Error detection/correction

(Maintaining data (informa.on) integrity across noisy channels and less-than-reliable

storage media)

Error detec)on is the detec.on of errors caused by noise or other impairments during
transmission from the transmi:er to the receiver.

Error correc)on is the detec.on of errors and reconstruc.on of the original, error-free
data.

Error correc.on may generally be realized in two dierent ways:

1) Automa.c repeat request (ARQ) (some.mes also referred to as backward error
correc.on)
2) Forward error correc.on (FEC)
 Backwards and Forwards error correction

Automa)c repeat request (ARQ) (some.mes also referred to as backward error

correc.on): This is an error control technique whereby an error detec.on scheme is
combined with requests for retransmission of erroneous data. Every block of data
received is checked using the error detec.on code used, and if the check fails,
retransmission of the data is requested this may be done repeatedly, un.l the data
can be veried.

Forward error correc)on (FEC): The sender encodes the data using an error-correc.ng
code (ECC) prior to transmission. The addi.onal informa.on (redundancy) added by the
code is used by the receiver to recover the original data. In general, the reconstructed
data is what is deemed the "most likely" original data.

forward error correc.on (FEC) code is a system of adding redundant data, or parity data,
to a message, such that it can be recovered by a receiver even when a number of errors
(up to the capability of the code being used) were introduced, either during the process
of transmission, or on storage.
 Codes - General

A code that will detect 2t or fewer errors can correct t or fewer errors.

A code will detect all sets of t or fewer errors i the minimum hamming distance
between code words is at least t + 1.
[t + 1 = 3; detects 2 errors]

A code is capable of correc.ng all sets of t or fewer errors i the minimum
hamming distance between code words is at least 2t + 1.
[2t +1 = 3; corrects 1 error]
Codeword polynomial:

V(x) = R(x) + Xn-k M(x)

where:

V(x) = codeword;
R(x) = remainder poly.;
Xn-k = shiZ bits;
M(x) = message bits

Codeword generation example:

n = 7, k = 3 n-k = 4

Encode the message 101 as a (7,3) code with a generator polynomial of:

X4 + X3 + X2 + 1.
Codeword generation example:
Message = 1 0 1

M(x) = 1 + 0X + X2

Xn-k M(x) = X4 M(x) = 0 + 0X + 0X2 + 0X3 + X4 + 0X5 + X6

R(x) = 1 + X <--see next slide

V(x) = 1 + X + 0X2 + 0X3 + X4 + 0X5 + X6

Codeword= 1 1 0 0 1 0 1

Check Digits Message

 R(x) calculation:

X2 + X + 1
X4 + X3 + X2 + 0 + 1 |X6 + 0X5 + X4

X6 + X5 + X4 + 0X3 + X2
X5 + X2
X5 + X4 + X3 + X2 + X
X4 + X3 + X2 + X
X4 + X3 + X2 + 1
XOR process X + 1
R(x)

CRC - Cyclic redundancy check polynomials

CRC-5 = X5 + X4 + X2 + X

CRC-16 = X16 + X15 + X5 + 1

CRC-32 [Used by ethernet, FDDI, ZIP, PNG and others]
C(x) = x31 + x30 + x26 + x25 + x24 + x18 + x15 + x14 + x12 + x11 + x10 + x8 + x6 + x5 + x4 + x3 + x + 1
 CRC - Cyclic redundancy check polynomials

Designing CRC polynomials

The selec.on of generator polynomial is the most important part of implemen.ng the CRC
algorithm. The polynomial must be chosen to maximize the error detec.ng capabili.es while
minimizing overall collision probabilites. The most important a:ribute of the polynomial is its
length (the number of the highest nonzero coecient), because of its direct inuence of the length
of the computed checksum.
The most commonly used polynomial lengths are
9 bits (CRC-8)
17 bits (CRC-16)
33 bits (CRC-32)
65 bits (CRC-64)

A polynomial g(x) that admits other factoriza.ons may be chosen then so as to balance
the maximal total blocklength with a desired error detec.on power. The BCH codes are
a powerful class of such polynomials.
CRC - Cyclic redundancy check polynomials
Name Uses
CRC-1 most hardware; also known as parity bit
CRC-4-ITU G.704
CRC-5-EPC Gen 2 RFID[15]
CRC-5-USB USB token packets
CRC-7 telecom systems, G.707, G.832, MMC, SD
CRC-8-CCITT I.432.1; ATM HEC, ISDN HEC and cell delineation
CRC-8-Maxim 1-Wire bus
CRC-8-SAE
J1850 AES3
CRC-10 ATM; I.610
CRC-12 telecom systems
Bisync, Modbus, USB, ANSI X3.28, SIA DC-07, many others; also known
CRC-16-IBM as CRC-16 and CRC-16-ANSI
X.25, V.41, HDLC FCS, XMODEM, Bluetooth, PACTOR, SD, many others;
CRC-16-CCITT known as CRC-CCITT
CRC-16-T10-
DIF SCSI DIF
CRC-16-DECT cordless telephones[23]
CRC-17-CAN CAN FD
CRC-21-CAN CAN FD
CRC-24 FlexRay
CRC-24-Radix-64 OpenPGP, RTCM104v3
CRC-30 CDMA
HDLC, ANSI X3.66, ITU-T V.42, Ethernet, Serial
CRC-32 ATA, MPEG-2, PKZIP, Gzip, Bzip2, PNG,[26] many others
CRC-40-GSM GSM control channel
CRC-64-ISO HDLC, Swiss-Prot/TrEMBL; considered weak for hashing
CRC-64-
ECMA-182 ECMA-182, XZ Utils