny Tan = 132MPa 3000-201, F 4855 6000 » 288» 7.10 4: 6377 Sp(at 3000 N) = eee 710 Sa(at 3000 N) = 220 MPa 8 Seat 6000 N) = 481 MPa = 518 MPa The stresses at line of encasement (section D} for loads between design position and metalo-metal position can be calculated by establishing the amount of load on the spring which iz not supported by the second stage leaves after complete contact is made between the fit and second stages. The load on the spring at metal4o-metal position equals 6000 N (design load) + 43 N/mm - 100 mm (x,) = 10300 N Jn Fig. 5.6, the dash line extension of the second stage fate line intersects the zero load at a position of minus 140 mm, At this position the frst stage leaves have supported 1700 W (68 mma-25 N/mm this load is not transmitted to the second stage leaves, The stress for that 1700 N load unsupported by the second stage leaves is: 1700 - 620 + 7.10 Teh = MPa At metal-to-metal position the stress for the load sup- ported by all the leaves is: (00300 — 1700) - 620 - 7.10 a = 69 MPa ‘Thus the total stress at metal-to-metal position equals: 293 + 689 = 982 MPa ‘Simiarly, the total stress at design position equals: 293 4 (6000 ~ 1700) - 620 7.10 4 13733 = 293 + 344 = 637 MPa Figure 5.7 presents a detailed diagram of the stresses in ‘the main leaf at line of encasement (section D). ‘The stresses in leaves No. 2, 3, 4 are 6% lower than the \~ stresses in the main leaf since their gage thickness is 6.70 mm compared to 7.10 mm in the main leaf. The ratio of ‘these gage thicknesses is 6.70/7.10 == 94%. 158 Since 1700 N is not supported by the second stage Jeaves, the stress in the second stage (leaves 5 and 6 with 9.00 mm gage thickness) can be calculated by using the transmitted load of 10300 — 1700 = 8600 N and a mo- ‘ment arm length from line of encasement to bearing line between leaves No. 4 and 5 (section C). This equals the length of No. $ leaf (397 mom) less the inactive seat length (40 mm) and less the ammount of bedding length (25 mn), thus equating 332 mm. ‘The moment of inertia (1) for the two second stage leaves is 7356 mm‘. Then at metal-to-metal position, ‘where the spring load is 10200 N, the stress it leaves No. $ and 6 is: (40300 — 1700) - 3329.00 OS = 873 MP Note that these calculated stresses do not take into account any nip between the leaves which for the main leaf ‘would slightly reduce the stress from the calculated value. Optional Second Stage ‘The second stage can be made of a single leaf, provided the stress levels are acceptable and equipment is available for making the required taper contour of the leaf ends. 7, Strength of Spring Eyes The bending stress in the main leaf adjacent to the spring eye or in the eye itself, due to longitudinal forces acting on the spring, can be calculated by the following formmuia: = RD +0 Pw The stress calculated by the above formula applies to upturned, downturned, and Berlin eyes, except that in the case of the Berlin eye the stress is zero under a compres- sion type longitudinal force. Thus, the Berlin eye has a strength advantage over the other two types. Tests have shown that when the stress, as calculated by this formula, reaches the yield point of the material, the eye will begin to open. If leaf springs are used in Hotehikiss drive suspensions ‘where they carry the longitudinal force due to braking and driving, a large factor of safety should be allowed. The longitudinal forces in such applications are often much larger than those calculated ftom static forces, because shock loads may be applied either by the driver, by hope ping the wheels on the road, or by longitudinal shake of the axles. The maximum calculated stress should there- fore not be allowed to exceed 350 MPa. Where vehicles such as buses are subject to frequent start and stop opers-tions, the required eye strength should be determined by life tests which reflect these operating conditions. bending stress resulting from the press fit of metal bubtfgs in spring eyes may be calculated by the following formula: 4 AEt arr ‘The maximum axial force and torque obtained without slippage between the bushing and spring eye will depend upon the finish of the engaging surfaces, their hardness, and the degree of lubrication present when the press fit is made. 159 Note that the stresses produced by bushing press fit and by horizontal forces on the main leaf eye may be algebrai- cally additive. Nomenclature 4 = Difference between OD of bushing and ID of eye S = Stress D = ID of spring eve t= Thickness of leaf at eye w = Width of leaf at eye E = Modulus of elasticity = 200 000 MPa F = Longitudinal forceChapter 6 Installation Effects 1. Characteristics of Shackles “The rate of deftection of a spring is defined as 4P/€f, the slope of a tangent to the load-deflection curve. A leaf spring tested on the rollers of a universal load scale has a rate which varies only slightly as the chord between the ends of the spring changes in length, However, due to the way the spring is installed, the rate on the vehicle may be different from that obtained on the load scale. Knowledge of installation effects will reduce the amount of experimental testing required to obtain the desired installed rates, and it ean also be useful in obtain- ing variable rates where desirable, through the use of ordi nary springs with particular arrangement of shackles. The installation may involve contact pad, bushed eyes with one spring end fixed and the other end shackled. oF bushed eyes with both spring ends shackled. If contact pads are used, the active length of the spring may decrease as it deflects under load, and the rate may accordingly be increased (sce Fig. 3.17A). ‘When one eye is fixed and the other eye is shackled, 1wo effects will result. As the spring deftects, the length of the - chord changes, and the shackle will swing and caange its angle. In swinging, the shackle may lift or lower the eye of the spring and with it the point of load application. This is the first shackle effect. When the shackle is not perpen dicular to the datum line of the spring, the shackle load will have a longitudinal component either compressing or stretching the spring between the eyes. Compressing will, decrease the rate of the spring, while stretching will in ‘erease the rate. This is the second shackle effect. In the first shackle effect, the raising or lowering of the shackle eye changes direction when the shackle passes through the perpendicular position and also when the spring passes through the position where the distance be- tween the eyes isa maximum. This is represented by “flat linkage,” where the three-link equivalent (see Chapter 4, Sections 4 and 5), is stretched out in one straight line, ‘except that in springs with eyes of unequal size or unequal offset, the “flat linkage” is only approximately flat. The ‘terms “compression shackle” and “tension shackle” refer to the fact that load on the spring induces a compressive force in 2 compression shackle and a tensile force in a tension shackle Inthe second shackle effect, the compressing or stretch ing of the spring changes when the shackle passes through the perpendicular position. The amount of shackle effect ‘depends on the load which the spring carries rather than con the rate of the spring. The rate of an installed spring ‘with shackle may easily be 50% higher or lower than the 1.61 nominal rate. To simplify calculations, the charts in Figs 6.2-6.5 may be used for springs with one shackled eye and ‘one fixed eye. ‘These charts give the installed rate in percent of the nominal rate. The nominal rate is the rate calculated as shown in Chapter 5,Section 1, or the rate obtained from tests with spring eyes on rollers and with the spring in the fully extended postion represented by “fat linkage.” For calculating these chars, the bending stiffness ofthe spring was replaced by torsional stiffness in the hinges of the equivalent linkage. Experimental checks confirmed the calculated results within the limits of accuracy of the measurements. The rate of a spring with shackle depends on the nomi- nal rate of the spring, the position of the shackle, the Jength of the shackle, the “camber” of the spring, and the load on the spring. - For the purpose of these charts, it is convenient to ‘express the “camber” of the spring by a term which is characteristic of the linkage directly and includes the ‘effect of eye offset and shackle. The geometric deftection is used for this purpose. It is measured along the line of load application. Its the distance by which the load appli- ‘cation point is displaced from the position at which the ‘equivalent linkage is flat (maximum distance: between ‘eyes (See Fig, 6.1.) The geometric deflection is zero when tie linkage is flat or stcetched, positive for increased lords (with increasingly negative spring camber), and negative for decreased loads (with increasingly positive spring cam- ber), It includes the effect of shackle displacement. In Figs. 6.2-655, the geometric deflection is given 95 a per- ‘centage of the (stretched) spring length (L), s0 that the ‘curves can be vsed for all sizes of springs. The “stretched” length is different from cither the straight or the active length, but itis suficiently accurate +o use the straight length in this instance. To express the effect of load on the rate, it is most ccotvenient to define the load by the geometric free camber ‘of the spring. When the linkage is flat, the geometric de- fection is zero, and in that position the load does not depend on the shackle arrangement. This load is called P,,. The geometric free camber is defined as the quotient ‘of the load P, divided by the nominal rate of the spring (P,/k). In Figs. 6.2-6.5, the geometric free camber is ex: pressed as a fraction of the spring length, so that the curves can be used for all sizes of springs. Curves have been drawn for various values of geometric free camber, ranging from 0.05L-0.20L. The curves for syminetrical springs are shown in Fig. 6.2 (with compression shackle) and in Fig. 6.3 (with ten-i ! ‘A SPRING WITH UPTURNED EVES AND COMPRESSION SHACKLE GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION (NEGATIVE) le J nce ramn wc / suncxce andes tL DROP OF SHACKLE END - ie 2 Pa GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION = ~ (OPENING + 4e + 164 } SHACKLE DROP) 20 2°°2 GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION = — (OPENING + 11.0. + go [SHACKLE DROP NEGLECTED) 4 8 — SPRING WITH DOWNTURNED EVES AND TENSION SHACKLE GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION OPENING; (NEGATIVE) (Positive) | SHACKLE POSITION WHEN LINKAGE IS FLAT —— ay DROP OF SHACKLE END —— L 1 GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION = — (OPENING + } ~jer 3 ‘SHACKLE DROP) GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION = - (OPENING — pe. + do [SHACKLE DROP NEGLECTED] Fig. 6.1Explanation of geometric deflection 1.62sion shackle). Refer to Fig. 6.1 for sketches of springs with compression shackle or with tension shackle. There are also curves for unsymmetrical springs in which the length ratio b/a or ¥ equals 2. These are shown in Fig. 6.4 (with compression shackle) and in Fig 6.5 (with tension shackle). It is recommended chat the curves in Figs. 6.2 and 6.3 be used for springs with length ratio up to 1.40, the curves in Figs. 64 and 6.5 for springs with length ratio exceeding 1.80, Where the length ratio is closer to 1.60, an interpolation between the curves may be used if they differ sufficiently to demand such a step. In the interest of readability the number of curves on ‘each chart has been kept to @ minimum. Near zero geo- metric deflection, the curves for a given geometric free ‘camber follow similar patterns regardless of shackle length. Curves for different geometric free camber values ‘can be interpolated or extrapolated as follows: In a given cchart (given shackle angle), with a given shackle tength at ‘given abscissa (geometric deflection), equal differences in ‘geometric free camber call for equal diferences in ordi- nates (shackled rates) Example: In the symmetrical spring with tension shackle of 0.100L length and with 110 deg shackle angle, the shackled rate at —0.0871. geometric deflection is 0.80k for P/kL. = 0.100 and 0.90k for P,/KL = 0.150; there fore, it will be 0.95k for P,/KL = 0.175. Another example: In the unsymmetrical spring with ‘compression shackle of 0.075L and with 90 deg shackle angle, the shackled rate at —0.079L geometric deflection {s0.70k for P,/KL = 0.200 and 0.90k for Po/KL = 0.150; therefore, it will be 1.00k for Pe/kL = 0.125. ‘The charts show that with compression shackles the Joad rate drops off to zero at high geometric deflections (or Joads). To obtain the increase of rate with load which is generally desirable, springs with compression shackles should be used with negative geometric defection (posi- tive camber or upturned eyes) at light static load. In gen- eral, this type requires the use of stronger bumpers or helper springs. ‘With tension shackles the rate curves rise shazply with higher geometric deflections (or Ioads), which is desirable. ‘The curves indicate that at low shackle angles the springs with relatively high static deflection should stand near zero geometric deflection under light static loads, while springs with relatively low static deflection should stand ‘with positive geometric deflection (negative camber oF downturned eyes) under light static loads. The shackle effects are more pronounced with shorter shackles. Curves are given for tiree lengths of shackles. The relation of shackle length (o spring length is what is important, and the shackle length is therefore expressed in pefcent of the spring length. Solid line curves show what happens if the shackle length equals 10% of spring length. Dovand-dash line curves apply when the shackle length equals 7.5% of spring length, and broken line curves when i equals $96 of spring length. The shackle setting is the remaining factor which must bbe considered. The different shackle settings are identified by the minimum shackle angle, that is, the shackle angle when the distance between spring eves is longest (or the spring has zero geometric deflection, or the linkage is fiat). It is measured as shown in Fig. 6.1. Curves ate given on ‘each of the charts for six different minimum shackle an- giles ranging from 60-110 deg. Shackle angles increase when the spring is deflected from the fit position; therefore, the shackle may fall in line with the adjacent equivalent link. If this happens in rebound, the shackle may “togele” or swing over from a ‘compression position into a tension position. This danger ‘exists often on compression shackles with large minimum shackle angles, and it is then necessary to provide either 4 rebound stop for the spring itself or for the shackle. As an example of the application of these charts, the installed rate is determined for a spring with the following specifications: 1270 mm Length center to center of eyes, k= Length fixed (front) Cantilever = a= 560 mm Length shackled (rear) cantilever b= 710. mm ‘Nominal rate, clamped between rubber pads . ko = 21 N/mm Design load Po = 3340N Opening (positive) at design load = 25 mm Upturned eyes. inside diameter 1D = 38. mm Thickness of main leat t 6.70 mm Clearance (metal-te-metal) x= 11S mm Rebound x = 135mm 100 mm 75 deg, Compression shackle, length Minimum shackle angle Since the cantilever length ratio ¥ = b/a = 710/560 = 127 is appreciably tess than 1.40, the rate curves for symmetrical springs will give adequately accurate infor- mation. (See earlier discussion in this Section.) “The opening at zero geometric deflection is (See Figs 4.1 and 4.2, and Figs. 6.1 and 6.6) _ett 050d +o4t 2 = _ 05.38 + 6.10) ~ 670 = 14.53 mm ‘The geometric deflection at design load is, therefore: =25 = 1453 = — 30.53 mm This equals —3.1% of the spring length. Since it was ‘obtained by neglecting shackle effects, a correction may have to be introduced later The load at zero geometric deflection (P,) will be the same as the load on rollers at 39.53 mm beyond static deflection. 1.638 60° SHACKLE ANGLE 3 a B R 3 a SHACKLED RATE (IN PERCENT OF NOMINAL RATE} SHACKLE ANGLE AT ZERO GEOMETRIC CAMBER INDICATED GEOMETRIC FREE CAMBER AS FRACTION OF SPRING LENGTH a ps gon) |. {1008 INDICATED UCBs] | paso fa sovne 1G 5 HOH GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION {IN PERCENT OF SPRING LENGTH) a < « 200 80° SHACKLE ANGLE 90° SHACKLE ANGLE 3°: IT FETA TH | 1 7 Zz HER Pith \ He 5 as Pa | iH z Tit aT T | TF 7 Fy Pp 2 HEE ET : aoe 3 AL iha H H 5 150: + - : a Lt Fr eid t BAThT 3: HHL at Soft f aallsi SEHD 2 C EET STH 125; i ott TTT The 2 2 \\QRET all He = Hep Ah B00 o rt g , na] ; SA . x ELE 2 fr | Ags fev: | Lo § Lyd yoo Ltso. | 1 US| joso é id 15-10 -5 o +5 410 415-15 10 5 o 6 +10 GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION (IN PERCENT OF SPRING LENGTH) Fig. 62-Rate variations of springe with one compression shackle ane length ratio 1.00-1.40 1.64L RATE} 70° SHACKLE ANGLE $ 200 SHACKLE LENGTH z : IN PERCENT OF E vs: + 6 ‘SPRING LENGTH: 5 50-4 3 t = 10 PERCENT penta 21% LC = 78 pencent = ‘ : # 7 #09) 5 Percent $ 10-7 ea = a! eT ee 3.4 {150 3 ipa |100 $="e 5 0 73] 080 | th = -10 5 045 HOS GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION (IN PERCENT OF SPRING LENGTH) 100° SHACKLE ANGLE 110° SHACKLE ANGLE 8 t t L 3 8 0 RAY i I$ = -10 -5 0 + «+0 -1% -10 -5 0 + HO 45 GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION {IN PERCENT OF SPRING LENGTH) ‘SHACKLED RATE (IN PERCENT OF NOMINAL RATE) & Fig. 6.2 continued 1.65a E 2 60° SHACKLE ANGLE z™ SHACKLE ANGLE AT Y z a 78 ZERO GEOMETRIC 3 CAMBER INDICATED 5 E 125 GEOMETRIC FREE Zz 100 CAMBER AS FRACTION a 2 OF SPRING LENGTH g 7% INDICATED ¥ Z 50" 15 10-5 05 OHS GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION (iN PERCENT OF SPRING LENGTH) E 2 80° SHACKLE ANGLE 90° SHACKLE ANGLE z ty 2 ~ $ 5 t ‘ a 3 i & t ¢ & : it z 1 i Z 200 ne a i (aa : 2 ah RE ve 3 so-Ag es 0 ss te 0 BHO % GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION (IN PERCENT OF SPRING LENGTH) Fig, 62-Rate vatiations af springs with one tension shackle and feng ratio 1.00~1.40 YL 1.66‘SHACKLEO RATE (IN PERCENT OF NOMINAL RATE) L RATE) SHACKLE LENGTH 3 IN PERCENT OF 3 ‘SPRING LENGTH: e 5 = 10 PERCENT 8 & 75 Peacent z —---a 55 reRcent og g é a 2 5 ed “ got tt GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION (IN PERCENT OF SPRING LENGTH} 100° SHACKLE ANGLE 170° SHACKLE ANGLE : nf = |o 16 10-5045 0 15 10s GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION (IN PERCENT OF SPRING LENGTH) Fig. 6.3 continueda & é 60° SHACKLE ANGLE Y z 7 SHACKLE ANGLE AT z s 175 - ZERO GEOMETRIC 5 CAMBER INDICATED 150 g g GEOMETRIC FREE 7 © 125 eg CAMBER AS FRACTION ye 10 OF SPRING LENGTH < fj 2. i © ast- ce : INDICATED 4 '2010| 5 : 17 4 Z i i < 816 10-5 OCHO HB i ® GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION (IN PERCENT OF SPRING LENGTH) & é 80° SHACKLE ANGLE 90° SHACKLE ANGLE ay zg Tht TH TTS ae ube eee 3 175] ar Ht : = AE \ ° 160 — jig 5 rete Sg M i 2 é + z i 4 w ff : ¥ i , Poco Hike ts S | a | fy N78. 00: at Fis [ion <4 FA ; i “15D: |.090 4-4 : : 150 |o50 + 2 sol t = -15 -10 -5 oO +5 +100«415 «(15-10-85 oO +5 +40 o GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION (IN PERCENT OF SPRING LENGTH) Fig. 64—Rate varlations of unsymmetrical springs with one compression shacks and length rato exceeing 1.80, 1.6870° SHACKLE ANGLE a é 2 20; ~ ‘SHACKLE LENGTH 2 u 3 15 IN PERCENT OF 2 SPRING LENGTH: 2 150— z “10 PeRceNT 3 2° 2 12 775 PERCENT = 100 a5 rencenr g a & i ee h 5. [100 ~ go th 1x0 | .080. . < 1s 100-8 0s 0 HB 3 GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION (iN PERCENT OF SPRING LENGTH? 100" SHACKLE ANGLE 110° SHACKLE ANGLE 00 MN os es <1 Sse. 200 EES PS = -00 -5 0 5 «0-15 10 GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION (IN PERCENT OF SPRING LENGTH) SHACKLED RATE (IN PERCENT OF NOMINAL RATE) Fig. 6.4 continued 169SHACKLED RATE (IN PERCENT OF NOMINAL RATE) ‘SHACKLED RATE (IN PERCENT OF NOMINAL RATE 150 126- 100 5 50 60" SHACKLE ANGLE i SHACKLE ANGLE AT —t | ZERO GEOMETRIC : |300= Webs HAP CAMBER INDICATED + 150 Nghe | poe Fa GEOMETRIC FREE 7 oa 4 i Om i CAMBER AS FRACTION AL 7 (OF SPRING LENGTH f S INDICATED 2} }200 ifs , =15 10-50 GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION {IN PERCENT OF SPRING LENGTH) 175; 125| 100 SHACKLE ANGLE = 0 6 HO 15-18-10 o 6 +0 GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION (IN PERCENT OF SPRING LENGTH) Fig. 6.5—Rate variations of unaymmetsical springs with one ter- sion ahackle and te th eallo exceeding 1.00 1700 ‘SHACKLEO RATE (IN PERCENT OF NOMINAL RATE) a} & 3 70° SHACKLE ANGLE ge 0 or 7 SHACKLE LENGTH z | i it 175 — IN PER ‘Ol 2 [et rf SPRING LENGTH: 3 50 helene 5 Les =10 percent 8 00. =] 7 & 57 Loser . gory 7 rencent BY / —--—-~=5 Percent = 100 g & g 7% & GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION (IN PERCENT OF SPRING LENGTH) 100°SHACKLE ANGLE 110° SHACKLE ANGLE 0 WS 410-15 10-5 0, GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION {IN PERCENT OF SPRING LENGTH) Fig. 65 continued 171oO 1270 OPENING AT ZERO GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION = “| |GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION AT DESIGN LOAD = -39.53 6.70 MAIN LEAF SOLID LINES: 3 25 OPENING AT DESIGN LOAD neauecren! PENING AS SPECIFIED FOR DESIGN LOAD (ON ROLLERS) BROKEN LINES: AT ZERO GEOMETRIC DEFLECTION Fig. 66-~Soring for sample use of charts P, = 3340 + 39.53(21) = 3340 + 830 = 4170 N The geometric free camber is: Pi/k = 4170/21 = 198.58 mm This equals 15.6% of spring length, so that an interpola tion about one-quarter of the way from curves for P./kl. = 0.150 to curves for Py/kL = 0.175 will be in order. ‘The shackle length is 100 mm which equals 7.9% of spring length. This makes the “dot-and-dash” curves nearly applicable, or an interpolation nearly halfway from broken line curves to solid line curves The geometric defection at the metakto-metal clear ance position will be —39.53 + 115 = 75.47 mm. This ‘equals 5.9% of spring length. “The geometric deflection at the rebound position will be —39.53 — 135 = — 174.53 mm. This equals — 13.7% of| spring length. The specified minimum shackle angles 75 deg, midway between the curves for 70 and 80 deg. The following values for shackled rate (in percent of nominal rate) may now be established: 1. At design load position (where geometric deflec- tion equals —3.1% of spring length): ‘Shackle Ange ro89 omg eee Shackle Lang TORO GTGDL OL* Poth = 0380 98100 020 5109 Oise se 100 2. At metal-to-metal clearance position (where ge0- metric deflection equals +5.9% of spring length) woes Thaeat v2 5 Sor s 3. At rebound position (where geometric deflection equals —13.7% of spring length): ‘snail Age: 7089 weg Theat ‘smaci Leng TOFS G00 SSH” Gare THO OORT” Goo Pym mots 117 108 “eo 1 01s 85° 8 2% Oise 10) ers tse tapas ales. To summarize: Shackled Rate ‘or ‘sominat rate Nremen At design tose 06 ‘Ak matalto-metal clearance 105 20 ‘Average in ounce range 102 ata ‘At rebourd | 120 252° ‘Average in rebound range 109 229 ‘The data (and the curves) show that a reduction in shackle angle would produce a higher tate in the jouneeOC» range and simultaneously a lower rate in the rebound values for load at different deffections, the geometric deflection must be multiptied by the average fate between zero and that deflection. The resulting prod- uct is the load difference between that defection and zero ‘geometric deflection. The load at zero geometric deflec- tion is not affected by the shackle and can therefore be calculated as shown above (4170 N). For this example, the load'at — 39.53 mm geometric deftection would be: * 4170 — 39.53(21.4) = 4170 — 846 = 3324N, and the geometric deflection under 3340 N design load would be: = 39.53 + 16/21 = ~39.53 + 0.76 = 38.77 mm, This is the correction mentioned above. It is small in this case, but may be large in others. Similar effects on rate may be produced by lengthwise tension or compression of the spring and can be caused by driving thrust, braking, or nonhorizonial position of the springs. 2. Windup of Springs In many applications, leaf springs are loaded not only bey vertical forces but also by horizontal forces and torques in the longitudinal vertical and transverse vertical planes. Torque in the longitudinal vertical plane (windup) is usually produced by a longifudinal force applied above or ‘below the spring seat. Where the spring does not carry the Jongitudinal force but only the vertical force and the ‘windup torque, stresses and deflections can be caleulated fairly simply with reasonable accuracy as shown in the section, “Springs Carrying Vertical Load and Windup Torque.” However, when the longitudinal force is also ‘cartied by the spring, asin the Hotchkiss drive suspension, generally valid formulae become very complicated, and the problem must be treated as described in the section “Springs Carrying Vertical Load, Windup Torque, and Longitudinal Load.” In all formulae given in this section, the total fength "should be used as the flat length L.. This will give correct values for deflections and sufficiently accurate ones for stresses WINDUP STIFFNESS w = 1 Toke v 4 Fig. 6.7-Windup of « symmetrical spring under brake application 173‘The stress formulae apply only to springs built as uni- form strength beams. The deflection formulae, however, ‘are not so restricted; they apply to all springs having certain rate and length ratios, but they are true only for ‘small displacements because changes of ratio and length are neglected. ‘Springs Carrying Vertical Load and Windup Torque The center or seat of a leaf spring is elastically re- strained against deflection produced by a vertical force due to its rate k(N/mm); itis restrained against windup ‘or rotation produced by a torque in the longitudinal ver- tical plane due to its windup stiffness or windup rate ‘o(N - ram/radian). This windup stifiness is often used 10 resist the driving and braking torque, as in the Hotchkiss. drive suspension, In “symmetrical” semi-elliptic springs, a vertical force products no rotation of the seat, and's torque produces no Vertical deflection of the seat. Such a spring with a torque applied to it is shown in Fig. 6.7. The windup stiffness is = kL'/4 (N-mm/radian) ‘The stress is, expressed by the windup angle V s, = 28 .v.sF v L or expressed by the torque T SEt Some TSF= i where SF is the:stiflening factor (See Chapter 5, Section 2), Sis the stress.caused by a deflection f, and V is the ‘windup angle in radians. The formulae show the great importance of spring length for resistance to windup. ‘Windup stiffness increases as the square of the spring [ength for springs of equal load rate k. The stress produced by a given torque decreases inversely as the length for springs of equal load rate and equal stress rate S/f. Semi-elliptc springs are frequently made unsymmetri- ceal to obtain desirable geometry. This can be done by unequal division of length, or by adding leaves 10 one of the arms, or by combining both methods. Fig. 6.8 shows a spring with arms of unequal length under vertical and torque loading acting together. These loadings are pro- duced under forward brake application in a Hotchkiss rive suspension. In “unsymmetrical” springs, a vertical toad will pro- duog beside vertical deflection, a tilting of the seat; and a torque will produce, besides tilting, a vertical defection. as f Fig. 6.2—Windup of an unsymmetrical spring under brake application 174‘When the torque is applied with the spring seat prevented from deflecting vertically, the windup stiffness and the windup stress as expressed by the windup angle are in- creased in the ratio kth 2+ K+ Kk ay +" ‘The relationship berween the vertical deflection £ (mm) and the ttt angle V (radian), due to a vertical load, may be expressed as the equivalent torque arm Q (mm) which is shown in Fig. 42. There the deflection is called “x” and the tilt angle “0.” Q=tv ‘The length of the equivalent torque arm Q can be cal- culated ifthe lengths of the spring cantilevers and the ratio of their stiffnesses are known: With length of fixed cantilever length of shackled cantilever rate of fixed cantilever rate of shackled cantilever and with L=atb Y = b/a Zs kyshy Consideration of cantilever deflections will show that = The + bh L@ +) ak, = bk, Z— YY + D For springs designed to deftect in circular arcs (without reinforcing leaves), Z = Y* and the formula becomes LY ery ab This has been shown in Table 4.1, and the relationship between L. Q, Y, and Z is graphically demonstrated in Fig. 45. The zero ordinate for L/Q (where Q becomes infinitely large and the seat angle change or tilt angle ‘becomes infinitely smal) is crossed by each Z line at the point of Y = Z. Thus. whenever Z equais Y, a vertical force will produce no tilting of the spring seat. When Z becomes smaller than Y, the equivalent torque arm Q will 80 in the direction of the longer spring arm, as indicated by the negative ordinate values. ‘The relationship between the vertical defection f (mm) and the tilt angle V (radian), due to a torque while the spring is under a constant vertical load P, may be ex- pressed as the effective swing radius B (mm), which is shown in Fig. 6.8. B=-—wv-2 = tke Qk ke + ky bot 1+¥ “142 ‘The virtual center of rotation for this torque loading is ‘paint ata distance B from the spring seat. B equals zero if ¥ equals Z, and the center of rotation is then at the spring seat. For larger or smaller values of Z, the center. moves closer to the end of the spring arm which i stiffer than the value corresponding to Z = Y. The windup stifines of unsymmetrical springs can be calculated from the cantilever rates and lengths 4 7 k hy + Ohad (¥ + Zk? (+ Ky +P For convenience, it is expressed as a fraction of the stiff- ness of a symmetrical spring of the same length L and of the same rate k. The stiffness ratio is 4Q@’k, + bk, RE 4a? + 2) @+ ore This is plowted on Fig. 6.9 over a "Y” abscissa. It shows that the value «/(kL?/4) can exceed the value | only in ‘a few cases which have little practical application: 1. When Z equals 4 while Y is either substantially ‘more or substantially less than 1 2, When Z exceeds | while Y is less than 1. 3. When Z is less than 1 while Y exceeds 1. Lines have been drawn both in Figs. 4.5 and 6.9 for W = Z/Y' to indicate the extent of the distortion (com- ‘pared with a conventional spring layout) which is required fora given relationship between Y and Z. (see Chapter 4) ‘The stress due to tindup in unsymmetrical springs is normally higher in the longer (usually the shackled) can- tilever b; the windup stresses in the two cantilevers have ‘the relationship wn Zz ee Sh SF, The stress in the longer cantilever expressed by the ‘windup angle V Sue 2 2+ oy Seo Tosa YS bby the torque T aE ZV ee Seb arg 3 TSF 175where SF, and SF, are stiffness factors that may be deter- tmined a stated in Chapter 5. When Q, k, and w are known, they can be used to express the relations between vertical load P, torque T, ‘Springs Carrying Vertical Load, Windup Torque, and Longitudinal Load The threedlink equivalent shown ia Figs. 4.2 and 43 ~ vertical defection f, and tit angle Vs very closely reproduces the action of the spring under oT pot vertical force and windup torques, ifthe bending stiffness rePe to ver ee of the leaves is replaced by torsional sifiness in the two Ko xe hinges of the three links. It also gives a reasonably accu For vertical load only, the deflection f = ©, tate equivalent under longitudinal forces. It may therefore P k bbe used to calculate the effect of these forces. the tilt angle V = —, and ‘Under longitudinal forces such a linkage evidently has Oo a marked toggle effect which increases if the spring is . £ & Qs previously defined made shorter. Under braking and accelerating forces, the v results depend upon whether the spring eantilever which For torque only, the deflection . transmits these forces from spring seat to fxed eye isin tension or compression. Ifthe fixed cantilever isin tension, the ttt angle there is stiffening effect, and both windup and vertical deflection are decreased. Ifthe fixed cantilever isin com: e pression, the toggle action produces a decrease of rate, and AR fe Previously defined. both windup and vertical deflection are increased. In com. pression, this effect can be strong enough (0 make the ont ate SS ‘320. ‘THE ORDINATE FURNISHES THE WINDUP Fg ‘STIFFNESS OF THE UNSYMMETRICAL : 10 : 25078. SPRING lo} AS A FRACTION — LZ fo 241.5 (OF THE WINDUP STIFFNESS wee ESE os|_avee’ 220 OF ASYMMETRICAL SPRING OF EQUAL LENGTH (LE [AND OF EQUAL RATE (k) os wevmmernical ~ KL2/4 PUNSYMMETRICAL . __4(¥2+2) 07 wL2s4 Zone we2ne Yb (LENGTH RATIO} 2 halk (RATE RATION 08 os 10 12 1é 8 1 20 Y Y Fig. 6.9--Windup stittness of unsymmetrical springs 176mechanism completely unstable and buckle the spring if it is relatively short or if the main leaf is too thin, The buckling tendency also increases in proportion to the stalic deflection ‘An unequally divided (unsymmetrical) spring” offers sreater resistance ¢o buckling when the shorter camtilever is between the seat and the fixed eye, as in the usual Hotchkiss drive suspension, due to its greater bending resistance and the additional vertical load produced by a horizontal accelerating force. In this case, the horizontal force not only produces the windup torque T, but also the additional vertical load P that opposes the windup lifting, force T/Q. The vertical load is obtained from the follow- ing formula: FH Poe Tire frietion force Vehicle center of gravity height above ground We = Vehicle wheelbase The net spring deflection from the static pestion may be obtained by substituting the value for verticat load P in the deflection formuls, which shows that vertical load and torque are related in the following manner to produce vertical deflection Pot Ko In acceleration, defection (P74) is always. positive (spring in compression) and deflection (T/QK) is always negative (spring in rebound). In braking, the signs ofthese defections are always opposite because the horizontal friction) force, vertical load, and windup torque are reversed. Whe the deflestion f is positive, the vehicle drops, and when fis negative, the vehicle rises. ra Rates of Unsymmetrical Springs Under Bounce and Roll Tr should be noted that the vertical rate k equals the sum of the cantilever rates (ky ++ ky) only if Z = Y, which happens in symmetrical springs where Z = Y = 1. fn un- symmetrical springs, k is usually smaller thar (ky + ky). However, k may become equal (0 (ky + ky) when the longer cantilever is made stifer by additional leaves or longer leaves to balance the deflections. Fi. 6.10 shows the relationship of ky ky, and k. Fig. 6.11 shows the ratio (hy + ky)/k for various values of ¥ and Z. ‘The fact that in unsymmetrical springs (ky + ke) is larger than k can be used to provide additional roll stift ness without using a sol stabilizer. The lower diagram of, Fig. 6.10 shows the normal position and the deflected 8 of two unsymmetrical springs which are rigidly mounted on a sti axle, one end of which is moved up and the other end down. Ifboth ends were moved down together, the spring seats would tiltone way, as shown in the upper diagram. If they ‘were moved up together, the seats would tilt the other ‘way. If one end is moved up and the other end down, tilting of the spring seats is prevented because they are forced by the axle to remain almost parallel. The axle imposes a windup torque on the springs and is itself stressed by a twisting torque. The roll stifiness of a pair of springs rigidly mounted on an aale is Kon = (ky + ky) C2 (N - mm / radian) where C is the distance between spring seat centers. Any torsional deflection of the axle will reduce this roll sti ness, For symmetrical springs or for springs whose seat is not forced to tilt with the axle, the roll stiffness is Kou =k C/2 Additional roll stiffness is produced by twisting of the spring (see Section 3 in this chapter). This raises the total roll stiffness by 20-40% above the values given in the last, two equations. ‘Summary Springs are made unsymmetrical either for reasons of geometry, to obtain a desirable equivalent torque arm or ‘center of rotation, or to secure increased rol stiffness with- ‘out increasing the ride rate by the ratio (ky + ky)/k. Under torque loading only, windup stiffness is reduced if springs are unequally divided as shown in Fig. 68. However, in a Hotchkiss drive suspension, an unsymmet- fical spring has less buckling tendency because of the stabilizing effect of additional (dynamic) vertical load and the increased bending resistance of the fixed cantilever. ‘The most economical springs are designed to bend in a nearly) circular arc whten toaded at the seat. In such springs, the rate ratio ky/ky equals the cube of the length ratio b/a. For these useful springs, most of the formulae can bbe simplified by substituting Y" for Z. In Figs. 6.9 and 6.11, these springs are indicated by the heavy line for waz =1 3. Twist of Springs In the usual suspension applications, leaf springs may be subjected to twisting, for example, by an obstacle under ‘one wheel of an axle. 1W7> SEAT ANGLE IN PITCH OR BOUNCE k IS LESS THAN {kg + kp) IN ROLL k ($ EQUAL TO tka + Kp) keP ly ka=Palfa kh=Pb/fb IN ROLL THE AXLE PREVENTS THE CHANGE OF SEAT ANGLE. THIS ADDITIONAL RESTRAINT PRODUCES INCREASE OF RATE. ‘THE TWISTING OF THE SPRINGS RESULTS IN A FURTHER RATE INCREASE. Fig. 6.10~Uneymmetrical leat springs with rigidly connected axte 178katke | (Z+0(Z+Y7) k ZY + 1/2 Y = b/a (LENGTH RATIO) [ FOR CONVENTIONAL sprinG: Kathe « y_4+ 1 ] k Y 10 te Z= kalky (RATE RATIO) 9 a we zy3 8 r 7 6 4 2 5 : 7 alee 3 t athe + i reels 1 “1 seth r 1 ¥ 14 08 0 y Solid Lines — Conventional Springs Broken Lines — Unconventional Springs Fig. 611=-Retationship between spring rate (k) and sum of cantilever rates (ky + Kb) ‘Twisting # spring leaf (having the substantially rectangu- lar ross section of the SAE leaf spring steel with width ww and thickness 1) through @ degrees in length (for example, between eye and seat) will produce a shear stress S = 14001 a/2 MPa (Approx) and a torque T = 420 wt’ a/2N- mm (Approx) Tokeep the twisting stress low, itis necessary to distrib- tute the total twist angle over as long a length of the spring 4s possible, which means that the clips should not restrain the main leaf from twisting. When military wrappers or reinforced eyes are used, both frst and sgcond leaf will be twisted and their torques will add, The flexibility of brackets and shackles will reduce twisting of the spring, The resistance of the spring against twisting increases the roll stiffness in the usual application, Sometimes an axle is supported by two springs which ‘are not parallel. Convenience of attachment is the usual reason for this practice. Ifthe angle included between the springs is kept small (up to 10 deg), the action of the spring. is changed only a little. Parallel motion of the axle (ride) ‘will produce a small twist ofthe spring, and in unsymmet- tical springs, « small windup torque, and the spring cate will be increased in this way. 179Chapter 7 1, Characteristics Interleaf friction can be defined as the force which op- poses the relative motion of adjacent leaves. The friction force provides demping in the suspension system. It also resists the intial deflection of the spring, making the sus- pension system less responsive to dynamic forces. Many heavy trucks using multiple feaf springs rely solely on interleaf friction to provide damping and, there- fore, shock absorbers are not required. In suspensions that ve single leaf springs or springs where tip inserts have been installed, shock absorbers must be used to damp out the vibrations. ‘The magnitude of the friction force depends on the condition of the leaf surfaces (coefficient of friction), on the load carried by the leaf surfaces, and on the speed of sliding between leaves. Fig. 7.1 shows @ load-deflection diagram as the result of a test conducted at a slow rate of deflection without rap- ping the spring. It shows that at any given deflection, the load may be any value between an upper and lower limit, depending on the direction of motion and on the distance \ rom the las reversal of motion. Tests conducted at faster rates of loading and unloading will show the same basic characteristics, but the width and the shape ofthe diagram will be different The procedure for testing springs to obtain the friction Joop is given in Chapter 2, Section 1. Springs with high frictional forces will have a higher ‘effective (dynamic) rate when operated through small am- plitudes. At larger amplitudes, the effective rate will ap- proach the rate determined by a slow test Measurement It has been found convenient 10 compare one spring. with another by means of a friction factor: Friction Force Friction Factor = ee Toad Though not strictly correct, it is permissible to assume that the friction force equals one half the difference be- ‘ween the compression load and the release load. The average of the compression load and the release load at s given deflection is termed the average load. (See Chapter \A; Section 1). 181 Interleaf Friction 3, Control The friction factor, as measured by a slow test, may be as high as 0.10, To obtain lower friction factors, the con- (acting surfaces should be smooth, leaf ends should be flexible (Capered) and lubricated. Under these conditions, the frietion factors may be between 0.02-0.05 on a new spring. However, when the spring becomes dry, dirty, and the contact surfaces are scored, the friction factor will increase. Tn some applications, various types of interleat liners or tip inserts are used to eliminate squeaks and obtain low friction factors. A typical tip insert installation is shown in Fig. 3.16E, Section A-A. LOAD-N 0 DEFLECTION — mm Fig. 7.1—Typical diagram of a leat spring tested at iow speed ‘and without rapping to show interleat frictionCHAPTER 8 Operating Stress and Fatigue Life 1. Operating Stress In order to hold the mass of a spring to a minimum, it is necessary to use the highest stress that will give satisfac- tory operation. This stress is limited by three factors: set- ting under load, fatigue life, and quality of spring material and processing. ‘The settling of a spring of given hardness is @ function of the maximum stress. Any spring which is repeatedly loaded to a high stress will setile somewhat during the first few load cycles. This settling can be reduced to a negligible amount by the proper presetting as outlined in Chapter 5, near the end of Section 6, and Chapter 9, Section 4, For automotive suspensions, the design load stress is usually in the range of 600-750 MPa for passenger cars and 350-550 MPa for trucks. There is some possible over~ lap of design load stress between passenger cars and trucks for special vehicles (‘ight trucks, station wagons, taxicabs, eic.), The maximum stress should not exceed the mini- um yield stress of the spring material. For properly heat \ teated alloy steel, the minimum yield stress is generally accepted as 1200 MPa. ‘When a spring is subjected to windup under engine or Drake torque or any other forced external means, stresses in addition to thase due to vertical load may be present ‘and should be considered in computing the stress. 2, Fatigne Life Fatigue life is expressed by the number of deftection cycles a spring will withstand without failure and can be estimated by the use of Fig. 8.1. This has been constructed with the help of data obtained from Isborstory fatigue tests which were conducted on various spring designs be- tween 1950 and 1970. Improvements in the processing of the steel which may be expected in the futuce both at the steel mills and at the spring plants can be taken into account by shifting of the “cycles to faiture”: lines in Fig. 3.1, Such an adjustment would be based on the results ‘obtained from extensive controlled fatigue tests. In order to establish the fatigue life cycles which are acceptable in any spring design, it is desirable to have road durability tests run over a prescribed course so that fatigue life test data and actual road durability results may be correlated. It must be understood that the number of estimated life “aicles is a statistical average and that fatigue test results will show scatter (or dispersion) even under closely con- trolled test conditions. The extent of the scatter will de- pend on the consistency of surface condition, fabrication, and the general quality of the springs whick are tested. The average life “eycles to failure” lines, as shown in Fig. 81, apply to present springs but do not include the effect of surface cold working as produced by shot pening (see Chapter 9, Section 4). Tests have proved that the fatigue life of a spring can be greatly improved by shot peening the tension surface. The increase in fatigue life ‘will depend on a number of factors, such as peening inten- sity and coverage and the condition of the surface prior to shot peening. Fatigue testing is an accelerated method of examining. springs for design adequacy and for quality contrat pur- poses. Reexamination of the design will be in order if the fatigue tests result in failures which are confined to one section of the spring. It is recommended that the fatigue setup produce at least an average of 50.000 and preferably an avcrage of 100 000 cycles. At higher stresses (shorter lives) the scatter is theoreti- cally reduced, so that fewer test samples will produce a given degree of precision inthe estimated life ofthe entire population. However. iower streses (longer lives) produce more realistic results, since they duplicate more nearly the actual service conditions and the spring is less likely to settle during the test. Also, comparisons between different ‘groups of springs will be more distinct at lower stresses, since different S-N curves tend to diverge the more they approach the fatigue limit (or limiting value of the stress ‘at which 50% of the population would survive a very large number of cycles, usually 10 000 000.) ‘A leaf spring used in a suspension will undergo a large number of cycles of small amplitude near the design toad position without failure. Under greater amplitudes the number of eycles without failure will be reduced, since the ‘maximum stress as well as the stress range are increased, land both are determining factors in the fatigue life of a spring. See examples D versus C (both with 700 MPa stress at design load) in Fig. 8.1. ‘The metal-to-metal position (vertical load limit is fre- quently used as the maximum deflection position of the spring in a fatigue test; but in heavy truck springs this deftection is often considered excessive for the test setup, as itis rarely reached in actual service, The length of the test stroke is selected from experi- ence. A frequently used method of establishing the 1834 +1000} T_T INITIAL STRESS—MPa POINT OF S INTERSECTION < OF INITIAL STRESS <4 {VERTICAL LINE) Wo WITH MAXIMUM STRESS (HORIZONTAL LINE)__| INDICATES LIFE EXPECTANCY ‘AS DETERMINED BY LOCATION WITH REGARD TO THE DIAGONAL OF POINT OF INTERSECTION-—| CYCLES-TO-FAILURE LINES i initiat | STRESS EXAMPLES | STRESS | RANGE maximum | EXPECTED STRESS | LIFE CYCLES 700 75.000 9825 80.000 900 120000 ‘860 1,000 000+ a 0 700 8 276 ‘560 c 500 400 D 550 300 Fig. 8.1—Diagram for estimating fatigue ite cyciee of atoet leat springs (preset but not shot peened) 184Jength of test stroke is to add to the compression stroke (rom design load to maximum test load) one-half of this length for the release stroke (from design load to initial test load). This practice may require modification in those cases where it would produce less than 50 000 or much more than 100 000 eycles, according to Fig. 8.1 Example: To estimate the expected fatigue life of the first example shown in Chapter 5, Section 3, compute the stresses at maximum and initial test loads as follows: Deflection to design load ='3500/17.5 = 200 mm Metal-to-metal clearance (Compression stroke) 110 mom Total deflection to maximum load 310 mam Stress at metal-to-metal position (6.30 gage) 985 MPa Stress rate = 985/310 = 3.18 MPa/mm Release stroke = ¥4 «110 = 53. mm Fatigue test stroke = 110 + 55 = ° 165 mm Initial stress = 985 — (1653.18) = 460 MPa From Fig. 8.1, the intersection of the horizontal line representing 984 MPa and the vertical line representing 460 MPa gives the expecied average fatigue life cyctes as 65-000. A fatigue life of 100 000 cycles under amplitudes repre ‘senting these stress conditions will generally assure a road life of more than. 160 000 km of “on highway” operation. In this example, shot peening of the leaves of the spring is recommended if 160 000 km of highway operation is ‘expected. Any “off-the-road” operation will reduce the service life of the spring. Springs for “off-the-road” duty should, therefore, have a lower operating stress than those designed for highway operation. ‘Another example: To estimate the expected fatigue life ‘of the third example shown in Chapter 5, Section 3, (clear- ‘ance of 90 mm to one-half bumper compression specified Additionally), compute stresses at maximum and initial test loads as follows: Deftection to design toad = 14 760/110 Clearance to one-half bumper compression 90 mm 134 mm Sess at design load 535. MPa Stress rate = $35/134 3.99 MPa mm Release stroke = 14 - 90 45mm Fatigue test stroke = (90+445) 135 mim Initial stress = $35 ~ (45. 3.99) 355 MPa Maximum stress = $35 + (90- 3.99) 994 MPa From Fig. 8.1, the intersection of the horizontal line Fepresenting 894 MPa and the vertical line representing iSMre ‘ives the expected average fatigue life cycles as 1.85 3. Evaluation of Fatigue Test Results ‘thas long been recognized that considerable variation is present in the fatigue life of springs loaded with the same stress cycle, and that the average life ofthe tested springs is not suficient by itself to establish a judgment either on ‘the design, or on the material, or on the production method which they represent. The relationship between the number of applied cycles and the percentage of springs which failed at these cycles can best be analyzed with the help of statistical techniques which will systematically de- seribe the “dispersion” or “spread” or “scatter” of the recorded test results Sampling One of the main purposes of statistical analysis is to draw inferences about the properties of a large group (the population”) from the results of tests on a small group (the “sample"), Ifthe entire population were tested, one ‘would not have to infer anything; one would know how the population reacted to the test. This would be called 100% confidence. If 99% of the population were tested, ‘one would be 100% confident about that 99%. Also, if the sanuple of 99% were corisidered representative of the re- maining 1%, one would be close to 100% confident of predicting the results if that 1% were tested. If only 5% ate tested, one would know about that $%, but how much ‘could one infer about the remaining 95%? Actually, if certain conditions of sampling are met, one can infer a ‘great deal about the entire population from tests on small samples. What is required is a good, honest sample. The primary condition for a good sample is that it be taken at random under conditions which ensure that all springs of the population have an equal chance of being chosen. This is obviously impossible in the case where the sample consists of a few handmade springs of a design ‘which has not yet gone into production. Only experience ‘can tell the engineer whether the various properties of the ‘sample which can affect the test result (in regard to mate- rial as well as to prodvetion methods and controls) will ‘also be present in the production springs (the “popula tion”), This determination is outside the realm of statis- tics. However, statistical mathematics are based on the inherent assumption that the sample isa true representa- tive of the population. Distribution If the entire population were tested under identical test conditions, the results could be shown in graphical form by arranging them in ascending numerical order and plot- ting the cumulative fraction (or percent) of failures over an abscissa of “life cycles.” A sample selected at random from this population can be expected co exhibit a similar distribution of fatigue life; the larger the number of springs in the sample, the closer will be the similarity.It is possible to calculate the likelihood of similarity for err substantially on either the high or low side. The ques- samples of any given size. Tables are available based on tion is: How confident can the engineer be of such an ‘such likelihoods; Table 8.1 is an example. It presents the estimate? When he has accumulated a great deal of experi- “median rank” of each test result for a sample size be- ence in comparing the results of small samples which tween 1 and 30, A rank is assigned to cach individual test represent springs of different materials or diferent designs result corresponding to that portion of the population or different production methods, he may judge, after con- which it is most likely to represent. The median rank is templating two such median rank lines, that he should used as an estimate of the true rank because it is just as __ give preference to one se of springs over the other because likely to be high as low. Table 8.1 lists percent figures. ofits apparent superiority in fatigue life. However, when ‘A. good spproximation formula for the median rank judgment based on experience is not considered adequate (which may be used for larger sample sizes than those infor a final decision, then it will be necessary to construct Table 8.1) is: lines of higher confidence, 1-03 Tn many cases a confidence level of 90 or 95 or even i 9996 will be required, so that there will remain only # 10 N+ ‘of $ of 1% risk of the estimate being either too high or where: too low. For @ chosen confidence level, the life eyeles of a given percentage of the population will be found within Position (in ascending order) for each test result ina certain “tolerance interval”. On the median rank graph the sample : this may be represented by a "tolerance band” to either. N = Total quantity of springs in the sample side of the median rank line. Wider bands indicate in- creased doubt aboot the line truly representing the popula- ‘The median rank line constructed from such data pre- tion. With a given sample size, the bands will be wider for dicts that certain percentages of the population will sur- higher confidence levels. With a given confidence level, the vive specific eycles-to-failure. But any such estimate may bands will be wider for a smaller sample size. 100 J “TABLE 8,}-MEDIAM BANKS (PERCENT) FOR SAMPLE SIZES 1 TO 20 Semple ize frank ans Onset 1 2 2 ‘ . ‘ , ° ° od 1 spon ah2ng 0s soto nas awe gma geet 2 mm sow gers ahz8h wee ita ae|eame 2 733 = gtaar— 5000 meee = eae meee aT ‘ ‘Bios easi9 fom ors Seams SSI 5 brass Tasss esse Same some) * como 71st arse gy 2 mare meer has e om woe ° ser MF 0 am | 0 ‘Sage ice iol One 2 oy u 8 v » . ei serge ty asie 2003S 2800 2 tare assez) to? woz 8870 ser 3 mas Pres 200s tea7 Tage teats 8422 aE 2 tea ante arsze hen cago zaara 2178 eee 5 Hives Fras ste az7s mouse see 8.800 aaNet e dsos arson mask eae ma 7O8 wae z How om aasis aaa, osm 808 wa guy rae Saas S00) et seeno raze — canoe © SOS STT_— 8808850000 pre) jes Taare Graze saa SR77 708, ‘S000 weace essa asks ses tsa 170 beer gragy* atag9 Toop Thany a 0340 fone iaaee age 7282573060 808 e169 ohomo aso wa80 oe er) 7808 6 700 oe sion rem ” 36005 fers sis % fae seuss 8 6 fae ee » won| 1.86If 2 90% confidence level has been chosen, the lower and upper limits to the estimated fatigue life distribution of the population can be shown by constructing “5% rank” and “95% rank" lines (see “Theory and Technique of Variation Research” by Leonard G. Johnson, Elsevier Publishing Co., 1964), The numbers 5% and 95% repre- sent the chance of being either too high or too low in assigning the given ranks to the individual springs in the sample, and they are used to establish the limits within which the true population is expected to li. For a concise summary of distribution mathematics see “Engineering Considerations of Stress, Strain, and Strength,” by Robert C. Juvinll, McGraw-Hill Book Co,, 1967. Welbull Plot Several systems of mathematically organizing the test result data have been established. In the past, the normal (or Gaussian) distribution has been most widely used. It is graphically represented by the familiar symmetrical bell-shaped distribution curve which is completely defined by two statistical parameters 1. The mean fife—In the test sample itis the sum of all the recorded test result values, divided by the sample size. I then becomes an estimate of the population mean, life. A population with normal distribution has the mean coinciding with the medion (which is the middle result when all individual results are arranged in order of magni- tude), and also coinciding with the mode (which is the cycle value at which the greatest number of failures oc- curs). 2. The standard deviation—It describes the scatter on either side of the mean. For the test sample itis math- ‘matically defined as the square root of the sample vari- ance (which in turn is the sum of the squares ofthe differ- ence between each recorded test result and the mean, divided by the sample size minus 1). It then becomes an ‘estimate of the population standard deviation. ‘When the test results are arranged in ascending numeri cal order, and the cumulative percent of failures is plotted (using median ranks) over an abscissa of life cycles on normal probability graph paper, it will be found that a straight tine can be fitted to the results as long as the distribution is normal. This becomes an estimate of the population distribution. While che normal distribution has « number of attrac- tive attributes and has-been the subject of many publica: tions, it must be recognized that in spring fatigue testing the results are usually not normal in that they cannot be ‘Semple Bice rane Orin ot s - « » ” ” n 1 gee eo eau? kaa nats ta aus 2 Tae na eae hearing Sage 3 asst Maso 10997 ssn tags ate 4 tx were t$o8e saa aase tT 3 be mors wetee fags, avons hans (ts? 6 msm ua me amis mara 00tt98 7 ase mimo Fae eae tes ADT AT 9 je fae) «315ta bose | maz) et) grat ean ants ane oes S80 tea Mast tee Sanat ata sa Sarat 1 $000 45718 a7 aig oe amet mater te a 2 Shane fom kom aoe kos danas ae a sear wm ok macs aes Me eaasr sesso setez = SsouStaue 0000 daze aaa some wae goes) eo271 sree seuss 0m wes rae ow ase sew) sms seam nama 8 Fee rage aaa? Say oars aaa sis aan rm Tes from Gas as @ aee ras Te708 yom Seams eae GSCI Rise ies toe nas | Mes eaaoT ero ade sess za aasketate mary 7sa02 Teac vaso manasa 2 ssawe seam eat kx ae eas) aera B won fes oss fas oma a 80 er Gases easyer B mee ae roe Ta = a7 onstrate z Grass kore sos Tae 2 ores Gas ohms 8 2 re ath » wn 187plotted in the symmetrical bellshaped distribution curve but in a skewed curve, This has led to other mathematical formulations. In the automotive industry the Weibull plot 4s used because it permits straightline plotting of the eu- rmulstive failure probability versus life eycles on Weibull probability graph poper, een when the distribution is In the Weibull distribution the relationship between the number of applied cycles and the eymulative percent of failures at these cycles is expressed by a formula which uses three parameters: 1. The minimum life, which may or may not be zer0. It is denoted by the letter “a.” Tis generally assumed that a = zero because that isthe ‘condition for which the Weibull formula assures straight- line plotting on Weibull paper. See Section 3 in this chap- ter, for those cases where minimum life is greater than 2200. 2. The: Weibull slope, which is an indicator of the skewness of the distribution. Its called the “shape param- ter” and is denoted by the etter “b”. It also is a measure of the scatter of the distribution; a low slope value indi- ‘cates a high degree of scatter, and vice versa. ‘The slope is the tangent of the angle formed by the distribution line with the abscissa on Weibull probability apes, when the scales are such that the distance repre- ‘senting the factor 100-on the (logarithmic) atscissa scale for life cycles equals the distance from 2.3 10 90.0% on the (log-log) ordinate scale for percentages of failure Tn the Weibull distribution, the mean, the median, and the mode never coincide exactly. But when the Weibull slope is within the range of 3.2-3.5, the differences are small enough to give the Weibull distribution an appear- ance of symmetry. The Weibull comes nearest (0 the nor- ‘mal distribution when the Weibull slope equals 3.44 (thus. ‘representing an angle of 73.8 deg), because there the mean and the median have identical values. ‘The more the slope value increases above 3.44, the more the distribution curve will be skewed to the left (with a Jong tail to the left), where the mean is to-the left of (or tess than) the median, The more the slope value decreases below 3.44, the more the distribution curve will be skewed to the right (with a long tail to the right), where the mean {sto the right of (or more than) the median, Fig. 8.2 shows a graph (for Weibull slopes 1 through 12) which locates the percent of failed springs at the life eycles representing the mean of the population. 3. The characteristic life, which is the 63.2% failure point for the population, It is called the “scale parameter” and is denoted by the Greek letter theta (0). 63.2 = 100KI-1/e) where: ‘¢ = 2.7183 (che Napierian base) Example 1 (Fig. 8.3)-Eight springs have been fatigue tested under identical conditions. The results are arranged in ascending order of failure cycles and are given rank ‘order numbers accordingly. In this order they are assigned median ranks from Table 8.1 as follows: Order cycles to Median Spring No. Falture Rank € 1 ‘1 000 320 A 2 ‘31 600 2011 F 3 114.000 2208 4 4 135-000 4402 © 5 155-000, 55.98 8 8 377-000 6795 6 ? 205 000 7389 8 8 245.000 9170 These points are plotted on Weibull graph paper in Fig. 8.3. Drawing a straight line of best ft through the median rank points produces an estimate for the failure rate of the entire population with the parameters b = 2.4 and 6 = 170.000. From Fig. 82 it will be seen that for b = 2.4, the percent of failed springs at the mean is 52.7. At that failure level the median rank line in Fig. 8.3 shows 150000 cycles. ‘At the B-10 life level (that is at the number of cycles where 10% of the population are estimated to fail), the median rank line shows 66 000 cycles, ‘Significant Differences {in most cases the fatigue testing of springs will be un- dertaken for the purpose of comparing different samples, and the probability graph will be expected to convey infor- ‘ation on the relative life distribution of the populations represented by these samples. For example, the compari- son may involve a sample representing a first design, and another sample representing a second design. ‘When the two median rank lines for the test data ofthe ‘two samples are plotted on the same graph, they will readily show if the second design promises some improve- ‘ment in fatigue life, However, in order to establish if there isa “significant difference” between the two designs, it will bbe necessary to find quantitative values for the degree of improvement (or degradation) between one design and the ‘other, The question is this: How confidently can one say the limited (est results indicate that the second design assures an improvernent in fatigue life for the entire spring population? The answer depends not only on the amount of separation between the two plotted slopes, but also on the size of the two test samples. Furthermore, the degree of confidence in the superiority of one design over the other need not be constant from one quantile level to another. For example, itis possible to have a significant improvement at the B-50 life (50% fail- ure level) without any improvement at the B-10 life (10% 1.88Fig. 82—Location of the mean for Weibull slopes 1=12 failure level) or vice versa. This is partly duc to differences in the Weibull slope, and partly due to the greater width of the tolerance bands at the lower quantile levels. Example 2 (Fig. &.3)- It has been proposed that the spring design represented by the sarmple of eight in Exam- ple {be replaced by a new design. Seven springs of the new design have been fatigue tested with results which are shown acranged in ascending order and are assigned me- dian ranks from Table 8.1 a8 follows: Order Cycles to Mectan Spring Na. Failure ‘Rank 1 132 000 243 2 195 000 2285 3 793 000 seat ‘ 275.000 50.00 5 318 000 359 6 365.000 748 ? “440 000 9087 1.89 For this second plot it will be seen from Fig. 8.3 that the Weibull slope b = 2.7 and the characteristic life @ = 310.000; the mean life level is at 51.8% (see Fig. 8.2), ‘therefore the estimated mean life is 280 000 cycles. The estimated B-10 life is 138 000 cycles. Since the estimated mean life in Example 1 was 150.000 cycles, the mean life ratio on the median rank fines is 280 000/150 000 = 1.87. This represents an estimated improvement of 87%. The “‘coafidence number” corre: sponding to this mean life ratio (that is, the probability that the true mean life ratio of the population is greater than 1) is found by reference to the mean life nomograph (Fig. 8.4). In order to work with the nomograph it is necessary to ‘establish the “degree of freedom’ rient ofthe individual test results about a fixed mean) for the samples representing the two designs. The degree of freedom equals (N — 1) where N isthe sizeof the sample.200-300 400 5006 7891 30 40 60 60 702090100 Fig. 83-Median rank tines‘Thus N,— L = 7 and N;— 1 = 6, and the product of the two, known as “total degrees of freedom,” is 42 ‘The nomograph furnishes the confidence number 98.8 for b = 2.4 (frst design) and 99.4 for b = 2.7 (second design). The average is 99.1, and this means that 99.1 times out of 100 the second design is superior to the first design at the mean life level The confidence number corresponding to the B-10 life ratio will be found by reference to the B-10 level nomo- graph (Fig. 8.5). Since the estimated B-10 life in Example 1 was 66 000 cycles, the B-10 life ratio on the median rank line is 138 000/ 66 000 = 2.10. The nomograph furnishes the confidence number 91.0 for the first design and 93.0 for the second design. The average is 92.0, so the second design is superior at the B-10 level 92.0 times out of 100. Thus, the confidence numbers obtained from the foregoing “significant difference” study indicate a certain superiority of the second design over the first. Quantitative values for the degree of this superiority are obtained by using the information from the nomograpbs on so-called “confidence interpolation graph paper” ot simply "ratio paper" which has a log-log ordinate for percent confidence and an arithmetical abscissa for life ratio (Fig. 8.6). ‘To obtain quantitative values at the mean life level, the ‘mean life ratio on the median rank lines (in this case 1.87) is plotted on the ratio paper at the 50% confidence level and is connected by a straight line sith the confidence number (in this case 99.1) at abscissa 1. The life ratio values at other confidence levels are then found on this line. 1. will be seen that at the 60% confidence level the ratio is 1.75, so there are 6 out of 10 chances that 75% improvement will occur. At 90% confidence (which is frequently used as a standard) the ratio is 1.32, so there are 9 out of 10 chances that 32% improvement will be realized. ‘The same procedure will establish quantitative values at the B-10 level. There the percent of improvement will always be comparatively lower for the same degree of confidence. This is due to the greater width of the toler- ‘ance bands at the lower quantile levels. In this example, the life ratio at 90% confidence is 1.08, so there are 9 out of 10 chances that 8% improvement will be realized. ‘Minimum Life Greater than Zero As stated earlier, Weibull plots are generally con- structed with the assumption that the minimum life is 2er0. The sample data will then plot a straight Line on ‘Weibull probability graph paper. ‘When the minimum life is greater than zero, the sample points can usually be fitted with a fairly smooth curved Tine. However, this would mean foregoing one ofthe major advantages of the Weibull process, which is to analyze the data with the help of a straight line even when the number of teat results és small. A relatively simple technique permits the test results, Which indicate a minimum life greater than zero, to be converted to straight-line plotting on the Weibull graph. ‘This requires that the curve drawn through the sample ppoints be extended downward until the abscissa value ‘which it approaches asymptotically can be approximately established as an estimate of the finite minimum life “a.” ‘When this is subtracted from each of the plotted data points, it may be possible to fit the new points thus ob- tained with a straight line. fit develops that the new points can stil be better fitted by a curve than by a straight fine, then the estimate of the ‘minimum life was incorrect. I the new lines sill concave downward, the minimum life was estimated too srial; if the new line is concave upward, the minimum lie was estimated too large. A second (tnd possibly a third) esti- ‘mace will then be required until the plotted points can be successfully fitted with a straight line. Ie s well to remem- ber that before any one of the life cycle values found on this straight Hine is used for comparison with a corre- sponding value on any other median rank line, it must be increased by the “a” value which was subtracted from the curved median rank line to obtain the straight line. Example 3 (Fig. 8.7). Seven springs have been fatigue tested with results listed below, arranged in ascending order and shown with their assigned median ranks from Table 8.1. The plotting of these values produces a curve which is concave downward. A tentative extension indi- cates “a” to approximate 50 000 cycles. When the points are replotted with each result reduced by 59000, they can only be fitted with a curve which is concave upward; therefore, a second attempt is made with a = 45.000, and this brings about a successful straight line fit. Order cyclen to Man Cyan ane Cycle tae Mo. Fale = Rank =—_-§0.000 1 e500 843 95.000 ‘40.000 2 1100002285 @0.000 65.000 2 135000 9841 85.000 0.000 4 455000 5000 t05.000 © 110000 $ 120000 6369190000 195.000 6 210000 «77.15 t60.000 «165 000 7 250000 ©8087 200000» 205.000 1918 Meee HHH t ai wl ee EES pe 2 | + al, vat 2 16+ 2 16 = 18 1 80 20-9 8 & é Fa ati 2 s S B70 2 te z| 4tzZ 3 ste 5 xX 6 8 z . @ 10 2 60 1. Connect total degrees of freedom with Weibull slope and locate intersection point on auxiliary line. 2. Connect life ratio with intersection point and continue to intercept on confidence number. 3. For unequal Weibull slopes perform operation for each slope and average the confidence numbers so obtained. Fig. 8.4—Contidence nomograph at mean ite level 1.92 oF ha ‘ Pt PPP Boa ot DEGREES OF FREEDOM BBWEIBULL SLOPE, b 15 10 $99.95 + 8 PERCENT CONFIDENCE 1. Connect total degrees of freedom with Wei and locate intersection point on auxiliary Ii 2. Connect life r 12. 14 15: 16- 18: o Bro LIFE RATIO 4 5. 6. 8. AUXILIARY LINE with intersection point and continue to intercept on confidence number. 3, For unequal Weibull slopes perform operation for each slope and average the confidence numbers so obtained. Fig. 8.5—Confidence nomograph at Bp ite level 1.93 e DEGREES OF FREEDOM[oad perih 7 rE rE Es 3ONIQIINOD 1N3OUId Fig. 86—Contidence interpotation LIFE RATIOLireminus“e” | 0 LIFE (1000 CYCLES) [__{1000 cvctes) ‘30 40-60 60 70 8090100 200 «300 OT Fig. €.7-—Welbull plot for epringe with minimum life greater than zero 1.95